mmmmmmm',m^

THE

CYCLOPAEDIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

!art0, ^cimce0, anb %iitxmxt.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

JiY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.

VOL. xxxn.

LONDON:

Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternoster-Row,

F.t. AND J. IIIVINGTON, A. .STllAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCUEKD AND LETTEKMAN, J.CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
( ADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, .(AMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBUKV
I'AKBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, IIURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. I'ATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND UOWDING.

1819.

f

CYCLOP ^DI^:

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

SCOTLAND.

SCOTLAND, in Geography, an ancient, and formerly an
independent kingdom, but now coiiftituting an integral
part of the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; is
iituated, exclufive of itsiflands, between 154° 37' and 58° 42'
north latitude, and between 1° 47' and 6" 7' weft longitude,
from London. It is bounded on the fouth by the Solway
frith, and the nvers Efk, Lark, Liddel, and Tweed, which
divide it from England ; on the eall and north by the
Northern ocean ; and on the welt by the waters of the At-
lantic. Its greateft length, in a direftion due north and
fouth, is 27^ miles, and its greateft breadth 147 miles ; but
its breadth is extremely varieus, and in one place does not
exceed 36 miles. According to calculation, the fuperficial
contents of the mainland amount to 2^,520 fquare miles of
land, 494 fquare miles of frefti-water lakes, and 5000 fquare
Tnilcs of faltwater lochs, or lakes. Trie iflands, which are
ufually claifed under two divifions, the Hebrides on the
weft, and the Orkney and Zetland iftands towards the
north, comprehend an area of 4224 fquare miles, fo that
Scotland, with its lakes and iflands, exclufive of its bays,
prefents a furfaee of 30,238 fquare miles. Politically fpeak-
ing, it comprifes 33 counties, which are named in the fequel
under the head Parliamentary rrprefentation, and contains,
according to the population cenfus of 181 1, 317,763 houfes,
and 1,805,688 inhabitants.

Hiftorical Events. — The hiftory of Scotland, previous to
the union of the two crowns, has been divided by Dr. Ro-
bertfon into four periods ; the firft reaching from the moft
remote ages to the reign of Kenneth II. ; the fecond,
from Kenneth's conqueft of the Pidls to the death of Alex-
ander HI.; the third, from that event to the death of
James V. ; and the laft, thence to the advancement of
James VI. to the throne of England. The firll of thefe
periods, obferves the fame author, ia the region of pure fa-

VoL. XXXI I.

ble ; truth begins to dawn in the fecond period with a light,
fesble at firft, but gradually increafing : the events which then
happened may be flightly touched, but merit no laborious
inquiry. In the third period, Scottilh hiftory, chiefly by means
of records preferved in England, becomes more authentic ;
not only are events related, but their caufes and effeds ex-
plained ; the charafters of the aftors are difplayed ; the
manners of the age defcribed ; and the revolutions in the con-
ftitution pointed out. During the fourth period, the af-
fairs of Scotland were fo much mingled with thofe of other
nations ; its fituation in the political ftate of Europe was fo
important ; its influence on the operations of neighbouring
kingdoms was fo vifible ; that its hiftory becomes an objett
of attention, not merely to Scotimen but to foreigners : as,
without fome knowledge of the various and extraordinary
revolutions which happened there, it would be inipoflible for
them to form a juft notion with rofpeft either to the great
tranfaftions, or the diftinguiftied charadlcrs, of the fixtccnth
century.

After a minute examination of nearly all the works which
have been written refpefting the early hiftory of Scotland,
it is imprafticable to unravel the myftery in whicli it is in-
volved, and to feparate authenticated faft from ingenious
conjefture. In the prefent article, therefore, we (hall advert
to the firft periods only in a general way, and (liall dilate our
narrative, in proportion as events become more certain, im-
portant, and interelling.

Hijlory of the Firji Period. — It is agreed by Piiikerton and
Chalmers, though on molt other points they materially
differ, that the aboriginal inhabitaiif; of Caledonia were a
colony of thcCcltK, who arc generally allowed to have been
the firft poilellors of wcftern Europe. Refpefting the era
of their arrival m North Britain, and the route by which
they reached the country, nothing is known ; nor has record,

B or

444073

SCOTLAND.

or tradition, preferved to us the fmalleft trace of their hif-
tory, till the period of Agricola's invafion, when their de-
fcendants appear to have been divided into twenty-one diftinft
clan;;, called by the Romans the Ottadini, Gadeni, Selgovje,
Novantii, Damnii, Horeftii, Venricones, Taixali, Vacomajn,
Albaiii, Attacotti, Caledonii, Canta;, Logi, Carnabii, Ca-
tini, Mcrtae, Carnonacse, Creones, Cerones, and Epidii.

Thefe various tribes, who are ufuallylnentioned in the
Latin writers by the generic name of Caledonians, on the
advance of the Romans into their country, united under the
authority of Galgacus, one of their moft powerful chief-
tains, to refill their progrefs. The utmoft efforts of va-
lour, however, proved unavailing againft. the military flcill
of the great Agricola, and the difcipline of the legionary
troops. In his tirll campaign in North Britain, A.D. 80,
that celebrated general penetrated, according to Tacitus,
as far as the river Tay ; and in the year following he con-
Itrufted a chain of forts between the friths of Clyde and
Forth, within which he had retired for the proteftion of the
fouthern country againft the inroads of the free tribes of
the North. The fummer of 82 was employed in fubduing
and fecuring the dillrift which extends from the Solway to
the Clyde. Thus freed from the danger of a flank attack,
he again palled the Forth, and advanced, without oppofition,
as far as Loch Leven, eftablifhing, as he proceeded, military
pofts to keep the inhabitants in fubjeftion. Thefe pofts the
Caledonians had the hardihood to attack ; and by this dif-
play of daring intrepidity, feem to have ftruck great terror
into the Roman foldiers. In this dHemma, Agricola di-
vided his army into tkree bodies, and puiJied forward the
weakell to Lochore, where he ordered it to encamp, while
he ftationed the other two at (hort dillances on the right
and left. The Caledonians, perceiving the Romans thus
feparated, made a vigorous attack during the night on the
intrenchments at Lochore, and had already entered the camp,
when Agricola arrived with the light troops of the other
divifions, and, after a furious combat, repulfed the aflailants,
and forced them to a diforderly and precipitate flight. This
viftory, though dearly bought, infpired the Romans with
renewed ardour ; but it did not intimidate the Caledonians,
who magnanimoully refolved to difpule every foot of ground
with the invaders. Agricola confequently found fufficient
employment during the remainder of the year in fubduing
the Horeftii, the inhabitants of the ifthmus between the Tay
and tlie Forth. The following year he advanced to thebafe
of the Grampian mountains, where the Caledonian warriors
lay encamped and prepared to receive him. The battle
which enfued was contefted with the moft obftinate valour,
but at length terminated in the complete overthrow of the
latter. Agricola, however, feems to have derived little ad-
vantage from his victory, for after a few days fpent in afcer-
taining the condition of the enemy, he led his troops back to
the country of the Horeftii, and terminated the campaign.
The Caledonians immediately advanced, and demolifhed all
the forts in the territories which the Romans had abandoned.
Agricola, in the interim, ordered the commander of the
Roman navy to fail round Britain, on a voyage of difcovery,
and with the defign of intimidation. This voyage was hap-
pily accomplifhed, by the return of the fleet to the Forth,
before the commencement of winter. With thefe remarkable
exploits the campaigns of Agricola terminated ; for, having
excited the jealoufy of the emperor Domitian, by the fplen-
dour of his achievements, he was foon afterwards recalled
to Rome.

From this period to A.D. 120, the Roman authors are
entirely filent refpefting the affairs of Britain ; but from an
incidental expreflion in. Tacitus, fome later writers have

fuppofed that, during that interval, the Caledonians fuc-
ceeded in recovermg the country conquered by Agricola, as
far as the Solway on the weft, and Tynemouth on the eaft.
This opinion feems to receive fome confirmation from the
faft, that when the emperor Adrian vifited our ifland in the
year laft mentioned, he caufed a rampart to bj conftrufted
between thefe two eituanes, " which has in every age beea
a monument of his power, and a memorial of his circumfpec-
tion " Chalmers, however, contends that this meafure was
merely precautionary, and that the Roman legions ftill held 3II
the country fouth of the Forth and Clyde. The emperor, on
his departure, left Julius Severus as his lieutenant in Britain,
who does not appear to have attempted any military exploit.
Antoninus, who aliumed the purple on the death of Adrian,
named Lollius Urbicus to the chief government of the ifland;
an officer who equally poffefTed talents for peace, and a genius
for war. Having tranquillized fome infurreClionary move-
ments in the fouth, he carried his arms from the Forth to
the Varar, and fettled llations in the intermediate country ;
throwing the whole of that extenfive diftricl into the form
of a Roman province. Under his direftions was conftrufted
the rampart of Antoninus (now called Grimes' dyke),
which extends from Caer-riden on the Forth, to Alcluidon
the Clyde, a diftance of thirty-fix miles, fix hundred and
twenty paces. Several military roads, and numerous ftations
and encampments, were likewife formed in all the provinces,
both of North and South Britain. Lollius was fucceeded
m his government by Calphurnius Agricola, during whofe
time the Romans abandoned all the country north of Grimes"
dyke. Chalmers afTerts that this retreat was not the con-
fequence of weaknefs, but fimply of choice. It neverthelefs
infpired the unconquered tribes with frefh vigour. Breaking
through the barriers of Antoninus, they pillaged a large
traft within that boundary, and put numbers of the Ro-
mans to the fword ; but Ulfius Marcellus foon drove them
back again into their own territories. They renewed their
inroads again in the year 200, with better fuccefs ; and for
fome years afterwards feem to have made fuch progrefs, as
to induce the emperor Severus to aflume the government of
Britain in perfon. On his arrival at the head of a larger
army than had ever before vifited this ifland, the Caledonian
tribes fued for peace, but Severus rejeAed their propofals.
The particulars of his expedition into Caledonia are very
imperfeftly narrated. It is clear, however, that he pene-
trated as far to the northward as the frith of Cromarty,
though, as Dion allures us, withtbe lofsof no lefs than 50,000
men. Before he fet out, he conftrufted a wall from the
Solway to the Tyne, parallel with the rampart of Adrian,
in order to facilitate his retreat in the event of difafter.

On the return of Severus to York, he left his fon Cara-
calla in the government of North Britain ; whofe conduft is
faid to have incited the Caledonians to nAs of aggreflion.
Irritated at this, the aged emperor iffued orders to renew
the war, and to fpare neither age nor fe.\- ; but his death,
and the conteft for the empire between his fons, feem to have
prevented their execution. At all events, it is certain that
Caracalla made peace with the Caledonians, and gave up
to them all the country northward of the Forth and Clyde.
From this period, for nearly a century, we hear nothing
refpefting the Caledonians, who may therefore be prcfumed
to have made no ferious attempts to moleft the romanized
Britons. At length, however, about the year 306, we are
informed that the emperor Conftan? found it neceffary to come
into Britain to repel " the Caledonians and other Pifts." This,
Chalmers affirms, is the iirft time the Pifts are mentioned
in hiftory, and contends that the Caledonians were on this
occafion called Pifts, "owing to their peculiar feclulion from

ihe

I

SCOTLAND.

the Roman provincials on the fouth of the walls." Pinker-
ton, on the other hand, maintains, that they were a Scythian
colony, who had poffefled themfelves of the eaftern coad of
Scotland before the Chriftian era ; but his opinion is not
fupported by evidence or probabihty.

Conllantius having driven back the Caledonians, and other
Pifts, within their own territories, retired to York, where he
died July 25, A.D. 306. Almoft forty years elapl'ed before
they were a^ain able to infeft the territories of the roman-
iied Britons, though the empire was harafled by civil
wars. In 343, however, they made feme inroads, but were
foon repelled, and the provincials again enjoyed peace for
feventeen years. At the clofe of that period, when Conitan-
tine and Julian were contending for the imperial fway, the
Scots and Pidls made a formidable attack upon the pro-
vinces. Lupicinus, an able officer, was fent to oppofe them,
but does not feem to have effefted the objeft of his million.
This is the firfl time the Scots are mentioned in the pages
of Roman ftory. Ammianus, in whofe work they are no-
ticed, joins them with the Pidls, as if they formed one army,
though they had no connection whatever by neighbourhood,
lineage, or interefts : they were, in faft, an erratk people of
Ireland, who were much accuftomed to naval predatory
excurfions againft the Roman provincials during the fourth
and fifth centuries, but they had no territories ui North
Britain till about the year 503, as will be more particularly
noticed in the fequel. The next attack upon the Roman
provinces by the Pidls and Scots happened in the year 364,
and feems to have been more general and deRrudlive than
any former incurfion by either of thefe people. For three
years they continued gradually advancing towards the fouth,
fpreadino death and defolation wherever they came. At
length Theodofius, the moil diftinguifhed general of his age,
was fent into Britain by tiie emperor Valentinlan, to put a
flop to their ravages and to rellore tranquillity. In two
campaigns he drove the Scots from the ifland, and the Pidls
beyondthe wall of Antonine, whichhe repaired, and ftrength-
encd with additional forts, and conllituted the territories
within it into a province, by the name of Valentia. Such,
indeed, was the energy of his operations, and the wifdom of
his precautionary meafures for the maintenance of peace,
that the Scots and Pidls did not dare to renew their aggref-
fions till the year 398, and even then they were eafily re-
pelled. The Roman empire, however, was now rapidly
on the decline. In 407, the revolt of the troops in Britain
transferred the government to Gratian, and after his death
to Conllantine, who conveyed the army with him into Gaul.
The Britifh provincials, tlius left in a manner to themfelves,
affumed a fort of independence, which was fandlioncd by the
emperor Honorius, who, confcious of his inability to pro-
tedi this dillant part of the empire, diredled the Bnlifli cities
to rule and defend ihtrnfclves. " But," to quote the words
of Chalmers, "their inexperi<nce foon occafioned them to
feel tiieir own weaknefs. And in A.D. 422, though the
walls were then garrifoned by Roman troops, tlie provincials
again applied for additional protedlion agaiull the defultory
attacks of a predatory people, who could be more eafily
repelled than tranquillized. A legion is faid to have been
fent, who challifed the invaders, and, for the ia(l time, re-
paired the fortifications that had long overawed the Pidlifh
tribes. From this epoch the provincials enjoyed twenty
years' repofe. The year 446, wln-n ^tina was conful for the
third time, is the memorable epoch, wlien the Britifh pro-
vincials acknowledged themfelves to be Roman citizens, by
their fupplieation to that able fupporter of a degenerate Hate
for frelh afhitance ; but he was unable to gratify their de-
Crc, owing to the preilure of the barbarians upon Gaul. The

provincials were again told, in a more defponding tone, that
they mull rely on their own efforts for their future govrn-
ment and effedlual defence. The abdication which Ho-
norius feemed willing to make in A.D. 409, .^tius thus
more completely efledled in A.D. 446." Caledonia,
vol. i.

After the final departure of the Romans, North Britain
was occupied by two races of men, the Pidls, and the
romanized Britons of the province of Valentia. The latter,
fome authors contend, united tliemfelves under one ruler to
refitl the inroads of the Pidls, and thus formed the kingdom
of Cumbria, or Strathcluyd. Of the exiflence of fuch
a monarchy, however, within the limits of proper Scotland,
there is much room to doubt. At all events, it is very im-
probable that this new nation was able to confine the Pidls
within their ancient boundaries. On the contrary, it is molt
likely that the Pidls, in conjundlion with the Scots from Ire-
land, conquered and occupied the greater part of Valentia.
At a later date, the Anglo-Saxons of Northumberland
polFefled themfelves of the eaftern coaft of that provinee ; but
it does not appear certain that the Lothians ever were inte-
gral portions of the Northumbrian or Bernician monarchy ;
though they might be for a time annexed to it by temporary
conqucfl from tiie Pidls. See Strathcluyd.

Several ancient Scottifh writers, upon the authority of
monkifli legends, contend that their anceftors firfl fettled in
Argjlc 330 years before the Ciiriflian era; and they give a lift
of kings, and a narrative of their adlions, from that remote
period. Later invedigations, liowever, have Ihewn that thefe
details are mofl probably fidlitious, and that the Scots did not
cohmizeany part of prefent Scotland till tlie year A. D. 503,
when a body of them paffed over from the north of Ireland,
their proper country, and fixed themfelves in the dillridl of
the Britifh Epidii, which they denominated Caentir. Thefe
coloniils were led bv Loarn, Fergus, and Angus, the three
fons of Ere, a chieftain or petty king of Dalriada, viz. the
portion of Rhiada in Ulfter, whence the Scots were tome-
times called Dalriads. The derivation of the name Scot is
uncertain, but the moft ptaufible opinion is, that it was a
corruption of the word fceite, v/hich fignifies in Irifh dif-
perfed or fcattcred, and was therefore applied generally to
denote the roving tribes wlio had habituated themfelves to
maritime excurfions againll the weftern (hores of romanized
Britain.

Chalmersjuflly obferves, that there fcarcely occurs a period
of hitlory fo perplexed and obfcurcd as the annals of the
Scoto-Irifli, from the date wf their fettlement in Argyle, till
their afccndancy over the Pidls in 843. This confufion aiid
obfcurity originated in the want of contemporaneous writings,
and were afterwards greatly increafed, by the contells of the
Irifh and Scottifh antiquariei; for pre-eminence in antiquity as
well as in fame. In the filler ifland, however, there have hap-
pily been prcfcrved various documents, particularly the annals
of Tigornicii and Ulfler, which throw many flafhes of light on
the tranfadlions of that dark era. Several ijricf chronicles and
liiilorical documents, calculated to elucidate the fame fuhjcdl,
have likewife been brought into notice by Innes ; and Pinker-
ton firfl publifhed a Gaelic poem, which profefles to give a
genealogical account of the Scoto-Irifh kings. From an
attentive confideration of all thefe, and from an accurate
examination of other documents, Chalmers compiled his
genealogicaland chronological table of the Scottifh monarchs,
to Kenneth iiiclufivc, from which it appears that they were
twenty-nine in number, and occupied by their united reigns
a period of 340 years. The firfl was Fergus, who became
fole chieftain, or king of the new colonifls, foon after their
arrival. He died in 506, leaving his power and pretenfions
B 2 to

SCOTLAND.

to his fon Domanjrart, who reigned five years, and then
traufmitted his dominions to his. elded fon, Comgal. This
prince enjoyed his fovereignty twenty-four years, during
which time he had leifure to extend his dominions and con-
fohdate his authority. Dying in 535, lie was fucceeded by
his brother Gawran, to the exclufion of his own fon, Conal.
Gawran reigned twenty-two years, and engaged in a war
againil the Pifts, which terminated in his defeat and death.
Conal then obtained the fceptre, and held it for fourteen years.
Aidan, the fon of Gawran, next claimed it ; but Duncha,
the fon of Conal, oppofed his pretenfions. The bloody field
of Loro, in which Duncha fell, put an end to the difpute,
and gave Aidan pofTeffion of the crown. He was inaugurated
by St. Columba in 574, on the holy ifland of Jona ; and
proved himfelf, throughout a reign of thirty-five years, to be
a prince of great enterprize. He extended his dominions along
the weftern coaft of Valentia, which had been feized upon
and colonized by various tribes of " Sceites" from Ireland,
by coiifolidating the whole of them under his fuperior fway.
In 577, having advanced into Cumberland, he engaged
Ryddcrch, king of Cumbria, but the battle feems to have
been indecifive. He afterwards entered into a league offenfive
and defenfive with the Cumbrian monarch againlt the Saxons,
who were defeated with great flaughter at Sianmore, in
Weftmoreland. Buchanan aflerts this was a league as well
againft the Pids as the Saxons, and further intimates, that
Aidan was monarch of the diftrift, now included in the
counties of Renfrew, Ayr, Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and
Dumfries ; and this view of the fubjeft certainly bears the
ftampof greater probability than the opinion which confines
^is territories to the idhmusof Cantire and the neighbour-
ing iflands. Aidan, according to all the writers who treat of
his reign, fought feveral battles againft the Saxons, in molt
of which he was vi£lorious ; but in the year 603, he was
completely defeated by Ethelfrid, king of Northumbria,
at the battle of Dawftane, in Roxburghfhire. This difafter,
joined to the de.ith of St. Columba, his kinfman and friend,
fo much afFefted him, that he died in the fecond year there-
after, at the advanced age of eighty, and was buried in the
chapel of Ciaran at Campbeltown. The fucceffor of Aidan
was Eocha-bui, called by Buchanan Eugenius, who, accord-
ing to Chalmers, carried on a fucccfsful warfare againlt
the Cruithne of Ireland ; but the Scottifh hiftorian mention.'!
only that he haraiicd the Pifts and Saxons by coiitini^ed
incurfions. Eocha died in 621, and had for his fucceffor
Kenneth the Aukward, his fon. This prince is faid to have
profecuted the Irith war begun by his father with great
vigour, till his death, which happened in the unfortunate
conflift of Fedhaevin, when he had fcarcely reigned three
months. Ferchard, the fon of Eogan, of the race of
Loam, next obtained the throne. Chalmers fays he reigned
fixteen years, but left no events for hiltory to recount.
Buchanan, however, affirms that he was a great tyrant, and
that the nobility, irritated at his oppreffions, and at the
circumftance of his embracing the Pelagian herefy, con-
fpircd againlt him, and threw him into prifon, where he laid
violent hands on hiinftlf. His fncceffor was Donald, who,
as Chalmers informs us, invaded Ireland with an army com-
pofed of Scots, Pifts, Britons, and Saxons, but was totally
defeated on the plain of Moyrath in 637, and compelled to
feek (helter in Cantire. Donald, however, continues our
author, derived no wifdom from this difaiter, for in the
following year he attacked the PiAs, and was again over-
thrown with great flaughter. He was ultimately flain at
Straith-Carmac, by Hoan, one of the reguli of Strathcluyd,
in the year 642. Such is the hiftory of Donald, as given by
Chalmers, but not a word on the fubjeft either of Irilh oc

Piftifh warj occurs in Buchanan. By that hiftorian, on the
contrary, he is reprefented as an excellent man, the protec-
tor of Ofwald, afterwards king of Northumberland, during
the misfortunes of his early life, and his aflidant in more
fortunate times, in the propagation of the Chriltian rehgion
among his heathen fubjefts.

From this period to the year 736, the events of Scottifh
hiftory are fo involved and fo unimportant, that we fhall
pafs them over in filence, remarking only, that nine kings
reigned in the interval, whofe names are thus rccordtd by
Chalmers: ConalTI.,Donal-duin hisfon, Mal-duin, Ferchar.
fada, Eocha-rineval, Ainbhceallach, Selwach, Eocha III.,
and Muredach. The laft monarch had been unwillingly-
drawn into hoftilities with the Pifts, and traufmitted their
enmity to his fucceflor, Eoghan, or Ewan, a feeble prince,
who died in 739, when Aodhfiii feized the fceptre, and foon
evinced himfelf equal to the arduous taflc of government, even
in the moft troublefome times. In 740 he boldly encountered
the mighty Ungus, king of the Pifts, and forced him to quit
his territories. Aodhfin died foon after, having reigned with
greater glory than any of his predecellors, for the long period
of thirty years. He left his kingdom, but not his talents,
to his fon Fergus, who reigned about three years, whilft.
that of his fucceffor, Selvach II., lafted twenty-four years.
The government of Eocha IV., or as he is called by Bu-
chanan, Achaius, the next king, was marked by feveral im-
portant tranfaftions. Some authors affert that he formed
an alliance with Charlemagne, and inltituted the moll ancient
order of the Thiltle, but both thcfe ftatements are erroneous.
It is true, however, that he entered into a treaty of great
impo'tance to himfelf, his children, and his country, for he
made peace with the Pifts, and received the hand of Ur-
gufia, daughter of Urguis, and fifter of Conllantine and
Ungus, all of which in fucceflion fwayed the Piftifh iceptre.
Eocha died in 826, after a reign of thirty years. Bu-
chanan fays, that the fucceffor of Eocha was Congallus,
but Chalmers makes no mention of this monarch, afferting
that Dungal, the fon of Selvach II., obtained the throne on
the death of Eocha. He died in 833, when Alpin, the fon
of Eocha and Urguis, was acknowledged king. Chalmers,
who does not admit the Scottifti monarclis to have poffeffed,
even in this reign, any territories beyo' d tne diitrict of
Cantire, and the difputed trafts of Argyle and Lorn, ftates
that Alpin, ambitious of reigning over riciier people and
more extenfive domains, landed on the coalt of Ayr in
836, and penetrated a confiderable way into the country,
but \'. as at length defeated and flain near the fcite of
Laicht caftle, on the confines of Galloway. Buchanan, on
the other hand, aflerts that Alpin fell in a battle fought
near Dundee againft the Pifts. Kenneth, the fon of Alpin,
next fucceeded to the throne, and waging war againft the
Pifts, arter feveral obftlnate battles overthrew their govern-
ment, and united the two rival monarchies into one kingdom,
under the name of Scotland, an event which brings us to
the clofe of the firrt period of Scottifti hillory.

Hijliry of the Second Period. — Kenneth, having thus ac-
complifhed the union of the twe kingdoms, er.deavoured by
every means in his power to render that union permanent.
He enafted many cxcelltn' laws for the better adminiftra-
tion of the government, and removed the ftone chair in
which the kings of Scot kind were wont to be crowned from
Argyle to Scone. After a reign of twenty-three years,
fixteon of which he ruled over his new monarchy, he died
in 854, when Donald, his brother, was proclaimed king.
This prince relaxed the public difcipline eftabliftied by his
predeceffor, and gave himfelf up to the moft ftiameful ex-
ceffes. The Pifts rofe in open rebellion againft his au-
thority,

SCOTLAND.

itiority, and formed alliances with Ofbreth and JElh,
monarchs of two of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms adjoining
Scotland. Thefe princes entered Merch with a powerful
jany ; and from thence difpatched heralds to Donald, re-
quiring him to re-eftabli(h the Piftilh monarchy. Donald,
roufed by a fenfe of his danger, marched againft them, and
totally defeated their united forces on the Jed, a river of
Teviotdale. This viftory enabled him to recover Berwick and
all the territory to the north of the Tweed ; but his fuccefs
was of very (hort duration, for having indulged too far the
natural licentioufnefs of his troops, the Englifh took ad-
vantage of their carelefsnefs, fet upon them in the night,
routed them with great (laughter, and made Donald prifoner.
The enemy afterwards advanced to the Forth, which they
attempted to crofs in (hips, wheh a violent ftorm arofe, and
occafioned the wreck of half of their fleet. This event fo
weakened their forces, that they were induced to conclude a
peace with the Scots, upon the condition of their abandon-
ing all the country fouthward of the Forth and Clyde.
Of the Pifts nothing was faid in the treaty, and hence molt
of them, deceived in their hopes, paifed over into Denmark
and Norway. Donald, having returned from captivity, ftill
continued his voluptuous conduft, which fo exafperated the
nobles, that they committed him to prifon, where he laid
violent hands upon himfelf in the year 8j8. Such is the
account of Buchanan ; but Chalmers fpeaks of him with
praife, and fays that he died at the palace of Balachoir in
the year 863, and was buried at Icolm-kill.

Conilantine, fon of the great Kenneth, now mounted the
throne. Being a prince of great valour and lofty fpirit, fays
Buchanan, he was anxious to eradicate the ignominy which
Donald had brought upon the kingdom, and to recover the
territories he had lolt, but his nobles difluaded him from
the attempt. He therefore direfted his attention to the
reformation of the public morals, particularly thofe of the
military and priefthood. In this reign the Danes invaded
Scotland, by landing a large army in two divifions in the
ifthmus of Fife. Conilantine haftened to oppofe them, and
fortunately overthrew one divifion before the other could
arrive to its affiftance. Upon this, the reft of the Danes
retreated to an entrenched camp, which they had conltrufted
near their landing place. The Scots, flufhed with viftory,
too rafhly affaulted the Dani(h works, and were defeated
with the lofs of their king and half their army. The Danes,
however, had fufFered fo much, that notwithftanding this
fuccefs, they immediately reimbarked for their own
country.

Othus, or Aodth, brother to Conilantine, fucceeded him
in the regal dignity. His reign was Ihort and dilturbed by
rebellion ; and terminated, according to Chalmers, in confe-
quence of a wound received in the battle of Strathal. Bu-
chanan, on the other hand, aflerts that he was thrown into
prifon by the nobles for his tyrannical and licentious conduft,
and that he died there before he completed the firll year of
his reign. Gregory, or Grig, who next reigned, emulated
the virtues and achievements of the great Kenneth. While
his internal policy was mild and juil, he rendered himfelf
feared and refpefted by foreigners. The Danes having feized
from the Englifli the greater part of the country fouth of
the Forth, he drove them out of it, and once more eita-
blifhed the Solway and the Tyne at the northern boundary
of Scotland. He afterwards defeated the Englifh, who had
entered the weftern diftrift of the kingdom, and compelled
them to give up Cumberland and Weftmoreland to the Scots.
Gregory afterwards landed in Ireland, and having defeated
the Irifh in a battle fought on the river Bann, advanced

to Dublin, which furrendered without refiftance. Here he
found king Duncan, then a minor, with whom he concluded
a peace, and immediately returned to his own dominions,
where he died in 892, greatly regretted by his own fubjefts.
Such was the life of Gregory, as reprefented by the Scottiih
hiftorians ; but the refearches of Chalmers have difcovered
that inltead of being a hero and a conqueror, he was a man
of unprincipled morals, an ufurper, and a hypocrite ; and
was driven from his throne by the indignation of his people.
Gregory was fucceeded by Donald, the fon of Conftantine,
during whofe reign the Danes made feveral defcents upon
Scotland, but were, in every inftance, repnlfed. Chalmers
informs us that the king fell, gallantly fighting in defence of
his kingdom againft a body of thefe invaders, who had pene-
trated almoft to the Scottifli capital. Buchanan, on the
other hand. Rates that he died during an expedition to quell
a feud betwixt the RofTians and the Merch-men ; and Boe-
thius aflerts that he expired in Northumberland in 903.
His fucceflbr was Conftantine, the fon of Aodh, the early
part of whofe reign was equally difturbed by the inroads of
the Danes. He afterwards engaged in a war with Athelftan,
king of England, who ravaged all the country as far as the
Forth and Clyde, and forced CoiJlantine to fue for peace.
Conftantine, however, only obferved it till an opportunity
for revenge occurred, and then, joining with Anlaf, one of
the mott powerful of the Anglo-Danifti princes, their united
forces failed for the Humber, and difembarked without
oppofition. Athelftan, who had forefeen and prepared for
this event, foon came up with the invaders, and after a battle,
till then unexampled in the Englifh or Scottifh annals, gained
a complete viftory, and Conftantine and Anlaf only faved the
remains of their army by a fpeedy re-embarkation. In this
aftion Conftantine having loft his fon, and moft of his no-
bility, refigned the kmgdom in favour of Malcolm, the fon
of Donald, and retired to a monaftery at St. Andrews,
where he ended his days. Soon after the acceflion of Mal-
colm, the conquered provinces of Cumberland and Weft-
moreland revolted from the Englifh monarch, who, fearful
of his ability to retain them, agreed to furrender both to
the king of Scotland, on condition, as Buchanan ftates,
that Malcolm and his fucceffors would acknowledge they
held them of the crown of England, in fealty ; the con-
dition was accepted, and Malcolm pafted the remainder of
his reign in reforming the adminiitration of juftice, and the
licentious charafter of his fubjefts. With this view he
made a tour through the whole of his dominions every two
years, and is ftated to have been paying his laft biennial vifit
to the north, when he was afl'aflinated in Moray, in the fif-
teenth year of his reign. His fuccefTor was Indulfus, who
formed an alliance with the Englifli, and enjoyed peace
during the firit feven years of his rule. At length the
Danes unexpedledly difembarked in Lothian ; the Scottiih
king marched and gave them battle, overthrew them with
great flaughter, but unfortunately periflied himfelf in the
ardour of purfuit.

Duffus, the fon of Malcolm, next fwayed the fceptre,
and appointed Culenus, the ion of Indulfus, governor of
Cumberland. This monarch having held the reins of go-
vernment with a firm hand, many oi his nobles rofe in open
rebellion againft the royal authority. By his vigorous mea-
furcs, however, he was enabled to crufh the infurreftion, and
to bring the leading offenders to pnnifhmcnt. He after-
wards direfted his endeavours to crufli the banditti who in-
feilcd the counties of Moray, Rois, and Caithnefs. Many
of thefe were (lain in various flcirmiflies, but the principal of
them were fecured and brought to the town of Forres, in

order

SCOTLAND.

order to render their fate more exemplary. Here the king
was aflaflinated by the governor and his wife, who had vainly
interceded to fave fome of the criminals, their relations.

Culenus, the fon of Indulfus, now mounted the throne ;
and immediately inttituted an inquiry into the murder of his
predecefTor, and vifited with condign punifhment all who
were concerned in that tragical event. But with thefe afts
the merits of his reign ceafe, for fcarcely had the executioner
performed his duty, before the king abandoned himfelf to
every fpecies of vice, and gave equal licence to the younger
nobility. Having been, in confequence, fummoned to anfwer
for his conduft in an aflembly of tlie dates convened at
Scone, he was aifadinated en his journey thither by the
thane of Methyen, whofe daughter he had injured. Culenus
was fucceedcd by Kenneth, the brother of Duffus, a man
in every relpetl the reverfe of him in charafter and conduft.
His firft objeft was to put an end to the abufes of the former
reign ; which he had fcarcely accomplithed, when the Danes,
made a defccnt on Aberdeenihire, and pillaged the country
as far as the town of Perth, to which they laid fiege. The
king haftened to give them battle, and after an obftinate and
bloody contelt, was defeated and put to flight. This
difafter being perceived by the chief of the clan. Hay, he,
and his fons and vallaU, placed themfelves in a narrow pafs,
through which the main body of the Scots fled, and by
their exhortations and courageous conduit, fucceeded in
changing the fortune of the day. The Scots turned upon
their conquerors, and after a fecond rencounter, ftill more
furious than the firft, gained a complete vidory. The gal-
lant Hay was rewarded with extenilve eltates, and raifedto
the dignity of nobility, which is ftill enjoyed by his defcend-
ants. From that time peace continued for feveral years,
during which period Kenneth attempted to regulate the fuc-
ceflion to the royal dignity, fo as to render it hereditary in
his own family. In the purfiiit of this objeft he committed
the only crime with whicli his reign is ftained, the murder of
Malcolm, the fon of king Duffus, who was confidered by
the nobility as the next hicceilor to the throne. All liis
efforts, however, proved unfuccefsful ; for though he ob-
tained a vote of the ftates in favour of his views, yet when
the throne became vacant by his death, which happened in
the year 994, Conftantine the Bald was proclaimed king.
Malcolm, Kenneth's fon, coUefted a large body of troops
to aflert the preference of his rights, but on the approach
of the royal troops he difmiiied his army, and retired into
Cumberland. Kenneth, his natural brother, regarding tliis
conduft as difhonourable, prevailed on moft of the foldiers
to join his ftandard and continue the war. A battle foon
afterwards enfued, in which both Conftantine and Kenneth
fell, each by the hand of the other, at the very moment
when victory had declared for the latter.

In this critical emergency, the nobles elected Grimus,
the fon of Duffus, ti> the lovereign authority. This prince
feems to have poffefTed greater popularity than his prede-
celFor, for he was no fooner declared king than moft of his
opponert's partizans deferted to his caufe. Malcolm's
party therefore deemed it advifeable to ncgociate for peace,
and accordingly a treaty was conclnded. by which it was
agreed thai Grimus (liould retain the kingdom till his death,
when it (hould revert to Malcolm and his lieirs, according to
the intentions of Kenneth. This peace was fcrupuloufly
obferved during eight years ; hut after that period, Grimus
having begun to evince a m< ft tyrannical diipofition, Mal-
colm thought himfelf jnftilied in again taking up arms. He
accordingly marched mto Scotland, and as the tide of popu-
larity was now decidedly in his favour, he foou acquired a

large army. Grimus marched to oppofe him, but bein^
betrayed by his foldiers, he was feverely wounded in the
firft battle, and foon after terminated his exiftence.

Malcolm, on aduming the fceptre, laboured to compofe
the various factions which agitated the ftate, and to deftroy
the numerous banditti of robbers who had taken advantage of
the laxity of the old government, to infeft almoft every
diftrift of the kingdom. He renewed, in his capacity of
king of Scotland, the league which he had formed with the
Englifh, as governor of Cumberland, and m virtue of its
conditions fent a corps of troops to afiift them in oppofing
the Danes. This meafure fo roufed the indignation of the
Danifti monarch, that he difpatched a large fleet and army
to invade the Scottilh territories, under the command of
two of his beft generals, Olave and Euceus. A landing
was effedted in the province of Moray, which being fub-
dued, the invaders laid fiege to the fortrefa of Nairn. Mal-
colm, who, during thefe operations, had been bufily engaged
in levying forces, amved while the garrifon yet continued a
gallant defence ; but being defeated, they were compelled
to furrender ; and the fortreffes of Elgin and Moray were
evacuated without refiftance.

Upon thefe fucccfl'es the Danes refolved to fix their
habitation in Moray, and with this view fent home their
fhips to bring over their wives and children. In the mean
time Malcolm re-organized his army, and made head againft
the enemy again at Mortlich, in the diftridt of Marr. At
firit the Scots, difcouraged by the fall of three of their com-
manders, retreated to their camp, where they made a vigorous
ftand, and changed their flight into a glorious viftory. Mal-
colm, however, did not deem it prudent to advance far in
purfuit, nor to attempt the expulfion of the whole Danifh
colony before he had recruited his forces with new levies.
This cautious policy afforded time to king Swein to dlfpatch
a fecoad body of troops to the afTiftance of their country-
men. They were commanded by Camus, a general of tried
courage and abilities, and difembarked near Aberbrothick,
in Angus, whence they marched forward to the village of
St. Bride, near which the Scots lay encamped, and ready to
receive them. The aftion that followed terminated in the
total rout of the Danes, who, finding their retreat to their
fliips cut off, difperfed in different diredtions. Camus and
the moft confiderable party fled towards the mountains, with
the intention of penetrating to Moray; but before they had
proceeded far from the field of battle, they were overtaken,
and either flam or made prifoners. A finiilar fate attended
all the other fugitive bands.

This fecond difcomfiture, though more fignal than the
firft, did not yet difcourage the Danifh king. Immediately
on being apprized of it, he fent a third armament under his
own fon, Canute, which landed in Buchaii without oppo-
fition, and plundered the furroundiiig country. Malcolm,
who had fcarcely recovered the loffes fuflaip.ed in former
battles, neverthelefs haftened to oppofe this new invafion.
At firft he declined rifkiiig a general engagement, but when
he had afcertained that his opponents were lefs ftrong than
was originally fuppofed, he feized a favourable opportunity
to fall upon them with his whole forces. The battle was
the moft dreadful hitherto fought againft the Danes ; the
Scots remained mafters of the field, but were unable to purfue
the enemy, who retreated without moleftation. Next day
both parties, equally afraid to hazard another conteft, eagerly
liftened to the interpofition of the clergy, and concluded a
peace, in which it was ftipulated that all the Danes fhould
leave Scotland, and that neither Swein nor Malcfclm ftiould,
in future, wage war againft one another.

Malcolm

SCOTLAND.

Malcolm having teen the firft article of the above treaty-
performed, diftanded his army, and reigned for fome years
in greater Iplendour and glory than any -preceding monarch
of Scotland. As old age approached, however, he acquired
an exorbitant love for money, a paffion vi'hich led him to
commit many afts of oppreflion and injuflice. This conduft
excited the hatred of the nobility, and eventually occafioned
his aflallination, though authors are not agreed as to the
perpetrators of the bloody deed.

Duncan, the grandfon of Malcolm, by his daughter Bea-
trice, fucceeded to the vacant throne. He was a prince of
great popularity, vrhich he had juitly acquired ; but while
his virtues endeared him to the wife and good, they awakened
feelings of enmity in the brealls of the turbulent and fedi-
tious. Macdugald, a chieftain of the weit, firft raifed the
ftandard of rebellion, and attrafted to it many of the
iflanders, and a body of Irifli, who joined him in the hope
of plunder. The king difpatched one Malcolm, a thane of
high rank, to quell this infurreftion, but he was unfortu-
nately defeated and taken prifoner. Alarmed at that event,
Malcolm fummoned a council, in which Macbeth, one of his
relatives, declared, that if he were made general of an expe-
dition, in conjunftion with Bancho, thane of Loch Abyr,
they would foon bring the traitors to punifhment. Mac-
beth obtained the wifhed-for command, and performed his
talk almofl without refidance; for fuch was the terror in-
fufed into the rebels by his known charafter for feverity,
that on his approach they endeavoured to fave themfelves
by flight, but the main body was overtaken, and moft of
them put to the fword.

Thus was Duncan freed from domeftic fedition, but he
did no'c long enjoy peace. The Norwegians, under Swein,
king of Denmark, foon after landed in Fifelhire, and again
aroufed him from his natural inactivity. Having entrufted
to Macbeth the charge of levying a new army, he himfelf
advanced, with fuch troops as he could coUeft, to oppofe
the invaders, whom he met at Culrofs, where a battle
enfued, which terminated to the difadvaiitage of the Scots.
Duncan retired to the town of Perth, which was imme-
diately befieged by the Danes. In the mean time Macbeth
advanced with the new levies, upon whofe arrival the king
made a fudden attack upon the enemy's camp, while they
were totally unprepared, and routed them with fuch flaughter,
that only Swein, and a few attendants, were enabled to
reach their fiiips.

But no fooncr was Duncan relieved from this fecond
danger, than he was alarmed by the news of the landing
of the Danes in Fifefhire. Bancho marched to oppofe
their progrefs, and beat them back to their fliips. About
the fame time, Macbeth, whofe ambition led him to alpire
to the tlirone, was encouraged in his daring views by a
dream, in which he imagined that three women, naked, and
of uncommon beauty, appeared to him and faluted him,
one as thane of Angus, another as thane of Murray, and
the third as king of Scotland. Henceforth he determined to
accomplifli his purpofe at all ha'/.ards ; and accordingly, hav-
ing brought over many of the nobles to his fide, he waylaid
and murdered the king at Inverncfs. M.-icbeth then haflened
to Scone, where he was inverted with the royal authority.
The fons of Duncan, aitonifhcd at thcfe events, fled, one
mto Cumberhmd, and the other to the Hebrides. Shak-
fpeare has dramatifcd fome of thefe events in his admirable
tragedy of " Macbeth."

The firll aft of Macbeth's reign waa to fupprefs the
teuds which fubfiitcd between the thanes of Caithnefs,
Rofs, Sutherland, and Nairn. He afterwards defeated
and Hew Macgill, lord of Galloway, who refufed to ac-

5

knowledge his authority ; and quiet having been thus reftored
to the kingdom, he applied his attention to the enaftment of
many falutary laws, and to the correftion of abufes in their
adminiilratioii. Thus he reigned ten years with fo much juf-
tice, that the manner of his obtaining the throne was totally
overlooked. At the clofe of that period, however, he began
to give way to the natural cruelty of his temper, and to
convert his hitherto laudable government into an oppreffive
and cruel tyranny. The firft fhock of his inhumanity was
vented againft Bancho, whom he invited to a feaft, and
caufed to be flain on his return home, giving out that the
deed was perpetrated in an accidental fray or tumult.
Upon this, moft of the nobles departed to their own caftles,
and only a few of them occafionally repaired to court.
Hence mutual diflrufl and jealoufy fprung up between
them and the king, who upon the flighteil pretences feized
their property, and put them to death. The confifcated
eff ates he employed to maintain a band of plunderers, whom
he kept as a guard about his perion. But even with their
protedlion he did not confider himfelf in fafety, and there-
fore refolved to ereft a caftle for his refidence on the
fummit of Dunfinnan hill. In the accomplifhment of thil
work, he ordered all the thanes of the kingdom to alTift ;
but Macduff, thane of Fife, fent only workmen on his part:
this difobedience exafperated Macbeth fo much, that he
fwore vengeance againfl Macdufl, who, fearful of the confe-
quences, immediately fled to England, where he found
Malcolm, the fon of Duncan, royally treated by king Ed-
ward the ConfefTor. After feveral interviews with the
Scottifh prince, he encouraged him to affert his rights to
the throne of Scotland. Malcolm, afl'ured of Macduff's
integrity, hefitated not a moment to adopt his views, and
being afTifted by king Edward with 10,000 men, he march-
ed direftly into Scotland, where he was joined by all rank*
of the people. Macbeth, not daring to hazard a battle,
endeavoured to efcape, but was arretted and put to death.

Malcolm, having thus recovered his father's dominions,
was declared king in the year 1057. This prince is faid
to have introduced into Scotland the titles of earl, baron,
and knight. Macduff, to whofe encouragement and ex-
ertions he owed the crown, is mentioned by Buchanan as
having been the firft who held the dignity of earl. At the
fame time, the privilege of placing the king m the chair of
ftate at th-j ceremony of coronation was granted to him and
his porterity.

But though M;ilcolm thus eafily obtained the crown, he
was not allowed to enjoy it long in peace. The fadion of
Macbeth proclaimed his fon, Luthlac, king, and for three
months contended openly for the maintenance of his preten-
fions. At length his followers were defeated and himfelf
flain in Strathboirie. Malcolm now reigned for feveral
years, undilliirbed either by foreign or domeftic enemies.
In the interim Edgar Atheling, who with his mother and
fillers bad fled from England to avoid the fufpicions of
WilHam the Conqueror, was driven by diftrefs of weather
into Scotland, where they were courteoufly received by
Malcolm, who married Margaret, the fifter of Edgar.
The Scottiili prince further protefted all Edgar's banilhed
friends, and afTigned them lands for their maintenance.
This conduct excited king William to declare war againft
Scotland ; but after feveral unluccefsful attempts at in-
vafion, he concluded a peace favourable both to Edgar and
Malcolm.

The danger of foreign troubles being removed, feveral
of the clans raifed the ftandard of rebellion againft the
government, and for a time threatened its fubverfion ; but
the valour of MacJutf, 3,nA of Walter, grandfon of Bancho,

evfHtuallr

SCOTLAND.

eventually reftored quiet ; for which fervice the latter was
conftituted lord fteward of Scotland, and from him the
royal family of Stewart were defcended. Malcolm now
applied himfelf to the reformation of the public morals,
and efl;abli(hed the two new bilhoprics of Caithnefs and
Moray. In 1079 he took advantage of the civil war in
Normandy, between king William and his fon, Robert, to
devaftate the county of Northumberland : to revenge this
aggreffion, the Enghfh monarch fent an army into Scotland,
but Malcolm's cautious policy prevented it from effefting
any important exploit, and a treaty was foon afterwards nego-
ciated between the two kingdoms. The acceffion of Wil-
liam Rufus, however, again proved the fignal for hoftilities,
Malcolm advanced into England as far as Chefter-in-the-
Street, whence he retreated, as foon as he underftood that
the Enghih army was in march to oppofe him. William, in
his turn, prepared for the invafion of Scotland botli by land
and fea, and had aftually palTed the borders, when the de-
ftruAion of his fleet, and the interceffion of Robert, duke
of Normandy, and Edgar Atheling, induced him to con-
clude a peace with his antagonift. Malcolm promifed the
fame homage which he had yielded to the conqueror; and
Wilham engaged to furrender to the Scottilh king twelve
manors, which Duncan had held in England, and to pay him
twelve marks of gold annually : but peace did not continue
long ; William fortified Carlifle in the fubfequent year, a
meafure which Malcolm pointedly refented : a perfonal
interview was propofed in the hope of accommodating mat-
ters, but it had an oppofite refult. The Scottilh king,
therefore, led his army into Northumberland and befieged
Alnwick ; where he was furprifed and flain, as was alfo his
elded fon Edward, earl Mowbray, on the 13th of No-
vember, 1093.

Donaldbane, the brother of Malcolm, fucceeded, but
he was foon driven from the throne by his nephew, Duncan,
who was affilled in recovering his dominions by king Wil-
liam Rufus ; Duncan, however, had not enjoyed his dig-
nity above fix months, before he was aflaifinated at the in-
ftigation of his uncle, who once more ufurped the crown,
and reigned about two years, when he was a fecond time
dethroned, and Edgar, the fon of Malcolm, fet up in his
Head. This prince cultivated peace with king William
Rufus, and his fuccelTor Henry I., to whom he gave his
filler Matilda in marriage. Edgar died at Edinburgh on
the 8lh of January, 1106 — 7, and was fucceeded by his
brother Alexander I., who likffwife preferved peace with
his fouthern neighbours ; but his reign was difturbed by an
alarming rebellion at home, and by the ecclefiaftical pre-
tenfions of the archbifhops of York and Canterbury. His
promptitude and valour, however, foon quelled the former,
and his iteady oppofition to the latter enabled him to main-
tain the rights of his country and the independence of his
government. Alexander died in April 11 24, and was fuc-
ceeded by David, the younger fon of Malcolm and Mar-
garet. This prince, having been educated at the court of
Henry I., had acquired a knowledge of the Enghfli laws,
and gained confiderable experience in the art of govern-
ment. Like his predecefTor, he refilled with fuccefs the
efforts of the court of Rome to deftroy the independence
of the Scottifli church. His attention was afterwards
drawn to an infurreftion raifed by Angus, earl of Moray,
who was defeated and flain at Stracathrow, one of the
paiies of Forfarfhire. During thefe tranfaftions David
maintained the ftrifteft amity with England, till the civil
diflentions which enfued upon the death of Henry, when
he took up arms in fupport of the emprefs Matilda ; but
he afterwards concluded a treaty with the ufurper, Stephen.

This lalled about two years, when David again paffed the
borders, and fought the battle of the " Standard" on the
22d of Auguft, 1138. In that adion the Scots were
overthrown with great flaughter, and the king himfelf, with
the remains of his army, found great difficulty in fecuring a
retreat to Carlifle. David neverthelefs foon recruited his
troops, and fliewed himfelf to be ftill formidable, by re-
ducing the caftle of Werk ; but his further progrefs was
arrefted by the conclufion of peace. A fter this David ap-
plied himfelf chiefly to the laudable taflc of civilizing his
yet femi-barbarous fubjefts. He founded feveral towns, and
enafted the " Leges Burgorum," which ftill continue in
force. He likewife introduced into the kingdom many
Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, and Anglo-Belgic inhabit-
ants, a meafure that met with great oppofition, but which
neverthelefs was eventually advantageous to Scotland.
David died at Carlifle in May 1 153, and wal fucceeded by
the grandfon of Malcolm, who had fcarcely fcated himfelf
on the throne, before Somerled, a Hebridean chief, invaded
the Mainland, and forced him to take the field. After
various conflifts, Somerled was repulfed, but not fubdued ;
and Malcolm was forced to conclude a peace with him,
upon terms degrading to the dignity of the Scottifli
monarch.

About this time, the demife of Stephen placed the crown
of England on the head of Henry H., who not only dif-
regarded his folemn engagements to cede to Scotland the
country lying between the Tyne and the Tweed, but de-
manded reftitution of thofe territories which Malcolm held
in England. The latter, confcious of his inability to wage
war with fo powerful a monarch, complied with this unjulli-
fiable demand ; and in return, Henrj- conferred on him the
honour of Huntington, for which he did homage in 1157,
referving all his dignities. Malcolm on that occafion was
inverted with the honour of knighthood ; after which he
accompanied Henry to France. Thefe circumftances ex-
cited great difcontent among the barons, and Somerled
took advantage of the diftrafted ftate of the country to
renew his inroads. Malcolm, however, on his return tri-
umphed over all his adverfaries ; but did not long enjoy
his good fortune, having died at Jedburgh on the 9th of
December, 1165.

WiUiam, the brother of Malcolm, bow afcended the
throne, and almoft immediately repaired to the Engliflj court
to demand the reftoration of Northumberland. Henry
amufed him with fair promifes for twelve months, when
William began to perceive the futility of further folicita-
tion ; and therefore entered into a league with France, in
1168, though it does not appear that war was the im-
mediate refult. William, however, watted the borders in
1173 ; and in the fubfequent year engaged in a fimilar ex-
pedition, during which he was furprifed in his camp at
Alnwick, and taken prifon ; an event which coft him the
ancient independency of his crown : for, in order to gain
his liberty, he ftipulated to do homage to Henry for Scot-
land, and all his other pofTeffions ; engaged that all the
barons and nobiUty of his kingdom fliould alfo do homage;
that the biftiops fliould take an oath of fealty ; that both
fliould fwear to adhere to the king of England again ft their
native prince, if the latter fliould break his engagements j
and that the fortrefles of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick,
Roxburgh, and Jedburgh, fliould be delivered up to Henry
till the performance of all thefe articles. " This fevere
and humiliating treaty," fays Hume, " was executed in its
full rigour. William, being releafed, brought up all his
barons, prelates, and abbots, and they did homage to
Henry in the cathedral of York, and acknowledged him

and

SCOTLAND.

and his ruccelTors for their fuperior lord. The Englifh
monarch ftretched ftill further the rigour of the conditions
which he exaded. He engaged the king and itates to
make a perpetual celTion of the fortrefles of Berwick and
Roxburgh, and to allow the caftle of Edinburgh to remain
in his pofleffion for a hmited time." This is the firft great
ifcendant which England obtained over Scotland.

Thefe difgraceful meafures, and the feeble conduA of
William, rendered him extremely unpopular. The lords of
Galloway and Rofs fucceffively difplayed the itandard of
rebellion, and though eventually compelled to fubmit, kept
the kingdom in a Itate of difquietude for fome years. In
1188, Henry II. fent Hugh, bifliop of Durham, and
feveral priells, into Scotland, to colleft a difne for the Holy
Land ; but this met with the warmeil oppofition. He
next offered to reilore the caftles of Roxburgh and Ber-
wick to William, if he would give the tenths of the king-
dom for the holy war ; and his confent was only withheld,
in confequence of the barons and clergy indignantly de-
claring, that " they would not pay, although both kings
fhould have fworn to levy them." This was the lad pro-
pofal of Henry affedling the independence of Scotland ; as
he died foon afterwards, leaving his crown to his fon
Richard, who reftored to William all the rights and terri-
tories which had been wrefled fromhim during the govern-
ment of his father : thus Scotland again refumed her in-
dependence, though her monarch became the baronial vaffal
of England, as earl of Huntington. In the latter capacity
William did homage to king John A.D. 1200, and after
the ceremony demanded reftitution of the three northern
counties of England, a demand which was tacitly refufed.
In 1209, both monarchs alfembled their troops on the
borders, but the interference of their refpeftive barons
effefted a reconciliation without bloodlhed. From this
period William lived in peace till his death, which occurred
on the 4th of December, 1214.

Alexander li., the fon of William, fucceeded to the
throne, and almoll immediately engaged in hoftihtics againlt
king John, in fupport of the barons. John lolt no time
in making a fignal retaliation. In 12 16 he pafled the
Tweed, and burnt the towns of Dunbar and Haddington.
Alexander next year entered England to join Lewis, the
French prince ; but the death of John, and the lubfequent
difafters of Lewis, prevented the accomplilhment of his
defigns, and a treaty was foon after concluded with
Henry III. This pacification lafted till the year 1233,
when the Englilh king thought proper to call in queltion
the validity of Alexander's coronation, and even intrigued
to deprive him of his crown. In an interview between the
two kings at Newcaftle, they endeavoured in vain to ac-
commodate their differences. They adjufted them never-
thelefs at York, in September, 1237 ; but as the terms of
their agreement were unequal, it was not of long duration.
Jealoufies arofe between them in 1244; Henry collefted a
large force at Newcaftle, and Alexander marched to the
frontiers a highly difciplined army, amounting, as fome
writers Itate, to the number of 100,000 men, all animated
with the moll determined refolutioii to defend their country.
The appearance of fo formidable a force induced the Englifli
barons to mediate a peace, which was accordingly agreed
to. Alexander was next roufed from rcpofe by an infur-
redion in Galloway, which he had fcarccly quelled, before
Angus, lord of Argyle, afl'umed independence, and refufed
to acknowledge the fovereignty of the Scottifh crown.
The king marched againlt him, but died in Kcrreray, an
iflet on the coall of Argyle, on the 8th of July, 1249.
Chalmers remarks concerning this prince, tliat he is pro-

Vol. XXXII.

perly charafterifed by Fordun, " as a king, pious, juft, and
brave ; as the Ihield of the church, the fafeguard of the
people, and the friend of the miferable."

Alexander III. was crowned at Scone July 13, 1249,
after having been knighted by David de Berneham, biftiiop
of St. Andrews. In 1 25 1 he celebrated his nuptials with
Margaret, daughter of Henry III., and on that occalion did
homage for his Englilh lands. The felfifhnefs of Henry led
him to demand homage for the kingdom of Scotland alfo,
but the young king, with equal fortitude and prudence, re-
plied, that he had come to England to be married, not to
treat of affairs of Itate ; and that he could not comply *ith
his deilre without the approbation of the great council of
the Scottifti nation. With this prince commenced that feries
of regal minorities which cauled fo much diltraftion t»
Scotland for feveral centuries, through the intrigues of the
nobles, and of the court of England, to fecure the chief
influence in the ftate. Henry began to forward his views, by
difmifling all the leading men attached to the late king, and
elevating a more fubfervient faftion to power ; but this ar-
rangement was quickly overthrown by a coalition of the
nobles, headed by the Cumyns, who feized the perfons of
the king and queen, and ruled in their names. As this party
confifted of the molt powerful perfons in the kingdom,
Henry found it neceflary to accommodate himfelf to the ftate
of affairs, and a new regency T*as formed, including the
chiefs of all the faftions. Thus domeftic peace was reftored ;
but foreign invafion almoft immediately fucceeded. In the
year 1263, Haco, king of Norway, came into the Clyde
with a fleet of 160 fail, and landed a numerous army near
Largs, in Ayrftiire. The Scottifh forces, commanded by
Alexander, haftened to oppofe him, and in a decifive battle
fought on the fecond of October, in the fame year, com-
pletely routed the Norwegians. Haco with difficulty efcaped
to his (hips, attended only by a few followers, and foon after
expired in Orkney. Magnus, his fucceflor, made over to
Alexander all the iflands of the Hebrides in full fovereignty,
but he ftill retained the iflands of Orkney and Zetland.
From this period the Scottifli king was chiefly occupied, for
feveral years, in ailerting the independence of the Scottifh
churcli againft the pretenfions of the pope, and in curbing
tlie ambition of his own clergy. In 1278 he went to Lon-
don, to attend the coronation of king Edward I., and to io
homage for the lands held by him in England. The event*
which enfued were at once afflifting to the king, and ulti-
mately difaftrous to the nation. Within one year, •viz. in
1283, Alexander, tlie young prince of Scotland, and his
fifter Margaret, wlio had married Eric, king of Norway,
died. The former had no iffue, but the latter left an only-
daughter, Margaret, commonly called the Maid of Norway.
The Scottifli king, anticipating the dangers of a difputed
fuccelTion, refolved, if poflible, to avert them. He alTem-
blcd the great council of the nation at Scone, in which it was
declared that the princcfs of Norway fhould fuccced to the
throne, " failing any children Alexander might have, and
failing the iffue of the late prince," whofe widow it was
fuppofed might be pregnant. To add llrength to thefe
prudent meafures, Alexander liimfelf married, for his fecond
wife, Jolctta, daughter of the count de Dreux ; but the
feftivities for that event had fcarccly ceafed, when he was
killed by a fall from his horfe, near Kinghorn, on the 1 6th
of March 1285 — 6.

Hiftory of the Third Period.— On this fatal accident, Marga-
ret was unanimoufly declared queen, and a regency, conlifting
of fix principal prelates and barons, was appointed to govern
the kingdom during her abfence and minority. Through their
exertions, and protcfted by her father Eric, and her grand

C Mncic,

SCOTLAND.

ancle, king Edward of England, fhe feemed firmly feated
on the throne; acircumitance fromwhichtheEnglilh monarch
was ltd to anticipate great advantages. Having lately fub-
jugated Wales, lie formed the plan of marrying his cldelt fon,
Edward, to the Scottilh queen, hoping thereby to confoli-
date the whole idand into one monarchy. With this view he
drew clofer the ties of amity between England and Nor-
way, and did all in his power to attach the Scottifh regency
and nobles to his intereft. The friendfhip which had of late
prevailed between the two nations greatly facilitated the exe-
cution of this defign, fo favourable to the happinefs and
grandeur of both kingdoms. The ftates of Scotland not
only gave a ready ali'ent to the marriage, but agreed that
their young fovereign fliould be educated in the court of
Edward. Anxious, at the fame time, to enfure the inde-
pendence of their country, they took care to ftipulate very
equitable conditions before they entrufted themfelves into
the hands of fo ambitious a monarch. It was folemnly
agreed that they Ihould enjoy all their ancient laws, liberties,
and cultoms ; that in cafe their queen (hould die without
iffue, the crown of Scotland (hould revert to the next heir,
and (hould be inherited by him free and independent ; that
the military tenants of the crown fhould never be obliged to
leave Scotland, in order to do homage to the fovereign of
the united kingdoms, nor the chapters of cathedrals, col-
legiate or conventual churches, in order to make eleftions ;
that the parliaments fummoned for Scotti(h affairs (hould
always be held within the bounds of that kingdom ; and that
Edward (hould bind himfelf, under the penalty of 100,000
marks, payable to the pope, to obferve all thefe articles.
It is not eafy to conceive that two nations could have treated
upon terms of greater equality than Scotland and England
maintained during the whole courfe of this tranlattion ;
and though Edward gave his aflent to the article concerning
the future independence of the Scolti(h crown, with a faving
of his former rights, this referve gave no alarm to the riobi-
lity of Scotland. The marriage treaty was therefore figned
at Brigham, on the 1 8th of July 1290, with the cordial con-
currence of all parties.

But this project, fo happily planned, and fo amicably
conduded, failed of fuccefs by the fudden demife of the
Norwegian princefs, who expired in Orkney, while on her
paffage to Scotland, and left a very difmal profpeft to the
kingdom. Though for the prefent diforders were prevented
by the authority of the regency, the fuccelTion of the crown
was now become an objeft of difpute, and the regents could
not expeft that a controverfy, which is not ufually decided
by reafon and argument, would be peaceably fettled by them,
OF even by the ftates of the kingdom, amidil fo many power-
ful competitors. As the pofterity of king William became
extinft by the death of the Maid of Norway, the right to
the throne devolved on the ilTue of David, earl of Hun-
tington, brother of William, whofe male line beings alio
extinft, left the fuccelfion open to the pofterity of his
daughters.

The earl had three daughters, Margaret, married to Allen,
lord of Galloway; Ifabella, wife of Robert Bruce, lord of
Annandale ; and Adama, who efpoufed Henry, lord Haftings.
Margaret, the eldeft of the fifters, left one daughter, De-
vergilda, married to John Baliol, by whom (he had a fon of
the lame name, one of the prefent claimants. Ifabella, the
fecond, bore a lor, Robert Bruce, who was now alive, and alfo
urged his pretenfions ; Adama, the third, left a fon, John
Haftings, who contended that the kingdom of Scotland, hke
other inheritances, ought to be divided equally among the
three daughters of the earl of Huntington, and that he had
a right to a third of it, us reprefenting his mother. BaLol

and Bruce united againft Haftings in maintaining the indivi-
Ability of the kingdom, but each of them fupported by
plaufible arguments the preference of his own title. This
occalioneda long and complicated inveftigation and difpute,
Edward of England was appointed umpire, and he pro-
nounced in favour of Baliol ; but as he treated him in many
refpefts as a vaftal, impofing upon him the moft degrading
fervices, Bahol was foon incited to refift his pretenfions,
and the two kingdoms were thus involved m a war, which
terminated in the conqueft of Scotland. Edward, having
fettled the government, and, as he thought, enfurcd tran-
quillity, returned to the fouth, carrying with him the (lone
chair in which the Scottifh kings were feated during the ce-
remony of coronation. Baliol was fent a prifoner to the
Tower of London, where he remained two years, and was
only liberated upon the condition of refiding upon the con-
tinent during the remainder of his life. At this period
William Wallace, one of the greatell heroes of which the
annals of hillory can boall, appeared as the vindicator of his
country's freedom. Beginning with fmall attempts, in
which he was always fuccefsful, he gradually proceeded to
more momentous enterprifes, and difcovered equal caution
ill fecuring his followers, and valour in annoying the enemy.
His intimate knowledge of the country enabled him, when
purfued, to enfure a retreat among the moralFes, in the foreits,
or the mountains. At times he difperfed his aflbciates in
one place, and collefting them again in fome diftant quarter,
furprifed and routed t!ie Englilh before they had any idea of
his approach. Every day was marked by fome daring ex-
ploit, which increafed his influence and means. At length
he refolved to ftrike a decifive blow, by attacking Ormefby at
Scone. The jufticiary, apprized of his intentions, fled
haftily into England, and was followed by all his colleagues
in office, an event which g^ve a new character to the efforts
of Wallace. Many of the principal barons, and particu-
larly fir William Douglas, now openly countenanced his
party, and the nation at large prepared to defend, by an
united effort, that hberty, which they had fo unexpeftedly
recovered.

In the mean time, the carl of Surrey liaving muftered an
army of 40,000 men, haftened to fupprefs an infurreftion,
which had become formidable in a great meafure from his
own negligence. After traverfing Annandale, he marched
along the weftern coaft to Irvine, where he found the Scots
encamped, and fufficiently formidable by their numbers to
have punifhed his temerity, if diftruft and difunion had not
weakened their ranks. Fortunately for him, however, the
jealoufies of the nobles were ftill ftronger than their
patriotifm, and many of them auguring no advantage from
refiftance, fubmitted to the Enghfh, and received pardon.
Others, who had not fo unequivocally declared them.felves,
likewife joined the oppreflors of their country. Wallace
alone remained inexorable to bribe or threat ; but thus de-
ferted, he was unable to give battle to the governor, and
therefore marched to the northward, with the intention of
prolonging the war, and of turning to his advantage the
mountainous diftricls of the Highlands. When Warrene
arrived at Stirling, the Scottilh hero lay encamped at Cam-
bufkenneth, on the oppofite fide of the Forth ; the Englifh
commander again endavourcd to negociate, but Wallace re-
plied, that his objeft was not to treat, but to fet Scotland
free. This bold language being conftrued by the Englifh
as a defiance, they demanded to be led againlt the enemy.
Warrene hefitated, but Crellingham urged an immediate
attack, and his counfels prevailed. The Englifh began to
pafs the bridge that feparatcd the two armies, but before
half of them had reached the oppofite fide, they were at-
tacked

SCOTLAND.

tacked by Wallace, and either pufhed ir.to the river, or de-
ftroyed by the iword. Among the ilain was Creffingham
himfelf, whofe memory was fo hateful to the Scots, that they
flayed his dead body, and made girths of his ikin. The re-
mainder of the Englifti army precipitately retreated into
England. Wallace purfued, and reduced the fortrefies of
Berwick and Roxburgh ; Dundee and the other llrong holds
alfo capitulated, and thus was Scotland a fecond time freed
by the valour andconftancy of her patriotic champion.

Wallace was now declared guardian of the kingdom by
the unanimous voice of his followers, and with the general
confent of the people, and under this title he direAed affairs
in the name of the captive Baliol. As the misfortunes of
war and an unfavourable fealoa had produced a famine, he
marched into England, laid walle the northern counties, and
returned luaded with Ipoils, and crowned with glory.

Edward, who during thefe tranfaAions was profecuting
the war in Flanders, having concluded a truce with France,
hailened over to England, in the confident hope of recovering,
by his aftivity and vigour, the important conqueil of Scot-
land, whicli he always regarded as the chief advantage of his
reign. For this purpofe he aliembled an immenfe army,
with which he laid iiege to the callle of Dirleton. Wallace
in the mean time, fenlible of the jealoufy of the Scottilh
nobles, voluntarily refigned his authority as guardian to the
Stewart of Scotland, and Cumyn of Badenoch, men of emi-
nent birtli, under whom he hoped the great chieftains would
be more willing to fight in the defence of their country.
Thefe two commanders took poll at Falkirk, and deter-
mined tliere to await the allault of the Englifh. Wallace
alfo brought his troops hither, and placed them at the dif-
pofalof the regents. The refoluiion of the Scottilh chiefs
to rifle a general battle was highly agreeable to Edward,
whofe army was already much llraitencd for provifions, and
was in a Hate ot mutiny. He advanced therefore with great
rapidity to Falkirk, and immediately on his arrival led his
troops to the attack. Cumyn, with his divifion, fled on the
firlt onfet, and left that of the Stewart to be cut to pieces.
This cowardly conduft decided the fate of the day ; but in
the general route, Wallace's military Ikill enabled him to pre-
ferve his patriot bands entire. After a gallant refiflance he
retreated leifurely along the banks of the Carron, followed
by a corps of the Englifh army under the orders of
Bruce, who demanded a conference with the Scottilh hero,
in which the latter fully convinced him of his want of pa-
triotifm, in efpoufing the caufe of the oppreflor of his
country.

Soon after this viftory, Edward returned to England, and
the Scots onve more rallied, and obtained many advantages
over the forces left behind by the Englifli monarch. Three
victories were gained in one day, and the renown of thefe
great exploits, feconded by the favourable difpofition of the
people, foon made the regent mailer of all the fortrefies in
the louth, and it became neceiiary for Edward to begin anew
the conqueil oi the kingdom.

Tlie Englifh king accordingly prepared for that event with
his ufual activity and prudence. He aliembled both a great
fleet and army, and entering the kingdom, proceeded aimoit
to its furthell extremities, without encountering any oppoli-
tion. All the nobles, and even the regent himfelf, made
their fubmifiions to tlie conqueror. The only fortrefies
which did not immediately yield were thofe of Brechin and
Stirling. So gallantly, indeed, did the garrifon of the latter
defend their trull, that it was nearly demolilhed before
Edward, after a iiege of four months, was enabled to take
it by allault, an event which again placed the whole of
Scotlaiid under liis power. Still, however, he dillrulled

the permanency of his fuccefs, for Wallace was yet alive,
iinfuUied in iiis charaftcr, and unfubdued in his fpirit.
Edward employed every art to difcover his retreat, and to
obtain pofleffion of his perfon ; and he at length fuceeeded,
through the treachery of fir John Monteith, whom Wallace
had always regarded as one of his bofom friendo. By him
he was arretted, and fent in fetters to London, where he was
tried as a traitor, though he had never made fubmifiions or
fworn fealty to England, and was executed on Tower-hill,
on the 23dof Augufl, 1305. Such was the unworthy fate
of the greatell hero and molt difinterefled patriot of his
own or perhaps of any other age.

By this unjuft and barbarous treatment of the gallant
Wallace, Edward hoped to Ihike terror into the Scots, and
enfure their fubmiflion. Thefe calculations, however, were
foon fhewn to be erroneous. The execution of Wallace, and
the expofure of his mangled limbs in diiferent towns of the
kingdom, ferved only to inflame the refentment of hi»
countrymen. Even the noble?, whofe jealoufy of his in-
fluence had prevented his final fuccefs againfl the tyranny
wtiicli opprefled them, bewailed his fate, and vowed ven-
geance againfl his murderer. Bruce, in particular, became
more confirmed in his purpofe of afferting his rights, and
vindicating the hbertiesof his country. Flying to different
parts of the kingdom, he incited the people to rile againft
their oppre'lors, attacked and defeated the detached parties
of the Englifh, fecured the poiieflion of many fortrefies,
and having eitabhfhed his authority in moil places of the
fouth, proceeded to Scofle, where he was folemiily crowned
on the 27th of March 1306.

Bruce having by repeated fuccefles driven all the Englifh
from Scotland, except fuch as fled to the few fortrefies fliU in
their hands, Edward difpatched Aylmer de Valence to crnfh
this new and formidable revolt. That nobleman advanced
without oppofition to Methuen,in Peilhfhirc, where lie found
the Scottilh forces encamped, attacked them before they
were aware of his approach, and gained a complete viftory.
The Scottilh king fought with great courage, but was at
lafl obliged to quit the field, and to feek fecurity for himfelf
and a few followers in the Wefleru iflands. All the prifoners
of note were executed as rebels, and many atts of outrageous
opprefTion were exercifed againit thole of inferior rank. On
the death of Edward, which happened in 1308, Bruce re-
folved again to try the fortune of war. He attacked and
brought under his dominion the territories of Argyle, and
thereafter took the fortrefies of Invernefs, Forfar, and
Brechin. By thefe exploits he gradually increafed his in-
fluence, and reconciled the barons to his caule. Indeed,
fucli was the alacrity with which the people in general
feconded his operations, that in three months the whole of
Scotland, except one or two fortified places, were wrefled
fnrm the tyranny of the Englifli. Edward, harafi'ed by
difl'entions at home, now found it neceflary to agree to a
truce, which, though it was only of fliort duration, enabled
Bruce to confolidate his power, and organize his govern-
ment. At its concluiion he entered England, and gratified
the revenge and cupidity of his followers by laying walle and
plundering the northern counties. Edward, in his turn, be-
came the afi'ailant during the fame year, and advanced be-
yond Edinburgh. But the want of provifions foon obliged
him to retire, without havijig gained any material advantage.
But though he abandoned Scotland for the prefent, he re-
folved to undertake it;< conqueil again at no diflant period.
With this view lie fummoncd the mofl warlike of his vafials
from Gafcony, enlilled numerous foreign troops into hii
fervice, and aflembling the whole military force of EngUnd,
marched towards the borders with an army compofed of
C 2 J 00,000

SCOTLAND.

joOjOoo men. The Scots at this time were befiegmg the
caftle of Stirling, and had compelled the governor to a ca-
pitulation, unlefs relieved by a certain day. Bruce, judging
that Edward would endeavour to fare this fortrefs, polled
his army at Bannockburn, about two miles to the fouthward,
where his right flank was protefted by a precipitous hill, and
his left by a deep morafs. This gallant band confilled only
of 30,000 combatants, but all of them men of tried courage,
determined to perifh or to enfure the liberties of their
country. The Englifh arrived in fight on the 24th of June,
and on the fame evening difpatched a body of horfe to pene-
trate to the cattle. Bruce ordered his nephew, Randolph,
earl of Murray, to intercept their march, and a furious en-
gagement enfued, which terminated in the total difcomfiture
of the invaders, and contributed greatly to the confidence of
the Scots. Early on the following day the Englilh king led
his army to a general attack. The ear! of Gloucefter, who
commanded the cavalry, rudied forward to the charge with
the utmoil impetuofity, and fell into the covered pits which
Bruce had formed in front of his line. The Scottilh ca-
valry, commanded by fir James Douglas, advanced upon
them, and after a prodigious flaughter, chafed them from
the field. Returning, they threw themfelves upon the rear
of the infantry, who were engaged by the Scottilh foot.
At this critical moment, the waggoners and fumpter boys of
the army, whom Bruce had fupphed with military ftandards,
appeared on the fummit of a neighbouring hill, and decided
the fortune of the day. The Englifh, fuppofing them to be
another army, were panic ftruck, threw down their arms, and
fled m the utmoit confufion. They were purfued by the
viftors as far as Berwick with iinmenfe lofs ; and the king
himfelf efcaped only by the fleetnefs of his horfe. The
Scots, befides an ineftimable booty, took many perfons of
quality prifoners, and above 400 gentlemen, all of whom
Robert treated with great humanity. Barton, a monk of
Scarborough, who had accompanied Edward to celebrate
his triumph, compofed a poem in honour of the viftory of
the Scots, as the price of his liberty ; and the ranfom of
the other prifoners brought a great acceflion of wealth to
the viftorious army. Such, fays an eminent hiftorian, " was
the great and decifive battle of Bannockburn, which fe-
cured the independence of Scotland, fixed Bruce on the
throne of that kingdom, and may be deemed the greateft
overthrow that the Enghlh nation, fince the conqueft, has
ever received. The number of flain on thofe occafions is
always uncertain, and is commonly much magnified by the
viftors. But this defeat made a deep impreflion on the
minds of the EngUfii, and it was remarked, that for fome
years no fuperiority of numbers could induce them to keep
the field againft the Scots."

After this viftory the caftle of Stirling fuiTendered ac-
cording to agreement, and that of Berwick was taken by
afl'ault. Bruce likewife attempted to make himfelf mailer
of the town of Carlifle, but his efforts were baffled by the
bravery of its garrifon. In April 1315, he afiembled a
parliament at Ayr, to fettle the fucceffion to the crown,
■which was declared to devolve to fir Edward Bruce, his
brother, in preference to the king's own daughter Margery,
who gave up her rights for the benefit of her country. Sir
Edward immediately paffed over into Ireland, to aid the
Irilh againft; the Englifh, and he was foon after followed by
the king himfelf, but the latter returned to Scotland in the
fame year. His brother, however, continued to purfue his
projeftsof conqueft, till his defeat and death in the battle at
Dundalk, which was fought in 1318. This event rendered
a new fettlement of the regal fucceflion neceffary, and ac-
cordingly a parliament met at Scone in December, and ac-

knowledged as heir, Robert, the infant fon of Margery,
who had married the Stewart, and died in 131 6. But this
deftinatian of the crown was alfo rendered nugatory in the
firil inftance, by the birth of a fon to the king himfelf, in
1323. In the mean time the war continued to rage with
various fuccefs, and Robert difpatched Randolph as ambaf-
fador to France, to conclude a treaty offenfive and defenfive
with Charles IV. In March 1327, the Englifh government
agreed to acknowledge the kingfhip of Bruce and the inde-
pendence of Scotland, and paffed afolemn aft of parliament
to that effeft. The treaty of Northampton was the imme-
diate confequence, and fettled the peace between the con-
tending kingdoms as independent fovereignties. One of its
ftipulations was, that David, the infant fon of Robert,
fhould mary Jane, the fitter of the Englifh king. Bruce,
having thus obtained the confummation of his magnanimous
efforts, died in the year following, at the age of fifty-five.

David I. now afcended the throne, which the abilities and
vigour of his father had re-eftablifhed, apparently on a firm
foundation. Randolph, earl of Murray, was declared
guardian to the young king ; but, unfortunately for the prince
and for Scotland, he died in 1332, the very year in which a
new competitor for the crown arofe in the perfon of Edward
Baliol, fon of that John who had fo meanly furrendered his
kingdom to Edward I. This pretender, with the fecret
fupport of the Englifh monarch, coUefted a confiderable
body of troops, and landed in Fifefhire. The new regent,
Donald, earl of Mar, haftened to oppofe this invafion, and
for that purpofe is faid to have muttered an army of 40,000
men. His imprudence and want of flvill, however, deflroycd
the advantages which fuperiority of numbers gave him over
his antagoniil. Both armies encamped oppofite to each
other, feparated only by the river Erne ; and the regent, con-
fiding in that fecurity, and the fmall force of the enemy,
neglefted all order and precaution. Baliol, apprized of this,
pafted the river in the night, penetrated into the camp of the
Scots, threw them into confufion, and purfued them from
the f.eld with great flaughter. BaUol, on this unexpefted
fuccefs, marched for Perth, and made himfelf matter of that
important ftation. Here he was befieged by the earl of
March and fir Archibald Douglas, but their efforts were
defeated, and Baliol was proclaimed king. David and his
betrothed queen were fent over to France, and the leaders
of his party fued for and obtained a truce from his compe-
titor, whofe power they were unable to rcfift. Thus did
Baliol, by a difplay of the moft chivalrous valour, feat him-
felf on the throne of Scotland. His reign, however, was
of fliort duration, for having difmifled the greater part of
his Englifh followers, he was attacked and defeated near
Annan, by fir Archibald Douglas, and other chieftains of
the Bruce faftion. By this difatter Bahol lott his kingdom
more rapidly than he had gained it. But in the interval he
had induced the Englifh king openly to fupport his caufe, by
offering to acknowledge his fuperiority, to renew the ho-
mage for his crown, and to efpoufe the princcfs Jane, whofe
marriage with David was not yet confummated. Edward
had eagerly embraced thefe offers ; and as the dethronement
of Baliol now rendered them ineffeftive, he refolved to rein-
ilate him in the pofTeflion of the crown, an enterprize which
he flattered himfelf would be eafy. Accordingly, he be-
fieged Berwick, which the governor, after a gallant defence,
agreed to furrender, unlefs relieved by a ccrtam day. The
regent being informed of this capitulation, was forced, con-
trary to his wifhes, to rifk the fate of the kingdom on the
iffue of one battle. He attacked the Englifh at Halydon
Hill, north of Berwick, and as he himfelf was flain at the
iirft onfet, his army was totally routed. The Enghfh

writers

SCOTLAND.

writers calculate the lofs of the Scots in this aftion at
30,000 men ; while Edward is faid to have loll only one
knisfht, one efquire, and thirteen private foldiers ; an ine-
quality, as Hume properly remarks, almoft incredible.

By this viftory Baliol again obtained the fovereignty, and
was formally acknowledged king in a parhament alTembled at
Edinburgh. The terms on which he acquired that dignity,
however, were too degrading for the Scottifli nation to fub-
mit to long ; as he not only fwore fealty to Edward, but
aftually ceded to him, in perpetual pofl'eflion, all the fouth-
eaflern counties of the kingdom. No fooncr, therefore,
were theEnglifh troops withdrawn, than the Scots, a fecond
time, effefted the expullion of Baliol. Edward marched
again into Scotland, and ihe patriots prudently retired to their
hills and faftnelles, whence they ifTiied immediately on his re-
treat, and reconquered their country. A third time the
Englifh monarch became the invader, and with fimilar fuc-
cefs ; for every new attempt to impole the difcarded monarch
upon the nation only ferved to inflame the general indigna-
tion againil him.

Tiie Englifii king about this time was led to advance pre-
tenfions to the throne of France, wliich foon embrsiled him
in a w.ir with that kingdom. This event elated the hopes
of the Scots, who gradually reduced all the fortified places
held by the Englilh within their territories ; and in order that
they might have the countenance of fovereign authority,
they invited David and his queen to return to Scotland.
The royal pair accordingly landed at Inncrberry, in the
Mearns, in June 1342. Indignant at tlie defolation that
every where met his eyes, David immediately entered Eng-
land, and ravaged the country as far as NcwcalUe, to which
he laid fiege ; but after feveral difaftrous aflaults, he was
obhged to abandon the enterprize. David again invaded
England in 1547, and advanced to the vicinity of Durham,
where he was encountered by an Englidi force, raifed by the
energetic condnft of queen Philippa. The contell was
warmly maintained for fome time on both fides, but the
Scots were in the end defeated, and the king himfelf, and
many of the nobility, made prifoner<;. Baliol, who com-
manded the Englifii army in this aftion, profecuted his vic-
tory with great vigour. Before the conchifion of the year
he had reduced thecafllcr. of Hermitage and Roxburgh, and
extended his conquells over Annandalc, Teviotdale, and
Tweedale. In the next year fuccefs continued to attend his
march ; but in 1348 he was forced to retreat into England,
and a truce was agreed to. On its expiration, in 1355, the
Bruces once more took the field, which they were better
enabled to do by means of a confiderable alfiftance, both in
men and money, fnrniflied to them by the French king.
One p.irty, commanded by lord Douglas, completely de-
feated the Englifh marchers at Nifbet Moor, and after-
wards afi'aultcd and took the town of Berwick, but the ap-
proach of Edward prevented the reduction of the caftle.
At this period Baliol, tired of attempting to regain a crown,
determined to retire into private life, and to refign to the
Englifh king all his riglits to the throne, in exchange for a
fubfiftcnce adequate to his rank. The bargain was agreed to,
and Edward marched into Scotland with a powerful army, to
fecure his newly acquired poliefTions. The Scots adopted the
wife policy of harairing tlicir enemy by frequent fkirmilhes,
in which they were lo fuccefsful, that Edward was loon
compelled to a precipitate retreat. During tliele events
David remained a prifoner in England, but in May 1357, a
truce was concluded, wlicrein he was virtually acknowledged
king, and was ranfomed for the fum of 100,000 marks, to
be paid by inllalments within ten years.

David having, by this treaty, regained his liberty, paid

the two firft inflalmcuts of his ranfom ; but he found it im-
prafticable to raife money for the third payment. After
various unfuccefsful expedients, therefore, he was obliged
to appeal to Edward himfelf, and to conclude a treaty with
him in 1363, in which it was Ripulated that the latter fhould
fuccced to the throne of Scotland, and that a federal union
of that kingdom with England fhould take place, provided
David died without ilfue. But the Scottifh nobles having
rendered this treaty nugatory and unavailing, another was
agreed to in May 1365, by which Scotland became bound
to pay to England the fum of 100,000 pounds within the
fpace of 25 years. From this period no event occurred
worthy of notice in the hiftory of Scotland, till the death
of David, which happened in Feb. 22, 1370 — 71 ; when
Robert II. fucceedtd to the throne, and was crowned at
Scone on the 26th of March 1 371, at the advanced age of 55.
Among the firll acis of his government, was the difpatch
of ambaffadors to France, by wliom was negociated a treaty,
whicli llipulated that neither the king of Scotland nor the
king of France fhould be obliged to make war upon Eng-
land ; that not even the difpenfation of the pope fhould 're-
lieve either party from their engagement to each other ; that,
in the event of a competition for the crown of Scotland,
the king of France Hiould take care "that no Englifii in-
fluence was ufed ; that he fhould acknowledge the king
eledled conformably to the laws ; and that no Frenchman
fhould ferve againll Scotland, nor any Scotchman againft
France.

Robert and Edward continued to keep up a friendly cor-
refpondence, notv/ithlhuiding their refpeclivo borderers were
engaged in perpetual hollility, and the former wa.s punftual
in dilcharging the inll.ilments of his uncle's ranfom.

Robert, who had a numerous progeny, and feems to have
feared fome difputes might arile relative to the fuccefiion
alter his death, convoked a parhament at Scone, in April
1373, in Older that their declaration might guard the king-
dom from a repetition of its pall misfortunes. This parlia-
ment recognized, in the firll iiiflance, the title of John, carl
of Carrick, and the Stewart of Scotland, his eldelt fon by
Elizabeth More, his firll wife, thereafter iu's other fons by
the fame lady, according to their feniority ; his fons by Eii-
phemia Rols, liis fecond wife ; and lailly, " the true and
lawful heirs of the blood and Itock royal." Buchanan crro-
neoully calls Euphemia Rofs the firll wife, and Elizabeth
the fecond wife, alleging that the children of the latter were
born during an illegitimate connexion in early life ; but
fufficient evidence has been adduced from papal archives to
fhew that the king married Elizabeth More at a date prior
to his marriage with queen Eujihemia, and that flie died
long before he afcended the throne.

In 1377 the border wars began to rage with fignal fury.
The lord Percy, now earl ol Northumberland, ravaged the
ellatcs of the carl of March, and a party of Scots, com-
manded by one Ramfay, furprifed the calUe of Berwick,
and declared that they held it for the king of France. It
was re-taken, however, by allault, after a fiege of nine days,
when all the garrilon, excejit Rainfay, were put to the
fword. Tlie Englifii army then marched into Scotland, but
their advanced guard having been entirely cut off, they de-
fiftcd from their expedition. In 1379, the Scottifh bor-
derers again invaded England, and laid wafle the country.
The earl of Northumberland, in retaliation, fitted out
privateers, and captured fome Scotch fliips ; but the Eng-
lifh government refented thele proceedings, and ordered the
border earh not to provoke the Scots, but to obfcrve the
truce. Thefe commands, however, not being attended to,
the carl of Douglas burll into Cumberland with Jcooo

men.

SCOTLAND.

men, plundered the town of Penrith during its fair, and re-
turned with an immenfe booty in merchandize, befides
40,000 head of cattle.

The duke of Lancafter, about this time, was fent to re-
prefs the borderers, and alfo to obtain fome fatisfaftion from
the Scottifh king for the many nifraaions of the exillnig
truce, which had been committed by his fubjeds. Before
he entered upon hollihtics, liowever, he invited the Scots to
a treaty, and a truce was agreed to for ten months, which
was afterwards prolonged for feven months more. But this
convention feems to have related only to the borders, as the
Scottifh monarch does not appear as a party to it. This
pacific conduti of the duke created him many enemies in
England. Hence, when the people rebelled againlt his
nephew's government, he found it necelTary to feek fafety
for a fhort time in Scotland, where he was hofpitably re-
ceived. On his return, the Scots having affaulted the cadle
of Werk, he was again difpatched to demand reparation,
and to treat of a genera] peace. Conferences were accord-
ingly held with the earl of Carrick, but nothing definite
was agreed to. Indeed the continuance of peace appears
not to have been the wi(h of the Scottifh monarch, for he
foon after renewed the ancient league with l- ranee, and com-
menced hoftilities by taking the ca!lle of Lochmaben. On
this the duke advanced as far as Edinburgh, whence he was
obliged to return to Berwick, without having gained any ad-
vantage. The Scots again became the aggrcflbrs, and had
laid waile the country as far a=; Newcaftle, when the con-
clufion of a new truce put an end, for a time, to regular hof-
tilities. The border wars, however, Itill raged, and the town
of Berwick was taken by the Scots, but was given up again
on payment of 2000 marks.

On the expiration of the truce, Robert, who had received
confiderable fupphes from France, prepared to invade Eng-
land, and create a diverfion in the north, while a French
army (hould land in the fouth. But in the interim the French
king was obliged to abandon the intended defcent upon Eng-
land, and hence Robert was left to contend, fingle-handed,
againft the undivided force of that powerful monarchy.
Richard marched into Scotland at the head of 6o,ooo men.
The Scottifh king wifely refufed to rifle a general action,
though ftrongly urged to do fo by the officer commanding
the French auxiliaries, contenting himfelf by haralTing the
enemy by frequent attacks, till they were forced to retreat
within their own territories. After this, the earl of Douglas
invaded Ireland and the Ifle of Man, whence he returned
with immenfe booty. Robert, elated by thefe fnccefles, re-
folved to attempt an invafion of England on a grand fcale.
Accordingly a powerful army entered Northumberland, and
laid fiege to NewcalUe, which was defended by Henry
Percy, furnamed Hotfpur. This nobleman challenged
Douglas, the Scottifh general, to meet him in fingle combat,
and the challenge having been accepted, aconteft took place
in fight of both armies, and terminated in the overthrow of
Hotfpur. Next day Douglas ordered'a general affaiilt, but
was unfuccefsful ; and-as tlie Enghfh had received reinforce-
ments during the night, he deemed it prudent to retire
towards Scotland. Percy, eager to wipe off the difgrace of
his perfonal defeat, purfued, and came up with the Scots at
Otterburn, where a battle was fought by the hght of the
moon, and is reprefented by hiHorians as the moll obftinately
contetted of any that occurred in that age. Earl Percy, and
above a hundred perfons of diftindfion, were made prifoners,
and contributed, by their ranfoms, to enrich their conquerors.
Scarcely was this battle finilhed, when another Engliih army
appeared in view, under the orders of the bifhop of Durham.
The Scots, notwithllanding their fatigued ilate, refolved to

venture a fecond contelt, and nobly difdaining the cuftomarr
barbarity of putting their prifoners to death, (though nearly
as numerous as their whole army,) drew up in martial array,
having fimply required them to give their word of honour
that they would not interfere in the action. The bifhop,
who imagined the Scots would fly at his approach, perceiving
their bold attitude, thought it moreadvifeable to retreat than
to hazard the deflrudtion of his army. The Scots hence-
forth continued their march unmolelled ; and, in teftimony
of the honourable conduit of their prifoners, they difmilled
all thofe of inferior rank without ranfoin, and accepted
obligations from their fuperiors, all of which were punctually
fulfilled ; examples of honour and gencrolity worthy of the
molt enlightened period of iociety.

In the year 1389 a treaty was concluded between the kings
of England and France, to which the Scots were invited to
accede ; but as the earl of March and the lord of the Ifles
were admitted as parties, great oppofition was manifelled to
it by the nobles, who confidered both thefe noblemen as
fubjefts of the Scottifh monarchy, and therefore not en-
titled to treat as independent perfons. The king, however,
inclined to peace, and after fome explanations on the part of
the Frencli and Engliih ambaffadors, the nobles were induced
to give a reluctant confent to the termination of hoftilities for
three years. Robert died foon afterwards, opprefFed with
grief and age, April 19th, 1 390, and was fucceeded by
his eldelt fon, John, earl of Carrick, who affunied the title
of Robert III. In earlier life he had commanded armies,
and negociated treaties, with ability and fuccefs, but he had
lived for fome time in retirement. Now that he was called
to the throne, he committed the direftion of public affairs to
his brother, the earl of Fife, by whofe advice he confirmed
the late truce, and renewed the ancient league with France.
In this reign a violent feud broke out between the clans
Chattan and Kay, which raged for nearly three years with
the mofl rutlilefs fury. The earl of Crawford was fent to
rellore peace ; but fearing that the employment of force
might caufe an union againlt the government, he had re-
courfe to the following expedient, which ferves to illuflrate
the character of the Highlanders, and the general ftate of
fociety in that age. He propofed that their quarrel fliould
be decided by thirty champions from each clan, who (hould
fight with the fword only, in prefence of the king and his
court. The propofal, being perfectly agreeable to the fpirit
of the feudal laws, was fandtioncd by both parties. A level
fpot near Perth was fixed upon for the fcene of action, but
when the combatants were mullered, it was found that one
of them, belonging to clan Chattan, had failed to appear.
In this difficulty it was fuggelled that one of clan Kay
fliould be withdrawn, but all of them refufed to relinquifh
the honour and danger of the combat. Various other ex-
pedients were ftarted with no better fuccefs. At length
Henry Wynd, a fmith, no ways connected with either clan,
offered to fnpply the place of the abfentee, and his offer
was accepted. The champions on both fides now joined
battle, and after a conteit probably unjiaralleled for its fury,
victory declared for clan Chattan, principally owing to the
fuperior heroifm of Wynd, who, with ten of his comrades,
all defperately wounded, alone furvived the conteft. Of
clan Kay one only was left alive, who, being unhurt, threw
himfelf into the Tay and eicaped. This fingular combat
happened in the year 1396; and in 1398, as the truce with
England had nearly expired, it was prolonged, and feveral
regulations were made tending to preferve the peace of the
borders. In the fame year the title of duke was firit intro-
duced into Scotland, by the elevation of the king's eldeft
fon David to the dukedom of Rothfay ; and of his own

brother.

SCOTLAND.

brother, the earl of Fife, to the dukedom of Albany. A
cudom alfo began to prevail in the border treaties, of naming
cautioners, who afted as confervators of the peace, and were
a kind of atlornics for their fellow fubjedls, in all matters
cognizable in the border courts, which had been lately eila-
blifhed on both fides. Thefe regulations are juftly confi-
dered as imporiant Itepsin the progreflive civilization of the
two kingdoms.

The events of the year 1401 were the moft difaftrous in
themfelves, and in their conlequence?, which ever occurred
to Scotland. The death of earl Douglas was followed by
thofe of William Trail, archbifhop of St. Andrews, a pre-
late of great weight ; and queen Ar.nabella, a woman of ex-
emplary virtue and prudence. Tliis princefs, by her influence,
had conciliated the jealoufies of feveral branches of the royal
family, and in particular had rellrained the impetuous temper
of the duke of Rothfay, the heir apparent to the throne,
who was barbaroufly murdered loon after by the duke of
Albany. The truce with England being now expired, war
was renewed on the borders, and a fevere aftion was fought
at Weftern-Nifbet, in which the Scots were defeated. So
ftrongly contelted was this battle, that it is affirmed that few
of either army efcaped unhurt. It was fucceeded in the
year following by another combat, fought between the
troops of Henry Hotfpur and Douglas, at Homeldon,
where the Englilh were again victorious, and numbered
among their prifoners the earls of Douglas, Fife, Argus,
Murr.iy, lords Montgomery, Erfliine, Graham, and Orkney,
eighty knights, and about 10,000 gentlemen and private
foldiers. This battle, fo immediately difaltrous to Scot-
land, proved in its refults no lefs fo to England. King
Henry having ordered earl Percy and the other barons not
to ranfom tlieir prifoners, they regarded that mandate as
fuch a tyrannical infringement of their feudal riglits, that
they raifed the ftandard of revolt againft the government,
and for a time defied all its efforts. The vidlory of Shrewf-
bilry, and the fall of Percy, terminated this formidable in-
furreftion. Douglas, the rival of Percy, was prefent in
this battle, and was taken prifoner, but his conduft had fo
greatly excited the admiration of the Englifh king, that he
gave him his liberty without ranfom.

Henry, notwithflaading this viftory, was extremely
defirous of concluding a peace with Scotland, in order
that he might employ the whole force of his government in
overawing his difcontented fubjedls. He firft attempted to
open a negociatiou through the medium of the French am-
baffadors at the Scottidi court, but finding that meafure un-
availing, he difpatched fpecial commidioners with the fame
view. The reiult was unfavourable, and hollilities con-
tinued, though without any remarkable tranfaftion on cither
fide. All this time Robert remained ignorant of the fate
of the duke of Rothfay, but it foon became neceffary to
make him acquainted with it. The king, unable to punifh
his murderers, adopted the prudent relblution of fending
his fecond ion James to France ; he did not reach his defli-
nation, having been captured by an Englifh privateer, and
fent as a prifoner to London. Tiie news of this fecond
difafter fo affeftcd Robert, that he died three days after-
wards, in March 1405.

On tliis event the ftatcs of the kingdom nominated the
duke of Albany regent. This prince was a man of con-
fummate abilities, but ambitious, and hence appears to have
been lukewarm in his endeavours to obtain the liberty of his
Sovereign. Tiie fpirit of the people, hov/ever, forced him
to declare war againft England, but it was foon terminated
by a truce, during which it was propofed to cuter into ne-
gociations for a permanent peace. Conferences were, iu

J

confequence, held for that purpofe, but they ended only in a
prolongation of the truce, at the clofe of which tlie war wai
renewed, and Henry prepared to Itrike a decifive blow againd
Scotland ; but thefe preparations were never carried into
effeft, asatreaty was agreed to which lafUd till 1415. This
period of Scottifh hiflory is diftingniflied by the foundaion
of the univerfity of St. Andrew's, the firil inflitution of
the kind of which Scotland can boaft. • (See St. Axdrews.)
It may therefore be regarded as an era of peculiar intereit,
as from it may be dated the rife of learning in that kingdom ;
which, though confefl'edly among the lafl to devote itlelf to
fcience, has contributed as much to its progrefs as any other
nation of modern Europe.

The truce laft-mentioned being ended, the Scots befieged
Berwick, but that enterprize was unfuccefsful, and all that
was done during the campaign was the burning of Penrith
by the Scots, and of Dumfries by the Englifh. Next year
negociatioiis were entered into for the liberation of James,
but thefe were as fruitlefs as the former, and the war con-
tinued. No aftion worthy of record, liowever, occurred
during five years, and hence it has been, with fome pro-
bability, furmifed that there exifled an underftanding
between the regent and the Englifh general ; though this
would not feem to have been the opinion of his contempo-
raries, for we are told that, on his death, which happened
in 1420, the Scots held his memory in fuch veneration that
they conferred the regency on his fon Murdoch, folely from
refpeft for the father.

In 142 1, king Henry being informed that the earl of
Douglas was meditating an invafion of the northern coun-
ties, invited him to a conference at York, when the earl,
with the confent of James, agreed to ferve the Englifh king
during life. At the fame time fome flipulations were made
relative to the releafe of the Scottifh monarch, but that
event did not take place till the year 1424. Henry V. was
then dead, and the tide of fortune in France had fo com-
pletely changed, that the Englifh regent found it neceflary
to conciliate the Scots, and if pofFible to detach them from
the French intercft. He therefore treated James with the
greatefl attention, and propofed a negociation for his liberty.
Commiflioners were, in conlequence, named on both fides,
who agreed that the Scottifh king fliould be ranfomed for
40,000 pounds, and fliould marry fome lady of tlie firlt
quality in England. James, it is probable, liad already
fixed his choice upon the lady Joan, daughter to the late
earl of Somerfet, fon to John of Gaunt, duke of Lan-
cafler, by his fecond marriage ; but he made his people the
compliment, not only of conlulting their opinion, but of con-
cluding the match. The royal nuptials were celebrated in
the beginning of February 1424, wlien the young king of
England prefented James with a fuit of cloth of gold for the
ceremony, and the next day gave him a legal difcharge for
lo,GOO pounds, to be dedufted from the amount of his
ranfom, as the marriage portion of the lady.

Hitherto the hiflory of Scotland confills of little elfe but
a detail of battles and predatory excurfions ; of feuds between
lawlefs clans, and rebellions againfl the fovereign authority.
Neither the government nor the people were fufliciently
enlightened to recognife fixed principles of foreign or
domeflic policy. The great barons, though bound to
render homage to the king, and to perform feveral feudal
fervices, affumed all the importance, and exercifid moft of
the funftious, of independent princes. On the accedion of
James I., however, to aftual power, the annals of the king-
dom begin to affume a new afpeft. The reiterated theme
of defeats and viftorics, r)f negociationa and truces, may
henceforth be diverfified with more iiiteieiling intelligence,

and

SCOTLAND.

and the arts of peace may afford a pleafing contraft to the
devaftatioiis oi war.

James, fhortly after his arrival in Scotland, was folemnly
crowned, with his queen, and Murdach, duke of Albany, as
earl of Fife, performed the ceremony of placing his fovereign
on the throne. His firll public aft was to convene a parha-
ment, and to direft their deliberations to the enaftmcnt of
falutary laws. Among other enadfments it was declared,
that the ancient privileges of the church be confirmed ; that
the king's peace be firmly held, and no private wars allowed ;
tliat no man (hould travel with more followers than he
could maintain ; that efficient adminiltrators of the law be
appointed through the realm ; that no extortions, from
churchmen or farmers in particular, be admitted ; that the
cuiloms and borough rates be afigned to the king, alfo
mines of gold and filver, under certain reltritlions ; that
the clergy fhould not pafs the fca without the king's per-
miffion, nor have penfions out of benefices in Scotland ;
that gold and filver {hould not be exported, but upon paying
a high cuftom ; that all perfins under twelve years of age
fhould be taught archery ; that agriculture be protcfted ;
that certain cultoms be raifcd on horfes, cattle, fheep, her-
rings and firs ; that inns be kept in every borough ; and that
no beggars be allowed, except permitted by the fheriffinthe
county, and in towns by the ahlerman or bailie. Two other
enaftments were made by the fame parliament, which merit
feparate confideration : the firft granted to the king a large
fubfidy, by taxation, for defraying his ranfom, which occa-
fioned fo much diflatisfaftion, that he was obliged to avert
the danger of a general iniurreftion, by giving up the idea
of levying the impofed taxes. Unaccultomed to pay direcl
contributions toward the fupport of the government, the
people confidered this ordinance as an aft ot oppreffion, and
were blind to the advantages which might have refulted from
its completion. The fecond enaftmcnt ordered all (herilfs
to inquire what lands had belonged to the crown under the
three preceding monarchs, and authorized the king to fum-
mon the holders to fhew their charters. The objeft of this
decree was to recover the royal demefnes, which had been
parcelled out by the duke of Albany among his friends.
Determined to punilh that prince for his mal-adminiltration,
he arrefted him, his two fons, and the earl of Lennox, his
father-in-law, and took pofledion of their ellates and calHes.
They were afterwards brought to trial, and a vcrdift having
been found againft them, they fuffered death at Stirling.
This part of James's conduft is defended by fome authors
as juft and pohtic, while others rcprefent it as cruel and tyran-
nical. The whole reign of James pafled in peace with
England till within a month of his death, and it is certainly
much to his honour, that he employed himfelf in promoting
civilization, and eftablifhing regular government among his
fubjefts, rather than in waiting their lives and property in
the purfuit of war. He neverthelefs cultivated a clofe
alhance with France, and entered into a treaty with that
kingdom, by which it was agreed, that the dauphin Ihould
efpoufe the young princefs of Scotland. Numerous ftatutes
were palled during this period for the encouragement of
trade and agriculture, and for regulating the proceedings
in theadminiitration of the law. All thefemeafures were taken
with the approbation of the States, and feem to have been
approved by the nation at large. The feizure of the ro)'al
eilales, however, had created James many virulent enemies,
and at length proved the caufe of his murder. He had further
awakened the jealouly of his nobles by fome attempts to curb
their exorbitant powers ; and they appear to have dreaded
left he fliould make ftill bolder and more decifive encroach-
ments on their feudal rights. Such were the fentiments and

feelings of parties when fir Robert Graham called a meeting
of the chief men to reprefent their grievances to the king.
A remonftrance was accordingly reiolved upon, and Graham
was appointed to deliver it to James in the next parliament ;
but the violence of his conduft deltroyed all the benefit
which might otherwife have refulted to their caufe from
this ftep. Inftead of urging his fuit with the refpeft due
to the fovereign, Graham role with an enraged countenance,
and feized the king, faying, " I arrclt you in the name of all
the three Hates of your realm here adembled in parliament,
for as your people have fworn to obey you, fo you are con-
llrained by an equal oath to govern by law, and not to
wrong your fubjefts, but in jullice to maintain and protedt
them." This projeft having failed, Graham refolved to
accomplifh the death of the king by a confpiracy, whicli he
put in execution during the feftival of Chrittmas, which
James held at Pertli. Here, in conjunftion with fir John
Hall and his brother, they barbarouily murdered the king,
in the 44th year of his age, and the 13th of his aftivc
authority. He v.-as a prince of fuperior abilities, and may
jullly be confidered among the greatell of the Scottifh
monarchs. If his meafures were fometimes fevere, they are
perfeftly defenfible upon the principles of fcund policy. He
had to deal with a fet of men who regarded the virtue of
moderation as imbecility, and whofe lawlefs habits could
only be retrained by the moll fummary examples of jullice.
The frequent meetings of the Itates of the kingdom during
his reign, and his conftant deference to their decifion,
fhew that James was not a tyrant. His patronage of
learning and of the ufeful arts, evinces that the grand
objeft of his am.bition was the improvement and benefit of
his country.

James II., who was only feven years of age at his father's
death, was crowned king at Edinburgh on the 25th of
March 1438. At the fame time a parliament was aflembled,
and denounced the fevereil penalties of the law againll all
thofe concerned in the regicide. The firft taken were fir
Robert Stuart and fir Chriilopher Chambers, who were
executed at Edinburgh. Atliol was next feized, and be-
headed at the fame place ; and Graham, with many others,
foon after fhared a fimilar fate at Stirling. Even at the
moment when he was writhing under the agonies of the moll
cruel tortures, that daring chief of the affaflins had the
boldnefs to declare that his condudl was fully juftified by
the tyranny of the kinj, and that his judges and the people
ought rather to applaud him as a patriot, than condemn him
as a traitor. The minority of the new king iiaving ren-
dered a regency neceffary, Archibald, carl of Douglas,
afiumed the direftion of affairs with the confent of the par-
liament ; but that nobleman unfortunately died within the
year. The ftates of the kingdom afterwards divided the
government between fir William Crichton, as chancellor,
and fir Alexander Livingfton, as keeper of the king's
perfon, with the title ot governor. This proved a moil
unfortunate partition of power ; for the chancellor and
governor foon quarrelled ; and the former feized the perfon
of the fovereign, and counterafted all the edifts of his col-
league by contrary proclamations. The queen-mother,
however, who was inimical to Crichton, contrived to
ileal her fon from his cuftody, and fled with him to the
callle of Stirhng. In this junfture the chancellor applied
to the young earl of Douglas for his fupport ; but he
haughtily anfwered, that he was an enemy to all parties, and
was determined to aflume the government himfelf. Crichton
was thus convinced of the neccffity for a union to guard againll
tliefe arrogant preienfions ; and accordingly a compromife
with Livingfton took place in Edinburgh ; by which it

was

SCOTLAND.

was agreed, that fhe king fhould remain in the cuftody of
the latter.

In the interim, the earl of Douglas continued to brave
the power of the government in a manner amounting to open
rebellion, which highly exafperated the chancellor m parti-
cular ; and as he knew the earl was above the reach of the
law, he refolved to get rid of him by fummary means. With
this view he invited him to attend a parliament then about to
be held at Edinburgh, and having inveigled him and his
brother into the caltle, on the pretence of dining with the
king, ordered both to be executed on the Caftle-hill. The
young monarch endeavoured to fave them ; but the chan-
cellor was fixed in his purpofe, and had already ventured too
far to recede with fafety.

James, as foon as he attained his 14th year, declared him-
felf of age, and took the reins of government into his own
hands. The numerous friends of the young earl of Douglas
now drove to reconcile him to the prince ; and an accident foon
happened which led to the fulfilment of their wifhes. That
was the murder of fir Robert Semple, of FuUwood, by one
of the earl's partizans, who was in confequence arretted.
Douglas, anxious to fave his life, repaired to Stirling, threw
himfelf at the king's feet, and implored his pardon, fo-
lemnly promifing that he would ever afterwards conduft
himfelf as a dutiful and loyal fubjeft. His fubmiiTion was
joyfully received by James, and he was immediately admitted
into the royal councils.

Alarmed at this event, the «hancellor refigned the great
feal, and look poirefTion of the caftle of Edinburgh, the
cuftody of which he pretended had been committed to
him by the late king, till his fon fhould arrive at the
age of 21 years. Livingfton alfo refigned all his polls,
except the command of Stirling caftle, which he retained
upon the fame pretence.

James demanded the immediate furrender of both for-
trelies, and the demand being refufed, the eftates of the
offenders were confifcated. The refult was a civil war,
during which almoft every corner of the country pre-
fcnted a fcene of defolation and bloodflied. It terminated
by the reconciliation of Crichton to the king, and the
facrifice of Livingfton to the vengeance of Douglas.

The king, now in his i8th year, was married to Mary,
the daughter of Arnold, duke of Gueldres ; but this event
provoked the hoftility of England, and a war immediately
enfued. An Englifh army advanced into Scotland, as far
as the river Sark in Annandale, where it was totally defeated
by Douglas, earl of Ormond. Next year a truce was con-
cluded for an indefinite period, which bore this fingular
claufe, that either party niis^ht violate it upon giving 180
days' notice. The royal bride having arrived in Scotland
about this time, her marriage was lolemnized with great
pomp at Holyrood Houfe, an event which put an end to
the influence of Douglas, who retired to his eftates. James,
being thereby emancipated from thraldom, fummoned a
parliament, in which many falutary enaftments were made,
lending to curb the power of the ariftocracy, and to enfure
the tranquillity of the kingdom. One aft of this parliament
deferves particular attention. It ordained, that if any man
flioiild " commit or do treafon againll the king's perfon or
his majcfty, or rife in war againll him, or lay hands upon
his perfon violently, of whatever age the king be, young
or eld ; or receive any that have committed treafon, or that
fupply ihem with help or advice, or garrilon the houfe of
them that are convitted of treafon, and hold their houfes
againft the king ; or garrifon houfes of their own in alTiftance
of the king's rebels, or that afiault caftles or places where
the king's perfon fhatt happen to be, without the confent

Vol. XXXII.

of the three eftates, fhall be punifhed as traitors." Thi«
ftatute has occafioned altercations between the favourers of
monarchy, and thofe who attach ideas of freedom to a par-
liament of the middle ages ; though, in faft, the only dif-
pute lay between monarchy and ariftocracy. Many other
ilatutes were pafled to increafe the power of the fovereign.

Douglas, chagrmed at the lofs of his power, and wifhing
to difplay his pomp to the continental princes, went to the
jubilee at Rome with a train of fix knights, fourteen gentle-
men, and eighty inferior attendants. In his abfence many
complaints were made againft his dependants, which to en-
raged James, that he feized upon the caftle of Lochmaben,
and demolilhed that of Douglas. The earl, on his return
home, fent a fubmiffive melTage to the king ; and a-i he
could not in equity be reputed guilty of events which
happened without his knowledge, he was gracioufly re-
ceived ; but he foon proved himfelf imworthy of confidence,
by engaging in treafor.able praftices, and iuliciting the pro-
teftion of England. Douglas having been prevailed upon
to vifit the court of Stirlirig, was condufted into a fecret
chamber, where James mildly told him that he knew of the
league he had made, and advifed him to break oft all fuch
illegal engagements. The earl treated the propoial with
his ufual arrogance, whereupon the king, roufed to mo-
mentary fury, exclaimed, " If you will not break this
league, by God I fhall,'' and drawing a dagger, inftantly
ftabbed Douglas.

The brother and fucceflor of the hte Douglas was re-
conciled to the king, and entered into a folemn engagement ;
I ft, not to pretend any title to the earldom of Wigton,
except with the queen's confent ; 2dly, nor to the lands ot
Stewarton, a part of the patrimony of the duchefs of
Towraine, his mother ; jdly, to abandon in future all hatred
or enmity againft all perlons ; 4thly, to preferve the public
peace, and make compenfations to perfons already injured j
jthly, to obferve the ftrifteft duty and refpedl to the king.
This inftrument, which was figned by Douglas and lord
Hamilton for themfelves and their adherents, affords a curious
pifture of the ftate of government and manners in the age.

The interval of domeftic quiet which fucceeded this re-
conciliation was only of ftiort duration ; but it was marked
by an event of fome intereft in the hiftory of Scottifh learn-
ing, viz. the foundation of the univerfity of Glafgow,
through the munificence of biftiop Turnbull. The ftandard
of rebellion was again raifed by Douglas, aided by the
Yorkift party in England. The king, aware of this con-
fpiracy, fummoned Douglas to appear before the privy,
council ; and upon his refufal ravaged his eftates, and be-
fieged his caftle of Abercorn. The earl of Crawford ad-
vanced with an army to its relief, determined to force his
fovereign to fight or fly the kingdom. James, diftrufting
the loyalty of the fouthcrn counties, haftened to St. Andrews,
whence, by the advice of Kennedy, biftiop of that fee, he
iil'ued a proclamation, fummoning the array of the north, and
offering an annuity to all who ftiould join his fcrvice. In a
few days he found himfelf at the head of a numerous body
of troops, with whom he marched againft Douglas, whofe
army was encamped on the banks of the Carron. TheeffeA
produced was almoft miraculous, for in lefs than twenty-four
hours, Douglas was delerted by his whole army, excepting
the perfons who formed his houfehold. Upon this un-
expefted change, he fled to Annandale, and afterwards to
England.

James next proceeded to crufh the remaining partifans of

the infurreftion, and to reduce the caftles of Abircom

and Strathavan, which ftill rcfifted his :iuthority. He

afterwards affembled a parliament at Edinburgh, in which

D tl>e

SCOTLAND.

the forfeiture of the earl of Douglas, with his mother and
brothers, was folemnly decreed. In another parliament
held in the fame year, feveral important and interelUng
enaftments were made, tending to confirm the paramount
power of the king, and to fap the foundation of the feudal
fyftem.

He next turned his attention to the fubjefts of foreign
polity : enraged at the conduft of England for fupporting
the Doaglafes, he invaded that kingdom, and fpread de-
folation throughout the northern counties. Meanwhile
Douglas was admitted to the titles of an Englilh fubjeft,
and continued in that allegiance till his death.

Not long after this invafion, a truce was negociated with
England, and James returned to his favourite occupation,
the enaftment of laws for the improvement and tranquillity
of the country. In the feveral parliaments held at Edin-
burgh, meafures were taken to reform the coinage, and to
regulate the internal commerce of the kingdom ; a regular
militia was eltablilhed for the national defence ; and feveral
laws were made to promote agriculture, and to fix the con-
ftitution of parliament. But the mod important aft pafled
in this reign relates to the eftablifhment of a fupreme court
of jullice, independent of the king's council. This court
confiftcd of three eminent clergy, three bai'ons, and three
commiiTioners of burghs, to be changed each month. It
was, in fact, a committee of parliament, the members
having been taken in rotation from that allembly ; and no
appeal lay from its decifions.

While thefe matters were under confideration in Scot-
land, England was diltrafted by the rivalfhip of the houfes
of York and Lancafter. James feems to have inclined to
favour the former, but took no aftive part on either fide
till the captivity of Henry VI., when he commenced hof-
tilities, by laying fieg« to the caftles of Berwick and Rox-
burgh. The latter enterprife he condutted in perfon ; and
here he unfortunately met his death, by the accidental buril-
ing of a cannon, on the 3d of Auguft, 1460. The nobi-
lity who were prefent concealed his death, from the fear of
difcouragiiig the foldiers ; but the fpirited conduft of the
queen foon rendered this precaution unneceflary. Her
young fon, James, having arrived in the camp a few hours
after, Ihe prefented him to the army as their king, and de-
clared (lie would aft the part of fheir general herfelf.

AccorAngly (he ailumed the reins of government, and
pulhed the fiege of Roxburgh caltle with fo much vigour,
that the garrilon was obliged to capitulate in a few days ;
after which the army took and difmantled the caftle of
Werk. In 1466, negociations were begun for a marriage
between the young king and Margaret, princefs of Den-
mark ; and in 1468, the following conditions were itipu-
lated ; itt, that the annual rent hitherto paid for the northern
ides of Orkney and Zetland fhould be for ever remitted
and extingnilhed : 2dly, that Chridicrn, then king of Den-
mark, (hould give 60,000 florins of gold for his daughter's
portion, whereof 10,000 (hould be paid before his departure
from Denmark ; and that the iflands of Orkney (hould be
made over to the crown of Scotland, by way of pledge for
the remainder ; with this provifo, that they (hould return to
that of Norway after complete payment of the whole fum :
3dlv, that king James (hould, in cafe of his dying before
the faid Margaret his fpoufe, leave her in podclTion of the
palace of Linlithgow and caftle of Down in Mentieth, with
all their appurtenances, and the third part of the ordinary
revenues of the crown, to be enjoyed by her during life, in
cafe (he (hould choofe to refide in Scotland : 4thly, but if
(he rather chofe to return to Denmark, that in lieu of the
faid hfe -rent, palace, and calUe, (he ihould accept of i20,coo

florins of the Rhine ; from which fum the JOjOOO due for
the remainder of her portion being dedufted and aUcwed, the
iflands of Orkney (hould be re-annexed to the crown of
Norway as before. When the completion of thefe articles
became necelTary, Chriltiern found himfelf unable to fulfil
his part of them. Engaged in an unfuccefsful war with
Sweden, he could not advance the 10,000 florins, as agned
to. He therefore applied to the plenipotentiaries to ac-
cept of 2000, and to take a mortgage of the ifies of
Zetland for the other 8000. This treaty led to the fii;al
annexation of Orkney and Zetland to the Scottilh crown.

In 1476 thofe misfortunes began to aflail James, which
afterwards terminated in his ruin. He had made his brother,
the duke of Albany, governor of Berwick ; and had en-
trufted him with very extenfive powers upon the borders,
where a violent propenlity for the feudal habits ftill con-
tinued. The Humes and the Hepburns could not brook
the duke of Albany's greatnels, efpecially after he forced
them, by virtue of a late aft, to part with fome of the ellates
which had been granted them in the preceding reign. The
pretended fcience of judicial aftrology, by which James
happened to be infatuated, was the eafied, as well as the
mod efFeftual engine that could work their purpofes. One
Andrew, an infamous impodor in that art, had been
brought over from Flanders by James ; and he and Schevez,
then archbifhop of St. Andrews, concurred in perfuading
James that the Scotch lion was to be devoured by his own
whelps.

Ill 1482, the king began to feel the bad confequences
of taking into his councils men ot worthlefs charafter. His
great favourite at this time was Cochran, whom he had
raifed to the dignity of the earl of Mar. All hidurians
agree that this man made a mod infamous ufe ef his power.
The other minions of the king were James Hommil, a
taylor ; Leonard, a blackfmith ; and Torfifaw, a dancing-
mader, whofe profellions rendered them wholly unworthy of
the royal countenance. The favour (hewn to thefe men gave
fuch offence to the nobility, that they refolved to remove
the king, with fome of his lead exceptionable domedics, to
the cadle of Edinburgh, and to hang all his favourites over
Lawder bridge, both which meafurcs were accompli(hed
with the mod fpirited refolution. During his confinement,
James condufted himfelf with great firmnefs, refufing all
terms of compromife with thofe who had feized his perfon,
or were engaged in the execution of his favourites. Having
been liberated by his brother, the duke of Albany, he im-
mediately repaired to Holyrood Houfe, whither mod of his
nobles came to pay their refpefts to him ; but fo much was
he exafperated by their conduft, that he imprifoned no
fewer than fixteen. Albany was appointed chief mmifter,
and became a great favourite ; but this cordiality did not
lad long ; for in lefs than three years we find Albany fo-
lemnly denounced a traitor by aft of parliament. During
all this period, hodilities were carried on with the Englifh
government; but a truce was agreed to in 14S4; and James,
linding himfelf in tranquillity both at home and abroad,
infenfibly relapfed into his former impolitic fydem. The
refult was, an affociation of feveral of the mod powerful
barons, who feized the perfon of the heir apparent, and in-
duced him to put himfelf at their head. James at this
period was making progrefs and holding courts in the
North ; but immediately on hearing of the infurreftioa he
hurried to Perth, which he appointed as the place of ren-
dezvous for his army. When the whole were alTembled, he
marched to Stirling, where he fird learned that his fon com-
manded the rebel forces who were advancing from the ead.
Both armies drew up in battle array, neai-ly on the fame

9 ground

SCOTLAND.

gi'ound which had been already confecrated by the viftory
of B.tniiockburn. At firft the rebels gave way; but being
fupported by their fecond and third lines, the royaiifts were
in turn forced to retreat. This event, and the cowardly
flight of the king, terminated the aftion with little efTufion
of blood. James, in paffing through the village of Ban-
nockburn, was thrown from his horfe, and carried into a
mill, where he was (tabbed by one of the rebels, who,
pretending to be a prieft, wa"; condufted to him by the
miller's wife. Thus perifhed a prince, whofe natural
goodnefs deferved a better fate, than to fall the viftim
of a lawlefs ariltocracy, more inimical to public order than
the feeble defpotifm of their fovereign.

The duke of Rothfay, apprifed of his father's fate, aflem-
bled a parliament at Edinburgh, in which feveral of the
friends of the late king were arraigned for high treafon.
He afterwards made a progrefs throughout the kingdom,
and endeavoured to acquire popularity. In that objeft,
however, he was not immediately fuccefsful, as we find the
early part of his reign was difturbed by a formidable re-
bellion. The leader of this infi>rreftion was the earl of
Lenox, who was defeated and taken prifoner at Tilly-Moor.
James, however, afterwards became a great favourite with
the nation, on account of his zeal for the improvement of
the kingdom. The arts of (liip-building and of architecture
■were particularly the objefts of his patronage ; and indeed
to fo high a pitch did he carry his anxiety to eftablifh a
navy, that he brought himfelf into lerious financial diffi-
culties. This didinguilhpd monarch clofed his reign and his
life in the celebrated field of Floddon, where molt of his
nobility perifhed with him.

James V. now afcended the throne, though only a year
and a half old. The long minority which enfued was
remarkable for internal intrigue, and particularly for the
fixed elldblifhmeiit of the French and Englifli factions in
Scotland, which continued to diftraft the kingdom, more
or Icfs, till the clofe of its exillence as a feparate and inde-
pendent Itate. From this circumRance the hiftory of
Scottifh affairs increafes in interelt, as becoming more inti-
mately conncfted witii the general hiftory of Europe ;
but as the limits of tliis article will not permit of their
being detailed at length, their bearings cannot be pointed
out in a fatisfa(Jtory manner.

The parliament, which met immediately after the fatal
battle of Floddon to deliberate on the critical fituation of
the king<!om, clefted the queen-mother to the regency.
This princefs conduced the government with great wifdom
and energy ; but having unhappily married tlie earl of
Arran, that llep gave occafion to violent inteftine commo-
tions. By the conllitution of Scotland, a marriage under
the circumilanccs of the queen regent was a virtual rcfig-
nation of her authority ; and as Arran was not a favourite
with the nt.bility or the nation at large, parliament rcfufed
to conti:;uf liim in power. The duke of Albany was there-
fore appointed regent ; and a deputation was immediately
font to France to rcquelt his acceptance of that (latiou.
On his arrival in Scotland, he was received with every mark
of refpedt ; but as he attached himfelf clofely to the French
intcrcll, the Englifli party, headed by the queen and lord
Hume, oppofed him in all his meafures, and excited com-
motions in dilTercnt parts of the country. Henry VIH.
of England declared war againit him ; and though it does
not appear that the regent feared the iltue of a conteft, he
neverthelefs foon found it necelTary to make peace, on ac-
count of the dllTenrions that prevailed in the army, which he
had led to the borders witli the view of invading England.
Shortly afterwards, the incrcafing oppofition mauifellcd

againft his authority induced liim to refign the regency ;
when the fovereign power was again alTumed by the queen.
Arran, by feizing on the perfon of the king, and pretending
to rule in his name, foon overthrew the party of the queen ;
but his own elevation was not of much longer continuance ;
for the king, having efcaped from his cuftody, feized the
reins of government himfelf, and not only deprived Arran
of all his dignities, but had him denounced in parliament as
a traitor.

Thus, freed from the controul of all parties, James dif-
played an excellent capacity for government. He called
frequent parhaments, and directed their attention principally
to the improvement of his kingdom. In 1532 he infti-
tuted the court of feffion, on the model of the parliament
of Paris. This court originally confifted of fifteen members,
half clergy and half laity, and was empowered to give
decifions in all civil fuits.

The years immediately fucceeding that laft-mentioned,
were marked by the molt horrid atrocities, committed in the
name of religion. Many perfons of diftinguilhed rank fuf-
fered at the flake for their opinions. A court of inquifition
was eftablilhed, of which fir James Hamilton was ap-
pointed prefident, and certainly no man ever (hewed himfelf
more worthy of his mercilefs llation. During the fame period
the Scots had to deplore the miferies of a war with England,
which raged for two years with various fuccefs. But not-
withftanding thefe misfortunes, Scotland continued to rife
in power and importance. The friendlhip of James was
anxioufly fought by all the great European fovereigns.
Even the pope fent an ambalTador to the Scottifh court,
and conferred upon James the title of " Defender of tlie
Faith."

In the year 1536, the king negociated a treaty of mar-
riage with Marie de Bourbon, which was folcmnly ratified
by the French king ; but it was afterwards annulled by
the vifit of James himfelf to the continent, where he ef-
poufed Magdalen, the daughter of Francis, who died in lefs
than two months after her arrival in Scotland. The
Scottifh king, however, did not long remain a widower ;
for in 1538 he efpoufcd Mary of Guife, dowager duchef*
of Loiigueville.

In 1540 a parliament was held at Edinburgh, in which
an aft of indemnity was palled for all offences committed
during the king's minority. Shortly after war broke out
with England, and the duke of Norfolk invaded Scotland |
but was compelled to retreat by the (Itilfiil movements of
the earl of Huntley. James refolved to purfue this advan-
tage by penetrating into England ; and the expedition
would moil probably have been fuccefsful but for the ap-
pointment of ail unwortiiy favourite to the chief command
in the moment of attack, whicli fo much difgulled the
nobles, that they chofe rather to furrender to tlie Englilh,
than lulimit to his orders. This difgraceful occurrence
happened at Solway Mofs ; and produced fuch an effeft
upon the mind of the king, that it brought him to his grave,
ill the 31(1 year of his age.

Mary, his infant daughter by Mary of Guife, fucceeded
to the throne, and cardinal Beaton, wlio had been for many
years prime miniiter, allumcd the regency ; in virtue ©f a
pretended tellament which he himfelf had forged in the
name of the late king. The carl of Arran, the next heir
to the crown, was however elefted to the regency by the
nobles ; and thus new jealoufies were excited. Tlie Eng-
lilh monarch propofed his Ion Edward as a match for the
young queen, but this was oppofed by the re;;ent. A
war was the conle<iiience ; l)ut it was foon terminated by
a peace negociated with the Frcuch king, in which Scot-
D 2 land

SCOTLAND.

land was included. Shortly after this, cardinal Beaton fell
a facritice to the hatred of the reformers, who were parti-
cularly incenfed againil him for the barbarous execution of
one of their champions, named Wifhart. This event proved
fatal to the Catholic religion, and to the French interell in
Scotland ; for though a large party in the nation ilill con-
tinued zealoutly attached to both, the lofs of fo bold and
Ikilful a leader rendered their influence and exertions much
lefs efFeflive.

In September 1547, Henry VIII. being deceafed, the
proteftor, Somerfet, in purfuance of the intentions of his
late mafter, entered Scotland with a large army, and having
engaged the Scots, commanded by the regent in perfon,
at Pinkey, neai- Muflelburgh, gained a complete vidlory.
Above ten thoufand men fell on this day, which was
fcarcely lefs difallrous to Scotland than the fatal one of
Floddon. The viftory, however, was of little advantage
to the proteftor, whofe cruel ravages only increafed the
averfion of the Scots to unite with England ; and induced
them to form a clofe alliance with France. The queen
dowager, who, after the death of Beaton, took a confiderable
fhare in the direftion of affairs, feized every opportunity to
promote this objeft. By her advice ambaffadors were fent to
the court of Henry II. to offer the young queen in marriage
to the dauphin ; and accordingly a treaty was concluded,
by which the parties were betrothed, and the Scots became
bound to fend Mary to receive her education in France.
In vain did a few patriots remonflrate againil fuch extra-
vagant conceflions, by which Scotland was made a French
province ; and Henry, from an ally, raifed to be mafter of
the kingdom.

While Mary was enjoying the pleafures of the court of
France, the only fcene in which fhe ever experienced the
fmiles of fortune, Scotland, firfl under the regency of
the earl of Arran, who had been dignified with the title of
duke de Chatellerault, and afterwards of the queen dowager,
Mary de Guife, was rent by faftions, and experienced all
the direful effedls of religious and feudal diffentioiis. The
whole time which had elapfed from the death of James V.
had been a feafon of anarchy, during which parties had
rifen and fallen in rapid fuccellion. To the commotions
fo common in every country, while the feudal fyllem was
in its vigour, and in none more than in Scotland, may be
added thofe caufed by the coUifion of the principles of the
reformation, with the iuterells of a powerful hierarchy.
Throughout Europe the wealth of the church was exor-
bitant ; but in Scotland it fo far exceeded the jufl propor-
tion, that not lefs than half of the national property was
pofl'efl'ed by ecclefiaftics. The mode of its difpofal like-
wife confiderably increafed their influence. Church lands
being let on leafe, at an eafy rate, and pofleffed by the
younger branches of the great families, many eltates in all
parts of the kingdom were held of the church. This ex-
traordinary (hare in the national property was accompanied
by a proportionable weight in the national councils. The
number of temporal peers being fmall, and the lefl'er barons
and reprefentatives of boroughs feldom attending, the eccle-
fialtical members formed a very confiderable body in the
Scottifh parliaments, in which they poffefied all the influence
that exorbitant wealth and fuperior talents could give.

A hierarchy eflablifhed on fo firm a bafis, with fo many
pillars for its fupport, it was difficult to overturn. The
progrefs of the reformation, however, gave a ferious alarm
to the clergy, and the fword of perfecution was effeftually
drawn in defence of the privileges and emoluments of the
Catholic church.

In fpite of all thefe difUcuIties, however, the reformed

religion was eftablilhed in Scotland, by aA of parliament,
in 1560, and the exercife of religious worfhip, accord-
ing to the rites of the Popifh church, was prohibited,
under the penalty of forfeiture of goods for the firlt, banifh-
ment for the fecond, and death for the third offence.
" Such llrangers," fays Dr. Robertfon, " were men at
that time to the fpirit of toleration, and to the laws of
humanity ; and with fuch indecent halte did the very perfons
who had jufl efcaped the rigour of eccleCaftical tyranny
proceed to imitate thofe examples of feverity, of which
they themfelves had fo julUy complained." The new
fyilem of church government, however, was yet to be
modelled ; and in this bufinefs Knox, a popular preacher,
of a rude but energetic eloquence, of rigid morals, and
republican ferocity, had a principal Ibare. This reformer
had long refided at Geneva, and confidered the fyltem of
church government eftabliflied by Calvin in that city, as the
moit perfeft model for imitation. He, therefore, recom-
mended it to his countrymen, and fucceeded ia accomplifh-
ing its eltablifhment.

When Mary returned to Scotland, fhe was received by
her fubjcfts with every demonllration of joy. Never did a
prince afcend a throne under circumltances of greater diffi-
culty, or conduit herfelf at iirll with more prudence. Find-
ing the Proteftant religion completely eitablifhed over the
whole kingdom, fhe very properly took into power the moft
eminent men of that party ; and, to remove all dread of moleft-
ation from the minds of their followers, fhe formally declared,
" that until fhe fhould take final orders concerning religion,
with advice of parliament, any attempt to alter or fubvert
the religion which Ihe found univerfally praftifed in the
realm, fhould be deemed a capital crime." The diviiion of
the property of the church, and the fettlement of the
Proteftant revenues, however, foon gave rife to animofities ;
and the queen, in her anxiety to pleale both partie.i, loft the
confidence of the Papills by her conceflions to the Protef-
tants, while the latter were offended at the fmall fhare of
fpoil which was declared to accrue to them. Difientions
broke out among the nobility ; and particularly between the
earls of Marr and Huntley. The latter, who was a zealous
Catholic, preffed the queen to rcftorc popery ; and finding
his counfels negledled by the influence of Marr, firlt attempted
to afTalTinate him, and thereafter raifed the ftandard of rebel-
lion againft his fovereign. The earl of Murray marched to
oppofe him, and after a bloody conteft put his forces to the
rout.

The year following thefe tranfaftions, Mary, who was
defirous of entering into a more intimate correfpondence with
Ehzabeth, employed Maitland to defire a perfonal interview
with her, but the Englifh queen declined the m.eeting. In
1563, the Scottifh fovereign avowed her determination to
contraft a fecond marriage, an event for which the nation
in general was extremely anxious, in order that the crown
might be continued in the right line of its ancient poffeffors.
Many fuitors of great eminence, among the princes of
Europe, prefented themfelves ; but thefe were all re-
jefted in favour of Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, elded
fon of the earl of Lenox, who had been forced to feek
refuge in England in the reign of James V. The royal
nuptials were celebrated in July 1565, in conformity
to the rites of the church of Rome ; and liot content
with elevating this undeferving man to her bed, the queeu
ifTued proclamations at the fame time, conferring upon him
the title of king of the Scots. All thofe who had oppofed
the marriage were treated with great feverity ; particularly
the earl of Murray, who, having taken up arms, was de-
feated, and compelled to fly the kingdom.

With

SCOTLAND.

With this ralh ftep began the misfortunes of Mary.
Henceforth her hfeisone continued fceiic of political folly,
and pcrfoiial imbecihty. Inftigated by hatred to all thofe
who manifelted an averlion to Darnlcy, (lie renounced
that prudent conduil which had hitherto enabled her to
maintaiN the dignity of her crown in the midll of con-
flitting faftions. Her Protertant counfellors were now dif-
mifled ; flie joined the league of Catholic princes ajjaind the
reformers ; and evinced her full determinatiMn to reilore the
Romifh religion in Scotland. The effeAs of this new fyllem
of policy foon became vifible. The tune of the prorogation
of parliament was fhortened ; and by a new proclamation,
the 1 2th of March was fixed for its meeting. Mary refolvcd,
without further delay, to proceed to the attainder of the
malcontent nobles, and at the fame time to take fome meaiures
towards the re-eftabli(hment of her favourite wordiip. The
ruin of Murray and his party feemed now inevitable, and
the danger of the reformed church imminent, when an event
unexpedledly happened which faved both. This was the
murder of Rizzio, the queen's favourite, by her luifband,
and feveral of the nobility, in her own prefence, which
roufed her indignation to tlie highefl pitch, and completely
alienated her affeftions from Darnley, who had already dif-
gulled her by his infolence and his licentioufuefs. Having
been confined, however, by the confpirators, (he was obliged
to did'cmble, in order to detach the king from their party,
a projedl in which (he completely fucceeded, and thus was
enabled to regain her liberty. Murray and the exiled nobles
were immediately received into favour ; and Morton, and the
rell of the murderers, were compelled to feek lafety in
England.

The charm, which had at 'firll attached the queen to
Darnley, and held them in a happy union, was now entirely
dilFolved 5 and love no longer covering his follies and his rices
with its friendly veil, they appeared to Mary in their full
dimenfions and deformity. Though the king publilhed a
proclamation difclaiming all knowledge of the confpiracy
againft Rizzio, the queen was fully convinced that he was
not only acceffary to the contrivance, but to the commifTion
of that odious crime. That very power, which, with liberal
and unfufpicious fondnefs, (he had conferred upon him, he
had employed to infult her authority, to limit her preroga-
tive, and to endanger her perfon. Such an outrage it was
impoffiblc any woman could bear or forgive. Cold civilities,
fecret dillruit, frequent quarrels, fucceeded to chcir former
tranfports of affcition and confidence.

About this time a new favourite grew into credit with the
queen, and foon gained an afcendancy over her heart, w hich
encouraged him to form defigns that proved fatal to himfelf
and to Mary. This was .lames Hepburn, earl of Bothwell,
the head of one of the molt ancient and powerful families in
the kingdom. When the confpirators againft Rizzio de-
tained her in cultody, he became the ciiief inftrument in re-
covering her liberty, and fervcd Iver with fo much fidelity and
fuccefs, as made tiie deeped impieiTion upon her mind. Her
gratitude loaded him with marks of her bounty ; (he raifcd
him to offices of dignity and truft; and tranfafted no matter
of importance without his advice.

The hour of the queen's delivery now approached ; and
file was advifed, for the fake of pcrfedl fecurity, to take up
her refidence in the caitle of Edinburgh, where fne was ac-
cordingly delivered of her only fon, Jamer., whofe birtli
was happy for the whole ifland, and unfortunate only for her.
His accefhon to the throne of England, united the two
divided kingdoms in one mighty monarchy, and e(tabli(hed
the power of Great Britain on a firm foundation ; while
ftie, torn early from her foQ by the cruelty of htr fate, was

never allowed to indulge thofe tender pafTioni, nor to tafte
thofe joys, which fill the heart of a mother.

The queen, whan recovered, did not evince any change of
fentiment towards her hnfband. On the contrar)-, the breach
between them became every day wider, notwithftasding the
attempts of the French ambaffador to tffeft a reconciliation.
Her attachment moreover to Bothwell incrcafed, in propor-
tion as her love for Darnley declined. At length the latter
was murdered by the explollon of fome barrels of gun-
powder, placed under the houfe he had been inticed to
refide in at Edinburgh, and Bothwell was accufed of and
profecuted for the murder, but was acquitted on a trial by
his peers. Of his guilt, however, not the (lighted doubt
can be er.tertained ; and it is much to be feared that Mary
herfelf was acceflary to the crime.

Bothwell now redoubled his afTiduities to fix the afTcftions
of the queen, and having fucceeded in that objecl to his utinofl
wifh, he carried her to the callle of Dunbar, where (he
remained a willing prifoner, till matters were finally arranged
for their nuptials, when ihc removed to Holyrood Houfe, and
was foon afterwards united to Botluvell, whom (he created
duke of Orkney. This Hep, the mod unjudiliable of all
her follies, was the prelude to her ruin. The nobles almo 11
immediately confederated againll her and Bothwell, wlm
was obliged to feek refuge in England, while (he herfelf fell
into the hands of her inccnfcd fubjects. By tiiem (he was
conducted firlt to Edinburgh, and (ubiequently to Lochleven
cadle. The confederate leaders adumcd the title of lords
of the fecret council, and arrogated to themfelves the whole
regal authority. Deliberations were held to fix the dediny
of the nation, and to determine refpedting the perfoa of the
queen. The relult was, that (he was compelled to refign
the crown in favour of her (on, who was inllantly pro-
claimed, and the earl of Murray was invelled with the dignity
of regent.

Matters being thus arranged, the fird adt of the regent was
to call a parliament, in which all the meafures of the con-
federates were confirmed. But notwithilanding this, Mary
dill had many friends who were ready to fupport her caufe,
if (he could regain her liberty. Apprized of tiiefe favour-
able fentiments, (he uled every effort to effeit herefcape, and
at length fucceeded in her objedt, in a manner no lefa fur-
prifing to her friends, than unexpedted by her enemies. By
the influence of her charms, (lie captivated young Douglas,
the brotiier of the owner of the caitle, and prevailed upon
him to join in a plot for her liberation. Accordmgly, on the
appointed night, liaving llolen the keys from his brother's
room, he allowed Mary to pafs out, and then locking the
doors again, threw the keys into the lake. The queen en-
tered a boat prepared for her, and landed fafely on the fhore,
where Ihe was received by lord Seaton, fir James Hamilton,
and fome other of her friends, who had been apprized of
the plot. Iiidantly mounting on horfeback (he fled to
Hamilton, where (he was joined by a number of the nobility,
and in a few days found herfelf furrounded by a formidable
army. In this critical fituation, the genius and prudence of
the regent were eminently difplayed. While he amufcd
the queen for fome days by negociations, he employed him-
felf with the utmod indullry in drawing together his adhe-
rents from different parts of the kingdom. As foon as he
was in a condition to take the field, lie broke off" the nogo-
ciation, and determined to hazard a battle. Mary, whofe
intercll it was to delay the decifion of her i.ite, im])rudcntly
favoured his wi(hes. She attacked his army in an advan-
tageous pofition at Langfidc, and being completely defeated,
(kd to England, and throw herfelf upon the gencrofity of
queen Elizabeth, by whom (lie was detained a prifoner for

the

SCOTLAND.

the pefrod of nearly twerjty years, and was at laft tried and
execated upon an accufation of high treafon. See Mary.

In the meantime the regent Murray, by his vigorous ad-
minillration, foon reftored Scotland to tranquillity ; and
continued to govern without any ferious moleltation till his
death in 1570, by the hand of Hamilton of Bothvvellhaugh.
He was fiicceeded in his high ofBce by the earl of Lenox,
during whofe rule, and that of his fucceflbrs Marr and
Morton, the kingdo;ji was d'.ftrafted by civil war. " Fellovir
citizens, friends brothers, took, different fides, and ranged
themfelves under the ftandards of the contending faftions.
In every county, and almoll in every town and village,
king's men and queien's men were names of diilindlion.
Political hatred dellroyed all natural ties, and extingui(hed
the reciprocal good will and confidence which hold mankind
together in fociety. Religious zeal mingled itfelf with thefe
civil diftinftions, and contributed not a little to heighten and
inflame them."

Morton, the laft regent, during the minority of James,
having excited the enmity of fevcral of the nobility, was
accufed of being accelTary to the murder of Darnley, and
futfered for that crime in 1581, though the proofs of his
guilt were far from being fatisfaftory. After this event,
James himfelf began to exercife the fovereign authority ;
but his love for favouritifm proved prejudicial to his own
peace and that of his kingdom, by fomenting jealoufy
among his nobles. One of thefe favourites, the earl of
Arran, condufted himfelf in fo arrogant and tyrannical a
manner, that a confederacy was formed againit him ; and
the king was forced to deprive him of all his offices and
honours, and to declare him an enemy to the country.

James having been bred in the principles of the Proteftant
faith, exerted himfelf on every occafion to fecure the re-
formed church from the danger of being overthrown by the
Catholic party, which was fynonimous with the queen's
party, and continued to be very formidable fo long as Ihe
lived. When his mother was put to death by queen Ehza-
beth, however, he remonftrated ftrongly againft her conduft,
and even declared war ; but that wily princels foon found
means to foothe his anger, and regain his friendlhip. During
the whole of his reign, James was conft antly in danger of his
life from the plots of the Popifh lords, towards whom he
fhewed more lenity than was probably politic or prudent.
On one occafion his perfon was feizcd by Bothwell, but he
happily contrived to efcape from his power, before any of
the ulterior objedts of that bold meafure could be effeded.
Several attempts to murder him were likewife made, by
various perfons ; but the moft dangerous, though unfuc-
cefsful, confpiracy formed againft his life, was that ufually
denominated the Gowrie confpiracy, from the title of the
principal adlor, John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie. From the
myftery in which all its circumftances are involved, it has
greatly excited the attention of hillorians ; I'ome even quef-
tioning the exiftence of any plot, and maintaining that the
king murdered the Ruthvcns without any reafonablc caufe.
This opinion, however, is juftly confidered by Dr. Ro-
bertfon as extremely improbable ; though it muft be con-
fefled that the conduA of James, and the impreffion on the
public mind againit him at the time, caft an air of great fuf-
picion over the whole tranfaftion.

From this period no event of material intereft in the hif-
tory of Scotland occurred till the year 1603, when the
death of queen Elizabeth opened the way for the acceflion
of James to the throne of England, and laid the bafis of
that more intimate union, which has fince confolidated the
power and refonrces, and raifed to an unparalleled height
the happinels, profperity, and glory of our ifland. The

annals of the two kingdoms are henceforth fo much iden-
tified, that it is fcarcely poffible to treat them feparatcly.
The reader is, therefore, referred for the continuatio 1 of
the hiftory of Scotland to the article Englanh. He will
alfo find fome details of portions of the lub|e<5l under the
words Union, Stuart, Prince Charles, and others, de-
fignating leading events or charafters.

General AfpeS of the Country, the Soil, and Climate. — The
moll prominent featares in the general afpeit of Scotland
are its barren hills and mountains, and the numerous and
extenfive lakes which fill the intervening vallies. In fome
diftrifts the hills are covered with herbage, but in general
they exhibit only heath vegetating above peat, rock, or
gravel : hence, whether the eye afcends the mountains, or
glances over the vales, the fcenery which is prefented to the
view, though often grand and pidturefque, is feldom na-
turally rich. On the former, the figiis of fteriHty are al-
ways apparent ; and as the foil of the latter is ufually mixed
with the fubilanccs compofing the hills, no high degree of
fertility can be expefled. Thefe remarks apply to almofl
every part of the Highlands, which comprehend about
three-fifths of the whole extent of Scotland. South of the
Forth, however, and even in a few of the eaftern coimties
farther to the northward, the charadler of the fcenery is
more improved, and the foil, though extremely various, is
frequently as fertile as in any diilrift of England. As to
the climate of this kingdom, it is fuch as a knowledge of
its latitude, and of its pecuhar fituation with regard to the
Northern and Atlantic oceans, would point it out to be.
Both on the ealtern and weitern coalls, but particularly on
the latter, rains are extremely prevalent throughout the
whole year. Snow in general lies only for a fhort time,
even in the central dillricls ; for though it often falls in con-
fidcrable quantities, it is feldom attended, as in fome more
fouthern counties, by intenfe and long continued frofts.
The loweft average heat is4i°.ii of Fahrenheit, and the
highell 50°.32(5; fo that the annual average temperature
of the whole kingdom may be computed to be from 45° to
47^ of the fame Icale. It is remarkable that, in fome of
the vallies of Moray, the influence of the fun's rays is fo
aflilled by circumftances, that corn ripens there as foon as
in Yorkftiire or Northumberland.

Ri-vers. — Scotland abounds with ftreams of various mag-
nitude, moft of which fall into the Northern or German
ocean. The principal of them are the Tweed, Forth, and
Tay, on tlie ealt coaft ; and the Clyde on the weft coaft.
Tweed is a beautiful and paftoral river, which difcharges
its waters into the fea at Berwick. It is noted for its
falmon fiftieries, and for the circumftance of its forming the
boundary for feveral miles between England and Scotland.
The Forth aad Tay both form large eftuaries, called the Friths
of Forth and Tay, which ferve important purpofes in com-
merce. On the former are fituated the town and port of
Leith, and on the latter the towns of Dundee and Perth.
The falmon fifheries of the Tay are the molt valuable in
Great Britain, and afford 3 conitant fupply to the markets
of London and Edmburgh. But Clyde claims a pre-
eminence over all thefe rivers in commercial utility, and per-
haps alfo in picturefque beauty. Taking its rife from a hill
in Tweedale, it flows firft in a northerly, and afterwards in
a wefterly direftion, exhibiting in its progrefs much in-
terefting fcenery. On its banks are fituated the towns of
Lanark, Hamilton, Glafgow, Rutherglen, Dumbarton,
Port-Glafgow, and Greenock.

The other rivers of Scotland, which deferve notice, are
the Annan and Nith-in Dumfriesfhire, the Eden in Fife-
(hire, the Dee and Don in Aberdeenfhire, the Spcy in

Banffdiire,

SCOTLAND.

Banfflliire, the Nefs and Beauly, which form the Moray
Frith, and the Grady and Conan, whish form the Frith of
Cromarty.

Lakes and Lochs.— T^e numerous and beautiful lakes
iiiterfpcrfed throughout Scotland, and efpt-cially through-
out its mountainous trafts, coiilbtute a very ftrikiiig and
intereftiiig feature in its fcenerv. The chief in extent and
beauty is that of Lomond, Itiidded with iflcts, and adorned
with (hores of the greateft diverfitv. Ea!l\vard< from this
lake are thofe of Kettering, Chroin, Achray, Vanachoir,
and Lubnaig ; all of them ditt inguifhed by fingular and
pifturelque fcenes. The lake of Menteith is alfo in tliis
vicinity. In Galloway are many fine lakes, on the banks
of one of which itands the village of New Galloway.
Lochleven, in Fifefhire, derives fame at once from its
beauty, and from its hittorical intereft, as the ralidence of
queen Mary, when a prifoner m the hands of the confederate
nobles. The likes formed by the Tay are both numerous
and extenfive : the principal of them are Rannock, Lyd-
dock, Erricht, and Loch Tay. The laft, in particular, is
a grand and beautiful expanfe of water, of fuch length as
rather to refemble a noble river. Loch Nefs, in Invernefs-
(hire, is equally noted for its extent and the charms of its
fcenery. Its nfual depth is from 60 to 135 fathoms ; and
hence is to be explained the phenomenon of its never freezing,
even in the coldell winters. This lake forms part of the
chain of lakes which interfeft the kingdom, from the Moray
Frith to the AtUntic ocean, which, we trult, are deftined
(hortly to become of high importance in forwarding the
commercial profperity of the kingdom. The other chief
lakes of Scotland are Loch Loil, Loch Naver, and Loch
Shin, in Sutherland and Caithnefs ; Loch Fainiih, in Rofs-
{hire ; the Lochy and Laggen, in Invernefsfhire ; and Loch
Awe, in Argylefhire.

Friths arid Inlets of the Sea. — Scotland is much indented
with arms of the fea, which enter deep into the land. This
indentation is highly beneficial : it facihtates commerce, as
each of thtfe branches fo far ferves the purpofes of a canal ;
it promotes the filheries, as it brings them more within
reach ; and it renders the cHmate more temperate, from the
influence of fea-breezes. As even the (hortell defcription
of thefe friths and inlets feparately would extend this article
much beyond its prelcribed limits, we fhall content our-
felves witli the bare mention of their names. Thofe on the
eadern coaft, beginniiig from the fouth, are the Frith of
Forth, the Frith of Tay, the Moray Frith, the Frith of
Beauly, Cromarty Frith, the Frith of Dornnch, Thurfo and
Dunnct bays, Kyle of Tongue, Loch Eribol, and the bay
of Diirnels. Thofe on the wefl coalt, beginning from the
north, are Loch Inchard, Loch Laxford, Loch Aflint,
Loch Enard, Loth Broom, Loch Ew, Gairloch, Loch
Torridon, Loch Carron, Lochalfh, Loch Duich, Loch
Hourn, I.,och Nevifh, Loch Aylort, Loch Moydart, Loch
Sun;irt, Linnhe Loch, Lochiel, Loch Lcven, Loch Creraii,
Loch Etive, Loch Melfort, Craifrnilh, Loch Swam, Loch
Killifport, Loili Tarbat, the Frith of Clyde, Loch Fyne,
Loch I^ong, Locli Gair, Loch Streven, Loch Ryan, the
bay of Glenhice, Wigton bay, Kirkcudbright bay, bay of
Nith, and the SoKvay Frith. Moll of the above rivers,
lakes, friths, and inlets of the fea, are noticed under their
rcfpeAive nami;s, or under thofe of the counties to which
they more immediately belong.

Mountains. — The mountains of Scotland, as already men-
tioned, occupy a large proportion of its fiirface, and coii-
llitiite a prominent and dilHndive feature in its geographical
charader. The principal chains are the Grampian hills,
the Pentland hilk, and the Lammar Muir. The firll ex-

tends almoft entirely acrofs the kingdom, from the vicinity
of Aberdeen to the Cowal in Argylefhire. In their weftern
range, they form the fouthcrn boundary of the Highlands ;
and are celebrated in hiftory for the Hand made upon their
acclivities, by the Caledonians under Galgacus, againfl the
Roman general Agricola. The fecond chain commerces
near Edinburgh, and running fouthwards through Lothian,
joins Tweedale hills ; and the third, beginning near the
eaftern coatt of Berwickfhire, llretches to the wetlward
through the Merfe. In the province of Galloway is a
fourth extenfive aflemblage of hills, wiiich do not, however,
form an uniform chain. With refpedt to tiie other moun-
tains of Scotland, they do not admit of arrangement into
diftinft groups ; and, tlierefore, it will be fuffieientto notice
fome of the more remarkable among them for fize and eleva-
tion. Ben Nevis is the highett mountain in Britain, its
fumrait being 4350 feet above the level of the fea. On its
north-ead fide it prefents a molt prodigious precipice, nearly
perpendicular, which is laid to be 1500 feet in height.
The profpeft from this hill is truly fublime, and extends on
all fides a dillance of 80 miles. Tlie next mountain in
point of elevation is Cairngorm, or the Blue mountain,
which is conftantly covered with fnow, and is remarkable
for quartz of different colours, well known to lapidaries
under the name of Cairngorms. The other chief mountains
in this diltrift are thofe of Braemaron, Scairfoch, and Ben
Awn. To the Grampian ridge belong Ben Lomond,
3262 feet high ; Ben Ledi, 3009 ; Ben More, 3903 ; Ben
Lawres, 4015 ; Shihallion, 3564; and Ben Verhch, 3300;
belides foaie fcarcely lefs important elevations on the ealt.
Mount Battock, in Kincardinefhire, is 3465 feet high ; and
Ben Cruachan, a folitary hill in Argylefliirc, 3300. In
the more northern divifion of the Highlands, the mountains
are yet more numerous, but not fo memorable. The chief
of them are Ben Nevis, Ben Ciiat, Ben Cliafker, Ben
Golich, Ben Fofltaig, Ben Nore, and the hills of Cuinak,
all in Rofsfhire ; and Ben Ormord, Ben Cliberg, Ben Grim,
the Paps of Caithnefs, Ben Hop, and Ben Lugal, in Caith-
nefs and Sutherland. Along the whole of the wellern coatt,
the fcenery is bold and precipitous in its chara6ter. One
part of it, extending from Loch Kichard 24 miles to the
fouth, prefents a moft fingular appearance, as if mountains
had been broken in pieces, and fmall lakes interfperfed
among the fragments.

Mineral ProduSs. — The mineral produces of Scotland
are numerous, and arc, in many inflances, (uppliod in fuch
abundance, as to form important objefts of traffic. Gold
was formerly procured in the lands of Elvan, a rivulet which
joins the Clyde; and a place Hill exilic, called Gold-fcour,
where the Germans uled to wafh the lands : but Icarcely
any has been found recently. The filvcr difcovercd in
Scotland has hitherto been of little account ; the chief mine
was that at Alva, which has lattpriy only afforded cobalt.
Nor can Scotland boaft of copper, though a fmall quantity
was fiiund m the Ochils, near Alva; and it is faid that the
iflands of Zetland offer fome indications of that metal. It
has alfo been found at Colvend, m Galloway ; at Curry, in
Lothian; at Oldwich, in Caithnefs; and Kippcrn, in Rois-
fhire. The lead-mines in the fouth of Lanarkfliire have
been long known. Thofe of Wanlock head are in the
immediate neii^hbourhood, but in the county of Dum-
fries, and belong to another proprietor. Thele mines
yield yearly above 200O tons. The Sulannah vein, Lead-
iiills, has been worked for fixty years, and produced vail
wealth. Some flight veins of lead have alfo been found in
the weltern Highlands, particularly in Arran. Iron is
found ill various parts of Scotland ; the Carron ore is the

molt

SCOTLAND.

molt known, which Mr. Kirwan defcribes as being an argil-
laceous iron-ftone of a blueifh-grey, internally of a darit
ochre-yellow. It is found in flaty mafles, and in nodules, in
an adjacent coal-mine, of which it fometimes forms the roof.
At the Carron-works this ore is often fmclted with the
red greafy iron ore from Ulverilon, in Lancafhire, which
imparts eafier fufion, and fuperior value. Calamine and zinc
are alfo found at Wanlock-head ; and it is faid that plum-
bago and antimony may be traced in the Highlands. Coal has
been worked for a fuccefiion of ages. Pope Pius II., in his
defcription of Europe, written about 1450, maintains that he
' beheld, with wonder, black Itones given as alms to the poor of
Scotland. But the ufe of this mineral may be traced to the
twelfth century. The earlielt account given of the Scottifh
coal is contained in a book publiflied by one George Sinclair,
who calls himfelf profefTor of philofophy at Glafgow, but
his name cannot be traced in the univerfity lift. He explains
with fome e.xadtnefs the manner of working coal, and men-
tions the fubterraneous walls of whin which interfedt the
ftrata, particularly a remarkable one, vifible from the river
Tyne, where it forms a cataraft, and pafTmg by Pretton-
Pans to the fhore of Fife. JVIr. Williams has recently given
his obfervations on this fubjeft with much praftical fcill.
The Lothians, and Fifethire particularly, abound with this
ufeful mineral, which alfo extends into Ayrrtiire ; and near
Irvine is found a curious variety, called ribbon coal. A
Angular coal, in veins of mineral, has been found at Caftle-
Leod, in the eaftern divifion of Rofsfliire. Among the
lefs important minerals of Scotland, is the new earth found at
Strontian, in the diflrift of Sunart, and parifli of Ardnamur-
clean, Argylefhire, which is now introduced into numerous
fyftems of mineralogy and chemillry. Ben Nevis affords
beautiful granite. Fine llatuary marble is found in Affynt,
and at Blair Gowrie, in Perthfhire. A black marble, fretted
with white, like lace-work, occurs near fort William ; dark
brown with white at Cambuflang, Clydefdale. Jafpcr is
found in various parts ; Arthur's feat offers a curious va-
riety : and on the weftern (hore of Icolmkill, are many
curious pebbles of various defcriptions. FuUer's-earth is
found near Campbeltown, in Cantire ; and it is fuppofed
that there mull be a vaft mafs of talc, equal to that of Muf-
covy, in the mountains which give rife to the river Findom,
as large pebbles of it are fometimes found in that dream.

Natural Curtofitus. — Scotland, like other mountainous
countries, abounds with Angular fcenes and natural cu-
riofities. The caves on the fliore near Colvend, in Gal-
loway, are well worthy of notice ; and the heautiiul falls
of the Clyde, near Lanark, have defervedly excited much
attention. On the ealt of this part of Scotland, are the
paftoral vales of the Tweed and Teviot, celebrated in fong ;
the deep pafs of t!ie Peaths ; and the romantic rock of Bafs,
the haunt of the folan goofe. The bafaltic columns of Ar-
thur's feat, near Edinburgh, deferve infpetlion. On the
northern {liore of the Forth, near Dyfart, a coal-mine has,
for ages, been on fire, probably from decompofed pyrites,
and has fupplied Buchanan with a curious defcription.
The beauties of Loch Lomond have been often delcribed,
but the trofacs, or fingular liills around lake Ketterin, form
a new acquifition to the traveller. The hills of Kinnoul,
near Perth, conftitute a great curiofity, prefenting a mafs of
uncommon minerals. The numerous lakes and mountains need
not be again mentioned. Many of the rocks off the coaft of
Aberdeenfhire aliume fingular forms of arches, pillars, &c. ;
and the fpace from Trouphead to Portfoy abounds in
uncommon rocks, and fingular marine productions. The
caves of Nigg, in Rofsfhire, are worth vifiting, and the
more northern fhores prefent innumerable wild fcenes of

favage nature. Near Lathron, in Caithnefs, is a large cave,
into which the inhabitants fail to kill leals. Nofs Head pre-
fents a fingular quarry of flate, marked with various me-
tallic figures. The ides Stroma, near the northern (hore,
preferve dead bodies for a long time without corruption.
Near Tong is the cave Frafgill, about fifty feet high and
twenty wide, variegated with a thoufand colours, which are
loll in each other with a delicacy and foftnefs that no art can
imitate. On the eall of Durnefs is the cave of Smo, within
which is the relemblance of a gate, fucceeded by a fmall lake
of frelh water, containing trout ; the extent of this fub-
terraneous lake has never been explored. The Angularity
of the coall of Edrachills, fouth of Loch Inchard, may like-
wife be mentioned as a natural curiofity, as may alfo the
grand cataracl of Kineag river, and the cave of Gandeman,
near Affyijt Point. The cafcade of Glarama, in the heights
of Glen Elchaig, is truly fublime, amidft the conftant dark-
nefs of hills and woods. Ben Nevis will, of courfe, attraCl
notice from its fingular form and elevation. According to
Mr. Williams, it conflfts of one folid mafs of red granite,
which he traced at the bafe for four miles along the courfe
of a rivulet on the eaft ; the height of this mafs he com-
putes at 3600 feet, and above it are ftratificd rocks, the nature
of which he does not explain, but he fays that thofe on the
fummit are fo hard and tough, that wrought iron is inferior
to them in thefe qualities. The llupendous precipice on
the north-eaft fide exhibits almoft an entire feftion of the
mountain. In Argylefhire the marine cataracl of Loch
Etif, the beautiful lake of Awe, and the environs of In-
verary, prefent the chief objefts of curiofity.

Sketch of the Agriculture. — Scotland, with refpeft to agri-
culture, exhibits great variations, from caufes partly of a
moral, but chiefly of a phyfical nature. To give his readers
jull ideas on this fubjeft, fir John Sinclair, in his " General
Report," has divided the country into nine diilrids, each
diftinguifhed by fome peculiarities of furface, or relative
circumilances, from the reft. The firft diftrift includes the
counties of Roxburgh, Berwick, and. the three Lothians,
and may be jultly termed, by way of eminence, the agri-
cultural diltridl, as the art of hufbandry is carried on there
in as great perfeftion as in any country in Europe. The
proportion of land in cultivation is very confiderable, and
its farmers are, in general, remarkable for their intelligence,
indullry, and capital. In this dillrift is fituated the metro-
polis of Scotland, which unites to fignal advantages of
fituation, a dei^ree of art and elegance in its buildings, un-
known in any other town in Great Britain. As it is the feat
of the courts of law, the public offices, and a celebrated uni-
verfity, the population within its bounds is much greater
than its agriculture or commerce would otherwife require.
The feveral counties which compofe this diftrift may be thus
difcriminated. Roxburghfhire, the moft foutherly, has a
great extent of hills of confiderable elevation, and only
adapted for the palluring of fheep ; but it alfo includes the
rich vale of Teviot, which is one of the moft improved trails
in the kingdom. Berwickfhire, though a large fhare of its
furface is likewife beft fuited for paiture, contains in the
Merfe, foil at once fertile and well cultivated. Eaft Lothian,
throughout the greater part of its extent, is a rich and
highly improved plam, diverfified by a few gentle eminences ;
and yields to no county in Great Britain the palm of fupe-
riority in agriculture. Mid-Lothian, though inferior in foil
to Eaft Lothian, neverthelefs raifes excellent corn and p;reen
crops, and likewife derives wealth from horticulture in the
vicinity of Edinburgh. Weft Lothian, befides being noted
for the carefulnefs of its agriculture, in the more cultivated
parts, is ornamented with many extcnfive plantations, while

its

SCOTLAND.

its peculiar lituation on the fouthern bank of the Forth adds
much to the beauty of the fcenery, and to the advantages
which the country pofletTes within itfelf.

The lecond diftrift includes the counties of Peebles, or
Twcedale, Selkirk, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, and Wigton.
Here are the highell mountains fouth of the Forth ; and from
the great proportion of hills, and the fmall extent of arable
land, more of the furface is appropriated to the feeding of live
ftock than to the growth of corn. Yet the vales, parti-
cularly in Dumfriesihire, are of confiderable extent and
fertility, and exhibit much diverfity of appearance. The
green hills of Tweedale, and the intervening valhes, are pro-
lific of corn. Only a fmall proportion of the territory, how-
ever, is arable, and late harvelts occafionally blalt the pro-
fpefts of the farmer. In the county of Selkirk, formerly
called the Foreft, a Hill lefs proportion of the land is culti-
vated ; but new plantations begin to rife, and will in time
fupply the place of thofe natural woods, with which, feveral
centuries ago, this county abounded. The hills, both in this
county and in that of Peebles, are covered by numerous
flocks of (heep, partly of the Tweedale, but chiefly by the
Cheviot race. Great numbers of cattle alio are found in
thefe diftrifts. In Galloway, its excellent breed of cattle,
and hardy race of fheep, are fupported much better than for-
merly ; and not only oats and barley, but wheat of good
quality are raifed in every part of the arable trafts. The
valley of the fouthern Dee, in Kirkcudbright, has likewife
been much improved ; and though on the banks of that
river there are neither coal-pits nor lime-quarries, yet im-
ported coal forms the chief article of fuel, and imported
lime the principal manure.

The third diltrift is wathed by the Atlantic ocean, and by
means of a navigable canal communicates with the German
fea. It includi-'s the counties of Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark,
and Dumbarton. Notwithltanding the humidity of the
climate, from its expofure to the fea, and the extent and
elevation of its hills, agriculture is much attended to, and
in many parts is carried on with great fuccefs, as the exertions
of the farmers are llimulated by commerce and manufactures.
Still, however, this diltrift is more adapted to the rearing or
fattening of live-Hock, than to the raifing of corn ; and the
bed breeds of horfes and of dairy cows are to be found in it.
From the concurring caufes of commerce, manufaftures, and
minerals, agriculture has flourifhed in an ungcnial climate ;
and nearly one-half, or, more accurately, feven-fitleenths
of the whole furface are under cultivation. With only one-
thirteenth part of the extent, nearly onc-fourt!i part of the
population of Scotland is included in this divilion.

In the fourth diftritl are included the counties of Fife,
Kinrofs, Clackmannan, Stirling, Perth, and Forfar or
Angus. This diftrlA exhibits every variety of foil and
furface, from the level and rich carfes of Stirling, Falkirk,
and Gowrie, and the great valleys of Strathmore, Athol,
and Kethnefs, to the lofty Grampians, which (helter a con-
fiderable proportion of the divifion from the northern blalls.
In the rich carfes, and along the lirths and fca-coall, it
produces the bell wheat, beans, barley, and broad clover.
And in fome of the inland diltriifls are raifed excellent
crops of turnips, bear, and oats. Its live-Hock in general
is of an excellent defcription. The towns of Dundee,
Perth, Alloa, Dumferniline, Stirling, St. Andrews, Clack-
mannan, Kinrofs, Forfar, Monlrofe, Brechin, and a num-
ber of inferior villages, contain two-tifths of its whole popu-
lation. In this extenfive dillridt, Fitefliire is dilHngiiilhcd
by its great variety of produftions, and by its lifiicries, its
flax and Imen maiiiifaclures, its coal-mines, lime-works, and
iron-done, b\' its improved agriculture, and its breeds of
Vol.. XXXII.

cattle and horles. The fmall county of Kinrofs, orna.
mented by its lake, and abounding in coal and liine-ftone,
is conlldcrably elevated above the level of the fea. Formerly
it was not attraftivc t«^ a ilrarger, but its afpedl is now
much improved. Claclcmannan, of ItiU more limited ex-
tent, but of greater fertility, is didinguilhed by a correA
cultivation of the ioil, and by the abundance of lime and
coal. The half of its population refides in towns of very
moderate extent. The county of Stirling includes every
variety of foil, from the rich carfes on the louth bank of
tlie Forth, to the barren rocks of Ben Lomond. In the
parifhes of Enrick and Strathblane, there are rich fields,
cultivated by intelligent and enterprifing farmers ; and the
fcenery is much diverfified in all parts of the country. The
very extenfive county of Perth is equally remarkable for
the molt fertile, and the moll barren foils, and exhibits the
two extremes of correct and defective agriculture. In the
carfe of Gowrie, and the valley of Strathearn, there are
many opulent and enterprifing farmers, who cultivate fuc-
cefsfuUy the moll fertile foil in the kingdom. In feveral
of the fmaller vales an improved cultivation is alfo general.
But in the more remote highland glens, even where the land
is naturally good, improvements in agriculture are little
known and lefs praftifed. In Forfardiire, along the fea-
coalt, and in the rich valley of Stratiimore, the farmers
have been long dilHi;gui{hed tor their exertions ; and in the
inland parts of the county, (hell-marle, obtained in abun-
dance from the frefh-water lakes, has contributed very
much to the improvement of the foil.

The fifth diftridt includes the counties of Kincardine,
Aberdeen, Banff, Moray, and Nairn, and contains a greater
extent of fea-coall than any of the preceding divifions. Yet
on the fouth-well, where it extends to the middle of the
illand, it is extremely mountiiinous ; the Grampians Itretch-
ing from its boundary with Perthfliire nearly to the fea at
Aberdeen. By far the greatefl part of the arable land is
either in the maritime or midland parts, there being very
little near the mountains. It is remarkable, that the mari-
time parts of Moray enjoy perhaps the belt climate in Scot-
land, and that for many centuries wheat has been cultivated
there to great advantage. Wheat is alio raifed fuccelsfully
in the maritime parts of Kincardine and Banflihire, and its
cultivation is fpreading rapidly in Aberdeen (hire. The
turnip hufbandry and artificial grailes are to be met with
over the principal part of this divifion in very great per-
fettion. But tlie molt Itriking feature in its cultivation is>
the great expence at which barren land is improved, bv
trenching with the fpade and mattock, which has been
known to exceed a hundred pounds for a lingle acre.
This dillrict in general raifes food for the fupport of its
inhabitants, and in good feafons exports a confiderable
quantity of grain ; but it is chiefly dillinguiflied for the
rearing of excellent cattle, of which it fends yearly great
numbers to England. Owing to the large proportion
covered by mountains, only tour eleventh ])art3 of this dillridt
are as yet under cultivation. It is, however, much adorned
by plantations, particularly near the houfes of its proprietors,
and its natural woods in Braemar are extenfive and valuable.
Kincardinelhire, except that part of it which lies in Mar,
is Iheltered on the north by the Grampian mountains.
This fmall county was early induced to attend to the cul-
tivation of its foil, by the examples of the late Robert
Barclay, efq. of Ury, and a few others of its landed pro-
prietors. Aberdeen fliire, which fifty years ago brought
moll of its work oxen from File and the Lotliiaiis, has now
taken the lead in the rearing of black cattle, and cultivates
for that piirpofe fown grals and turnips in great perfcdlion.

E Wheat

SCOTLAND.

Wheat and beans alfo are railed fuccefsfully in the heavy
loams of Formater, and on the ftill heavier clays of Buchan.
BanfFlhire owed much to a diftinguifhed charafter, the earl
of Findlater and Seafield, who ^ptroduced an improved
fyftem of cultivation in that county, and encouraged his
farmers to imitate. his example. Not only near the fea-
coaft of the Bogue and the Eurie, where that improved
fyftem began, but in the more inland parts, a fpirit of im-
provement has now become creneral, and has greatly altered
the face of the country. Though nature has done much
for Moray, yet the culture of turnips and of fown grades
was not, till within the laft thirty years, fo general, as in
lefs favoured counties ; but of late, both thefe and corn
crops, with the rearing of hve Itock, have been attended
to with ardour and perfeverance.

In the fixth dillritl are included the two extenfive coun-
ties of Argyle and Invernefs, comprehending nearly one-
fifth part of the whole furface of Scotland. About two-
wneteenth parts of this di!trift are cultivated, and produftive.
Near Invernefs, at Campbeltown, in Argyiefhirc, and in
lome other fpots, wheat and turnips are fuccefsfully culti-
vated, but in general the country is unfit for tillage, except
on a fmall fcale ; its grazings, however, are extenfive, and
well adapted for the rearing of live-ftock. It likewife con-
tains a great extent of plantations, and the remnant of the
Cocillmore, or great forell of Scotland. The black cattle
of this diftrift are in high eilimation as excellent feeders.
The hardy breed of Tweedale (heep, and in fome inftances
thofe of Cheviot, occupy the hills. This divifion extends
acrofs the idand ; and the Caledonian canal is now carrying
on direftly through it, from the German fea to the Atlantic
ocean, which it is to be hoped will carry indullry and
wealth into this remote diftritt, and furniili the means of
facilitating and enlarging the commerce of the other parts
of the kingdom.

The feventh diftrift includes the counties of Cromarty,
Rofs, Sutherland, and Caithnefs. It is in fome refpcfts
fuperior to the former, though more northerly. Eaft Rofs,
with a part of Cromarty, contains a confiderable proportion
of excellent foil ; and both the wheat and turnip husbandry
are carried on fuccefsfully. The caftern coail of Suther-
land, and the plains of Caithnefs, are alfo good corn coun-
ties. Weft Rofs, and by far the greateft part of Suther-
land, of Cromarty, and of that portion of Caithnefs which
bounds with Sutherland, arc rugged and unproduftive. Not
a tenth part of this diftrift is capable of being cultivated,
and only a twelfth part of the people refides in towns or
villages ; yet, by the introduftion of fheep-farming, by en-
couraging manufadtures, and, above all, by the extenfive
fifheries of herring and cod, now fuccefsfully eftabliflied
along the coail of Caithnefs ; this dillrift muft foon greatly
increafe in value, and the inhabitants become richer and hap-
pier. The breeds of cattle have been much improved of
late years ; the Tweedale breed of (heep is now fpreading
over the weilern parts of this diilrift ; and there are already
about 4000 of the Cheviot breed in various parts of it,
more efpecially in Sutherland and Caithnefs. The Merino
breed, and croffes of them, have been fuccefsfully intro-
duced into Rofsfliire, and other parts of this diitrift. Ealt
Rofs and Cromarty are ornamented with the feats of the
proprietors, and extenfive plantations. Wood alio thrives
in Sutherland, and in the more hilly parts of Caithnefs ;
but in the plains of Caithnefs, and near the fea-coa(t, it can-
not be raifed to advantage, from the nature of the fubfoil,
in general a gritty clofe gravel of little depth, incumbent
on a horizontal flaggy rock, which keeps the water near
the furface.

The iflands which are included in the eighth diftrift,
were formerly denominated Ebudie, but are now better
known by the name of the Hebrides, or the Weftern
[Hands. They contain about one-tenth part of the total
extent of Scotland, with about one-eighteenth part of its
population. Of the whole furface, nearly one-feventh part
is under culture. Wheat has been raifed in fome of the
idands, more efpecially Bute, Iflay, and Coll ; and turnips
have alfo been cultivated fuccefsfully in Skyc, and fome of
the fmaller iflands. In all thefe ides the breed of black
cattle is excellent, though in general fmall. The fiflieries
and kelp manufafture are very valuable ; and by proper
attention to them, thefe idands may furnidi a great addi-
tion both to the wealth and ftrength of tlie empire.

In the ninth or laft diftrift are the northern idands of
Orkney, and Zetland or Shetland. The former contain
about 440, and the latter nearly 880 fquare miles, and
form one county. Only about one-feventeenth part of the
whole furface of thefe illands is in cultivation. Wheat and
turnips have both been tried, and not without fuccefs. The
pure Merino breed of fheep has been introduced into Orkney
recently, and a zeal for improvement has lately appeared in
thefe idands, which may be attended vrith the beft effefts ;
for they enjoy a very temperate climate, though in a high
nortiiern latitude. The ides being fituated low, fnow fel-
dom liei many days, and ice is never more than two or three
inches thick.

Forejls and Woods. — That Scotland was anciently clothed
with extenfive and luxuriant forefts, is abundantly proved
by the concurring evidence of tradition, of hiftor)-, and
of the aftual remains of their fpoils. Innumerable places,
where fcarcely a tree is now to be feen, derive their names
from the circumttance of their having been covered with
wood, or from the particular kinds of timber with which
they abounded ; as Woodhead, Woodfide, Aikenhead,
Afhyhurft. The great foreft of Selkirk, of which fcarcely
a trace remains, exifted, as appears from ancient documents,
as late as the 12th or 13th century; extending over the
upper parts of Ayrdiire, Lanarkfhire, and Peeblesfliire.
The foreft of Paidey feems to have communicated with
that of Selkirk, extending, without much interruption,
through the higher parts of Renfrewdiire, the marches of
Ayr and Lanarkdiire by Loudon-hill, to near the diores of
Galloway. The Caledonian forelf, of which the Roman
hiitorians fpeak, appears to have extended in a fouthern
direftion to the Englidi borders ; and in a weftern, from
the boundary of Stirlingfhire, by Falkirk and Stirling,
(including the higher grounds of St. Ninian, once the
royal foreft of Dundaff, ) as far as Gartmore in Perthfhire,
covering the great mofs, called Mofs Flanders, through a
traft of about twenty miles. Of this no trace remains,
except Callendar Wood, and Tor Wood, unlefs we trace
it, as we may, in the deep modes, from fix to nine feet
under the furface, incumbent on the clay, its original foil.
Many other inftances of ancient forefts, long fince loft,
might be given from authentic records. In all our modes,
from JO feet above the level of the fea, to 500, and even
1000 feet above that elevation, the remains of trees of a
much larger fize than any which now exifl in a growing ftate,
are found in abundance. In the northern modes thefe are
principally of the pine tribe. To the fouth of the Forth
it does not appear that the fir ever grew fpontaneoudy.
The oak is, in that diftrift, to be found every wiiere im-
bedded in the modes. In Dalferf paridi, in Lanarkdiire,
an oak was lately dug up 65 feet long, which is fo ftraight,
and fo equal in girth, that it is difEcult to determine which
is its root end. In Mofs Flanders, innumerable trees of

the

SCOTLAND.

the fame kind occur. Even the Hebrides, expofed as they
are to the fea, prefent venerable remains of ancient forefts.
A yew tree, which grew on a fea cliff in the ilormy illand of
Berncra, when cut into logs, loaded a large boat. The
ifland lias anciently been filled with woods. Though Lewis,
adds Dr. Walker, is now entirely deftitute of timber, there
are large trunks of alder, birch, and efpecially of Scots
fir, found in its extenfive moffes. Of the dellruftion of
thefe magnificent forefts, we are furniflied with a fatisfac-
tory account both by hiftory and obfervation. Hero-
dian and Dion Caffms inform us, that the emperor Severus,
about A.D. 207, employed the Roman legions, with the
auxiliary troops, and fuch of the natives as were under his
controul, in cutting down the forefts of Scotland, an under-
taking, in which (the hiilorian tells us) he loft no lefs than
50,000 men. The forell that once covered Mofs Flanders,
to the weft of Stirling, appears evidently to have been thus
cut down ; the proftrate trees lie under the raols in every
direftion, which demonifrates that they have not been
overthrown by ftorms, which would have laid them down
uniformly. At a later period, John, duke of Lancafter,
fet 24,000 axes to work at one time to cut down the woods
of Scotland. In the northern parts of Scotland, the Danes
cut down and burnt many woods, as did king Robert Bruce
in his expedition againft Cumyn. Mr. Graham ot Gartmore
has in his pofleftion an original document, relating to the
woods of Aberfoyle, now the property of the duke of
Montrofe, formerly of the earl of Menteith and Airth.
It is an order from general Monk to cut down the woods
of Milton and Glefluirt, on account of the (helter they af-
forded to the rebels.

Government. — The political conftitution of Scotland, fince
the Union, has been blended with that of England. Previous
to that event, the parliament of Scotland was, like England,
compofed of peers and reprefentatives of counties and burghs,
with this diftinftion, that they fat in one houfe. That wife
prince, James I. of Scotland, as has been mentioned, at-
tempted to eilabliih a houfe of comynons, in imitation of
that of England, but his fubjeils maintained the moit firm
refiftance to that enlightened meafure. The molt diftin-
guiftied feature of the ancient government is the general
aiiembly. The hii;h courts of juitice, and particularly the
court of feflions, may be claffcd in the next place. The
lords of council and leilion are fourteen in number, bcfides a
prcfident ; and on their appointment afi'ume a title, gene-
rally derived from the name of an eftate, by which they are
addrelled, as if peers by creation. The only appeal from this
court is to the houfe of lords. It has long been a fubjcft
of regret, that the caufes were not determined by jury, as
in England. But this ground of complaint has been very
recently removed, and three judges have been appointed to
prefide in a court where civil fuits are to be determined by a
majority of jurors. Thefe judges have been named lords
commiffioners. The court of jufticiary confifts of five
iudges, all lords of feflions, with a prcfident, ftyled the lord
juftice clerk, as reprefcnting the lords juftice general. This is
the fiipreme court of all criminal cafes of importance, which
are determined by the majority of a jury, and not by their
unanimity, as in England. TIic court of exchecjuer confifts
of a lord chief baron, and four barons : in the court of admi-
ralty there is only one judge.

The law of Scotland differs ed'entially from that of Eng-
land, being founded, in a great degree, upon the civil law.
It partly confifts of llatute law, but many of the ancient
cnaftments never having been enforced, reference is made to
the dccifions of the court of feflion, which are carefully prc-

ferved and publidicd, and which afford precedents generally
reckoned unexceptionable. There is fcarcely a vcftige of
common law, fo that the civil and canon lavi's may be deno-
minated the bafis of Scottifti judicature. The inferior courts
are thofe of the ftierifi"s of counties, the magiftrates of bo-
roughs, the commiftarie?, and the juftices of the peace.
While the feudal fyltem prevailed, the hereditary jurif-
diftions were nearly abfolute, and every chief maintained
an unlimited controul over the lives and property of his
vaflals and followers : but this fyilem is now happily abo-
liftied.

Parliamentary ReprefentaUon. — Scotland is reprefented in
the Britifii parliament by fixteen peer? and forty -five com-
moners, in conformity to the treaty of union between the
two kingdoms. The fixteen peers are elecEled for every
new parliament by the whole body of the peerage duly
qualified to vote at the period when the eleftion takes place,
and are not, when once ele6ted, continued for life, as is
the cafe in regard to Irifli peers, by the recent union with
Ireland.

Tile following table will give an idea of the diminution
that has taken place in the members of the Scottifh peerage
fince the Union, and their amount at prefent.

Tahks of the Scolt'tjh Peerage.

1. Number of the Scotch peers at the Union, - 154

2. The duke of Rothfay, when entitled to vote, - I

3. Added by Uibfequent orders of the houfe of lords, 4

159

1. Extant, or dormant, including the title of Solway, 41

2. Mer^-ed in, or united to other titles, - - 10

3. Forfeited, - •• - - - 26

Hemain

77
82

Of thefe, 23 (including the duke of Rothf.^y) are Britifh
peers, but who ftill retain the privilege of voting at elec-
tions, and even continue eligible ; though it can hardly be
fuppofed that thefe hereditary peers would pcrfuade their
brethren not enjoying the fume privilege to eleft them. At
the laft eledtion, on the 1 3th of November 181 2, there were
three minors, three pcerelies, and two Roman Catholics, con-
fequently eight difiju-ilified from voting. The peers who
actually voted were fifty-two, and twenty-two were out of
the kingdom, or did not vote.

Of tiie forty-five commoners, thirty reprefcnt countict,
and fifteen boroughs.

The county members are elefted by freeholders pof-
fefied of 400/. Scotch of valued rent, in land held of the
crown. Tlie only exception to this rule is found in the
county of Sutherland ; where, as the greater part of the
land is lield of the earl of Sutherland, it became ncccllary to
give the vadals of that earldom a right to vote as well at the
vaftals of the crown ; and in confequencc of the incoiJider-
able number of fniall proprietors in the county, the qualifi-
cation of the freeholder was reduced to Tool. Scotch of
valued rent.

The fallowing table fliews the amount of the v.ilucd rent
in each county, as it ftood in l<'>74 ; alio the number of qua-
lified freeholders returned in the lift drawn up for the year
181 1, fince which there has been very little variation.

E 2 T.\nLr

SCOTLAND.

Table of Landed Rcprefentation.

Valued Rent in

Scotch

No. of

Counties reprefeirtcd.

Money.

Freeholders

£ s.

d.

I. Aberdeen

235,665 8

11

147

2. Argyle

149,595 10

0

50

3- Ay^

191,605 0

7

146

4. Banff

79,200 0

0

35

C Berwick

178,366 8

6,V

120

6. Bute Sc 1 ^

7. Caithnefs}^'"'^'"^

15,042 13
37,256 2

10
10

17
21

8. Clackmannan & 7 p^''

26,482 10

10

19

9. Kinrofs j -vices

20,250 4

3?-

15

10. Cromarty &7 /"''■

1 1. Nairn j ■u/Vi'j

12,897 2

7rV

14

ij,i62 10

10;.

22

12. Dumfries

158,502 10

0

74

13. Dumbarton

33.327 19

0

41

14. Edinburgh

191,054 3

9

125

15. Elgin

65,603 0

5

35

16. Fife

363'i29 3

7^-

207

17. Forfar

171,239 16

8

117

18. Haddington

168,873 'o

8

70

19. Invernefs

73,188 9

0

49

20. Kincardine

74,921 I

4

73

21. Kirkcudbright

114,597 2

3

135

22. Lanark

162,131 14

6f*i

68

23. Linlithgow

75,018 10

6

62

24. Orkney and Zetland

57,786 0

4to'-3-

27

25. Peebles

5'.937 13

10

39

26. Perth

339,892 6

9

178

27. Renfrew

69,172 t

0

77

28. Rofs

75,043 10

3

69

29. Roxburgh

314,663 6

4

133

30. Selkirk

80,307 15

6

37

31. Stirling

108,509 3

JtV

98

32. Sutherland

26,093 9

9

28

33. Wigton

67,641 17

0

^'

It is to be remarked, that fix of thefe counties are repre-
fented in parliament by only three members, two of them
united for that purpcfe elefting a reprefentative alternately,
(a circumllance of a moll particular nature, which is much
complained of) ; and that the Zetland ifles, owing to fome
defect regarding their valuation, though entitled to fhare in
the reprefentation of Orkney, have as yet no freeholders on
the roll.

The fifteen members for royal boroughs reprefent in all
fixty-fix towns, wliofe united popuiatioii amounted, in 1812,
to about 500,000 fouls ; the number of voters, however, is
very inconfiderable, confilting, in general, of the magiftrates
and town-council of the different boroughs only. Tiie fol-
lowinc' are the towns from which members are lent.

Edinburgh, including North and South Leith, and

the Weft Kirk or St. Cuthbert's parifh,
Jedburgh, Lauder, Haddington, Dunbar, and

North Berwick, - - -

Selkirk, Peebles, Lanark, and Linlithgow,
Stranraer, Wigton, Whithorn, and New Galloway,
Sanquhar, Kirkcudbright, Dumfries, Lochmaben,

and Annan, . . . -

Ayr, Irvine, Rothfay, Campbeltown, and In-

verary, . . . -

IMembers.

Glafgow, Rutherglen, Renfrew, and Dumbarton, 1
Stirling, Culrofs, Dumfermhne, Inverkeithing, and

Queensferry, - - - - 1

Burntifland, Kinghorn, Kirkaldy, and Dyfart, . i
Anftruther, Eall and Weft Pittenweem, Kilrenny,

and Crail, - - - - i

St. Andrew's, Cupar, Fife, Dundee, Perth, and

Forfar, . . - . . i

Brecliin, Abroath,Montrofe, Berire, and Aberdeen, i

Kmtore, Inverary, Banff, CuUen, and Elgin, - i

Forres, Nairn, Invernefs, and. Fortrofe, - i

Dmgweli, Tain, Dornock, Urick, and Kirkwall, I

Slate 0/ Religion. — According to the prefent eftablifliment
of the church, Scotland is divided into 15 fynods, compre-
hending 78 prefbyteries, and 893 parifties, which are rcpre-
fented in the general affembly ot the church, which meets
annually at Edinburgh. In its deliberative and judicial
capacity this ecclefiaftical court is jurtly accounted among
the moil enlightened and refpeftable in the Chriftian world.
In the divifion of the country into fynods and prefbyteries,
conveniency has been principally attended to, the limits of
counties being no further obferved than they are confiftent
with contiguity to the refpeftive fynodical and prefbyterial
feats ; but in the arrangement of the whole into pariflics,
contiguity to the churches has not been fo much obferved.
Hence, in many initances, remote parts are conjoined into
one parifh, to the great inconvenience of the parifhioncrs, as
well as of the officiating clergyman. With refpei.'!t to ex-
tent and population alfo tiiere is a great difparity ; tlie firft
was fettled in remote times ; the fecond has been deter-
mined, in a great degree, by the effefts of manufaftares and
commerce.

The names of the fifteen fynods arc as follow: i. The
fynod of Lothian and Tweedale. 2. The fy:.od of More
and Teviotdale. 3. The fynod of Dumfries. 4. Tlie fynod
of Galloway. 5. The fynod of Glafgow and Ayr. 6. The
fynod of Perth and Stirling. 7. The fynod of Fife.
8. The fynod of Angus and Mearn. 9. The fynod of
Aberdeen. 10. The fynod of Moray. II. The fynod of
Rofs. 12. The fynod of Sutherland. 13. The fy.iod of
Argyle. 14. Gleuelgh, or fynod of Lochaber and the Ifles.
And, 15. The fynod of Orkney. Thefe fynods come
in the place of the biihops, and have jurifdiftion in eccle-
fiaftical Queftions ; in regard to which there is an appeal
from the prefbytery to the fynod, and thence to the general
aflembly.

In former ti.mes, particularly before the revolution in
1688, Scotland, with refpcft to ecclefiaftical government,
was divided into two archbiflioprics, St. Andrews and Glaf-
gow, and twelve biihoprics, Edinburgh, Dunkeld, Aber-
deen, Moray, Brechin, Dumblane, Roi';, Caithnefs, Orkney,
Galloway, Argyle, and the Ifies. The country in general
was parcelled out among the refpcttive fees, in an arrange-
ment having fome regard to contiguity, but not always fo ;
for feveral parilhes were attached to bifhoprics, and many
to the archbifhoprics, that were very remote from the pro-
vinces in which they were locally placed. This (till remains
the cafe with the jurifdiiSions of the different commitiaries,
which have been fubftituted from thefe bifh, pries, in what
is called confiftorial courts. At prefent, the Scots Epifco-
pals have only eight bifhoprics, viz. I. Edinburgh and Fife ;
2. Glafgow ; 3. Aberdeen ; 4. Moray ; 5. Rofs ; 6. Dun-
keld; 7. Brechin; and, 8. Dumblane; comprehending
fevcnty-fix cures, ferved by fixty clei-gymen. The number

of

SCOTLAND.

jjf their adherents is luppoied to be about 19,000, whicli, per-
haps, with the children, may amount to 28,000. The Roman
Cathohcs divide Scotland into two diftritts only, the Lowland
and the Highland, in order chiefly to make a feparation be-
tween the two languages, the Englith and the Gaelic. Over
each they have a vicar apoflohc, and a bidiop coadjutor.
In the low counties they have about thirty officiating
priells, and in the Highlands eighteen ; hearers about 27,000
in number. The Seccders from the Scotch Prefbyterian
ecclefiaftical church divide the country among them thus.

The Burgher AiTociatc fynod lay it out in ten prefbyteries.
They have in all 130 congregations in Scotland, with about
66,000 hearers.

The Anti-Burgher Secedcrs divide it among three fynods,
containing eleven prefbyteries. They have 134 congrega-
tions, with about 60,000 hearers. The chuich of Relief
divides the country into iix prefbyteries, including 76 con-
gregations, with about 50,000 hearers. The other pref-
byterian Scots, as the Cameronians, &c. may amount to
about I4;000. The feparatifts of various perfuafions, as
Babli'ts, Bc-reans, GlalTites, may amount to nearly 50,000.

The Methodilts, of whom there are fuppofed to be about
6000 members, or, including children, about 9000 fouls,
divide the country into circuits, eleven in all, ferved by
eighteen pre.ichers.

The Friends, or Quakers, are fo few in number, that they
have only hve places of meeting, viz. Glafgow, Hawick,
Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Kinniack, near Old Mcldrum ;
their whole number dops not exceed 2000.

Ch'uf Cities andTowm. — The molt important towns in
Scotland, both as to extent and population, are Eduiburgh
and Glafgow ; the former the metropolis of the kingdom,
and the latter the emporium of its manufaftures and com-
merce. They both contain nearly the fame number of in-
habitants, •uiz. about 100,000 perfons, and are royal burghs,
governed each by a lord provoft and town council. The
next towns to thefe in importance are Perth, Aberdeen,
Dundee, and P.iidey, eacli containing about 30,000 louls.
The other town', of note are Berwick, Diuibtir, Haddnig-
ton, Mulitlbnr.rh, Aberbrothick, Montrofe, Portfoy, El-
gin, Invjrntfs, aid Duigwall, fitua'ed on the eaftcrn fide
of the kiigdom ; Ayr, Greenock, Paifley, Invcrary, and
Campbelt ^\s.., fitnated on it= wcllern fide ; and Dumfries,
Lanark, Stirinig, Dunfermhne, Diinkeld, Falkirk, Luilith-
gow, Hamilton, Selkirk, ar.d many others little njlerior to
thefe, which are fituated in mland counties. Many of the
above towns enjoy tlie advantage of feparate jurifdiiftion,
but others arc under the authority of tlie county magillratcs,
and of this clafs is Paiiley, the greatell manufafluring town
in Scotland next to Glafgow.

Mdv.ufd3urcs and Commerce. — Previous to the Union, Scot-
land could boail little as to the extent either of its manu-
fatliiring or co.imiercial profpcrity. It is true, indeed, that
tradition, as well as hiilory, point out Perth as a great
trading mart fonie centuries ago, but the accounts are mod
probably exaggerated. At all events, it is certain that the
commerce of the kingdom was at a very low ebb during the
leventeonth century, and that it has only rifen into im-
portance within the lall fifty years. Formerly the ftaple
manufacture of the kingdom was linen ; but that has now
given way, comparatively fpeaking, to the weaving of cot-
ton goods. Tiic chief feats of the former manufacture are
Perth and its vicinity, and the ccuuity of Fife; and of the
latter the counties of Lanark and Renfrew, including the
towns of Glafgow and Paifley, and others (if inferior note.
Woollen cloths are only made for home confumption, and in
trifling quantity, excepting carpets, the manufacture of

which is very confiderable. Several other kinds of manu-
fafture are carried on in Scotland, but that of iron is the
only one which deferves to be fpecificd in this article. The
works of tlie Carron are probably the moll celebrated in
Europe for the founding cf cannon, caft-iroH wheels, &c.

With refpedl to the commerce of Scotland, it may be re-
marked, that though on a fmaller fcale, it is much alTimilated
to that of England. The chief exports are linen, grain,
iron, glafs, lead, foap, cotton goods of every defcription,
alfo earthenware, cordage, leather, candles, and innumerable
other articles, wliich it is unncccflary to mention. The imports
are wines, brandy, and all kinds of colonial produce, likewife
butter, linen, filk, wood, oil, and tallow. The principal porta
are thofe of port Glafgow and Greenock, on the weft coaft,
and Leith, Dundee, Perth, and Aberdeen, on the eaft coaft.

To the above fources of Scottidi commerce, may be very
properly added the fiflieries, which, if placed under appro-
priate regulations, would prove a fund of great wealth, not
merely to Scotland, hut to the Britilh empire at large. To
efleft this objeft feveral enaftments have been made, but
their beneficial operation has hitherto been much reftrifted.
A bill, however, is now in progrefs, which it h hoped will
produce a more favourable refult.

Roads and Canals. — In the Lowlands of Scotland the
great roads are not inferior in formation to thofe of
England ; but they are not yet fufficiently numerous, nor
are they always planned in the moft judicious manner.
Rapid improvements, however, are making in this branch
of political economy, fo indifpenfable to commercial pro-
fpenty, and the advancement of national civilization. From
the mountainous charafter of the Highlands, the conftruc-
tion of good roads is perhaps impofrible ; but even in that
wild diltntt, efforts are daily making to render communica-
tion more cafy.

The principal canal in Scotland is that which connefts the
navigation of the Clyde and Forth. It was begun in 1769,
and conltrudled according to a furvey furnifhed by Mr.
Smeaton. The depth of this canal is feven feet, and its
width at the furface fifty- fix feet. In fome places it is
carried through moffy ground, and in others through folid
rock, and appears evidently, thraughout its whole extent, to
have been planned and executed with great ability. An-
other canal has been propoied between Edinburgh and Glaf-
gow, and is believed to be in progrefs of execution. There
is alfo a canal forming acrofs tlie ilfhmus of Caiitire, to
conneft the Frith of Clyde with the Atlantic ocean, to the
north of Jura. But the chief work of this delcription now
going on, is the grand canal from the Moray Frith, through
Loch Nefs and Loch Loehy to the inlet of the lea called
Loch Liniihe, on the wellern coall. Parliament has already
voted a large fum towards this undertaking, which it is com-
puted will retjuirc upwards of 400,000/. to complete it. Sec
Canai,, Jiiveriit'fs.

Literature. — The literature of Scotland, though it can-
not boalt of great antiquity, has acquired a dillinguiflied
place in the annals of fame, by the rapidity of progrefs and
brilliancy of its lullre in later times. The Culdees, indeed,
the venerable hermits of Jona, are repiefentcd by ancient
hiflorians as having been men of extenfivc learning and great
erudition ; but their claims to this eulogy are ])iobably over-
rated. The carlielt genuine work relative to Scotland is the
Chronicon Piclorum, written by an Irifli clergyman, fuppofed,
with confiderable probability, to have been a dignitary of the
church of Abernethy, in the commencement of the cli ve;:th
century. In the twelfth century the chronicles pubhflud
by Inncs, and thofe of Melrofe anil Holyrood, defcrve to be
noticed. About the year 1270 flouriflicd Thomas of Er-

celdon,

SCOTLAND.

celdon, commonl7 called Thomas the Rhymer, who wrote a
metrical romance, called Sir Triftram, lately republifhed by
Mr. Scott. The next writer of confequence is John Bar-
bour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, who wrote a poem in com-
memoration of the heroic aftions of Robert Bruce, in the
year 1375, not lefs celebrated for its hiftorical fidehty than
for its poetical merit. About this time flourifhcd John
Fordun, defignated the father of Scottifh hidory. In the
fifteenth century, James I. of Scotland wrote fome poems
of great merit, and he was fucceeded by Holland, and Henry
the Rhymer. Next arofe Dunbar, whofe merit has entitled
him to be placed at the head of the ancient Scottilh poets,
[n the bet^inniiig of the fixteenth century flourirtied Gawin
Douglas, and fir David Lindfay. Thefe were followed by
many others of various merit, till the middle of the feventeenth
century, when the unhappy events of that turbulent period
checked the career of the arts and fciences. Before thi;;,
however, the illullrious Drummond had configned to the
world his exquifite poems. In modern times, the field of
poetical merit has been more luxuriant. The names of
Thomfon, Ramfay, Blair, Armltrong, Beattie, Burns, Camp-
bell, and Scott, with many others, are held in univerfal eiti-
mation.

In the other departments of fcience, though of later cul-
tivation, the Scots have made rapid progrefs. In hiftory,
the names of Boethius and Buchanan arc every where revered.
The claffic elegance and purity of the llyle of the latter,
has entitled him to rank with the firll authors of antiquity.
In our own age, among other hiilorians of great merit,
have arifen Hume and Robcrtlon, whofe works will ever be
read with enthufiailic delight by the admirers of talte and
genius. In the mathematical department, lord Napier, the
celebrated inventor of the logarithms ; Maclanrin, no lefs
celebrated for his ailronomical works ; and Dr. Simpfon,
noted for his knowledge of ancient geometry, have acquired
a lalUng reputation. In medicine, the names of Pitcairn,
Monro, and Cullen, may be mentioned as lioldiug tlie highell
rank ; and in the department of metaphyfical and moral
fciences fhe perhaps Hands unrivalled. The labours of
Hume, Hutchinfon, Rcid, Campbell, Beattie, Monboddo,
Kaimes, Smith, and Fergufon, will be regarded with admi-
ration, fo long a; the philofophy of the mind continues to be
a fubjeft of intereft, and the Englifh language is underftood.
Scotland has alio attained the praife of fuperior excellence
in other departments of fcience, particularly in political eco-
nomy and in chemillry.

Univeijities. — The univerfities in Scotland are four in
number ; St. Andrews, Glafgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh.
The firil was founded by bifnop Wardlaw, in 141 2 ; the fe-
cond by bifliop Turnbull, in 1453 ; the third by billiop
Elphiniione, in 1500 ; and the lall by James VI. in 15S0.
As the reader will find each of them defcribed under their
refpeftive names, we (liall only obferve farther concerning
them in this place, that the univerfity of Edinburgh is the
moft celebrated medical fchool in Europe, and is annually
attended by from 1200 to 1500 ftudcnt;.

Education. — The mode of education adopted in this country
is highly laudable, and is probably the beft praftieable
fyitem eflabhihed in any kingdom. The plan followed in the
cities and large town? is nearly fimilar to that of England ;
that is, by private feminaries and great public fchools, of
which the High School of Edinburgh is the moit emi-
nent. But the cliief advantage of the Scottifli education
arifes from the circumftance of every country parifh having
a fchoolmaftcr, regularly appointed by the heritors, in the
fame way as the clergyman, who receives a fmail falary, u hich
enables him to educate the children of tlic pariiliioners at a

rate eafy and convenient even to the moft mdigeat parents.
In the Highlands, the children of the poor are occupied as
herds during fummer, and in winter attend fchools. To be
unable to read and write is confidered fo difgraceful in Scot-
land, that fucli perfons are fcarcely ever to be met with.

Manners and Cujloms. — In every part of the kingdom, but
more efpecially throughout the Lowland?, the higher orders
in Scotland are charafterifed by much the lame features as
in England. Their drefs, their mode of living, and their
amufements, both public and private, are nearly alike. The
inferior orders in the Lowlands are likewife much afli.-nilated
to their fnuthern neighbours in tiieir ftyle of drefs, but
their food and diverfions materially differ. Tlie ordinary
diet of the Scottifh peafant h parich, a compofition of oat-
meal and water, boiled together till itadiim.es a thick confid-
ence. It is eaten with milk twice and fometimes thrice a day,
and is feldom varied, except by broafe, which differs from pa-
rich only in having the addition of butter, and not being
boiled. Butcher's meat is rarely eat, except on Sunday ; but
vegetable broths made with butter are not unfrequently ufed
for dinner. Pork and eels were formerly held in great abhor-
rence, and even yet are I'egarded as impure articles of food,
on account of fuperilitious opinions refpcfting them. In
the Highlands thefe fentiments are particularly llrong ; and
hence the rearing of f'wine is very little attended to in that
diftrift. In the lame divifion of the kingdom, the national
drefs is flill prevalent ; but the tartan kilt has very generally-
given place to pantaloons of the fame material. From the
influence of education, and the well-direfted exertions of the
clergy, the peafnntry have long been diltinguillied for fo-
briety, indultry, and moral reftitude ; and, in point of intelli-
gence, are indubitably the firll in the world. Even the arti-
fans are entitled to fhare in this eulogy, though it muft be
confelled that exceptions to the rule are too numerous, efpe-
cially in the great trading towns. Theexiltence of witches,
fairies, and gholts, is Hill part of the creed of the Scottifli
peafant ; and the Highlander confidently believes in the
power of fecond fight, or the capability of perceiving future
events. Some relics of the idolatrous worfhip of his remote
ancellors are yet difcernible, both in his amufements and his
more ferious occupations ; but they are gradually becoming
fainter, and will, no doubt, dilappear in the progrefs of
refinement and civilization. For information on the amufe-
ments, fuperi^itions, and manners of the Scottifh peafantry,
the reader cannot confult any works with greater advantage
than thofe two exquifite poems, the " Halloween," and
" Cottar's Saturday Night," of the celebrated Burns. Re-
ferring, therefore, to them, we fliall only further remark
under this head, that in their religious ceremonies, con-
fiderable variations exilt from the forms in England. Thus,
for inllance, in baptifms, godfathers and godmothers are
inadmilTible, the parents alone being made anfwerable for
the education of their children in the path of morality and
religion.

Antiqu'it'ies. — Monuments of antiquity of every age, from
the Celtic colonization of the kingdom, are yet vifible in
various diflricls. Thofe of the firll epoch are all of tlie
tumular kind, and are only to be difcovered by nice invelli-
gation in the more wild and uncultivated tracts. Of the
Roman period, the remains are numerous, confilling of vef-
tiges of roads, tlations, encampments, foundations of walls,
and other minor antiquities. The celebrated wall of Anto-
ninus may yet be traced, with perfect accuracy, nearly the
whole of its extent from the Forth to the Clyde ; and many
interelling infcriptions are frequently dug up from its ruins.
Near it was formerly a fmall edifice called Arthur's Oven,
which the moll intelligent antiquaries fuppofe to have been

a temple

s c o

SCO

;. lemple dedicated to the god Terminus. The moll northerly
Roman camp yet difcovered is fituated on the river Ythan,
ia Aberdeenfhire ; and there are fonie roads extending into the
ijounty of Angus ; but the chief remains of them are fouth of
the walls. The monuments of the Pictifh era confift of thofe
circles of ftones, cromlechs, &c. ufually, but erroneoufly,
ilenominated Druidical temples ; and of thofe artificial
mounds, or hills, whence, the Piftifh and Dalriad kings
'>re wont to promulgate their laws. The mod remarkable
1 one circles in the kingdom are thofe in the ifle of Lewis,
lid on the Mainland of Orkney. The ftruftures commonly
illed " Pifts' houfes," and the heaps of ftones called
'• cairns," or " karns," have alfo been i'uppofed to belong
til this age ; but Pinkerton refers the latter entirely to the
Dalriads, or Scots, and thinks the former may be Danifti,
a5 it is certain fimilar edifices have been traced in Scandi-
j navia. They feem to have confilted of a vaft hall, open to
' the fky in the centre, and having recedes for beds, &c. in
the wall. " Thefe buildings," fays the author laft men-
tioned, " are remarkable, as difplaying the firft elements of
I the Gothic cafile ; and the caftle of Coningfburgh, in York-
' fhire, forms an eafy tranfition." The remains of later ages
^re the fculptured obelill<s at Forres, and other places ;
which are probably monuments of fignal events, fuch as
battles and treaties of peace ; the noted vitrified forts, and
churches, abbeys, and caftles almoit innumerable. Among
the more remarkable buildings which owe their origin to
religion, are the abbies of Melrofe, .Tedburgh, and Aber-
brothick ; the cathedrals of Dunkeld, Glafgow, and Brechin ;
and the chapel of Roflyn, near Edinburgh. The laft is one
of the moft Angular and interefting remains of ancient archi-
tefture in Great Britain ; and Melrofe abbey may vie with
many in England, both as to the extent and magnificence
of its buildings.

The following is a lift of the books occafionally confulted
during the compilation of this article. Joannis de Fordun
.Scotichronicon, cum fupplem. et contin. Walteri Boweri ;

2 vols. fol. Edin. 1759. Scotia illuftrata, &c. Auft.
Rob. Sibbald. fol. 1684. The Hiftory of the Church of
Scotland, from A.D. 203, to Death of James VI. ; by John
•Spotfwood ; fol. Lond. i655', 2d edit. 1677. Georgii
Euchanani Omnia Opera ; curantc Thoma Rtiddimanno ;

3 vols. fol. Edin. 17 15. This work contains his Hiftory
of Scotland ; a treatife De Jure Regni apud Scotos ;
another, entitled A6tio contra Mariam Scotorum Reginam ;
and a third, entitled Detcftio Marise Reginse Scotorum ; his
letters, poems, and fome pieces on language. Colleftion of
Treatifes, in folio, concerning Scotland, written by fir Ro-
bert Sibbald, Edin. 1707. This work comprifcs, among
other pieces, Hillorical In(|uiries concerning Roman An-
tiquities ; Conjc£lurcs concerning the Roman Ports, Colo-
nies, and Forts ; and An Account of the Writers ancient and
modern, which treat of the Delcription of Scotland. Trac-
tatus varii ad Scotix antiqwx et modcrna; Uilloriain faci-
cntes, viz. Introduftio ad Hilloriam Vcteris Scotia?,
&c. ; Specimen Glollarii ; Commentarius in Julii Agfri-
colx Expcditioncs, &c. in illuftratione textus Taciti. Mif-
cellanea quxdam eruditx Antiqtiitates qux ad Borcalcm
Biitannix Majoris Partem pertinent. Vindicix Scotix il-
luftrati, &c. An Account of the Scottifli Atlas ; or, the
Defcriptlon of Scotland, ancient and modern ; fol. Edin.
1683. The Libertie and Indepcndencie of the Kingdom
and Church of Scotland aflertcd from ancient Records ; by
Robert Sibbald; 4to. Edin. 1 703. SeleCtus Diplomatum
ct Nnmifmata Scotix Thefaurus, &c. ; ab Jacobo Ander-
fono. Edited by Thomas Ruddiman ; fol. Edin. 1739.
Hiftory of the Affairs in Church and State in Scotland,

from the Commencement of the Reformation to 1568 ; by
Robert Keith ; fol. Edin. 1734. The Hiftory of Scot-
land, by David Scott; fol. WVftminfter, 1727. Itinera-
rium Septentrionale ; by Alex. Gordon; fol. Lond. 1726.
Scotorum Hiftorix a prima Gentis Origine, &c. Hedore
Bocthio auftore ; fol. Parifiis, 1574. Lives of the Officers
of State, by George Crawford ; fol. Edin. 1726. Lives
and Charafters of Scottifli Writers, by George Mackenzie ;
3 vols, folio, Edin. 170S. Iconograpiiia Scotica ; i :r, Por-
traits of illuftrious Perfons ; by John Pinkerton ; 410.
Lond. 1797. Hiftory of Scotland, from the carlieft Ac-
counts to A.D. 1437 ; by William Maitland ; continued
by another hand ; 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1757. The Hiftorie of
tlie Rcformatioun of Religioun within the Realm of Scot-
land, by John Knox ; edited from his MS. in the Univerfity
of Glafgow ; fol. Edin. 1732. The true Hiftory of the
Church of Scotland, from the Beginning of the Reformation
to the Death of James VL ; by David Calderwood ; fol.
1678. Hiftorical Account of the Scottifti Parliament, by
George Redpath ; 8vo. 1703. Scotix Indiculum ; by Philo-
patris ; i8mo. 1682. Hiftorie of the Warres between
England and Scotland, from William the Conqueror to the
Union under James; 4to. Lond. 1607. TheAuldLawes
and Conftitutions of Scotland ; fol. 1609. The Laws and
Afts of Parliament of Scotland, from 1424 to 1707 ;
l2mo. 3 vols. 1682, 1707. Memoirs of North Britain ;
Svo. Lond. 17 15. Memoirs of Scotland during the Reign
of Queen Anne ; 8vo. 1714.

Articles of the Union with Scotland; 4to. 1707. In-
quiry into the Evidence againft Mary Queen of Scots ;
Svo. Edin. 1772. Inquiry into the Reign of Queen Elifa-
beth, in reference to Queen Mary ; 8vo. 1726. Biographia
Scoticana ; Svo. 1796. Gordon'.s Theatre of Scottilh
Kings; 4to. 1709. Fragments of Scottifti Hiftory ; 4to.
1798. Jamiefon's Hiftory of the Culdees of Jona ; 4to.
18 u. Pinkerton's Inquiry into the Hiftory of Scotland
before the Year 1056; 2 vols. 8vo. 1794. Pinkerton's
Hiftory of Scotland from the Acceflion of the Stewarts to
the Death of James V. ; 2 vols. 4to. 1812. Pinkerton's
Modern Geography, vol. i. 410. 1B07 — 181 1. General
Report of Scotland ; by fir Joim Sinclair ; 5 vols. Svo. and
vol. plates, 1813. Sinclair's Huftiandry of Scotland;
2 vols. Svo. 1814. Dalrymple's Annals of Scotland, from
Malcolm III. to Houfe of Stewart ; 410. 2 vols. 1776.
Dalrymple's Trafts relative to the Hiilory of Scotland ;
4to. 1800. Culloden Papers ; 1815. Smith's Gaelic An-
tiquities ; 4to. Roy's Military Antiquities ; fol. Gu-
thrie's General Hiilory of Scotland; 10 vols. Svo. 1767.
Chalmers's Caledonia ; 2 vols. 4to. 1807 — 10. Hume's
Hiftoryof England, &c. Slezer's Tlieatrum Scotix, edited
by John Jamicfon, D.D. fol. 1814.

ScoTi,.\ND Nccl-, a town or rather village of America, in
Halifax county, North Carolina, in wrhich is a poft-office ;
250 miles S. of Walhnigton.

Scotland, AVw. See Nova Sjotia.

Scotland River, a river, or rather rivulet, in the ifland
of Barbadoes, which rifes in St. Andrew's paridi, and falls
into Long bay, on the E. fide of tlie idand, 4 miles S.S.E.
of Cuckold's point, or 2^. miles N.W. of St. Joffph'« river,
the only other fmall broolc of the ifland.

SCOTODINOS, a term uled by medical writers to ex
prefs a vertigo, or dizzinefs of the head, attended with .t
dimnefs of figlit.

SCOTOMIA, or Scotoma, a giddinefs, or temporarv
confufion of fight ; nearly fynonimous with vcrligo ; which
fee.

SCOTS, in Geography, the name of one of the two great

tribes,

SCO

SCO

tribes, into which the inhabitants of the northern region of
Caledonia was divided, as early as the reign of Conftantine ;
Pifts being the denomination of the other. The name and
almoil the memory of the Pitts have been extinguifhed by
their fucccfsfiil rivals ; and the Scots, after maintaining for
ages the dignity of an independent kingdom, have mul-
tiplied, by an equal and voluntary union, as Gibbon ex-
prelTes it, the honours of the Englilh name. The hand of
iiature hath contributed to mark the ancient diftmftion of
the Scots and Pidls : the former were the men of the hills,
and the latter thofe of the plain. The eaitern coaft of Cale-
donia was a level and fertile country, and produced, in a
rude ftate of tillage, a confiderable quantity of corn ; fo
that the epithet of cruilnich, or wheat-eaters, exprefied the
contempt or envy of the carnivorous hiG;hlanders. Never-
thelefs, the love of arms and rapine was ilill the univerfal
paflion of the Pifts ; and their warriors, llripped for a day
of battle, were diftinguilhed, in the eyes of the Romans, by
the ftrange fafhion of painting their naked bodies with gaudy
colours and fantaftic figures. (See PiCTs.) The weftern
part of Caledonia irregularly rifes into wild and barren hills,
which fcarcely repay the toil of the hufbandnien, and are
moit profitably ufed for the pafture of cattle. Accordingly
the highlanders were condemned to the occupations of Hiep-
herds and hunters ; and as they were feldom fixed to any
permanent habitation, they acquired the expreilive irarae of
Scots, which, in the Celtic tongue, is faid to be equivalent
to that of luanderers or •vagrants. That the Irilh dcfcent
of the Scots, though lately revived by Mr. Whitaker, is a
fable, has been fatisfaCtorily evinced by Mr. Gibbon ; and
he has traced the foundation upon which this fabulous fuper-
ftrufture has been gradually reared by the bards and the
monks, two orders of men, who equally abufcd the privilege
of fidtion. It is probable, fays this fagacious and elegant
hidorian, that in fome remote period of antiquity, the fertile
plains of UHler received a colony of hungry Scots ; and that
the llrangers of the North, who had dared to encounter the
arms of the legions, fpread their conquells over the favage
and unwarlike natives of a folitary ifland. It is certain,
that in the declining age of the Roman empire, Caledonia,
Ireland, and the Kle of Man, were inhabited by the Scots ;
and that the kindred tribes, who were often alTociated in
military enterprifes, were deeply afledled by the various ac-
cidents of their mutual fortunes. They long chenlhed the
lively tradition of their common name and origin ; and the
miffionaries of the Ifle of Saints, who diflufed the light of
Chriftianity over North Britain, eflablifhed the vain opinion,
that their Irifh countrymen were the natural, as well as
fjiiritual, fathers of the Scottifh race. The Scottifli na-
tion, with miitaken pride, adopted their Iriih genealogy ;
and the annals of a long line of imaginary kings have been
adorned by the fancy of Boethius, and the clnfTic elegance
of Buchanan. Gibbon's Hift. vol. iv. See Scotland.

Scots Zr/ni-j. In February 1 722, the ncwfpapers of the
times inform us, that there was a concert for the benefit of
Mr. Thomfon, the firlt colleftor and publifher of Scots
tunes in England. To this coUeilion, for which there was
a very large fubfcription, may be afcribed the fubfequent
favour of thefe national melodies fouth of the Tweed.

After this " confort, at the defire of feveral perfons of
quality, was performed a Scottifh fong."

In 1744, in tlie opera of " Rolelinda," fet by Veracini,
at that time the leader of the opera band, the firfl air that
prefents itfelt, in the printed copy of the favourite fongs,
is " The Lafs of Patie's Mill ;" which Monticelli con-
defcended to fing, and to wliich Veracini added parts and
ritornelli, in order, as tliey imagined, to flatter the Britifh

nation. But as few of the North Britons, or admirers of
this national and natural mufic, frequent the opera, or mean
to give half a guinea to hear a Scots tune, which perhaps
their cook-maid, Peggy, can fing better than any foreigner,
this expedient failed of its intended efleft. See Palma.

Scots, or Scott, in Geography, a county of Kentucky,
containing 12,419 inhabitants. Its chief town is Geurge-
town, containing 529 inhabitants.

Scot's Bay, a bay on the S.W. coaft of the ifland of
Dominica, towards the S. extremity of the ifland ; 4 miles
S. of Charlotte-town. — Alfo, a bay of the North Pacific
ocean, on the W. coaft of America ; 10 miles S. of Ouecu
Charlotte's found.

Scot's Ccve, a bay on the S. \V. coall of Jamaica.

Scot's Head, a cape at tiie fouthern cxtieraity of Do-
minica. N. lat. 15- 20'. AV. long. 61° 24'.

Scot's IJlands, a clutter of iflands in the North Pacific
ocean, near the N.W. coall of the ifland of Quadra and
Vancouver. N. lat. 50'^ 57'. E. long. 231° 2'.

SCOTT, John, in Biography, a clergyman of the church
of England, was born in 10^8, at Chippenham, in Wilt-
fhire. He was firlt apprenticed to a trade in London,
which not being congenial to his tatte, he quitted, and en-
tered himfelf as a commoner of New Inn, Oxford. After
receiving orders, he obtained a reclory in London, and a
prebend in St. Paul's cathedral. In 1685 he took his
degree of D.D. ; and in 1691 he was appointed to the
reftory of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, and was made canon of
Windfor. " The Cliriftian Life," which was publifhed at
different times, and finifhed in 1686, acquired for him fo
high a reputation, that, after the revolution, he was offered
the bifhopric of Clielter ; which, however, he refufed, be-
caufe he could not conicicntioufly take the oaths required.
He was afterwards offered the bilhopric of Worcelter, and
a prebend of Windlor, which he likewife declined, becaufe
they were the places of perfons who had been deprived for
an adherence to thofe principles, which he himfelf fecrctly
cherifhed. Neverthelefs he had llienuonfly oppofed the pro-
grefs of Popery in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.,
and publiPned fome works in controverfy with the Papifls,
while the latter prince was fliU on the throne. Dr. Scott
died in 1694, leaving the charafler of an excellent man and
worthy parifli-prieft. Befides the work already mentioned,
he wrote " Cafes of Confcience refolved, concerning the
Lawfulnefs of joining in Forms of Prayer in public Wor-
(hip ;" and " Twelve Sermons," preached on different oc-
cafions. His " Chrillian Life" is a book very generally
read in the religious world.

Scott, Michael, a celebrated Scotfman of the 13th
century, was born at Balwearie, in Fife, about the begin-
ning of the reign of Alexander TI. At a very early period
he made great progrefs in language, as well as the roatlie-
matics ; and having finifhed his Ihidies at home, he went
over into France, where he remained fome years; but hear-
ing that the emperor Frederic II. was a great patron of
learning and learned men, he repaired to the court of that
prince, and applied himfelf clofcly to all the branthes of
philofophy then fludied. After refiding fome time in Ger-
many, he proceeded to England, and was high in the favour
of Edward II. ; b\it it is not at all known how long he
continued here. Upon his return to Scotland he received
the honour of knighthood from Alexander III., and was
afterwards fent, with Michael de Wemys, to bring to Scot-
land the Maid of Norway, who, being taken ill at fea, was
landed on one of the Orkney ilands, where fhe died in the
year 1290. At this time fir Michael was probably far ad-
vanced in life : he died in 1291. He was elleemed u man

of

SCO

of great learning, though fo much addifled to the occult
faiences, that he pafled among his contemporaries as a flcilful
magician. Boccaccio and Folengo both exhibit him as
fuch ; the former in one of his novels, and the latter in his
macaronic poem ; and he is introduced under the fame cha-
rafter by Dante. It is not known where he was interred,
but it feems generally admitted that his books of magic
were either buried with him in his grave, or preferved in the
convent where he died. A Latin trandation of Ariftotle's
works is alcribed to fir Michael Scott, but probably upon
infufficienl evidence. There is a tranflation of that philo-
fopher's works, partly from the Greek and partly from the
Arabic, by v.irious hands, undertaken at the command of
the emperor Frederic II., at whofe court fir Michael re-
(ided fome tune ; and as he is reported to have tranflated
Ariftotle's Natural Hiilory of Animals from the Arabic
verfion of Aviccnna, it has been aflumed that this is the
only part of the work which fhould be afcribed to him.
The title of the work is " Ariftotelis Opera, Latine verfa,
partim e Grxco partim Arabico, per viros leftos et in
Utriufque Linguae prolatione peritos, jufTu Imperatoris Fre-
deric! II. Venet. 1496." The works of fir Michael Scott
are numerous, among which the following may be men-
tioned : •' Phyfiognomia et de Hominis Procreatione ;"
" De Secretis Naturae ;" " Queftio curiofa de Natura Solis
et Lunae." The fubjeft of this laft work is the pretended
tranfmutation of metals, gold and filver being reckoned
among alchemifts the fun and moon. According to the
opinion of Riccioli, Scott was a diligent obferver of the
ftars, and, at the requeit of the emperor Frederic II., he
wrote a treatife on the fphere of Sacrobofco. Gen. Biog.

Scott, George Lewis. This learned and accompliflied
man was not only an able mathematician, but an excellent
mufician. He was an intimate friend of Dr. Pepufch, and
afCtted him in drawing up his paper for the Royal Society,
on the genera and fyilems of the ancient Greek mufic ;
and whatever articles he furnilhed to the Supplement of
Chambers's Diftionary, concerning harmonics or the ratio
of founds, may be depended on. Mr. Scott was a per-
former on the harpfichord, and very fond of miific ; but al-
ways calculating, during his own performance and that of
others, as to the legality of modulation. And we well re-
member his being much dilturbed at the unrelative fuccelTion
of chords, in the opening of Pergolefi's <■ Stabat Mater,"
at the fecond bar, where that moll pleaiing author furprifcs
the ear, as well as the eye and intelleft, in modulating from
F minor to Eb major. De Moivre, who had no tafte or
feeling for mufic, ufed to calculate ratios for the ingenious
and w'orthy organiil of the Charter-houfe, and laugh at him
for his Greek and mathematical pretenfions ; but Scott, the
fub-preceptor of his prefent majelty, was in earnell, and
wiflied to make difcoveries in Greek mufic, as much as Pe-
pufch. For though attached to old matters of eminence, a«
well as the Carthufian maeltro di cappella, he enjoyed the
produAions of the moderns extremely, when he could dif-
cover in them either genius or fcience.

As we had the honour to be perfonally acquainted with
him, we are furc that the elaborate article Temperament, in
mufic, in the additional volume to Chambers's DiAionary,
was drawn up by the late learned and fcientific Mr. Scott,
who was one of the very few theorifts that ever paid the lead
regard to praSice, or who feemed to recoiled that the tar
had any thing to do with harmonics.

SCOTTA, or ScoTTus. See Scot.

SCOTTI, Teresa, in Biography, the firft woman in
the operas of 1764 and 1765, in which Manfoli fung.

The Scotti, with an elegant figure, a beautiful face, and
Vol,. XXXII.

SCO

a feeble voice, fung in a very good tafte ; and though in
want of power, (he pofl'efl^ed great flexibility and expref-
fion.

SCOTTIA., in Botany, bears that name, as we prefume,
in memory of Robert Scott, M.D., late profeftbr of Bo-
tany at Dubhn, commemorated by Mr. Dawfon Turner ia
the preface, as well as the dedication, of his Mufcologit
Hibernic/e Sptci/egium. — Brown in Ait. Hort. Kcw. v. 4.
268. — Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord.
PapiHonacee, Linn. Leguminoft, Jufl.

Efl'. Ch. Calyx with five rather unequal teeth ; its bafe
clothed with imbricated appendages. Standard folded,
(horter than the wings, which are the length of the keel.
Stamens all connefted. Legume ftalked, compreffcd;
thickened at each margin. Seeds few, crefted.

I. S. denlata. Tooth-leaved Scottia. — Found by Mr.
Brown on the fouth-weft coall of Nevr Holland. AJhnit,
fent to Kew garden, in 1803, by Mr. Peter Good. It ie
kept in the greenhoufe, and flowers from June to Sep-
tember.

SCOTTSBURG, in Geography, a poft-town of Vir-
ginia ; 256 miles W. of Walhington.

SCOTUSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
donia, on the banks of the river Strymon, in the Odoman-
tica, near Berga. — Alfo, a town of Greece, in Theffaly.
Ptolemy.

SCOUR a Line, To, in the Military Language, is to
flank it fo as to fee direftly along it ; that a mufket-ball,
entering at one end, may fly to the other, leaving no place
of fecurity.

Scour, among Cattle, a difeafe of the flux kind, whick
frequently affefts cows, calves, flieep, and other animal*.
See Scouring in Convi, and in Calves.

This is a difeafe in ftieep, wliich is common in the winter
feafon, being believed to originate from the feverity of the
froils, efpecially when they fet in fuddenly, or alternate fre-
quently with thaws. The chief dependence for a cure, in
thcfe cafes, is upon an expeditious change to dry keep ; as,
in the praftice of fome good (heep-farmers, the ufe of hay,
on the mornings when lioar-frofts are prevalent, has been
found a good preventative. It is fometimes called the gall
by fhecp-farmers. Early, foft, tathy, luxuriant pafture-
grafs, is alfo liable to produce this complaint, efpecially in
previoufly worn-down (hecp. It arifcs frequently, too, from
fuddcn changes from dry, warm, poor paflures, to fuch aa
are rich, cold, and damp ; or the contrary. It is fome-
times likcwifc the confequence of other afTcilions, as well at
of the local weakncfs and relaxation of the bowels. In all
thefe inftances, the above changes of food will be highly
ufeful and neceflary. The difeafe may be ftopjped, except
where it is critical, after clearing the intcftines of any irritat-
ing matters, by mild purgatives, by the followuig means, par-
ticularly where there is great weaknefs of the anefttd parts.
Boil four ounces of the (havings of logwood in two pints of
water, until it be reduced to one pint ; then add one ounce
of cinnamon water, and give one half at a time. VViaTe this
is not Itrong enough to check the diforder, hall a drachm of
the extraft of catechu may be diflolved in it, witli fifty or
more drops of the tinAure of opium. Thefc will mollly
leflen the over-aflion of the bowels, and fpeedily remove the
complaint. In mild cafes of this nature, it will fddom be
rceefl"ary to have reeourfe to the above remedy, as they will
eafily be removed by the ufe of water, in which a little cal-
cined chalk and liartlhorn fliavings have been boiled. In
high dates of the difeafe, the ftrength of the raedicme muft

be incieafrd. _,,

F The

SCO

The black fcour is, however, feldom capable of being
reilraiued by any means that have yet been had recourfe to ;
it therefore, for the mod part, terminates fatally.

Scour, White, a difeafe in (hcep of the more violent flux
kind, fuppofed to originate in confequence of their feeding
upon putrefcent vegetable food, efpecially that of the (hells
cf fuch turnips as have been left upon the feeding grounds.
In thefe cafes, it has been advifed to give two or three large
fpoonfuls of the following mixture, every two or three days ;
the difeafed fheep being feparated from the reil of the flock.
Take of finely powdered and fifted bay-falt, half a pound,
and diflolve it in good old verjuice, one pint ; to which add
of good common gm half a pint ; mixing the whole of them
well together.

And in order to facilitate the removal of the difeafe, the
fheep fhould be put upon good dry food, in an upland paf-
ture. See Sheep.

SCOURING in Cows, a difeafe in thefe animals of
the flux kind, in which there are frequent liquid dejefliona
from the intellines, proceeding from irritation, the excre-
ments, according to Downing, being flimy, bilious, or black ;
fometiir.es they are limpid and fluid, like water cad out ;
at other times they are frothy, greafy, and mixed with a
fat clayifh coloured fubftance. This diforder is generally
attended with a bad appetite, a weak deprefled pulfe, harfli
dry fltin, dull cotintenance, and fomething of a flow fever.
This difeafe is fo obvious, that it needs no further de-
fcription ; for the copious evacuation of the excrements,
and many other figns, make it evident to the knowledge of
every perfon. And he fuppofes, that the firft ttage of it
is a companion of the joint yellows, and may be traced out
to the fatisfailion of any one who will take the trouble to
open any animal that dies of this diforder.

According to others it affefts oxen as well as cows,
and arifes from want of fufficient food, both in quality
and proportion ; from being overheated or overworked ; by
feeding on wet unvvholefome fog or after-grafs ; by not be-
ing lodged in dry fituations ; fometimes from giving them
too large a quantity of cut hay or ftraw, hotter than their
natural temperature ; though it is fometimes a conftitu-
tional taint, and in cows is caufed by their taking cold
■while calving. But whatever be the caule, as foon as it
begins to appear it will be neceflary to houfe the bead,
and put it to dry food, which, in early ftages of the dif-
eafe, often effefts a cure. But in this cafe Mr. Downing
advifes the following :

Take of mutton fuet, one pound ; oil of turpentine, four
ounces ; boil thefe together in three quarts of milk till the
fuet is diflolved, and give it at night milk-warm ; and the
next morning give the following medicine :

Take pomegranate powder, eight ounces ; logwood in
powder, two ounces ; new pipes pounded, two ounces ;
Peruvian bark in powder, two ounces ; roch alum in pow-
der, fix ounces : mix them together, to be given in two
quarts of old jle or urine, and repeated every other day.
The beail fhould fall two hours before and two after
taking the medicine. He afterwards has recourfe to crab
verjuice, in the quantity of a pint, for feveral mornings.
And alfo the following. Take calcined oyder-fliells in
powder, four ounces ; ditto pipe-clay, one ounce ; oak-bark
powder, two ounces ; grains of paradife, one ounce ; roch
alum, one ounce. Mix thefe together for one dofe, to be
given in a quart of old beer and a pint of red wine, or in
three pints of oak-dip from the tan-pits.

But others advife half a pound of grofsly pulverized
tormentil root, to be boiled in two quarts of water till re-
duced to one quart, then draining it off, and adding a

SCO

quart of red wine, a quarter of a pound of finely powdered
chalk or whiting, and two ounces of diafcordium, without
honey. The mixture fliould be preferved in a bottle, and
occalionally well fliaken together, making it lukewarm be-
fore it is given. The dofe is half a pint, given three times
in the day, at equididant penods. Or half a pound of
pulverized common chalk may be boiled in two quarts of
water, till diminifhed to three pints, then adding four ounces
of hartdiorn fliavings, and one ounce of cafiia, dirring the
whole carefully. When cold, two drachms of tinii^ure of
opium, and one pint of lime-water, may be added ; the
whole being kept clofely dopped in a bottle, and well
fliaken before it is ufcd : the dofe is one or two horns-ful
in the day.

Scouring in Calves, adifeafetowhich they are very fubjeft
at an early period, being often caufed by improper manage-
ment in putting them too foon to the teat, or letting them
remain too long at it. It is alfo fometimes caufed oj too
frequently changing the milk.

But in order to cffeA a cure, it has been advifed to rew
drift the calf in the quantity of its food, giving a hard
boiled ig'g, made fine by chopping, in a drench, the liril
thing in the morning. Chalk powdered and mixed up with
flour into balls with gin has alio been recommended as ufe-
ful and fafe in thefe cafes, by a writer in the Annals of
Agriculture.

In Eflex, fome farmers have found the following remedy
almod infallible. Two tea-fpoonfuls of rhubarb in fine
powder, and a table-fpoonful of peppermint water, kneaded
well together. If once giving of this does not dop the
complaint, a fecor.d dofe is given, with a little red port
wine added to it, which molUy completes the cure. In
one cafe an apparently dying calf was redored by the ufe
of this medicine.

Powdered chalk given in their troughs, with the barley
meal for fattening them, is found to have a good efFeft in
this intention, as well as in other ways.

And a decoftion of calcined chalk, hartfliom fliavingSt
and a little coarfcly pounded caffia, with a very fmall quan-
tity of the tindure of opium, will modly be found of
great benefit in cafes of this nature, when given to the ex-
tent of from two or three to five or fix table-fpoonfuls once
or twice in the courfe of the day.

Scouring in Lambs, &c. a difeafe which is common to
them in many places, but efpecially to thofe which have
been fent to winter on the hills from the Romney-marfll
lands in the fouthcrn part of the kingdom. Thofe alfo
which continue in the Marfli during the fame feafon, are
liable to be attacked with the complaint on the approach
of Ipring. Sheep which are weakened in their conditu-
tions, and have experienced a quick tranfition from poor,
low, to rich, full keep, are the mod fubjeft to be affefted.
Likewife when they are firll Brought upon the mardi-lands
in the early fpring, particularly when moid warm weather
fucceeds to keen frods, though it often fliews itfelf at other
times of the year, as already noticed. The writer of the
Romney-marfll flieep-grazing fydem remarks, that the
farmers there confider it falutary, and believe that the fheep
fatten more quickly after it : but he fuggeds, that when it
is long continued, the powers of their fydems mud be
greatly injured and reduced. In fuch cafes, the diforder
ought modly to be redrained and removed by having re-
courfe to dry food, and the ufe of fuitable remedies. The
above writer has had twenty lambs attacked with it in a
feafon, and not being able to learn them to eat hay, fuc-
ceeded in faving mod of them, by means of giving them an
adringent cordial drink, with a fmall portion of opium, and

turning

SCO

turning tViem upon dry, found, old, artificial pafture-land.
But three of the number, to which fuet boiled in milk had
been ^iven, all died. Tar mixed with the finely powdered
lime of an old wall, and formed into fuitable balls, is faid,
in feme inftances, to prove an effeftual remedy for this
complaint.

On the whole it is thought, that as the diforder evidently
■irifes either from cold, moilture, and poor food, or from
■veakly flneep being fuddenly put upon too rich keep, the
molt proper and rational method of removing the affeftion is,
in the firft circumitances, to turn the fheep immediately into
a new warm paiUire, and fupply them well with frefli good
hay, &c. ; and in the latter cafe, to put them upon found old
fward land. In fupport of this praftice, a flieep farmer in
the fame neighbourhood aflerts, that he conftantly keeps hia
wether lambs on or near to the above Marfli, and that he
never has any of his flock aflfefted with the difeafe ; which
he imputes to the allowing of them old grafs upon the land.
The grounds are warm, and well flieltered by trees and
fences.

Scouring, Preventative Remedies, for Horfes, fuch as are
given to work and other horfes, as well as occafionally to
other forts of live-ftock, for the purpofe of preventing the
occurrence of difeafe in them. The incautious and indif-
criminate ufe of remedies of this nature among horfes and
other cattle has been the caufe of much lofs and mifchief.
Animals by no means Hand fo frequently in need of medi-
cines of this fort as has been fuppofed, though they may
fometimes have occafion for them. The (late and circum-
ftances of the animals, with a full knowledge of the man-
ner in which they have been kept, and the labour or exer-
cife which they have had, will, with due difcrimination
and judgment in the perfon who has the care of them,
moRiy belt point out when they may be necellary and ufe-
ful ; and when, on the contrary, improper and hurtful.
Calomel and aloes are probably the mod proper fubftances
to be generally employed in this way, though others of the
purging kinds may fometimes be joined with them to pro-
mote their operation with much advantage and effeft. How-
ever, from the natural motion of the bowels of horfes being
flow, and the length of (he inteftinal canals great, unlefs
the (limulant purgative power of the fubitance continues
for fome time after it has pafled from the itomach, no effedl
will be produced upon them. This accounts for the failure
of fuch remedies in many cafes. Yet on the fame grounds,
it may naturally be fuppofed, that a powerful dofo of fucli
medicines may increafe this aftion in fuch a manner, and
propel the contents of the bowels in fo forcible a degree,
as to produce great pain, inflammation, or other mifchief,
which may either kill the animal or greatly injure it, as it
frequently exemplified.

Confequcntly, in every cafe where the flrength and the
ftatc of the animal are not well known, the bcft method may
be to begin with giving not too large dofes of remedies of
this nature, but increafing them afterwards where found
necoflary. In this way tlicre will be every advantage
fecurcd, without the danger of injury being done.

Such horfes as are newly taken up into warm ftablcs
from cold expofed fituations, will often Itand in need of
one or two gentle dofes of this kind. But horfes employed
in team labour, or hard work of other forts, will very feldom
require fuch afliftance. It may, iiowevcr, be occafionally
ufefnl. Swellings of the legs, inflamm.itions of the eyes,
coughs, and colds, arifing from the fuddcn change of tem-
perature, may in many cafes be prevented, by rendering
the ftables more open and airy on the horfes being firK
taken up into them, cfpeci.iUy if they be clofe and warm.

SCR

Strong young horfes moilly require a few dofes on their
firfl; coming into the ftablc, but by no means fo many as
are ufually given. Horfes too, after being long foiled on
green food, fometimes are the better for fuch remedie?.
Alfo fuch as have fwelled and cracked heels from high
feeding and too much inadion. There may be fome other
cafes in which fuch remedies are beneficial, but they are
only few, as it is not at all neceffary to have recourfe to
them in that general way which is commonly imagined.

The moll ufual, and probably the bell mode of giving
fuch remedies, is that of letting the animal have the calomel
ballj in the evening, and thofe of the aloe kind in the
morning, fo as to work them off in fome meafure.

From one drachm to two drachms, in proportion to the
ftrength of the animal, of the firll or calomel, with half
an ounce of fome aromatic powder, made up with treacle
or honey, will form a proper ball for the evening dofe.
And from half an ounce to one ounce, according to the
ftate of the animal, of finely powdered Barbadoes aloes,
with two drachms of powdered ginger, made up in the
fame way, will form a fuitable morning ball in this in-
tention.

Proper maflies and feeds, with fuitable work or exercife,
and grooming, are to be had recourfe to at the fame time.
The fpace of eight or ten days (hould always elapse before
the dofes are repeated.

SCOURINGS, among Farriers, fuch gentle purgei
as preferve horfes from noxious humours.

SCOUTS, ill Military Language, are generally horfe-
men fent out before, and on the wings of an army, at the
diilance of a mile or two, to difcover the enemy, and give
the general an account of what they obferve.

SCOUZIE Head, in Geography, a cape of Scotland,
on the E. coaft of the county of Caithnefs ; ^ miles S. of
Duncanfby Head. N. lat. 58*^ 31'. W. long. 2^ 25'.

SCOW, in Agriculture, a term ufed by farmers to fig-
nify the (heath of a horfe.

SCOWBEGAN Falls, in Geography, falls which boats
cannot pafe, in the Kennebeck river, in the Hate of Mainei
North America, near the town of Canaan.

SCRABY, orScRABA, a fmall poft^ and fair-town of the
county of Cavan, Ireland, near Lough Gawnah ; 60 milcj
N.W. from Dublin, and 7 N.W. by W. from Granard.

SCRAPER, an inltrument ufed in mezzotinto engrav-
ing, formed much in the manner of a knife, except that
the edge is llraight till near tlic point, and there Hopes off
at an angle from both fides ; the lines of which flopcs meet-
ing form another angle of the point ; but the Hope on one
fide is much longer than that of the other.

SCRAPING in Mixzotlnlo. See MezzotistO.

ScRAl'INC, in Naval Language, is the aift of (having off
the dirty Turface of the plank, in a fliip's fide or decks,
particularly after a voyage, or wlien the feams have been
covered with a new compofition of melted pilch or rofiiu
The inltrument with which this is performed is called a
fcraper.

SCRATCH, in the language of the falt-workers of
our country, the name of a cnlcareou'!, earthy, or (lony
fubftance, which feparatcs from fca-watcr in boiling it for
fait.

This forms a thick cruft in a few dayi on the fides and
bottoms of the pans, which they are forced to be at the
pains of taking oft' once in a week cr ten days, other-
wife the pans burn away and arc dellroyed. (See Salt.)
This is no other than the lame fubitance which cruft»
over the iiifides of our tea-kettles, and is truly a fpar,
fuilained more or lef» in all water, and fcparablc from it by
P 2 ' boiling-

SCR

S C K,

boiling. The (hells of fea-fi(h have great affinity in their
fubftance and nature with this, both being powerful alkalies,
and both ealily calcining into lime.

The magnefia alba, fo celebrated in Germany for its
mild purgative and alkaline virtues, feems very nearly allied
to this earth ; and it is probable, according to Hoffmann,
that the purging virtues of many fprings are owing to the
quantities they contain of this fubltance.

SCRATCHES, among Farriers, a diftemper incident
to horfes, confilling of dry fcabs, chops, or rifts, that
breed between the heel and the paftern joint.

There are various kinds of fcratches, diftinguilhed by vari-
ous names, as crepances, rat-tails, mules, kibes, pains, &c.
which are all fo many fpecies of the fame malady, engen-
dered from fome hot humours falling on the legs, or from
the fumes of the bealt's own dung lying under his heels,
or near them, or for want of rubbing his heels, efpccially
after a journey, from over-hard riding, &c.

The diforder begins firll with dry fcabs in the pallern
joint, in feveral forms. It is known by the Itaring, dividing,
and curling of the hair on the part. For the cure of this
diforder, fee Grease.

In order to prevent it, the heels (hould be kept fupple
with curriers' dnbbmg, which is made of oil and tallow :
by ufing: this precaution before exercife, and wafhing the
heels with warm water when the horfe comes in, the fcr3tche9
will be prevented.

SCRATCHPANS, in the Engliih SaU-Worh, a name
given to certain leaden-pans, which are ufually made about
a foot and a half long, a foot broad, and three inches deep,
and have a bow, or circular angle of iron, by which they
may be drawn out with a hook, when the liquor in the pan
is boil:ng See Salt.

Tile ufe of thefe pans is to receive the fcratch ; and thefe
pans being placed at the corners of the falt-pan, where the
heat is leall violent, catch it as it fubfides there.

SCRATCH-WORK, Soraffiata, a way of paint-
ing in fre co, bv preparing a black ground, on which is
laid a white plaller ; which white being taken off with an
iron bodkin, the black appears through the holes, and ferves
for fhadows.

This kind of work is lading; but being very rough, it
is unpleafant to the fight. It is chiefly ufed to embellifh
the fronts of palaces, and other magnificent buildings.

SCRAWLY, in Agricuhure, a term provincially figni-
fying thi'i and ravelled as grain.

SCREAMER, in Ornithology. See Palamadea.

SCREEN, an inftruraent for keeping off the wind, or
the heat of the fire.

Screen is alfo ufed for a frame of laths to fift earth,
fand, gravel, &c.

Screen, or Screen- Machine, in yfgrica/ture, a fimple con-
trivance, invented for the piirpofe of clearing grain of dif-
ferent kinds, of various injurious forts of feeds, by pafling
it through it. It confifts of a wooden frame, which has
ledges o;i the fides, with a fort of hopper in the upper part
of it, to which is attached a kind of valve, that moves to
fultable diltaiices by means of a fcrew, for letting proper
quantities of grain pafs down upon a fquare wire fieve,
which is fixed btlow in the frame, and communicates with
the hopper in fome meafure. The fcreen ftands up in a
floping pofition by means of a leg, that draws out behind
it, and which is commonly regulated by a cord, while the
operation of fcreening or clearing the grain is going on.
It is a very ufeful and convenient machine on fmall arable
farms, but on large ones the work is now ufually done
hf a fotnewhat fitcilar contrivance in the thrcflung ma-

chine, while that is going on with it. See Threshing
Machine.

ScREES-Fences, fuch fences as are ralfed for the pur-
pofe of affording (heiter from wind"!, lloriiis, &c. The writer
of the trait on improving landed eitates fuggelts, that for
the purpofe of (belter to pafturing (lock, a tall impervious
fence is nearly equal to a depth of coppice-wood, and infi-
nitely preferable to an open grove of timber-trees ; befidcs
its additional ufe as a fence, or means of inclofnre. And
that there appears to him to be only one kind of fence
which is properly adapted to this purpofe, which is that
of the coppice mound hedge of Devon(hire and South
Wales ; and which confifts in a high wide bank or mound
of earth, planted with coppice-woods. This becomes, im-
mediately on its ereftion, a (belter, and a guard to pailure-
grounds round which it is formed.

And in refpcc\ to the method of forming fences with this
intention, it is that of carrying up long piles of earth, be-
tween two fod-facings, battering, or leaning fomewhat in-
ward, to the required height ; and pianting on the top the
roots and lower (tems of coppice-plants, gathered in woods
or on watte grounds, or with nurlery plants adapted to the
given fituation. If the mound be carried to a full height,
as five or fix feet, and about that width at the top, and this
be planted with Itrong plants, with llems cut off about two
feet above the roots i^in the ufual practice of Dcvonihire), a
lulficient fence is thus immediately formed againlt ordinary
(tock ; but if the bank be lower, or if nurfery plants be put
in, a flight guard run along the outer brink, on either fide,
and leaning outward over the face of the mound, is, he ob-
ferves, required (efpeclally againlt Iheep), until the plants
get up. But where a hedge of this kind is ralfed as a plant-
ation.fence, (elpecially on the lower fide of a (lope,) the
outer fide only requires to be faced with fods ; the hedge-
plants being fet in a rough (helving bank, on the inner fide
of the fence.

Further, with refpeA to the fpecies of hedge-woods pro-
per for mound fences, they depend entirely, he thinks, on
the foil and fituation. On mounds of bad foil, in a bleak
fituation, he has leen the furze alone affording much (heiter,
and a good fence. The fides being kept pruned, fo as to
(hew a clofe firm face rifing above the top of the bank, it
was a fecure barrier, even againft the wilder breeds of Wel(h
fheep. The beech is commonly planted in high expofed
fituations ; and in places more genial to the growth of wood»
the hazel, the a(h, and the oak are the ordinary plants of
hedge mounds. The willow tribe have a quality which
recommends tliem in fituations where they will flourilh ; they
grow freely from cuttings, or truncheons fet in the ground ;
whereas to fecure the growth of ordinary coppice- woods,
rooted plants are required. The fallow (J'alix caprea) will
grow in high and dry fituations, in a m^Lii^-r fo as to be
ufeful in this fort of bufinels. And It may be further no-
ticed In regard to this defcription of fences, that on thin
foiled (tony furfaces, tall mounds are difRcult to raife ; and,
there, ftone walls are not only built at a fmall expence,
but are convenient receptacles for the (tones with whi^h the
foil is encumbered. But a Hone wall, unlefs it be carried up
to an inordinate height, at a great expence, is, he conceives,
ufelels as a fcreen-fence, and is faid to be dangerous as fuch
in a bleak, expofed fituation ; for as loon as the drifting
fnow has reached the top of the wall, on the wir.dward fide,
it pours over it, and inevitably buries the (heep which may
be feeking for (heiter, on the leeward fide. It is therefore
conceived, that it is neceliary that a (tone fence (hould be
backed with a fcreen-plantation, in order to rend«r it more
fafe and effectual for the purpofe.

10 It

SCR

SCR

It may be remarked, that thefe forts of fcreen-fences ftiould
be more attended to by the proprietors of land in all expofed
fituations, as they have much efFeft in promoting the im-
provement of different forts of live-ilock in fuch expolures.

ScR&ES-Plantations, and Planting, a term fometimcs ap-
plied to fuch belts, clumps, or hedges, as are planted with
a view of affording (helter in expofed fituations. And Mr.
Marfhall, in his work on " Landed Property," confiders
the effeft of fuch plantations, not merely that of giving
ihelter to the animals lodging immediately beneath them ;
but likewife in breaking the uniform current of the wind ;
(hattering the cutting blafts, and throwing them into eddies ;
thus meliorating the air to fome diitance from them. And,
moreover, he is of opinion, that living trees communicate
a degree of aftual warmth to the air which envelopes them.
It is at leaft, he thinks, a probable truth, that where there
is life there is warmth, not only in animal but in vegetable
nature. The feverelt froit rarely affefts the fap of trees ;
it confequently appears to him, that trees and fhrubs, pro-
perly difpofed in a bleak fituation, tend to improve the
lands fo fituated in a threefold way for the purpofes of
agriculture : namely, by giving Ihelter to itock, by break-
ing the currents of winds, and by communicating a degree
of warmth or foftnefs to the air in calmer weather, or when
the feafons are more mild.

Beiides, it is faggefted that the proper difpofal of fcreens
in this intention, is in lines acrofs the moft offenfive winds,
and in fituations bell calculated to break their force. Placed
acrofs vallies, dips, or more open plains in bleak expofures,
they may, he fuppofes, be of Angular ufe ; and alfo on the
ridges, as well as on the points and hangs of hills, and other
elevated places.

And in regard to the width of fuch fcreens, they ought
generally, he thinks, to be regulated by the value of the land
for agricultural ufes, and the advantages of the fituation for
the fale and delivery of timber. In ordinary cafes, it is con-
ceived that from two to four ftatute poles may mollly be
confidered as an eligible width for fuch purpofes. With
refpe£t to the nature or fpecies of plants which are molt
fuitable, they muft conftantly be adapted to the given foil
and fituation. Mr. Marfhall thinks, that in bleak and barren
fituations the larch will generally be found the moft pro-
fitable as timber. But being deciduous, it does not in
winter afford fo much flielter as the common fir. A fcreen
to Ihelter live-llock fhould be clofe at the bottom : it is
otherwife injurious rather than beneficial. Not only the
blaft acquires additional current, but fnow is liable to be
blown through, and to be lodged in drifts on the leeward
fide, to the annoyance and danger of (luep that have re-
paired to it for fhelter. A larch plantation margined with
firs, and thefe headed at twelve or fifteen feet high, would,
he fuppofes, afford the required fhelter for a length of years.
Tiie firs, thus treated, would be induced to throw out
lateral boughs and feather to the ground ; while the larches,
in their more advanced ilate of growth, would, by permit-
ting the winter's winds to pafs through the upper part of
the fcreen, break the current and mellow the blaft, and in
this way a complete (helter be provided ; but in other more
genial fiuiatronB. the beech, by retaining its leaves in winter,
«fpecially while it is young, forms a valuable fcreen. And
that, if the outer margins were kept in a ftate of coppice-
wood, and cut alternately, and the middle ranks fuffen d to
rife as timber-trces, the triple purpofe of fcreen-plantations
■night, he imagines, be had in an eminent degree, and ainioll
in perpetuity, with but little trouble. And in deep-foiled,
talc diflrifts, which not unfrcquently want fhelter, fcreens of
•ak might, he conceives, be managed in a Cmxlar way : and

hollies, or other hardy evergreen^^, planted as underwood in
groves of either of the above defcriptions, would, if fuitable
fituations were afTigned to them, he fuppofes, afiiil much in
this intention, efpecially where proper care was taken in
planting and protecling tliem.

I'his fort of plantation, when firft formed, fhould always
be well fuited to the nature of the expolure, both in refpeft
to the kinds of the trees and plants which are made ufe of
for the purpofe, and the fpace or extent of the planting
which will be neceflary for effefting tlie bufincfs. In com-
mon, narrow flipa never anfwer the intention in any perfect
manner, as the trees neither rife well, nor afford the fhelter
which IS wanted in fuch cafes. See Shelter.

ScKEK}i-Bulihead, in Ship- Building, the after-bulkhead
under the round-lioufe, when the fhip has a walk, or balcony.

SCREW, or Scrub, Cochlea, in Mechanics, one of the
fix mechanical powers ; chiefly ufed in prefling or fqueezing
bodies clofe, though fometimes alfo in raifiug weights. See
Mechanical Powers.

The fcrew is a right cylinder, as A B (P/a/^ XXXVIII.
Mechanics, Jig. I . ) furrowed fpiral-wife ; it is generated by the
equable motion of a right line F G (Jig. 2.) around the fur-
face of a cylinder ; while, at the fame time, the point I de-
fcends equably from F towards G. Or, it may be conceived
to be made by cutting a piece of paper into the form of an
inclined plane, or half-wedge, and then coiling it round a
cylinder ; fo that its adtion depends on the fame principle*
as that of an inclined plane. Tiie force tending to turn the
fcrew round its axis may be confidered as applied horizon*
tally to the bale of the wedge, and the weight which is to be
raifed as acting vertically on its inclined furface : the cir-
cumference of the cylinder will reprefent the horizontal
length of the wedge ; and the difla.icc between the thread*,
meafured in the direftion of the axis, w ill be its height, pro-
vided that the threads be fingle ; confequently, the force*
required for the equilibrium are to each other, as the height
of one Ipire to the circumference of the fcrew. But befide*
thefe forces, it is neceflary that fome obftacle be prefent,
which may prevent the body, on wliicli the fcrew atls, from
following it in its motion round its axis ; otherwife there can
be no equilibrium. If the furrowtd fuiface be convex, the
fcrew is faid to be male; if concave, it \s Jemale.

Where motion is to be generated, the male and female
fcrew are always joined ; that is, whenever the fcrew is to
be ufid as a fimple engii'e, or mechanical power ; and when
thus fitted togetlur, thty are fometimes called a fcrew and a
nut. The nut afts on the fcrew with the fame mechanical
power as a linglc point would do, fince it only divides the
preflure among the different parts of the fpire. When joined
with an axis in peritrochio, there is no oecafion for a fe-
male ; but in that cafe it becomes part of a compound
engine.

The fcrew cannot properly be called a fimple machine, be-
caufe it is never ufid without the application of a lever, or
winch, to affifl in turning it. Sometimes the fpires of a
fcrew are made to aft on the teeth of a wheel, when a very
flow motion of the wheel, or a very rapid motion of the
fcrew, is required for the purpofes of the machine.

Screw, Dctlrine of the. i. If, as the compafs, dcfcribfd
by the power in one turn of the fcrew, is to ilic interval or
diftance between any two immediate threads, or fpiral wind-
in-.^s, as B I (meafured according to the length of the fcr»w),
fo is the weight or refiltance to the power ; then the power
and the refiflancc will be equivalent one to the other ; and,
confequently, the power being increafed, fo as to counteract
the friftion of the fcrew, wMiich is very confiderable, will
overcome the refiltance. For it 14 etidcut, that m ooo turn

SCREW.

af the fcrew, the weight is fo much lifted up, or the refiftance
fo much moved, or the thing to be prefted is fqueezed fo
much clofer together, as is the diftance between two imme-
diate fpirals ; and in the fame time, the power is fo much
moved, as is the compafs defcribed by the faid power in one
turn of the fcrew. Wherefore the velocity of the weight
(or whatfoever anfwers thereto) will be to the velocity of
the power, as is the faid diftance between the fpirals to the
compafs defcribed by the power, in one revolution or turn-
ing round of the fcrew ; fo that the gaining in power is here
recompenfed by the lofs in time.

2. As the diftance between two threads, B I, is lefs ;
the power required to overcome the faid refiftance is lefs ;
therefore the finer the thread, the eafier the motion.

3. If the male fcrew be turned in the female, at reft,
a lefs power will be required to overcome the refiftance, as
the lever or fcytala C D {Jig. 3.) is the longer.

4. The diftance of the power from the centre of the fcrew,
C D, the diftance of the two threads I K, and the power to
be apphed in D, being given, to determine the refiltance
it will overcome : or, the refiftance being given, to find the
power necefTary to overcome it.

Find the periphery of a circle defcribed by the radius C D ;
then to the diftance between the two threads, the periphery
juft found, and the given power ; or, to the periphery found,
the diftance of the two threads I K, and the given refiftance,
find a fourth proportional. This, in the former cafe, will
be the refiftance that will be overcome by the given power ;
and, in the latter, the power iieceftary to overcome the re-
fiftance.

E. gr. Suppofe the diftance between the two threads, 3,
the diftance of the power from the centre of the fcrew C D,
25, and the power 30 pounds ; the periphery of the circle
to be defcribed by the power, will be found 157. There-
fore, as 3 : 157 ;: 30 : 1570, the weight to which the
refiftance is equal.

5. The refillance to be overcome by a given power being
given ; to determine the diameter of the fcrew, the diltance
of the two threads I K, and the length of the fcytala, or
handle : the diftance of the threads, and the diameter of the
fcrew, may be an"umed at pleafure, if the male be to be
turned in the female by a handle. Then, as the given power
is to the refiftance it is to overcome, fo is the diftance of the
threads to a fourth number, which will be the periphery to
be defcribed by the handle C D, in a turn of the fcrew.
The femidiameter of this periphery, therefore, being fought,
we have the length of the handle C D. But if the female
fcrew be to be turned about the male, without any handle,
then the periphery and femidiameter found will be very
nearly thofe of the fcrew required.

E. gr. Suppofe the weight 6000, the power 100, and
the diftance of the threads 2 lines ; for the periphery to be
pafled over by the power, fay 100 : 6000 :: 2 : 120 ; the
femidiameter of which periphery being Jd of 120=^.40
lines, will be the length of the handle, if any be ufed ;
otherwife the fide of the female fcrew muft be 40 lines.
Mr. Hunter has defcribed a new method of applying the
fcrew with advantage in particular cafes. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxi. part i. p. 58, &c.

A cylindrical fcrew is bored, and made at the fame time
a tubular fcrew, with a little difference in the diftances of
the threads, fo that when it is turned within a fixed nut, it
rifes or finks a little more or lefs than the internal fcrew,
which perforates it, would rife or fink by the aftion of its
own threads ; and a weight attached to this internal fcrew
afcends, in each revolution, only through a fpace equal to
the difference of the height of. the two coils. Here the

machine is analogous to a very thin wedge, of which th?
thicknefs is only equal to the difference of the diftancee of
the threads, and which of courfe adls with a great mecha-
nical advantage. It might, in fome cafes, be more conve- 1
nient to make two cylindrical fcrews of difi^erent kinds, [
at different parts of the fame axis, rather than to perforate
it. The friAion of fuch machines is, however, a great im-
pediment to their operation.

Screw, Endlefs. If a fcrew be fo fitted as to turn a
dented wheel D F {Jig. 4. ) it is called an endlefs, or per.
petual fcreiu, becaufe it may be turned for ever, without
coming at an end. From the fcheme, it is evident enough,
that while the fcrew turns once round, the wheel only ad-
vances the diftance of one tooth.

ScREVf, DeSrine of the EnJ/eJs. I. If the power applied
to the lever, or handle of an endlefs fcrew A B, be to the
weight, in a ratio compounded of the periphery of the axis
of the wheel E H, to the periphery defcribed by the power
in turning the handle, and of the revolutions of the wheel
D F, to the revolutions of the fcrew C B, the power will be
equivalent to the weight.

Hence, I. As the motion of the wheel is exceedingly
flow, a fmall power may raife a vaft weight, by means of an
endlefs fcrew ; for this reafon, the great ule of the endlefs
fcrew is, either where a great weight is to be raifed through
a little fpace ; or, where a very flow gentle motion is
required. On which account it is very ufeful in clocks and
watches.

2. The number of teeth, the diftance of the power from
the centre of the fcrew A B, the radius of the axis H E,
and the power, being given ; to find the weight it will
raife.

Multiply the diftance of the power from the centre of
the fcrew A B, into the number of teeth : the produft is
the fpace of the power pafled through, in the time the
weight pafles through a fpace equal to the periphery of the
axis. Find a fourth proportional to the radius of the axis,
the fpace of the power now found, and the power. This
will be the weight which the power is able to fuftain. Thus, -
if A B = 3, the radius of the axis H E = i ; the power
100 pounds, number of teeth of the wheel D F 48 ; the
weight will be found 14,400; whence it appears, that the
endlefs fcrew exceeds all others in increafing the force of a
power.

A machine for (hewing the power of the fcrew, may be
contrived in the following manner. Let the wheel C (Jig. 5.)
have a fcrew a 6 on its axis, working in the teeth of the
wheel D, which we may fuppofe to be forty-eight in num-
ber. It is plain, that for every revolution of the wheel C,
and fcrew a b, by the winch A, the wheel D will be moved
one tooth by the fcrew ; and, therefore, in forty-eight revo-
lutions of the winch, the wheel D will be once turned
round. Then, if the circumference of a circle, defcribed
by the handle of the winch, be equal to the circumference
of a groove e round the wheel D, the velocity of the handle
will be forty-eight times as great as the velocity of any given
point in the groove. Confequently, if a line G goes round
the groove e, and has a weight of forty-eight pounds hung
to it below the pedeftal E F, a power equal to one pound
at the handle will balance and fupport the weight. To prove
this by experiment, let the circumferences of the grooves of
the wheels C and D be equal to one another ; and then, if a
weight H of one pound be fufpended by a line going round
the groove of the wheel C, it will balance a weight of forty-
eight pounds hanging by the line G ; and a fmall addition to
the weight H will caufe it to defcend, and fo raife up the
other weight. If the line G, inftead of going round the

groove

SCREW.

groove e of the wheel D, goes round its axle I, the power
of the machine will be as much increafed, as the circum-
ference of the groove e exceeds the circumference of the
axle ; and if we fiippofe it to be fix times, then one pound
at H will balance fix times 48, or 288 pounds hung to the
liue on the axle; and hence the power or advantage of
this machine will be as 288 to I ; i. e. a man, who by his
natural Itrength could lift a hundred weight, will be able to
raife 288 hundred, or 14^^ ton weight by this engine.
Fergufon's Mech. edit. 4to. p. 44.

Screw, Archimedes's, or the fpirnl pump, or as it is
called in Germany, the ivatcr /nail, is a machine for the
raifing of water, firll invented by Archimedes.

Its ftrudlure and ufe will be underitood by the foUowine
defcription of it. A B C D {P/ale XIV. Hydraulic'/,
Jig. II.) is a uheel, which is turned round, according to the
order of the letters, by the fall of water E F, which need
not be more tiian three feet. The axle G of the wheel is
elevated fo as to make an angle of about 44°, or between 45°
and 60°, with the horizon ; and on the top of that axle is
a wheel H, which turns fuch another wheel I of the iame
number of teeth ; the axle K of this lalt wheel being parallel
to the axle G of the two former wlieels. The axle G is cut
into a double-threaded fcrew (asinj^. 12.), exactly refem-
bling the fcrew on the axis of the fly of a common jack,
which mud be what is called a right-handed fcrew, like the
wood fcrews, if the firft wheel turns in the direftion
A B C D ; but it mult be a left-handed fcrew, if the ftream
turns the wheel the contrary way ; and the fcrew on the axle
G mull be cut in a contrary way to that on the axle K, be-
caufe thefe axles turn in contrary diredlions. Thefe fcrews
'mud be covered clofe over with boards, like thofe of a cy-
lindrical cafl< ; and then they will be fpiral tube?. Or,
they may be made of tubes of llii? leather, and wrapt round
the axle; in (hallow grooves cut therein, as in^. 13. The
lower end of the axle G turns conltantly in tne llream that
turns the wheel, aiid the lower ends of the fpiral tubes are
open into the water. So that, as the wheel and axle are
turned round, the water rifcs in the fpiral tubes, and runs
out at L through the holes M, N, as they come about
below the axle. Thefe holes, of which there may be any
number, as four or fix, are in a broad clofe ring on the
top of the axle, into which ring the water is delivered from
the upper open ends of the fcrew tubes, and falls into the
open box N. The lower end of the axle K turns on a
gudgeon, in the water in N ; and the fpiral tubes in that
axle take up the water from N, and deliver it into another
fuch box under the top of K ; on which there may be fuch
another wheel as I, to turn a third axle by fuch a wheel upon
it. And in this manner water may be raifed to any given
height, where there is a ftream fufficicnt for that purpofe to
adl on tlie brond float-boards of the firit wheel. Fergufon's
Mechanics, Supplement, p. 22.

An inllrument of a fimilnr nature is called by the Ger-
mans a water fcrew ; it confills of a cylinder with its fpiral
projeftions detached from the external cylinder or coating,
within wliicli it revolves. This machine might not impro-
perly be confidered as a pump, but its operation is prccifely
fimilarto that of the fcrew of Arcliimedes, It is evident
that fome lofs mull here be occafioned by the want of perfcdf
contact between tiie fcrew and Us cover ; in general, at Icsll
one-third of the water runs back, and the machine cannot
be placed at a greater elevation than 30 ' ; it is alio very eafily
clogged by accidental impurities of the water ; yet it has
been found to raiie more water than the fcrew of Archi-
medes, when the lower ends of both arc immerfed to a con-
fiderable depth ; fo that if the height of the furface of the

water to be raifed were liable to any great variations, the

water fcrew might be preferable to the fcrew of Archimedes.
P/n/« XIV. Hydraulics, Jig. 14.

When a ipiral pipe; confilting of miany convolutions, ar-
ranged either m a fiiigle plane, or in a cylindrical or conical
furface, and revolving round a horizontal axiii, is connefted
at one end by a water-tight joint with an afcending pipe, while
the other cud receives during each revolution nearly equal qua.i-
tities of air and water, the macliine is called a fpiral pump. It
was invented about 1746, bv Andrew Wirtz, apcwterer at
Zurich, and it ii faid to liave been ufed with great fuccefs at
Florence and in Ruflia : it has alio been employed in this
country by lord Stanhope ; and I have made trial of it (fay«
Dr. Young) for raifing water to a height of forty feet. The
end of the pipe is furnilhed with a fpoon, containing as much
water as will fill half a coil, which enters the pipe a little
before the fpoon hris arrived at its higheil fituation, the other
half remaining full of air, which communicates the preliure
of the column of water to the preceding portion, and in this
manner the effctt of nearly all the water in the wheel is
united, and becomes equivalent to that of the column of
water, or of water mixed with air, in the afcending pipe.
The air neared the joint is comprefled into a fpace much
fmaller than that which it occupied at its entrance, fo that
where the height is confiderable, it becomes advifcable to ad-
mit a larger portion of air than would naturally fill half the
coil, and this lelfens the quantity of water raifed, but it
lell'ens alfo the force required to turn the machine. The joint
ought to be conical, in order that it may be tightened when
it becomes loofe, and the prefTure ought to be removed from
it as much as poflible. The lofs of power, fuppofing the
machine well conttrufted, arifcs only from the friftion of
the water on the pipe, and the fridbon of the wheel on its
axis ; and wlicre a large quantity of water is to be raifed to a
moderate height, both of thefe refiilances may be rendered in-
confiderable. But when the height is very great, the length
of the fpiral mull be much increafed, fo that the weight
of the pipe becomes extremely cumberfome, and cauies a
great friction on the axi:!, as well as a ilrain on the machinery :
thus, for a height of 40 feet. Dr. Young found that the
wheel required above 100 feet of a pipe which was three
quarters of an incii in diameter ; and more than one half of
ilie pipe being always full of water, we have to overcome
the fridion of about 80 feet of fuch a pipe, which will re-
quire 24 times as much excefs of preffure to produce a given
velocity, as if there were no friction. The centrifugal force of
the water in the wheel would aUo materially impede its alcent
if the velocity were confiderable, fii;ce it would be always
poflible to turn it fo rapidly as to throw the whole water
back into the fpoon. Tlie machine which Dr. Young had
eredted being out of repair, lie thought it more eligible to
fubilitute for it a common forcing pump, than to attempt to
make any further improvement in it, under circumilances fo
unfavourable. But if the wheel with its pipes were entirely
made of wood, it might in many cr.fes iuceeed better : or
the pipes might be made of tinned cojjper, or even of carthctl-
ware, which might be cheaper and liglUer than lead. See
Jg. 15.

The centrifugal force, which is an impediment to the
operation of Wirlz's machine!,, has fi)nietinies been employed
together witii tlie preilure of the almoiplurc, as an imme-
diate agent in raiiir.g water, by means of tiie rotatory
pump. This maclune confills of a vertical pipe, cauled to
revolve round lis axis, and connected above w lili a horizontal
pipe, which is open at one or at both ends, the whole being
furninied with proper valves to prevent the cfcapc of the
water when the machine it at rell. At foon as the rota-

tlo»

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tion becomes fufficiently rapid, the centrifugal force of the
water in the horizontal pipe caufes it to be difcharged at the
end, its place being fupplied by means of the prelTure of
the atmofphere on the refervoir below, which forces the
water to afcend through the vertical pipe. It has alfo been
propofed to turn a machine of this kind by the counter-pref-
fure of another portion of water, in the manner of Parent's
mill, where there is fall enough to carry it off. This machine
may be fo arranged, that, according to theory, little of the
force applied may be loft ; but it has failed of producing in
praftice a very advantageous effeft. Young's Phil. vol. i.
See Centrifugal Machine, and Wheel.

Screw, Bed or Barrel, a powerful machine for lifting
heavy bodies ; and, when placed againft the gripe of a (hip
to be launched, for ftarting her. It confifts of two large
poppets, or male fcrews, having holes in their heads to admit
levers to turn therewith, a bed formed of a large oblong
piece of elm, with female fcrews near each end to admit the
poppets, and a fole of elm plank for the heels of the pop-
pets to work on. When ufcd for launching of (hips, the
furface of the fole is inclined fo as to (land fquare to the ftem
or gripe.

Hand-fcretvs, or jacks, double or fingle, are ufed by
hand to lift weighty bodies. It confifts of an elm box, con-
taining cogged iron wheels, of increafing powers. The
outer one, which moves the others, is put in motion by a
winch or handle on the outfide. They are called fingle or
double, according to their increafing force.

Screw, in the Manege. See Splent.

ScRZVi-Ptne, mBotanjf. See Pandanus.

ScREW-Shell, the Englifh name of the Turbo ; which fee.
See alfo Conchology.

ScRBW-Tree, in Botany. See Helicteres.

SCRIBE, Scriba, IQQ, Jopher, derived from "IQD'
faphar, numeravit, whence "IQQ, fepher, liber, a principal
officer in the Jewifh law, whofe bufinefs was to write and in-
terpret fcripture.

The Scribes, according to the etymological meaning of
the term, were perfons employed about books, writings,
numbers, or accounts ; in tranfcribing, reading, explaining,
«cc.

We find no mention of Scribes, in the Old Teftament,
before Ezra, chap. vii. 6, whence fome learned men have
concluded, that the office was brought from Chaldaea and
Aflyria, and firft eftabhihed by the Jews after their return
from the Babylonifh captivity. However, Ezra's being
called a Scribe, which was a general title given to men of
literature, will not prove the office of eccleliaftical Scribes,
as it occurs in our Saviour's time, to have been fo ancient.
It probably grew up by degrees, after the fpirit of pro-
phecy ceafed among the Jews ; for when they had no prophet
to refolve their doubts about doftrine or worfhip, they fell
into difputes, and fplit into feAs and parties ; which made
an order of men iicceffary, whofe proper bufinefs it (hould
be to iludy the law, that they might explain and teach it to
the people.

The Scribes were in great credit and efteem among the
Jews, and had even the precedency of the priefts and
facrificers.

The Scribes are referred by moft authors to two general
clalTes : vi%. civil, and ecclefiqftieal Scribes : the former were
employed about any kind of civil writings or records, and the
latter were fuch as addifted themfelves to ftudying, tran-
fcribing, and explaining the holy fcriptures. Of the civil
Scribes there were various ranks and degrees, from the com-
mon fcrivener, or public notary or fchoolmafter, to the prin-
cipal fecretary of ftate. As for the eccleftajlical Scribes,

they were the learned of the nation, who expounded the
law, and taught it to the people ; and they are, therefore,
fomet'met called vo/i(iJiS*T>caXoi, doHors of the laiu, or >o^ij<oi,
larvyers. Compare Matt. xxii. 35. with Mark, xii. 28.
Theie Scribes, who were generally Pharifees, were the
preaching clergy among the Jews ; and whilft the priefts at
tended the facrifices, they initriiCted the people. But
though the greateft part of the Scribes took part with the
Pharifees, and adhered to their opinions and tenets, as we
learn from the gofpel-hiftory, yet it is probable, from feveral
paffages of the New Teftament, that fome of them were of
the feft of the Sadducees. Some of the Scribes made it
their bufinefs to explain the traditions, wliich they called
the oral law, that is, the law dehverv d by ward of mouth,
which, as they pretend.-d, had been conveyed from Mofes
down to them, from generation to generation, by the tradi-
tion of the elders. They much refpectcd thefe traditions,
confidering them as the key of the law, and giving them the
preference to the law itfelf. Hence this blafphemous maxim ;
" the words of the Scribes are more lovely than the words
of the law of God." But it is evident, from the frequent
reproaches pronounced by our Saviour on the Scribes and
Pharifees in reference to this point, that under pretence of
explaining the law by their traditions, they had aftually made
it of no effect. Matt. xv. 2, 3, 6. Mark, vii. 7, 8, 9. The
Talmud will amply jnftify thefe reproaches.

Jof. Scaliger endeavours to eftablifh a diftinclion between
the Scribes t/f the people, referred to by Herod, Matt. ii. 4,
and the Scribes of the laiu- The former he confiders 1a
a fort of public notaries, who were employed in fecular
bufinefs ; the latter as preachers and expounders of the law.
But the phrafe, Scribes of the law, no where occurs in fcrip-
ture ; and the Scribes of the people, whom Herod confulted,
were applied to, on account of their (kilfin explaining fcrip-
ture prophecies. (Matt. xvii. 10.) And they were probably
called Scribes of the people, becaufe they were the Rated
and ordinary teachers of the people. (Mark, i. 22.) Ca-
mero obferves, that a key was dehvered to each Scribe, as a
badge of his office, when he firft entered upon it, to which
our Saviour may be fuppofed to allude, Luke, xi. J2.

Scribe, Scriba, was alfo the title of an officer among the
Romans, who wrote decrees or afts, and made out authentic
copies of them.

Every magiftrate had hhfcriba, or fecretary ; fo that there
werefcribif ndiUtii, pratorii, quiejiorii, Sec.

The fcriba were not admitted to the management of the
principal offices of the repubhc, unlefs they relinquifhed
their profeffion.

In the time of the emperors, they were alfo called notarii ;
becaufe they made ufe of abbreviations, and (hort notes, in
writing.

SCRIBING, in Joinery, Sec. aterm ufed, when one fide
of a piece of ftuff being to be fitted to the fide of fome other
piece, which la!t is not regular ; to make the two join clofe
together all the way, they fcribe it.

That is, they lay the piece of ftuff to be fcribed clofe to
the other piece they inland to fcribe to, and open their com-
pafles to the greateft diftance the two pieces any where ftand
from each other ; then, bearing one of the legs againft the
fide to be fcribed to, with the other point they draw a line
on the ftuff to be fcribed. Thus have they a line on the irre-
gular piece parallel to the edge of the regular one ; and if
the ftuff be wrought away exaftlyto the line, when the two
pieces are put together they will feem a joint.

SCRIBONIUS Largus, in Biography, a Roman phy-
fician, who lived in the reign of Claudius, and is faid to have
accompanied this emperor in his campaign in Britain. He

wrotf

SCR

wrote a treatife " De Compofitione Medicamentorum,"
which is very often quoted by Galen, and was " mcfl im-
pudently pillaged and tranfcribed" by Marcellus the em-
piric, accordmg to Dr. Freind. This work Scribonius de-
dicated to Julius Calliftius, the moft favoured of all the
freed-men of the emperor ; and he fpeaks of Mefl'aUna and
Claudius in a way which evinces that they were living at that
time. After giving the formula of a dentifrice, he adds,
" Meflalina Dei noftri Casfaris hoc utitur." Great faith
was, in that age, impofed in particular formulae, or combi-
nations of drugs, which were fuppofed to pofiefs peculiar
powrers of healing ; and it was the praftice of many phy-
iicians to keep their compofitions fecret. Scribonius, how-
ever, publilhed his collection, and exprefied great confi-
dence in their efficacy ; but many of them are trifling and
fovnided in fuperllition, and his praftice feems to have been
purely cm.pirical. His language, too, is fo much inferior in
point of elegance to that of Celfus, who had written but a
Ihort time before him, and to the general character which
the language Hill maintained in the reign of Claudius, that
lome learned men have fuppofed that Scribonius wrote his
work in Greek, and that it was tranflated into the Latin
drefs, in which it has defcended to us, by fome later hand.
Rhodius, however, and fome others, have Ihewn that his
language has the air of originality ; and it is remarked, that
in his dedication to Calliftius, he thanks the favourite for
having feized the opportunity of ferving him by prefenting
his medical works, turitten in Lntin, to the emperor :
" Scripta mea Latina medicinalia," It is remarkable, in-
deed, that two men, living about the fame time, flioidd
write their native language fo differently as Celfus and
Scribonius ; but the latter was probably a man of inferior
education. The farcafm of Fi"eindis, however, not far from
the truth. " Scribonius Largus, who cannot," he favs,
" well be reckoned any more than a mere empiric, though
he wrote in tlie time of the iiril Claudius, when the Roman
language was in lome tolerable degree of purity, ought, as
I may lay, to be tranflated into Latin, in order to be un-
dcrltood by thofe who are converfant only witli the cladics
of that age." The treatife of Scribonius has been feveral
times reprinted, and (lands among the " Medicos Artis Prin-
cipes" of Henry Stephens, 1567. See Freind's Hillory
of Medicine, vol. i. Sprengel, Gelchichte der Arznei-
kunde, ii. Thcil. Le Clerc, Hift. de la Medecine, p. 3.

SCRINLl, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Po, five miles N. of Tortona.

SCRIPTORIUM, a particular apartment in monaf-
terie-;, where writers were employed in tranlcribing copies
of works intended for prefervation ; and to their labour tiie
caufe of literfiture has been much indebted.

SCRIPTORIUS Calamus. See Calamus.

SCRIPTIIARY, among the Jews. See CARArrE>i.

SCRiPTULUM, among the Romans, llie twenty-
fourth part of an ounce, and equal to two oboli. See
OnoLus.

SCRIPTULUS, a word ufed by fome inftcad oi ftni-
puliu, a fcrnple, or weight of twenty grains.

SCRIPTURA, in yfrilifjuity, the name of the revenue
which the Roman people raifed upon the paiture-lands, of
which the [iroperty was in the commonwealth, and which
was farmed to particular pcrfons. It was fo called, becaule
tiie number of cattle, which individuals were to put into
thefe palluragcs, was regiftered ; and it was by that num-
ber the yearly fums which they engaged to i)ay were regu-
lated.

SCRIPTURE, or Scriptures. See Bim.F..

The colleftion of trafts, hys the learned and juftlv
Vol. XXXII.

SCR

efteemed fir William Jones, in his " eighth anniverfary dif-
courfe," (Works, vol. iii. p. 183, 8vo.) which we call
from their excellence " the fcriptures," contains, inde-
pendently of a divine origin, more true fublimity, more ex-
quifite beauty, purer morality, more important hiftory, and
finer ftrains both of poetry and eloquence, than could be col-
lefted within the fame compafs from all other books that
were ever compcfed in any age or idiom. The two parts, of
which' the fcriptures confill, are connedcd by a chain of
compofitions, which bear no refemblance in form or (lyle to
any that can be produced from the (lores of Grecian, Indian,
Perfian, or even Arabian learning ; the antiquity of thefe
compofitions no man doubts ; and the unilrained appli-
cation of them to events long fubfequent to their publication,
is a folid ground of behef, that they were genuine pre-
diftions, and confequently infpired. Our author, in a
fubfequent difcourfe, adds, that on the fuppoCtion, that
the firlt eleven chapters of the book, which it is thought
proper to call " Genefis," are merely a preface to the oldeft.
civil hiftory now extant, we fee the truth of them confirmed
by antecedent reafoning, and by evidence, in part highly
probable, and in part certain ; but the conneaion of the Mo-
Ja'ic hiftory with that of the Gofpel, by a chain of fubhme
prediftions, unqueftionably ancient, and apparently ful-
filled, muft induce us to think the Hebrew narrative more
than human in its origin, and confequently true in every fub-
ttantial part of it, though poffibly cxprelled in figurative
language ; as many learned and pious men have believed, and
as the moft pious may believe without injury, and perhaps
with advantage, to the caufe of revealed religion. If Mofes
then, fubjoins our author, was endowed with fupernatural
knowledge, it is no longer probable only, but abfolutely
certain, that the whole race of men proceeded from Iran,
or from a centre, whence they migrated at firft in their great
colonics (W2. Indian, Arabian, and Tartarian) ; and that
thefe three branches grew from a common ftock, which had
been miraculoiifly prefcrved in a general convulfion and ia-
undation of this globe.

ScRlPTUltE, Canon of. See Canon'.

Sdui'TUKE, Scoffing, l^c. at, is plinifhable by fine and
imprifonment. See Blasphemy.

SC RIVEN, in Geography, a county of America, in the
ftate of Georgia, containing 4477 inhabitants. Its chief
town is Jackfon-borough, containing 20 inhabitants.

SCRIVENER, one who lends money out at intereft ; it
is alfo ufed for one wlio draws contrafts.

Scriveners are mentioned in the ftatute againft ufury and
exccffive intereft of money. (12 Ann. cap. 6.) If a fcri-
vener is entruftcd with a bond, he may receive the intereft ;
and if he fails, the obligee fliall bear the lofs ; and fo it is if
he receive the principal, and deliver up the bond ; for being
entrufted with the fecunty itlelf, it (hall be prelumed ho is
entrufted with the power to receive the principal and intereft j
and the giving up the bond on payment of the money is a
difcharge thenof; but if a fcrivcncr be entrufted with a
mortgage-deed, he hath only authority to receive the in-
tercft, not the principal ) the giving up the deed in this
cafe not being fufficient to rellore the eftate, but there mutt
be a re-coiivc)ance, &c. Decreed in Chan. Hill. 7 Ann.
I Salk. 157.

SCRIVERIUS, Peter, in Biography, .m cftimable
man of letters, was born at Haerlem in 1576. He wa«
educated firft at Amfterdam, where he had an uncle in the
magiftracy, and then at Lcyden, with a view to the pro-
feffion of the law, but having a decided turn for literature,
he married and fixed his refidence at Lcyden, devoting hii
time to reading and writing. He became the editor ot
O many

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many ancient authors, which he illuftrated by comments of
his own : among thefe works were thofe of Vegctius, Frou-
tinus, Hyginus, Apuleius, Martial, and Seneca- the tra-
gedian. Scriverius wrote a work in the Dutch language on
the " Hidory of Printing," in which he maintained the
claim of Laurence Colter to the invention of that invaluable
art. He publilhed a colleftion of Batavian antiquities, and
other pieces relative to the early hillor\' of the united pro-
vinces. Scriverius, at the age of 74, loll the ule of his
eyes, but he continued to folace himfelf with literature tiU
his death in 1660. His funeral was attended by the uni-
verfity of Leyden in a body, and an eulogy was pronounced
over him by Frederic Gronovius. A colleftioH of pliilolo-
gical and poetical pieces from his MSS. was publilhcd at
Utrecht in 1737. Moreri.

SCROBICULUS Cordis, in Anatomy, the fmall dc-
preflion in the middle of the upper part of the abdomen,
juil over the enfiform cartilage. In common language it is
called the pit of the ftomach.

SCROBILUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
the Arabic gulf, which leparated the Heroopolitic and Ela-
nitic gulfs.

SCROFA, in Zoology. See Sus.

ScROFA, in Ichthyology. Sec ScoRP.TJNA.

ScROFA, in Entomology. See ScARAB.i;t;s.

SCROFANELLO,'in Ichthyology, a name by which
feme have called a fmall fl{h of the Mediterranean, more
ufually known by the name of the fccrpxna.

SCROFULA, or ScROPHULA, from s-zj.Sx, fwine,
called alfo^;-am<2, or the king's evil, in Surgery. The name
of fcrofula was derived from an opinion that fwine were par-
ticularly fubjeft to this difeafe. The fciofulous conftitution
is obferved to be, in many inilances, denoted by particular
fymptoms. The complexion is often fair, and the colour
of the hair either reddilh, or of fome other hght tint ;
people with dark complexions and black hair being much
lefs fubjeft to fcrofulous complaints. The fliin is remarkably
foft and white, and the face often has a fliinmg polifhed
fmoothnefs. The cheeks are in general florid ; and the
tunica albuginea is frequently of a dead white colour, and
more pale than ufual. The edges of the eye-lids are lome-
times affefted with a degree of tendernefs which eafily dege-
nerates into a troublefomc inflammation, that diftrcfles the
patient by its continuance, and produces a dilagreeable de-
gree of deformity. There is likewife frequently a iwelling
of the upper lip, with fome thickening of the noftrils and
point of the nofe. Ruflell on Scrofula, p. 8.

One of the moft frequent fymptoms of fcrofula is a fwell-
ing in the fuperficial lymphatic glands, efpecially in thofe
of the neck. Such glands fwell without any previous com-
plaint, and often attain a large fize before the fweUing at-
trafts notice. The fwellings are frequently unaccompanied
with pain or difcolouration ; a circumllance which favours
the conclufion that the inflammation attendant on fcrofulous
difeafe is flow, and the complaint of an indolent nature.

The frequency and great number of fuch tumours of the
lymphatic glands have led many furgeons to fuppofe fcrofula
to be altogether a difeafe of the lymphatic fyllem. Mr.
Ruflell, however, entertains doubts refpefting the accuracy
of the doftrine ; for he obferves that many other parts of
the body, which are not very glandular, are often the
primitive feat of fcrofula. It very frequently attacks the
joints of the extremities, the bones, and the mucous mem-
branes, without any previous or concomitant affeftion of
the lymphatic fyftem. Befides, it is to be recollefted that
the abforbent fyftem is not only liable to idiopathic attacks
of fcrofula, in common with the reit of the body, but is
4

likewife expofed to fuffer fymptomatically, in confequence
of the difpofition of the glands to fwell and inflame from any
caufe of irritation propagated along the courfe of the ab-
forbents ; and from this fource of error the commencem.ent
of fcrofula in the lymphatic fyltem may be fuppofed more
frequent than what the natural proportion of idiopathic
cafes w-arrant.

Scrofulous fwellings of the glands are often ftationary, or
at leall very (low in their progrefs of increafe or diminution.
The fame indolence and abfence of inflammatory fymptoms,
which charafterize fcrofulous fwellings of the lymphatic
glands, likewife diilinguifti fimilar affeftions in other parts of
the body. The commencement of the attack is, in general,
unperceived, and the progrefs flow ; though the tumefaftion
which follows is frequently very confiderable.

The greater number of fcrofulous afteftions are accom-
panied with a preternatural fwelling of the parts attacked.
The tumour is of two kinds, one remarkable for its foftnefs,
the other of a more firm confiftence. Soft fcrofulous
tumours are always formed by the effufion of a fluid, and it
may be remarked that they are fomewhat variable m their
fize, being one day more prominent and tenfe, the next more
funk and flaccid. When they are opened in the early ftate,
they arc found to contain nothing but a ferous fluid, which
lies in the cells of the cellular membrane. As the fluid is
not contained in one common cavity, the tumour has a foft
flabby feel, and imparts to the lingers of a furgical examiner
no diftintl fenfation, either of elaftijity or fluctuation.
But when the fluid has been for fome time eff^ufed, a llriking
difference occurs, a fluid lodged in a particular cavity now
being evidently perceptible. This change feems to proceed
from the deftruftion of the partitions which are between the
cells of the cellular fubftance. As thefe colleftions, how-
ever, are not accompanied with any ienfible degree ot in-
flammation, they are not furrounded with a firm, fohd, cir-
cumfcribed bafe ; and they do not betray any great tendency
to ulcerate the ikiB, and burlt of their own accord. Hence
they fometimes become very prominent, and the flcin is gra-
dually diltended to a furprifing degree.

The matter contained in fuch tumours alfo undergoes a
change. After a time, the more folid parts are depofited
in the form of little mafles, refembling coagulated milk.
The remaining portion of the fluid is rendered thinner, and
refembles whey. A quantity of purulent matter is alfo
formed on the internal furface of the cavity, which feems
to be attacked with a flow kind of inflammation. The
admixture of this purulent matter greatly changes the
appearance of the contents of the tumour, and they
now bear more refemblance to thofe of a common abfcefs.
They never acquire, however, exatlly the properties of
healthy purulent matter, being always thinner, more
tranfparent, and more of a greenilh colour.

Although the tendency to ulceration is not confiderable,
the ll<in at length gives way, and allows the matter to
efcape through a narrow opening. After the contents are
evacuated, the tumour fubfides ; but there being in general
little difpofition in the parts to heal, a fcrofulous fore is
ufually formed, which difcharges unhealthy matter, and con-
tinues open for an indefinite length of time.

The other more firm kind of fcrofulous fwelling always
increafes flowly, and moil commonly attacks the neighbour-
hood of joints. The affefted part enlarges, without ac-
quiring any circumfcribed determinate form. By degrees,
the tumour becomes foftcr, and at laft particular portions
near the furface become more prominent, inflame, fuppurate,
burlt, and difcharge matter. But as the fuppuration is
only partial, and the difchar^ inconfiderable, they have little

effea

SCROFULA.

■efFeft in diminiftiing the fize of the f welling, or in producing
any other change of importance. The only d'fferenct' oc-
cafioned is the addition of little ulcerations, which lead to
iiniifes, and emit matter.

A common abfccfs in a perfon of a fcrofulous conflitution
often exhibits appearances, which betray the dileafed Hate of
the fyllem. The matter firft fecreted is formed with extra-
ordinary rapidity ; the fwellmg is fomewhat more tranfpa-
rent ; the furface more fliining, and the colour of the tumour
more blue, than is obfervable in a cafe of healthy abfcefs.
Scrofulous abicelies alfo contain, before they hurfl, a larger
quantity of purulent matter, in relation to then- lize, than
common phlegmonic abfcefles. When abfcefles in fcrofulous
patients burll, an empty cavity is not left ; but there is feen a
mafs of cellular membrane apparently deprived of life. It
refembles wet cotton, and often feparates in the form of a
folid mafs. The feparation is effetled without pain. This
ilate of the cellular membrane bears fome remote analogv
to the death of the central parts in a carbuncle ; but it
differs from the latter difeafe by there being no malignity,
pain, nor danger.

The bones of fcrofulous people partake of the general
difeafe in the conllitution ; they feem to contain a fmaller
proportion of the phofphate of lime, and a larger one of
gelatinous matter, than what exilts in the compofition of a
healthy bone. They are alfo exceedingly fufceptible of
morbid aClion. The particular changes, however, induced in
the bones by fcrofnla, will be noticed in the articles Spime,
Ciiriiature of, and White Swelling.

With regard to fcrofulous ulcers, their margin is commonly
of a pale red or purplifh call, with a (hining furface ; the
edges in general thin ; and the furface of the lore funk fome-
what below the level of the furrounding parts. Thefe fores
are moftly attended but with a fmall degree of inflammation,
and little pain ; they are not very fenfible, and have no great
difpofition to (prcad. The matter difcharged from them is
vifcid, having very little colour, and often an offenfive fmell.
In confcquence of its vifcidity, it adheres to the furface of
the fore, and covers the granulations. It is to be obferved,
however, tliat fcrofulous ulcers fometimes affumc a more
malignant afpcft, having elevated indurated edges, and
fungous central granulations, accompanied with pain and an
ichorous difcharge. In thefe cafes, they may counterfeit
the appearance of cancerous ulcers ; but though the re-
femblance may be very impofing, we are in general able to
afcertain the real nature of the cafe, by tracing its hidory
from the commencement, and by infpcfting the red of the
patient's body with accuracy ; when the vefliges of former
fcrofulous fores, or other proofs of a fcrofulous conllitution,
offn manifeil theinfelves.

Scrofulous fores often continue to difcharge for a long
while, with very little change of appearance. In time,
however, they begin to heal, and, for tiie molt part, dry up
altogether at laft, 'leaving a very ugly red irregular cicatrix,
upon which [Me flcin feldom recovers its natural look.

In general, fcrofulous complaints are moll troublefome
in the Ipring, and get better towards the end of the fummer.
Rnlfcll on Scrofula.

Scrofula has always been confidered as an hereditary dif-
eale. Many well-informed men have thought the applica-
tion of the term, hendhary, to fcrofula, and indeed to dil-
eafes in general, exceedingly wrong, becaufc the alfeilions in
queftion do not regularly defcend from parents to children,
and fometimes attack perlons, none of whole relations are
known to have had fuch difeafcs. That there is truth in
thefe arguments mull not be difputed. But it is at the fame
time certain, that the children of fcrofulous parents arc much

more likely to be afFefted with fcrofula, than the offspring
of perfons who never have had any fymptoms of this
difeafe. The children of fcrofulous parents may, however,
remain during life free from every mark of the difeafe.
This fatt is not at all quellioned by fuch writers as employ
the term hereditary ; for the whole of their meaning is, that
fcrofulous parents more frequently have fcrofulous children,
than is the cafe with perfectly healthy parents. The ofF-
fpring of the former, however, are not certain of being
difeaied in this manner ; nor are the children of the latter
fure of not being fo.

Scrofula is undoubtedly not a contagious difeafe, nor can
it be communicated by contadl, or even inoculation. Kor-
tum tried to transfer fcrofula from one perfon to another
by inoculation ; but although he took great pains to inferl
the matter completely, and repeated the experiment fre-
quently, yet all his attempts failed, as no difeafe was com-
municated to the perfon inoculated, nor even any very evi-
dent irritation excited at the place where the matter was
inferted. De Vitio Scrofulofo, p. 218.

The proximate caufe of fcrofula is a fubjeft, concerning
which many conjedtures have been llarted ; but none that
appear to carry with them much probability. It is indeed
a quellion, that is at prefent not at all undcrflood.

Of all occafional caufes, fays Mr. Rullell, climate is the
mod powerful. The extremes of heat and cold are equally
free from fcrofula. It prevails mod in thofe cUmates, where
the atmofphere is perpetually loaded with cold vapours ;
where the feafons are variable, and no weather deady. From
latitude 45° or 50°, to latitude 60°, is the principal climate
of fcrofula. The climate of Scotland, which is witliin
this range, is remarkable for the frequent occurrence of
fcrofulous complaints. When the temperature of the air is
jud above tlie freezing point, the cold is the mod difficult
to bear, on account of tlie great quantity of watery vapours
which float in the atmofphere. A greater degree of cold
condenfes the aqueous vajjours, and renders tlic air clear ;
a greater degree of heat difperfcs them. Accordingly, it
is an univerfal obfervatioii, both in tlie torrid and the frigid
zone, that perfe<Sliy dry air, whether produced by great
heat, or great cold, always brings the moll healthy wea-
tiier. Mr. Dobfon, in his account of the barmallan wind,
which blows on the coall of Africa, and is fo warm and drj-
as to accomplilh the crydallization of ])urc alk.ili, obferves,
that all endeniial difeafes get well during the blowing of this
wind. Mr. Graham, likewife, who was long governor of the
Hudlon's Bay fadlory, fituated on the eall coall of America,
about the 60th degree of north latitude, makes nearly a
fimilar obfervation with rcfpedl to intcnfe cold ; as he inva-
riably found, that the raw, cold, damp weather, when the
mercury in Fahrenheit's tiiermonietcr Hands between ^o and
40 degrees, was the mod intolerable to bear, and tlie moll
unfriendly to health. Now tliis (continues Mr. Ruilell) is
very nearly the winter weather of Scotland. Upon ihe
whole, therefore, we may lay it down as a general maxim,
that the greated degree of cold, which can be conjoined
with moidure, is the Hate of weather which tends mod to
favour the appearance of fcrofula.

The long continuance of inclement weather increafes the
predifpofition to fcrofula ; and in perlons already lufhcicntly
prcdifpofed to tlie difeafe, any uncommon, though leinpo-
mry expolure to cold and wet, is often an exciting caufc of
an immediate attack.

Every thing which weakens the conditntion, predil-

pofes to fcrofula. Thus, breathing impure air, »nd living

upon a fcanty allowance of unwliolcfomc iiidigedible food,

promote the accefs of fcrofula. The fame may he faid of

G 2 unclcanliiiefs ;

SCROFULA.

unclcanlinefs ; negledl of falutary exercifo ; confinement in
cold damp (Ituations ; and the want of fiifficiently warm
clothing.

But one of the moll frequent occafional caufes of fcio-
fula is external violence. Many accidents, which would not
be followed by any ferious confequence to a perfon in health,
produce fevere fcrofulous afFeftions in perfons predilpofed
to thefe difeafes.

It is almoft unneceffary to mention, that all thofe circum-
ftances which have been fpecified as occafional caufes, mull
be avoided.

There is no medicine which, internally adminiftercd, has
the power of completely correcting the peculiarity of con-
ftitution implied by the e^^r^^Sian fcrofulous habit. But there
are many medicines which feem to improve this Itate of
the fyltem, and to promote the fpontaueous amendments,
which ftrumous afFeftions frequently undergo. Scrofulous
patients, for the moft part, have conltitutions in which the
natural aflions do not proceed with vigour, and perhaps
it is on this account, that every thing tonic is more or lei,s
ufeful in cafes of (trumous dife.'.fe. This obfervation is not
meant, however, to forbid the judicious employment of
evacuations, which, when the habit is difpofed to plethora
and coftivenefs, are indilpenlably r.ecefFary.

The medicines which are given for the cure, or preven-
tion of fcrofula, are either fuch as are fuppofed to adl upon
fome general principle, or fuch as are iuppofed to poilefs a
fpecific virtue in the cure of this diitrefTmg difjafe.

A draught of falt-water is recommended almoll indifcri-
minately to every patient who is advifed to ufe fea-bathing.
It acts as a purgative, and proves a ferviceable medicine, fo
far as purging is indicated. The water of the fea, however,
is not nearly fo palatable, as the folutions of many of the
neutral falls, and its medicinal virtues do not appear to be
fuperior. Hence Mr. RulTell believes, that it is prefcribed
rather from accidental convenience, than from its being in
reality a better medicine than feveral others.

In fome cafes of hereditary predifpofition, fcrofula feems
engrafted on a conltitution, otherwife healthy and vigorous,
where the patient feels no wcaknefs, has no diforder of the
ftomach, and at the fame time has tendency to fulnefs and
corpulency. In cafes of this kind, a continued courfe of
purgative medicines often proves highly beneficial by pro-
curing a frequent and c®pious evacuation ot the bowels,
and thereby reducing that difpofition to fulnefs, which very
much promotes the formation of glandular fwellings. But,
in general, fcrofula is not combined with the foregoing fort
of conltitution, and purgatives are then only ufeful for the
purpofe of obviating coftivenefs.

Several mineral tprings, befides faline ingredients, contain
fulphureous impregnations, which are fuppofed to increafe
the medicinal virtues of the waters. The reputation of the
waters of Harrowgate and Moffat is univerfally known.
Mr. Rufiell acknowledges that their efficacy may have been
over-rated ; but he lliU thinks favourably of their efl'cfts in
cafes of fcrofula.

Calomel, or, as it is now called, the hydrargyri fubmurias,
is the moil celebrated of all the purgative medicines, which
have ever been employed in the treatment of fcrofula. In'
order to derive the greateft benefit from it, however, it
fhould not be given in fo large a quantity as to produce the
fpecific effefts of mercury in their full extent ; for, as Mr.
Ruflell obferves, a deep and lafting impreffion on the fyitera
aggravates every fymptom of icrofula. Calomel, taken in
moderation, contributes more than any other medicnie to
difcufs tumours, and refolve fcrofulous indurations. An
alterative courfe with this medicine, however, mull be main-

tained a fufficient length of time, in order to prove fnccefs*
ful ; conftant attention being paid that the effefts of th«
calomel do not amount to fafivation, and fevere mercurial
ad ion.

With refpeft to tonics for the cure of fcrofula, the moft
elleemed of the vegetable clafs is the Peruvian bark. Mr.
RullcU obferves, that cinchona is only ufeful, when the
bowels have been previoufly cleared of any morbid accumu-
lation of feces ; and that, under other circumttances, it op-
preffes the itomach, asd does harm, inllead of good.
Neither, fays he, is it adapted to that ftate of fcrofula, in
which any tendency to fulnefs prevails, or when the glands
are fwelled and indurated, or congellions are prefent to any
extent. But when none of thefe objetlions to the admini-
llration of cinchona exilt, when wcaknefs is a principal
fymptom, when the llrength is to be fupported, and a
lana-uid aftion to be roufed into more vigorous exertion,
cinchona may be ufcfully employed, and has obtained the
character of an excellent medicine. Its virtues are beil cal-
culated to meet the indications of thofe cafes, where there
arc extenfive ulcers, or large abfcelles, with copious ex-
haulling difcharges of purulent matter ; and, in general, to
communicate tliat degree of energy to the atitions of the
fyllem-, which tends to fupport and confirm the patient's
llrength. The finiple powder is the preferable mode of ex-
hibition, when the ftomach can digell a fufficient quantity
without oppreffion ; but if a dofc in fubftance opprefies the
ftomach from indigellion, then the lighter preparations of
infufion, or decoiilion, ought to be lubilituted. Two or
three dofes a-day are as much as can ever be requifite. A
courfe of this kind may be continued for two or three
weeks ; it may then be left off for eight or ten days, and
afterwards refumed again.

01 the mineral tonics, iron and fulphuric acid are the
moft valued for their efficacy in cafes of fcrofula. Iron is
Icfs liable than cinchona to opprcfs the ftomach, or produce
accumulation in the bowels. Mr. RufllU alfo thinks that
it aftn more fpeedily and powerfully on the conllitution.
The dofe may be increafed fo long as the ilomach can bear
the quantity without oppreffion ; and the medicine may be
given without intermiffion for fome weeks. The carbonate
of iron, the muriatic folution, and the chalybeate waters,
are the belt forms in which the medicine can be given.

The fulphuric acid is grateful to the ilomach, and agrees
with all forms and ftages of fcrofula. It is, according to
the experience of Mr. Rullell, peculiarly adapted to that
ftate of fever, which is connefted with the putrid Houghs,
that are often formed on the infide of large tumours, wheu
firll expofed to the air ; and to that ftate of weaknefs, which
difpofes to copious perfpiration, upon every moderate exer-
cife. The beft mode of taking it is diluted with water, and
fwectened, fo as to form a common beverage.

Having noticed the eftcdls of purgative and tonic medi-
cines, we proceed to the confideration of remedies, which
have been Iuppofed to poflels fpeciilc virtues in tlie cafe of
fcrofula. The cicuta, or conium maculatiim of Linnajus,
was moll highly prailed by the celebrated Dr. Storck of
Vienna. Upon the recommendation of this reipecftable
praditioner, fays Mr. Ruflell, it was univerfally tried all
over Europe, fo that a fair eftimate of the medicinal virtues
of cicuta, in the cure of fcrofula, may be made from the
refult of very general and extenfive experience. Its ori-
ginal character, as an invaluable acquifition in the cure of
fcrofula, was certainl)' much over-rated ; although it ap-
pears to pollels lome ufciul qualities, which may be advan-
taE^eor-lly emplaned in certain modifications of the dileale.
Mr. RiiUcIl ihmks favourably of this medicine, for its effi-
cacy

SCROFULA.

• ,,cv in changing the condition and forwarding the cure of

rtain malignant fcrofulous ulcers, which counterfeit the

. jpcarance of cancer. He has likewile found it of fervice

■J promoting the cure of certain fcrofulous affeftions of the

tongue, which bore a near refemblance to fome rare venereal

cafes. In a few cafes, Mr. Ruflell has had reafon to alcribe

to cicuta fome (hare of efficacy in promoting the refulution

cf fcrofulous fwellings of the breail. The medicine mull

'c given in as large dofes as the conftitution can hear. The

'load being afF.-dted with a degree of giddinefs, and the

1 imach witli a little naufea, is the criterion of the dofe

ocnig fufficicntly powerful.

The muriated barytes has been recommended by Dr.
Crawford ; but though it has been frequently exhibited, its
reputation is far from being increafed ; a fare proof that its
virtues were originally exaggerated.

The muriate of lime is another remedy that has been of
late much talked ot, for its good elfefts as a fpecific in cafes
<it fcrofula. In order to derive the utmoll benefit from it,
Mr. Rullell is of opinion that it is neceflary to prefcribe it
in much lartjer dofes than thofe which have ulually been
.iirerted. One of the mull fuccelsful inllances of its efficacy
■..vas the confequence of an ounce of the faturated fohition
having been taken, for many weeks, three times a day. It
well deferves attention, however, that profeObr Thomlon
employed muriate of lime in various cales of Icrofula, with-
out a lingle example of its having any efficacy. He admits
that fume patients got well, while under a courfe of muriate
of lime ; but then he had no reafon to afcribe the cure to
the efpLCl of the medicine. In other cafes, on the contrary,
he found that the muriate of lime produced fevere ficknefs
and oppreflion of the llomach, and that the patients got
daily worfe, till the medicine was left off, and other re-
medies employed. The relief, experienced from the dif-
continuance of the muriate of lime, left no doubt with
regard to the injurious effects which the ufe of it had pro-
duced ; and from extenfive experience and accurate obferva-
tion, profellor Thomlon is fatisfied th.at, in many cales of
fcrcfula, the muriate of lime is attended with prejudicial
effects.

With rcfpeft to the local treatment, llimulant applications
are found not to be in general advantageous for Icrohilous
complaints. For ulcers, the m .11 fnuple and mild drelfings
are the bell. When the patients are ufing a courfe of fea-
bathing, it is ufual to wafh the fores with fea-water fre-
quently every day. Cold fpriiig water is likewife a favourite
application ; and experience feems to prove that the opera-
tion of cold is well fuited to counteradt the ilate of inflam-
mation which accompanies fcrofulous fores. Preparations
of lead are, upon the whole, very convenient and ufeful
applications, provided the lolutions be ufed in a Hate of
fuffitient dilution to prevent irritation. Liquid ajiplications
are made by means of wet linen, which is renewed whenever
it dries, fo that the furface of the fore is kept conllautly
moill.

Upon the fime principle, fimple ointment and Goulard's
cerate are, in ordinary cafes, the bell dreilings.

The employment of fimplc applications and of cold,
however, is more properly adapted to the mild and pure
forms of fcrofulous fores ; for when thefe are more malig-
nant, or combined witli any other difeafe, a different mode
of dreflinij becomes neci'ffi'ry. Venereal lores, tor inllance,
brc.iking out in a perfun of a ferofiiioiiscoiillitutioii, partake
of the nature of both diforders, and require correlpondent
treatment. Even a pure fcrofulous fore, attended with
more inveteracy tiian ufual, may demand particular forts of
drelDngs, different from fuch as are found to be moll proper

for common cafes. When the ulcer is extremely indolent,
gentle llimulants may be neceffary ; and when there are
fungous granulations, they mull be dellroyed by efcharotics.
Thofc fcrofulous fwellings which contain a fluid, when
they are fuperficial, and not connedled with any parts of im-
portance, are in general better left untouched. They are
very flow in their progrefs, but they moltly burll at lad by
a fuperficial ulceration, which forms a fmall api rture. They
do not often admit of refolution. The moll likely applica-
tions for promoting this defirable objcft, are folutions of the
acctite of lead, and of the muriate of ammonia.

The progrefs of the cure, after the tumour has difcharged
its contents, is very various ; though, upon the whole, it is
flow, and the cure often incomplete. The fides of the
cavity feldom adhere uniformly, or granulate from their
whole furface ; fo that little partial leparatc cavities remain,
which form fmufes, and continue to difcliarge matter, ac-
companied with fome degree of pain and inflammatiou. At
lail, however, often indeed after a confidcrable time, the
difcharge ceafes altogether, and the fore completely heals.
When the finufes continue for a long time, without any
tendency to get well, it is fometimes proper to open them
to the bottom with proper incilions ; but in the generality
of fcrofulous cafes, fuch pratf ice is, upon the whole, fevere,
difadvantageous, and even dangerous.

Scrofulous abl'celles, when not large, need not to be
opened ; but deep-featcd coUedtions of matter, which in-
creafe gradually in fize, without fliewing any difjiofition to
make their way to the furface of the body, ought to be
opened : for if this be not done, the matter fpreads, and the
difeafe acquires by degrees a dangerous extent. The open-
ing fhould not be larger than what is fufficicnt for the com-
plete evacuation of the matter ; becaufe a large opening
excites great irritation, and is often the caufe of violent
inflammation of the whole cyfl of the abfcefs, attended with
alarming, and often with fatal, confequences. The fever
that occurs is accompanied with a rapid train of fymptoms,
which fpeedily end in death. In otiier inllances, the fever
is lieftic, being more flow in its progrefs, tiiough not Icfs
certainly fatal. According to Mr. Ruff'ell, fulphuric acid
and faline draughts, in a Hate of effervefcence, are the medi-
cines which agree bed witii both forms of fever ; and he ob-
fervcs, that neither of them feems to be much relieved by
the ufe of cinchona. (P. Il6.) This author recommends
opening the tumour with a trocar, letting out the whole of
the contents, withdrawing the cannula, and brir.gmg the
fides of the punfture together with (licking phiHer. For
our own part, we prefer making the opening with a lancet,
and then clofing the wound with adiiefive plaller, as adviled
by Mr. Abernethy in cafes of pfoas abfcefs. See Pi,o.\s
yib/cefs.

With refpe£l to the treatment of fwelled glands, it is to
be remarked, that it is always defirable to prevent fuppura-
tioii. When the glands are fnpirlicial, ilieir progrefs may
be influenced by toj ical applications; but when they are
deep, they are fcarcely capable of being aflVded by fuch
remedies. In ordinary cafis, Mr. Rulf.-U recommends the
ufe of fomentations two or three times a day. Sea-water,
vinegar, and water, dilute folutions of the acctite, or mu-
riate of ammonn, and a decottion of chainoiiiiic, are ehijiblc
for tomentations. Fridlioii with camphorated and amnio-
niated oils, and with marine plains, h.is alio been well
fpoken of.

In fuch cafes, Mr. Rullell, Iiowever, does not place much
confidence in external applications, as he tonhders that the
cure chiefly depends upon t lie Hate of the cnllitulion, upon

reijimen, and the efleCt of internal remedies.
*> When

SCR

SCR

When enlarged glands, which lie fuperficially, are at-
tacked with inflammation, and in danger of fuppurating,
Mr. Ruflell ftrongly recommends the frequent ufe of topical
bleeding. This author is alfo an advocate for blifters, both
at the commencement of the inflammation, and on its de-
cline.

Wlien the fwelled glands fuppurate, and healthy inflam-
mation predominates, the cafe muft be treated nearly in the
fame way as a common abfcefs. An artiricial opening is
hardly ever neceifary, as the abfcefs in a fhort time burils
of itfelf. The only in (lance, in which the furgeon is called
upon to open the fuelling, is when the matter fliews a ten-
dency to fpread over a large fpace. When the fuppuration
is completely fcrofulous, a fmall opening is at length fpon-
taneoufly formed, through which all the matter is dil-
charged. The aperture, though always fmall at firlt, fome-
times becomes larger, and frequently it remains for a long
while nearly in the fame ftate, fliewing little difpofition to
heal, acquiring a glofl'y appearance, and becoming thick,
and callous at its edges. In the end, however, a cicatrix
is moftly produced.

In cafes of indolent, Itationary, fcrofulous fwellings of
glands, where there is no hope of refolution, it has been pro-
pofed to remove or deftroy the difeafcd glands by exci-
fion, or by the application of cauftic. Such praftice has
been particularly fuefgcfted for glandular fwellings of the
neck. The fuperficial fituation of the glands of this part
of the body rendering them very apt to be aff^eSed by cold,
the viciflitudes of the weather, and other external circum-
flances, they muft be fubjeft to temporary imprtfliions. The
frequency with which they fwell, and the facility and fud-
dennefs with which they fometimes fubfide, afford Itrong
arguments againft an operation in recent cafes. In other
examples, where the affeftion has exilled long, it often
happens that other more deeply feated sjlands are alfo dif-
eafed, fo that the removal of an enlarged fuperficial cervi-
cal gland would prove a very partial and ufelefs operation,
and would do nothing towards the total extirpation of the
difeafe.

As for the mere removal of deformity, this is not an
adequate reafon for the operation, which would itfelf be
followed by a fear, that muft disfigure the part quite as
much as the fwelled gland could poffibly do. Wc will fay
nothing of the danger and difficulty with which, in many
cafes, fuch an operation would be attended.

The attempt to deftroy a fcrofulous gland in the neck
with cauftic would be liable to objedlions, fully as Itrong as
thofe which are applicable to the ufe of the knife. The
aftion of cauftic can never be regulated with much precifion,
and the cicatrix, produced in this manner, is always a con-
fiderable deformity.

Firm fcrofulous tumours in the more external parts of the
body do not ufually require local bleeding, unlefs attended
with fymptoms of inflammation. It is chiefly in the early
flage of fuch cafes that the praftice is advantageous. In
general, warm fomentation, ftimulants, iffues, and blifters
repeated, or kept open with the favine ointment, are the
moft eligible remedies. Here alfo the employment of friftion
as a difcutlent deferves particular recommendation. Its
fafety, fimplicity, and efficacy, are now well acknowledged.
There is no fubftance interpofed between the furface of the
fwelling, and the hand of the perfon who is employed in
rubbing it, except a little flour to prevent the fltin from being
chafed. The fridlion is to be applied two or three hours a
day, and the plan continued for fome months.

Permanent compreffion by means of tight bandages, or
long ftrips of adhefive plafter, is another means of reducing

the indolent fcrofulous induration and thickening of parts.
But of this practice, and of dry rubbing, or fridtion, by the-
hand, we (hall have occafion to fpeak in a future volume.
See White Swelling.

When a fcrofulous difeafe is circumfcribed and incurable,
and attended with fo much pain and irritation, as to injure
the health in a ferious and dangerous degree, the removal
of the part by an operation becomes indifpenfable. The
fymptomatic enlargement of the lymphatic glands, which are
nearer than the difeafe to the heart, prefents no folid objec-
tion to fuch practice ; for this enlargement proceeds from
irritation, and not from abforption ; and the glands often
fubfide, as foon as the original caufe of their fweUing is re-
moved. Ruflell on Scrofula, p. 137.

SCROGS, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied
to fuch (hinted flirubs as have been brouzed upon by cattle,
as hazel, &c. They are moftly met with on commons and
wafte lands.

SCROLL, in Heraldry, is the ornament placed under the
efcutcheon, containing a motto or (hort fentence, alluding
fometimes to the bearings, or the bearer's name ; fometimes
exprefling lomewhat divine or heroic ; fometimes enigmatical,
&c. It is often placed by the French and Scotch above the
achievement ; which, according to fir J. Mackenzie, is right,
when the motto relates to the creft ; otherwile it (hould be
annexed to the efcutcheon. Thofe of the order of knight-
hood are generally placed round (hields. See EscROLL.

Scroll, in Shi[>-Bmld'm^, is a fpiral moulding of the
volute kind, ufcd lometimes at the drifts, and the upper part
of the hair-bracket. A yiTo//-Z><?a(/iignifies that there is no
carved or ornamental figure at the head, but that the termi-
nation is formed and finifhed off^ by a •volute, or fcroll turn-
ing outwards. If the fcroll is turned off, or inwards, it is
then called Tijiddle-hiad.

SCROON, in Geography. See ScAROON.
SCROPHULARIA, in Botany, an old name, fuppofed
by fome to have been given to the herbs of this genus,
becaufe fwine, fcrofe, were fond of them. But the moil
probable derivation is from Jcrophula, the kng's evil, for
which difeafe fome of them have been recommended as a cure ;
efpecially S. nodofa, whofe knobby roots, compared to fcro-
phulous tumours, are thought to have given rife to that opi-
nion. Yet there can be no doubt that one of this genus is the
real yxXicKli; of Diofcorides, as Fuchfius, and fome other old
botaniils, have maintained, which that original Greek writer
on the materia medica celebrates for its virtues in the above-
mentioned complaints, and even in cancerous ulcers. Yet
his identical ipecies, our S. peregrina, has no knobby roots.
It is probable therefore that the above explanation is of more
modern date, and it may account for the etymology of
Scrophularia, if not for the application of the herb to me-
dical ufe. The Galeopfis of Fuchfius is indeed f. nodofa;
Anguillara being, as far as we can find, the firlt writer on
drugs who fixed upon the precife plant of Diofcorides, .9.
peregrina, and whofe opinion is confirmed by the recent en-
quiries of Dr. Sibthorp. — Linn. Gen. 7, l 2. Schreb. 408.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 269. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 662. Prodv.Fl. Graec. Sibth. V. 1.435. Ait. Hort.
Kew.v. 4. 22. Purfh V. 2. 419. Jufl". I19. Tourn.t.74.

Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 27. Illuftr. t. 53;. Girtn. t. 53

Clafs and order, Dldynamia Angtofperm'ia. Nat. Ord.
Perfonata, or rather Lurida, Linn. MSS. Scrophularity
Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, with five
rounded fegments fliorter than the corolla. Cor. of one
petal, unequal, reverfed ; tube globofe, large, inflated :
limb very fmall, five-cleft ; its two lower fegments (turned

uppermoft )

SCROPHULARIA.

iippermoft) largeft, ereft ; two lateral ones fpreading ; the

odd one (tuned downwards) reflexed. Stain. Filaments

I four, linear, the length of the corolla, declining towards

I its lower fegment, two of them later than the others ;

anthers two-lobed. Pi/l- Germen ovate ; ftyle iimpic,

agreeing in length and pofition with the Itamens ; lligma

iimple. Per'tc. Capfule roundilh, pointed, of two cells and

two valves, bnrliing at the top ; partition double, formed

I of tlie inflexed edges of the valves. Seeds numerous, fmall.

I Receptacle roundi(h, protruding into each cell.

Ed. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla nearly globular,
/e-verfed. Capfule fuperior, of two cells.

I. S. marilandka, Maryland Fii>-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
863. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Purdi n. I. (S. nodola ^,
americana ; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 21.) — Leaves
heart-fliaped, doubly ferratcd, acute, fmooth ; decurrent at
the bafe. Stem with blunt angles. Footftalks connedled
by a hairy line. — In low grounds, from Pennfylvania to
Carolina, flowering from June to Auguil, perennial. Flowers
greenilh-brown. Plant often more than four feet high.
Purjh. Mr. Miller is faid to have cultivated this herb, but
it is fcarcely to be met with in gardens, nor could it be ex-
pefted to engage much attention, being fo like other com-
mon fpecies, carefully weeded out of all gardens. What
we have been (hewn for it, in colledtions of primary autho-
rity, was S. peregrina. Michaux unites it witli the fol-
lowing, but Linnius appears correct in diftinguilhiiig them.
Befides the greater fv/.e oi marilandica, its lea-ves are doubly,
and far more coarfely, ferrated ; their bafe, though heart-
Ihaped, not cut away to the lateral ribs, but decurrent along
the footltalk. An elevated hairy line runs acrofs the Jiern,
from the infcrtion of oi\e footjlali to the other.

2. S. noclofa. Knotty-rooted Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
S63. Willd. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 1544.
(S. major; Ger. Em. 716. Scrophularia ; Riv. Monop.
Irr. t. 107. f. i; alfo S. minor; ibid, fuppl.) — Leaves
heart-fhaped, acute, nearly equally ferrated, fmooth ; three-
ribbed at the bafe. Angles of the Hem acute. — Native of
woods and hedges, in dry, rather fertile, places, throughout
Europe, flowering in July and Augult. The roit is peren-
nial, tuberous, whitifli. Stem two or three feet high, ereft,
fimple, leafy, fmootli. • Leaves oppofite, llalked, neatly
and acutely lerrated ; of a Ihining dark green above ; paler
beneath. Flo-wer-Jlalks axillary and terminal, forked, an-
gular and glandiJar, purpliih, witli lanceolate bradeas, and
all together compofing a compound, terminal, upright
clujler, or panicle, interfperfed with a few leaves. Calyx
fmooth. Corrilla dull green, with a livid purple, or
brownifli, lip, bearing a fmall internal appendage. The
whole herb, when bruifed, has a fetid fcent, fomething like
Elder, whicli is common, under various moditications, to
the whole genus.

This fpecies is mentioned, by feveral authors, as varying
occafionally with green foiucrs, of which we have feen an
initance ; as well as with three leaves together, inftead
of two.

^. ?). aquatica. Water Fig-wort, or Water Betony. Linn.
Sp. PL 864. Willd. n. 3. FI. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot.
t. 854. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 44. Fl. Dan. t. 507. (Be-
tonica aquatica ; Ger. Em. 7 I y.)— Leaves heart-fliaped,
(talked, decurrent, obtufe. Stem winged. — Native of
watery places, about tlic banks of lakes and rivers, from
England to Greece ; very rare in Scotland, and the northern
pirts of Europe ; flowering in July. The root is fibrous,
and, we believe, perennial, tliougli IJnnscua fays biennial.
Whole plant larger than the laft, and diflinguifhed by the
membranous edges o£ its Jem, as well as blunt leaves.

Clujler terminal, compound, brafteated, without leaves.
Calyx bordered with a white membrane. Lips of the corolla
of a deep blood-colour, with tlie fame fmall nitermediate
lobe as in the former. Herb fetid, fmooth.

4. S. auriculata. Ear-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI,
864. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4 — Leaves oblong-heart-
fliaped, doubly ferrated ; downy beneath ; with a pair of

leaflets at their bafe. Ciufter terminal Native of Spain,

from whence it feems Loefling fent feeds, which produced the
fpecimen in the Linnaean herbarium. This fpecimen appears
to us a mere variety of S. Scorodonia, with accidentally auri-
ded leaves ; whereas the fynonym of Lobel represents a
precifely parallel variety of S. aquatica. The figure we
have cited above, from Ger. Em. 715, is the fame cut as
Lobel's. Barrelier's t. 274 has not the charafter of the
auricled leaves, and the foliage is aU too long for the Scoro-
donia ; fee betonicifolia hereafter, n. 6. S. auriculata may
therefore, if we miltake not, be reduced to a variety of the
following fpecies. We have not examined Mr. Aiton's plant,
fent to Kew by Richard, in 1 772. Scopoli's auriculata, Fl.
Carn. t. 32, is mofl aiiuredly very different.

5. S. Scorodonia. Balm-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
864. Willd. n. 6. Fl. Brit. h. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 2209.
(S. Scorodonire foliis ; Morif. feet. j. t. 35. Pluk. Phyt.
t. 59. f. 5.) — Leaves heart-fhaped, doubly lerrated ; downy
beneath. Chiller leafy. ^-Native of watery bufhy places in
Jerfey and Cornwall, as well as in Portugal and Italy, and
near Contlantinople, flowering towards autumn. Root pe-
rennial, fibrous. Stems two to four feet high, fquarc, leafy,
clothed, like the backs of the leaves, with foft fpreadiug
hairs. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, acute, various in fize,
veiny ; ihree-ribbed at the bafe, like S. nodofa. Flo-wer-
Jlalks axillary and terminal, doubly forked, conflitutiiig 3

terminal leafy clufler, clothed with capitate glandular hairs.
Flowers rather fmall, of a paler more livid hue than in
our more common fpecies, their intermediate, or acceliory,
lobe green. Calyx downy, obtufe. CapJ'ule Imootii.

6. S. betonicifolia. Betony-leaved Fig-wort. Linn.
Maiit. 87. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 7. (S. betonicae folio;
Tourn. Inft. 166. S. aquatica montana mollior ; Barrel.
Ic. t. 274.) — Leaves heart-fhaped, oblong, lomewhat
downy, doubly toothed ; veins radiating from tiie bafe.
Panicle leafy. Calyx downy. — Native of Portugal. Cul-
tivated by LinuKUs at Upfal. Root perennial. Stem two
feet high, fquare, (lightly downy, purplifh, efpecially at
the bottom. Leaves AX fimple, rather large, acute, broad
at thebaic, flrongly and fharply tootiied, each tooth again
notched or ferrated, even in the original fpecimen ; nor do
we compielieiid the dclcription of Linnxus, wiiero lie fay.?
" the teeth are quite entire, and therefore very like Ebulus."
FloiDcrJlalks branched and forked, rougii witii glandular
hairs, and accompanied by toothed leaves. Corolla dull
purple ; its little lip, or acceflory lobe, greenilh. — This is
nearly akin to the lafl, but we have little doubt of their
being diflinft fpecies. Barri-licr's figure is as good as moft
of his, and tolerably exprellive. What he repivfeiits as
lenjlets on the (talk of his feparate leaf, and which originally
perhaps led Linnxus to quote this plate (or his own (/wr/Vu-
lata, are probably fmall axillary leaves only.

7. S. nepetifolia. Catmint-leaved Fig-wort. (S. auricu-
lata ; Scop. Carn. v. i. 446. t. 32.) — Leaves heart -Ihaped,
obtufe, nearly fmooth, fimply lerrated, on fliort tiroad loot-
llalks. Clufler leaflefs. Bratteas lanceolate. Caly\ fmooth.
Gatiiered by Scopoli on the mountains of Carniola. We
have a f])ecimen, f<uind by the late Ur. Broullonet at Tan-
gier, flowering in June, whicli aiifwcrs exailly to Scopoli's
defcription, and feems not refernble to any of the fpecies in

Liniia-Uf

SCROPHULARIA.

Linn!EU3 or Willdenow. In this the leaves are about an inch
long, on broad, flat, fmooth footjlnlls, a quarter of that
length, along wliich the two lateral ribs are continued, by the
fide of the midrib ; the margin of the leaves is neatly, regu-
larly, and acutely ferrated. Clufter ereft, long, quite naked,
except the lanceolate bra8eas ; its fide branches forked,
rough, with glandular hairs. Segments of the calyx ovate,
obtufe, fmooth, bordered with a broad white membrane,
within which the margin is of a brown or rufty hue, as
Scopoh defcribes it. He fays the corolla is jellow.

8. S. glabrata. Spear-leaved Fig-wort. Ait. n. 6.
VVilld. ■ n. 7, excluding Valil's fynonym. Jacq. Hort.
Schoenbr. v. 2. 44. t. 209. — Leaves oblong-heart-fliaped,
acute, doubly ferrated, fmooth. Clutter leaflefs, panicled,
compound. Brafteas lanceolate. — Found in the Canary
iflar.ds, by Mr. MafTon, who fent it to Kew in 1779. This
is a biennial greenhoufe plant, flowering in April and May.
The^cni is rather woody, Iquare, branched, fmooth like
every other part of the plant. Leaves often unequal at the
bafe, about two inches long, on fooljlalhs half that length.
Clujlers long and many-flowered, with fprcadmg three-forked
branches ; no leaves, except at the very bottom, but many
lanceolate acute bralicas. Flowers of a deep blood-red.

9. S. peregrma. Nettle-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
866. Willd. n. 26. Ait. u. 18. Camer. Hort. 157.
t. 43. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 597, unpubhiTied. (S.
folio urtici; ; Bauh. Pin. 236. S. cretica altera ; Cluf.
Hilt. V. 2. 210.) — Leaves heart-fhaped, acute, (imply fer-
rated, fmooth and fliining. Stalks axillary, two or three-
flowered. Bratteas lanceolate. Calyx acute Native of

Italy and Crete. Very common about hedges, paths, and
court-yards throughout Greece, as Diofcorides defcribes his
yoiXia\-i-, to be. We cannot but accede to the opinion of
Anguillara, Fuchfius, and Sibthorp, that this, and not our
Galeopfis, was his plant. The root is fibrous, annual, or
biennial. Stem two or three feet high, not much branched,
occafionally with five or fix angles. Leaves of a dark
(hining green, an inch or more in length ; we cannot agree
with Willdenow that the upper ones are generally entire,
though fuch an accident may occur ; as the upper part of
the Hem, now and then, in gardens, becomes elongated, and
the foliage in that part diminiflied in fize ; but this is rarely
the cafe. The natural ftate of the plant is to have axillary

fiowcr-Jlalks from near the bottom of the fl:em to the top,
each bearing two, three, rarely nwcejloiuers, whofe tube,
as well as the limb, is of a blood colour, and the fegments
of the calyx are ovato-lanceolate, with Iharp points, and no
membranous edges. The jloiuer-Jlalhs, like the leaves which
they accompany, are more or lefs dillinftly alternate, rarely
oppofite. We have taken the liberty to remove this fpecies
from the end of the genus, to place it near thofe to which,
both on account of its fimple leaves and general habit, it is
moft; clofely allied. In doing this we fliall here notice three
others, which conclude the genus in Willdenow. Two of
thefe, at lead:, require to be totally expunged, and the third,
if it has any right to remain, mult Hand next to peregrma.

S. cbtnenfis, Lin-i. Mant. 250, confifts of an imperfed;
fpecimen of what feems to be an Ocymum, accompanied by
a ftill more imp-rfedl branch of what may be a Celfia, or
Verhafcum ; but neither of them has any thing to do with
Scrophularia, nor was Linnceus, when he originally defcnbed
thefe fpecimens, at all fatisfied about them.

S. meridianalis, Linn. Suppl. 280, fent by Mutis, is in-
dubitably the fame genus, and very nearly the fame fpecies,
as Hemimeris urt'ic'ifol'ia, Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 282, Alonfoa
inc'tfifolia, Alt. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 27. The capfuk only feems
a little more elongated, and the leaves lefs deeply cut, than in

our garden plant ; fee HEMI^rERIS. The (h ape of the cap
fule is indeed important in diliinguilhing the fpecies of thi^
genus. We arc at a lofs to diltinguilh Alonfoa from Hemi-
meris.

10. S. cocc'tnea. Scarlet Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 866.
Willd. n. 25. — " Leaves ovate, four in a whorl. Flowers
whorled, fpiked." — Native of Vera Cruz. Houftoun fent
an account of this plant to Miller, by the name of S.Jtore
coccineo,foliis uriicie quateniis caulcm ambienlibus. Hence pro
bably this definition reached Linna:us, and it was all he ever
knew of the plant, for he had no fpecimen. We fliould not
befurprized if it proved another Hemimeris, which Houiloui.
might very excufably take for a Scrophularia. We now
return to more certain fpecies.

11. S. orienialis. Hemp-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 864. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 8. " Schkuhr Handb.
V. 2. 196.1. 173." (S. orientalis, foliis cannabinis ; Tourn.
Cor. 9.) — Leaves lanceolate, (harply ferrated, oppofite or
whorled ; auricled at the bafe. Clulter leaflefs, with
whorled, corymbofe, downy, vifcid bi'anches. Flowers
drooping. Calyx fmooth, obtufe. — Native of the Levant ;
fometimes feen in botanic gardens. The root is perennial.
Stem with four, or more, acute angles, leafy. Leaves often
three or four in a whorl, widely fpreading, llalked, four or
five inches long and one broad, fmooth, copioully deeply,
and rather unequally, ferrated ; either fliarply lobed, or fur-
niflied with a pair of lanceolate ferrated imall leaflets, at the
bafe. Clujler terminal, long, ereft, its branches either op-
pofite, or more ufually three or four in a whorl, forked,
many-flowered, rough with glandular hairs, and furniihed
with linear braSeas, but no leaves. Flowers greeniih.

12. S. lanceolata. Lanceolate American Fig-wort. Purfh
n. 2. — " Leaves lanceolate, pointed, unequally ferrated ;
acute at the bafe. Footitalks without appendages. Branches
of the panicle corymbofe." — In wet meadows and woods of
Pennfylvania, flowering in Auguft and September. Peren-
nial. Flaivers greenifli-yellow. Purfl}. This feems nearly
related to tlie lalt, to which the author has not adverted.
We have feen no fpecimen.

13. S. allaica. White-flowered Fig-wort. Murr. in
Comm. Gott. V. 4. 35. t. 2. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 10. —
Leaves heart-fliaped, nearly fmooth,. doubly toothed, fome-
what lobed ; the lower teeth turned towards the bafe. Cluf-
ter tei-minal, compound. Bracleas lanceolate. Calyx acute.
— Native of the Altai mountains of Sibejia. Introduced
into our gardens by Mr. Hunnemann in 1786, where it
proves a hardy perennial, flowering in May and June. The

Jlem is furrowed, one or one and a half foot high, oblcurely
angular, fcarcely branched. Leaves on long ftalks, of a
broad roundilh-heart-ftiaped figure, with ftrong branching
ribs, pliant, nearly fmooth, fomewhat finuated, fliarply
toothed. Flowers pale yellow, or whitifli, larger than the
following, from which they are eflentially diilinguiflied by
the lanceolate acute fegments of their calyx.

14. S. venialis. Yellow Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 864.
Willd. n. 14. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 567. Fl.
Dan. t. 411. (S. flore luteo ; Ger. Em. 717. Bauli.
Prodr. 112. Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 107. f. 2. S. montana
maxima latifolia, flore luteo ; Barrel. Ic. t. 273.) — Leaves
hcart-fliaped, doubly ferrated, downy. Flower-llalks axil-
lary, folitary, forked, leafy. Calyx obtufe. Limb of the
corolla minute. — Native of bufliy places in Italy, Switzer-
land, and Germany, as well as in fome parts of England, but
rarely. It is biennial, flowering in April and May. Stem
two feet, or more, in height, with four or five angles, in
which latter cafe the leaves grow three togetlier. They are
flalked, broad, acute, pale green, copiouily veined, moll

hairv

SCROPHULARIA.

hairy beneath. Fh'wer-Jlalht all axillary, about as long as
the leaves, bearing fome fmall oppofite ferrated leaves, and a
few lanceolate entire iJra&aj'. i^/oOTfrj numerous, pale yel-
low, with a large globofe tube, contrafted at the mouth,
and a very minute limb, the length of whofe fegments is not
nearly equal to the diameter of the tube. Segments of the
eahx deep, elliptical, obtufe, downy, without any membra-
nous border. A ftriking refemblance between the habit and
flowers of this plant, and the Peruvian genus Calceolaria, is
pointed out in Englifh Botany.

15. S. arguta. Slender Upright Fig-wort. Ait. n. 12.
Willd. n. 15. — Leaves heart-fhaped, doubly ferrated,
fmooth. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary, forked, leaflefs.
Brafteas linear. Calyx obtufe. Limb of the corolla nearly
equal to the tube. — Gathered by Mr. MafTon in Madeira and
TenerifFe. An annual greenhoufe plant at Kew, flowering
in May and June. Root fibrous. Stem two feet high, ereft,
angular, fmooth in the lower part. Leaves an inch or inch
and half long, (harply and deeply ferrated. Flo'-jier-Jlalhs,
and upper part of the ftem, downy and rather vifcid. Floiuers
fmall, red, their limb bearing its ufual proportion to the
tube. Capfule ovate, pointed, as in the laft, but fcarcely
half fo large.

16. S. tr'ifoliata. Three-leaved Axillary Fig-wort.
Linn. Sp. PI. 86y. Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 13. (S.
fambuci-folia, . flora rubro luteo vario pulchro ; Grid.
Virid. Lufit. 75. Pluk. Almag. 338. Phyt. t. 313.
f. 6. S. fubrotundo crafTo et nigricante folio, flore luteo
pallido, capfula turgida ; Bocc. Muf. Q^. t. 60. J?,
indica, capitulis maximis ; Chabr. Ic. 472.) — Leaves
fmooth, roundifli, coarfely ferrated ; the lower ones ternate.
Stalks axillary, about three-flowered. Segments of the
calyx orbicular, with a wavy membranous margin. — Native
of Barbary, Corfica, and Portugal. A hardy biennial, fome-
times met with in curious gardens, flowering in fummer.
Stem about a foot high, fcarcely branched, leafy, nearly
fmooth, thick, with four blunt angles. Leaves oppofite,
{talked, flefhy and glaucous, about two inches long, and
nearly as broad, bluntifli, veiny ; many of the upper ones
quite iimple ; the refl: accompanied each by a pair of fmaller
leaflets, more or Ids diltinft or remote, at the top of the fool-

^alk, which is about an inch long. Floiuers all axillary,
large, two or three on each (talk, which is (horter than the
footllalk, rough, with glandular hairs, and bears leveral
linear-lanceolate Iradeas. Calyx glaucous, fmooth, with
peculiarly round, deep, broad-bordered fegments. Corolla
half an inch long, pale yellow, with an orange or rofe-
coloured limb.

17. S. nppend'iculata. Three-leaved Cluftered Fig-wort.
.Tacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. 3. 19. t. 286. Willd. n. 5. (S.
laevigata ; Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 67. S. trifoliata ; Desfont.
Atlant. V. 2. 54.) — Leaves fmooth, hcart-fliapcd, doubly
and bluntly ferrated ; the lower ones ternate. Cluilors ter-
minal, leaflefs, compound. Segments of the calyx orbicu-
lar, with a wavy membranous margin. — Native of the bor-
ders of fields, and the neighbourhood of the fea-fliore, in
Barbary. We gathered it in Augutl 1786, in the royal
garden at Paris, where it wai raifed from feeds brought by
profelfor Desfontaincs, but have not fecn the plant in England.
The root is faid to be perennial. Plant entirely fmooth, of
a light glaucous green, larger than the laft, to whicli it is moft:
nearly akin, though efl'entially different ; particularly in its
racemofe compound inflorefcence, and heart-fliaped, doubly
toothed or ferrated, leaves, with longer footjlalks. The
floiuers are very fimilar.

18. S. friitcfcens. Shrubby Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
866. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 9. (S. lufitanica frutcfcens,

Vol. XXXn.

verbenacs foliis ; Tourn. Inft. 167. S. peregrina fhiteC
cens, foliis teucrii crafllufculis ; Herm. Lugd. Bat. 54J.

t-547-)

(2. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. n. 1459. (S. hetero-
phylla ; Willd. n. 12. S. cretica frutefcens, folio vario
craffiori ; Tourn. Cor. 9.)

Leaves fmooth, rather glaucous ; the lower ones cut,
lobed, or pinnate ; the floral ones elliptic-lanceolate, entire,
duller cylindrical ; branches fimply forked, racemofe. —
Native of Portugal, Barbary, and the Levant. Gathered
by Dr. Sibthorp in Crete and Zante ; the variety ^ on
mount Athos. The^f/n is (hrubby. two or three feet high,
branclied, angular, fmooth, purplifh, leafy. Leaves oppo-
fite, or partly alternate, coriaceous, fmooth, of a deep
glaucous hue, ftalked ; the upper ones moft^ undivided,
fharply ferrated ; the reft deeply cut, lobed, pinnatifid, or
pinnate, in various degrees, and from one to four inches
long, duller terminal, long, cylindrical, ereft, with alter-
nate branches, each of which is fimply forked, its divifions
racemofe, bearing three or four alternate Jloivers ; the ftalks
angular, roughifh. BraSeas lanceolate. The lower part
of the clujler, and fome of its branches, are accompanied by
elliptic-lanceolate, perfeftly entire leaves, various in Cze.
Floiuers fmall, deep red ; the tube rather paler than the
limb. Segments of the calyx fmall, orbicular, fmooth,
with a briUiant white membranous edge.

19. S. rupcjlris. Rock Fig-wort. Willd. n. 11. —
" Leaves oblong, ftalked, toothed, nearly fmooth. Clufter
terminal. Stalks three-flowered." — Gathered by the cele.
brated botanical traveller Marfchall von Bieberftein, on the
rocks of Taurida. Willdenow, to whom fpeciniens were
fent, fays this plant is very nearly related to S. frutefcens, of
which it is perhaps only a variety ; but it differs in having a

fiem only half a foot high, and Very finely downy ; leaves
all ftalked, more rigid, and of a fmaller fize ; a terminal clufler,
compofed of three-cleft three-flowered ftalks ; and fmall, ob-
tufe, not acute, bradeas.

20. S. cie/ia. Sea-green Dwarf Fig-wort. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gnec. Sibth. n. 1460. Fl. Grxc. t. 604, unpubli'hed.
(S. orient.alis minor, melifla: folio ; Tourn. Cor. 9 ? Buxb.
Cent. 5. 10. t. 17. f. 2 ?) — Leaves fmooth, rather glaucous,
lyrato-pinnatifid, cut. Stems numerous. Clulhr fhort ;
branches two or three- flowered. — Gathered by Dr. Sib-
thorp on rocks about Athens and Men"ena ; as well as in
Laconia. The root is perennial, thick and woody. Stems
very numerous, fomewhat flirubby at the bafc, fpreadiHg in
all direftions, a fpan high, leafy, fcarcely branched but at
the bottom, bluntly quadrangular, (mooth. Leaves oppofite,
ftalked, an inch and half long, ftiarply cut and toothed, of
three principal lobes, one of tnem very large and pinnatifid,
the others fmaller, befides one or two very fmall ones below,
moftly entire. Clujler or panicle two or three inches long,
with entire oblong* hraBeas ; its branches oppofite, fimply
forked, their lateral branches fingle-flowered, and one of them
often deficient. Segments of the calyx orbicular, fmooth,
with a white membranous edge. Tub: of the corolla inflated,
greenifli, brown on the upper fide ; two larger fegments of
the limb chocolate-coloured, the rell greenilli-whitc. Wc
can but guefs .it the fynonyms. The leaves are not much
like balm, Meliffa. Buxbaum's rude figure is not unfuitablq,
to our plant.

21. S.fimbur folia. Elder-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 86j. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 14. Mill. Ic. t. 231. (Si-
deritis fambncifolia ; Alpin. Exot. 203. t. 202.)

S. S. mcUifera; Ait. n. ij. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 53.
t. 143. Willd. n. 18. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 68.

Lower leaves interruptedly pinnate j upper ternate ;
\i leaQeti

SCROPHULARIA.

leaflets heart-fhaped, ferrated, fmooth ; unequal at the bafe.
Flower-ftalks axillary, flighlly branched. — Native of the
fouth of Europe, Barbary, and the Levant, in fandy
ground. The roots are tuberous, according to Alpinus, pe-
rennial, but fiibjcft to rot in a garden foil. Herh thick,
fmooth, fiicculent, of a light glaucous green. Leaves oppo-
fite, or fo;newhat alternate-, irregularly, more or lefs fharply,
ferrated, varying much in fize and bluntnefs. Flowers yery
large, axillary, drooping ; their Italks ufnally (horter than
the footfialh, iimple, divided, or forked ; fometimes elon-
gated towards the upper part of the branch, and the leaves
being occafionally contrafted, or wanting, there, the inflo-
refcence becomes racemofe. Calyx fmooth, or flightly
downy ; fegments orbicular, with a membranous edge.
Corolla of a pale purplifli tawny hue, with a greenifh limb.
Cabfule as big as a fmall filberd, with a conical point.

We can find no decifive charafker between the two plants
of authors, which we have here combined. The leajids of
^ are commonly more rounded or obtufe, but a comparifon
of the figures of Miller and Desfontaines will fhew that there
is no difference in their inflorejcence. A fpecimen from Bar-
bary, given us by the botaniil laft mentioned, \i fambudfolia,
which not being mentioned in his work, he plainly did not
diftinguifh from his meU'ifera. Thofe who have mentioned
thefe two fuppofed fpecies, have not contrafted them with
each other, nor have we had an opportunity of comparing
them m a living ftate ; but it is to be prefumed the fame
honey-bearing glands are to be found in the bottom of the
corolla of each, they being in every other refpeft fo much
alike.

22. S. h'lfp'ida. Hifpid Fig-wort. Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. 5 J. Willd. n. 19. " Stem fquare, ereft, hifpid.
Leaves villous, pinnate, doubly crenate ; the terminal lobe
heart-fhaped, very large, duller compound, leaflcfs." —
Native of the clefts of rocks on mount Atlas, near Tlenifen.
Root perennial. Stem ereft, firm, {lightly branched, about
two feet high, hifpid with very abundant ihort hairs. Leaves
oppofite, on ihort (talks, two to three inches long, and above
half as broad, villous, fnft and lioary, of a few fmall ovate
leajlets, often cut away at the upper edge, befides the large,
fometimes lobed, terminal one. Clujler terminal, fix or eight
inches long ; its branches oppofite or alternate, fubdivided,
hairy. BradeasYmezr. Ca/y.r fmooth, with rounded mem-
branous-edged fegment.i. Corolla the fize of S. nodofa.
Desfontaines.

23. S. canina. Wing-leaved Fig-wort, or Dog's Rue.
Linn. Sp. PI. 865. WiUd. n. 20. Ait. n. 16. Sm. Fl.
Grsc. Sibth. t. 598, unpublithed. (S. n. 328 ; Hall. Hiit.
V. I. 142. Rata canina ; Cluf. Hiit. v. 2. 209. Gcr. Em.
I2j6.) — Leaves pinnate; leaflets decurrent, cut. Stem
round. Cluller leaflefs ; its branches fimply forked, their
divifions racemofe. Flowers nearly feihle, without an inter-
nal lobe. — Native of Switzerland, France, Italy, and the Le-
vant ; frequent in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus. A hardy an-
nual, long known in botanic gardens, bnt not generally cul-
tivated, flowering molt part of the fummer. Root rather
woody. Stems two or three feet high, flighlly angular,
purphfh, fmooth, leafy. Leaves dark green, fmooth, oppo-
fite or alternate, ftalked ; leaflets deeply cut, or pinnatifid,
fometimes accompanied by fmall intermediate ones. Cluflers
•one or more, terminal ; fometimes leafy at the bottom, but
for the moil part furnifhed throughout with lanceolate brae-
teas only ; their branches alternate, fimply forked, with a
Jloiver in the fork, the two divifions fimply racemofe, or rather
fpik-d, varying greatly (from three to ten) in the number of
ihm flowers, which are alternate, almoft feffile, each fub-
tended by a fmall braSea, and accompanied by a larger one,

on the oppofite fide of the flalk. The white membranoui
border of the calyx is very confpicuous. Corolla about the
fize and ihape of S. aquatica, but deftitute of an intermediate
lobe ; Its tube yellowifh-green ; two larger fegments of the
limb blood-red ; two lateral ones orange ; odd one green. —
Willdenow refers to this, as a variety, S. orientalis, chry-
fanthemi folio, flore minimo atropurpureo ; Tourii. Cor. 9,
which he fuppofes may be S. lucida of Pallas. We have no
knowledge of Tournefort's plant, but, from its place in
his work, it fhould fecm to be very nearly related to our
.S. bicolor hereafter defcribed, or perhaps a variety of that
fpecies.

24. S. variegata. Spotted-flowered Fig-wort. Marfch.
von Bieberft. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 445.
Willd. n. 22. — " Stems fhrubby at the bafe. Leaves bi-
pinnatifid, dow-ny. Clutters elongated ; flower-ftalks fhort,
rough, with hooked hairs." — Native of the ftony banks
of rivers, and barren hills, between the rivers Terek and
Kur, in the neighbourhood of the Cafpian fea, flowering in
June and July. The root is perennial. Stem woody at the
bafe, with numerous long tlender branches, clothed, like
all the reit of the herbage, with rough hairs. Flowers ra-
ther lefs than in .9. canina. Corolla purplifh ; its two upper
fegments fhort, obtufe, incumbent, one of them marked
with a white fpot ; three lower ones white, very fmall, ob-
tufe. Akin to the lail, but, according to this defcription,
fuffxciently dillinft.

25. S. lucida. Shining-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
865. Willd. n. 21. " Hort. Berolin. t. 57." Ait. n. 17.
Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 599, unpublifhed. (S. faxatilis
lucida, laferpitii maflilienfis foliis ; Tourn. Infl. 167. Bocc.
Muf. 166. t. 117. S. indica ; Ger. Em. 716? S. glauco fo.
ho, in amplas lacinias divifo ; Tourn. Cor. 9. Voy. v. i.
84, with a plate.) — Leaves pinnate, flefhy, fmooth ; leaflets
pinnatifid, decurrent, cut. Stem round. Clutter leaflefs j
its branches forked, cymofe. Flowers ftalked ; without an
intermediate lobe. — Native of Italy and the Levant ; com-
mon in tlie iilands of the Archipelago. The root is woody,
and faid to be perennial. It is not eafy to dittinguifh this
fpecies, by defcription, from the canina, except that the
leaves appear to be more glaucous, and the clutter of

Jlowers altogether more cylindrical, wfeh fhorter compaft
branches, of a cymofe habit, \.he Jlowers all ftalked. The
four uppcrmoft fegments of the corolla are all of one nearly
uniform blood-red, (without any intermediate lobe,) the
odd one green. Cap/ule nearly twice the fize of canina.
Linnxus quotes the plant of Tournefort's Voyage as the
fame with what that writer had previoufly mentioned,
by another name, in his Inflitutioncs. Dr. Siblhorp's cx-
aftly anfwers to the plate of Tournefort, and is drawn with
leaves more glaucous than canina.

z6. S. Jilicifolia. Fern-leaved Fig-wort. Mill. Did.
ed. 8. n. 10. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsc. Sibth. n. 1456. Fl.
Grxc. t. 600, unpublifhed. (S. foliis filicismodo laciniatis,
vel ruta canina latifolia ; Tourn. Init. 167.) — Leaves pin-
nate ; leaflets pinnatifid, decurrent, cut ; in the loweft
leaves obovate. Stem fquare. Clutter leaflefs ; its branches
forked, divaricated, with from five to nine flowers. Corolla
with an intermediate lobe. — Native of Crete. A large tall
fpecies, with dark-green leaves, of which the lowermoit are
a foot long, with broad, obovate, lobed, cut, decurrent
leajlets. It is readily dittinguiihed from S. canina, lucida, and
their allies, by the fquarenefs of itsjlem, to the very top of
the clujler, and the prefence of an intermediate lobe to the
corolla; the two upper fegments of whofe limb are of a pe-
culiarly dark red, or chocolate colour ; th-. lateral fegments,
like the lobe juft menuoned, of a pale red ; the lower one

green,

SCR

green, and very fmall. T]\e J!otvers zrt all nearly feflile ;
nine on the lowed branches of the clufter, feven on thofe
about the middle ; five or three on the uppermoft. Calyx
with a white membranous edge, as in all this tribe.

27. S. Uv'tda. Livid Fig-wort. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grxc.
■^ibth. n. 1457. Fl. GrEc. t. 601, unpublithed. — Leaves
pinnate ; leaflets pinnatifid, decurrent, angular and cut, all
uniform. Stem fquare. Clufter leaflefs, ftraight ; its
Inanches forked, with from three to feven flowers. Corolla
with an nitermediate lobe. — Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in
Afia Minor, probably near Smyrna. This appears to be
annual, and differs from the laft in the uniformity, lighter
colour, end fmaller fize, of its leaves, whofe fegments are
fmall, wedge-fliaped, angular and channelled. The inflo-

•fcence is fimilar, but more flL-nder and condenfed. Two
ipper fegments, and intermediate lobe, of the corolla pale

purple, or lilac-coloured ; lateral and lower ones, like the

tube, of a light green.

28. S. bicolor, Striped-flou-ereJ Fig-wort. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grxc. Sibth. n. 1458. Fl. Grxc. t. 602, unpublidied.
(S. chryfanthemifolia ; Marfch. von Bieberit. in Sims and
Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 446? S. orientalis, chryfanthemi
folio, flore minimo variegato ; Tourn. Cor. 9.) — Leaves
bipinnate, narrow, (harply cut. Stem round. Cluiter
leaflefs ; its branches fimply forked, their divifions racemofe.
Flowers ftalked, without an intermediate lobe.^Native of
Sicily and the Levant. A tall, branching, panicled fpecies,
with very narrow, fmooth, (hining leaves, whofe fegments
are fliarply cut and pointed. The injlorej'cence forms a large
compound panicle, with numerous lanceolate braSeas. Calyx
elegantlv bordered with a purple line, within its white mar-
ginal membrane. The two upper, as well as the lowelt,
lobes of the corolla are of a blood-red, edged with white,
the two lateral ones pure white ; tube blood-red, pale at the
bafe. We have little doubt of Tournefort's fynonym,
which is fo very appofite in charafter ; refpefting that of
Von Bieberftein, we are more doubtful. The prcfent ele-
gant fpecies is lefs naturally allied to the two lalt, than to
(ome of thofe immediately preceding them ; but its leaves
are more finely divided than in any other known Scrophu-
lar'ia.

The whole genus is more or lefs foetid when bruifed,
and of a noxious quality to moft of the larger animals.

Sc'ROPHULARiA, in Garilcning, comprifes plants of the
fibrous-rooted, herbaceous, and Ihrubby kinds, of which tlie
fpecies cultivated arc, the flirubby fig-wort { S. frutefcens) ;
the three-leaved fig-wort (S. trifoliata) ; the clder-leavcd
fig-wort (S. fambucifolia) ; and the fliining-lcaved tig-wort
(S. lucida).

Melh'jil nf Culture. — Thefc plants may be ir.crcafcd by
feeds, which (hould be fown in autumn in the borders or other
places where the plants are to remain. T!ie plants (liould be
kept tree from weeds ; when the roots continue IVveral years,
unlefs dcflroyed by fevere frofts. It is therefore a good
praftice to have fome in pots prote£led by a frame and
glaflcs : and as the young plants flower the ftrongeif, a
proper fuccefTion (hould be fown annually. They may
alfo be fomctimes raifed from the parted roots ; and the
flirubby forts by cuttings or flips in the fummer or fpring
months.

They afford ornament and variety in the clumps and
borders, as well as other parts, of pleafure grounds : alfo
when fet out among colleftionf, in pots.

SCROPHULARIjE, in Botany, a natural order of
plants, named from one of the moft remarkable and belU
^known gener.i, fee Scrophulari.'v ; making the fortieth

SCR

order in Juflieu's fyftem, or the feventh of his eighth clafs ;
fee Labiate, and Gentiante. See alfo Pehsoxat*, a
Lmnsean order, to which that under confideration is, in a
great part, parallel. Tlie charader of the Scrophularit is
thus given by JufReu.

Calyx divided ; often permanent. Corolla often irregular ;
divided in the limb. Stamens often four, two longer than
the others; rarely only two in all. Style om; ftigma fimple
or two-lobed. Fruit capfular, of two cells, fplit at the
fummit, if not completely feparated, into two valves, which
are in fome few inftances divided again into two parts ; their
infide is naked and concave, with a central receptacle,
bordered vertically all round, and bearing feeds at each fide,
fupplying the place of a partition, being parallel to the
valves, and often coimefted, in its whole circumference, with
their margins. Seeds often numerous and minute. Stem
herbaceous, rarely flirubby. Leaves oppofite or alternate.
Floiuers brafteated.

Seftion i. Stamens four, two longer and two fhorter.

Bvddleia ; Scopar'ta; Ru^tlja of Jzcqmn ; Capraria ; Sle-
modia ; HaUeria ; GalveiLta of Dombey ; Achimenes of
Browne; Scrophularia ; Ma/r7;/rM of Aublet, fufpcftcd by
Schreber to be a Var.dellia ; Dodartia ; Gerardia ; Cymharia;
Linaria of Tournef'ort ; Antirrhinum, comprehending A/arina
of Tournefort ; Hemimcris ; and Digitalis.

Seftion 2. Stamens two.

Ptederota; C:dceolaria ; and 5^a of Commerfon.

Scftioii 3. Genera akin to Scrophularia, with oppofite
leaves.

Columnea ; Bcjleria ; Cyrtar.dra of Forller ; Gratiola ;
Torenia ; Fandellia ; Lindernia : Mimulus ; Polypremtim ;
and Montira of Aublet.

Sedlion 4. Genera akin to Scrophulartt, with alternate
leaves.

Schwr.lhea ; Scbwenkia ; and Browallia.

SCROPHULOUS Tumours, in Nogs, fwellings of the
glands about the ;;ecks and other parts of them, arifing from
colds and obftrudions caufcd in other ways. They may
moftly be removed by mild camphorated mercurial ointments,
ufed two or three times in the day to the difeafed parts.
See Hog and Swinf.

SCROTOCELE, in iSwrffrji, a hernia, or rupture, whick
has defcendcd into the fcrotum. .

SCROTUM, in Anatomy, the bag of flcis which contains
the tcfticles. See Generation.

SCROWLS, or Scrolls, in Archiiedure. See Volute.

SCRUB, in Geography, one of the fmaller Virgin illands,
in the Weft Indies.

SCRUPI, in Natural ffi/lory, the name of a clafa of
foffils, formed in detached niafles, without any crulls ; of no
determinate figure, or regular ftruttiire ; and compofed of
a cryftalline or fparry matter, debafed by an admixture of
earth, in various proportions.

Under this clafs are comprehended, i. The telaugia.
2. Thepetridia. 3. The lilhozugia. 4. The jafpides, or
jafpcrs.

All thefe genera ftrike fire witli fteel, only fome more
readily tlian others.

SCRUPLE, ScuiPULlis, Scrupulum, or Scripulum, the
leafl of the weights ufed by tin. ancients, which, aniongft
the Romans, was the twenty-fourlii part of an ounce, or
the tliird part of a draclim.

SrRiii'i.E is Hill a weigiit among us, containing the third
part of a drachm, or twenty grains.

Among goldfmiths the fcruple is twenty-four grains.

ScHUi'LK, in Chronology. The Clialdec Icruplc is t-eVr
H 2 pan

s c u

s c u

part of an hour, called by the Hebrews helak'm. Thefe
fcruples are much ufed by the Jews, Arabs, and other
eattern people, in computations of time.

Scruples, in AJlronomy. Scruples tcTipfed, that part of
the moon's diameter which enters the Ihadow, exprefled in
the fame meafure in which the diameter of the moon is ex-
prefled. See Digit.

Scruples of Half Duration, an arc of the moon's orbit,
which the moon's centre defcribes from the beginning of an
eclipfe to its middle.

Scruples of Immerfwn, or Incidence, an arc of the moon's
orbit, which her centre defcribes from the beginning of the
echpfe, to the time when its centre falls into the ftiadow.
See Immersion.

Scruples of Emerjion, an arc of the moon's orbit, which
her centre defcribes in the time from the fii-lt emerfion of the
moon's limb, to tlie end of the eclipfe.

SCRUTATORES, among the Romans, certain officers,
or fervants, whofe bufinefs it was to fearch every body that
came to falute the emperor, in order to difcover if they had
any kind of arms concealed about them. They were firll
infUtuled under the emperor Claudius.

SCRUTINY, ScuuTixiuM, in Antiquity, an examination,
or probation, praAifed in the lait week of Lent, on the cate-
chumens, who were to receive baptifm on the Eafter-day.

The fcrutiny was performed with a great many ceremo-
nies : exorcifms and prayers ^vere made over the heads
of the cathccumens. On Palm Sunday, the Lord's grayer
and Creed were given them, which they were afterwards
made to rcliearfe.

The procefs was called ycra/zWam, fcrutiny; becaufe here-
by the hearts of the catechumens were fcrutinized, or
fearched, that the prielts might underftand who were fit
to be admitted to baptifm.

This cuftom was more in ufe in the church of Rome than
any where elfe ; though it appears, by fome miflals, to have
been likewife ufed, though much later, in the Galiican
church. It is fuppofed to have ceafed about the year 860.
Some traces of this practice ftiU remain at Vienne, in
Dauphine, and at Liege.

Scrutiny is alfo ufed, in the Canon Law, for a ticket,
or little paper billet, wherein, at elections, the eleftors write
their votes privately, fo as it may not be known for whom
they vote.

Scrutiny, among us, is chiefly ufed for a ftricl perufal
and examination of the feveral votes hallily taken at an
eleftion ; in order to find out any irregularities committed
therein, by unqualified voters, &c.

SCRUTORE, or Scrutoir (from the French efcritoire)
a kind of cabinet, with a door or lid opening downwards, for
conveniency of writing on, &c.

SCRY, in Falconry, denotes a large flock of fowl.
SCUD, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to fignify
to clear with a Ipade or fpittle.

Scud, in Sea Language, a name given by feamen to the
loweft and lightert; cloudi:, which are molt fwiftly wafted
along the atmofphere by the wind.

SCUDDING, the movement by which a fliip is carried
with great velocity before a tempelt.

As a fliip moves through the water with fo great a velo-
city whenever this expedient is put in pradtice, it is never
attempted in a contrary wind, unlefs 'when her condition
renders her incapable of iullaining the mutual efforts of the
wind and waves any longer on her fide, without being ex-
pofed to the molt imminent danger. See Trying.

A Ihip either feuds with a fail extended on her fore-mafl.

or, if the ftorm is violent, without any fail ; which in the fea-
phrafe is called fcudding under bare-polej. In floops and
fchooners, and other fmall veflels, the fail ufed for this pur-
pofe is the fquare-fail. In large fliips, it is either the fore-
fail with or without a reef, or goofe-zvingeJ only, according
to the degree of the tempeft ; or it is the fore-top-fail clofe
reefed, and lowered on the cap : which laft is particularly
ufed when the fea runs fo high as to becalm the fore-fail oc-
cafionally, a circumftance which expofes the fhip to the
danger of broaching-to.

The principal hazards incident to fcudding are, generally,
n pooping {qh ; the difficulty of fleering, which expofes the
veflel perpetually to the riik of broaching-to ; and the want
of fufficient fea-room. A violent pooping fea may dafli in
the ftern or quarter, and caufe the veii'el to founder. In
bri<)aching-to fuddcnly, fl>e is threatened with being imme-
diately overfet ; and for want of fea-room, flie is endangered
by Ihipwreck on a lec-fliore, a circumftance too drcadhil to
require explanation.

SCUDENES, or ScuTENXSS, in Geography, an ifland
near the coait of Norway, about 20 miles in circumference ;
18 miles N.W. of Stavanger.

SCUDERI, George de, in Biography, was born at
Havre de Grace in 1601, of an ancient family, originally
from Provence. According to his own account he pafled
his youth in military fervice, and in travels through the
greater part of Europe, but he was not known till he fettled
at Paris in the capacity of a \vriter, and in this capacity he
liad a moit prolific pen, giving to the world plays, poems,
cflays, &c. in great abundance. Moft of his works are
funk in obhvion. His " Alaric ou Rome Vaincuc," has
been ranked in the fame clafs with the " Puceile" of Cha-
pelain. His " Obfervations fur le Cid" obtained for the
author the favour of cardinal Riclielieu. Scuderi obtained
admiffion into the French Academy, and he had alfo the gift
of a petty government in Provence, but he was fcarcely
able to keep himfelf above a flate of indigence. He died
at Paris in 1667.

Scuderi, Magdalen de, fifterof the preceding, born at
Havre de Grace in 1607, was educated at Paris, and at an
early age was admitted at the Hotel de Rombouillct, where
flie was encouraged to enter the career of an autliorefs : flie
foon fliewed that flie poflefled qualities of the heart and un-
derllanding, which procured her many friends of rank and
diftinftion. She was particularly celebrated as a writer of
romance. Some of her works confifl of ten volumes. They
were much read when they firfl: appeared, though they have
long fince declined in reputation. They are faid, however,
to contain fome elegant writing, and much real elevation and
dignity of fentiment, which did great honour to the writer.
Their popularity was much augmented, as they were fup-
poled to exhibit portraitures of many of the moft diftin-
guiflied characters of the French court at that period. Her
" Converfations et Entretiens," are by fome accounted her
moft valuable publication, though the politenefs inculcated
in them would now appear formal and tirefome. Madame
de Scuderi carried into practical life the warmth of attach-
ment and honourable fentiments which her works difplayed,
and flie even dared to manifeft her fnendfliip for Pelhfon
when he was confined in the Baflille. She was in habits
of correfpondence with fome of the moft dillinguiflied lite-
rat*y characters of Europe ; was elected a member of the aca-
demy of Ricovrati at Padua ; was patronized by cardinal
Mazarin and Louis XIV. ; and admitted to the friendfliip of
queen Chriftina. She died in 1701, at the age of 94.
Moreri.

Scuderi,

s c u

ScuDERl, in Geography, a mountain of Sicily, in the
lley of Demoiia, lo miles S.W. of Meflina. Next to
iitna, this is thehigheil mountain in Sicily, and retains fnow
all the year.

SCUDO, in Commerce, a money of account, and alfo
:' filviT coin, in different parts of Italy, in Sicily, and alfo
Malta. At Rome, accounts are kept in crowns or fcndi,
led fcudi romani, and fcndi moneta ; each fcndo being
ided into lo paoli or giuli, and each paolo into lo ba-
i.clii. The fcudo is liiiewife divided into 3! teltoni, 500
) quattrini, or 1000 mezzi quattrini : fo that 5 quattrini make
: paolo, and 3 paoli i teilone. The fcudo di itampa d'oro,
which many of the foreign exchanges are regulated, is
ivoned at 1523 or 1525 mezzi quattnni ; that is, when a
is drawn from Rome on a foreign place, the fcudo di
ipa d'oro is reckoned at 1523 mezzi quattrini ; but
.n d'awn from another place on Rode, it is reckoned at
i^2j ditto: this fcudo is divided into 20 foldi, or 240
(i-iiari. Among the filver coins are fcudi romani, and half
■';o. The fcudo weighs 22 denari lOx'oV gf'ains, Roman
Tht, or 4o8-,VV Englifti grains; and the fdver is IO|4
ces fine in the lb. ; it therefore contains 403 grains of
(lifli ftandard filver, and is worth 4/. ^iL llerling. The
IluJo di ftampa d'oro, of 1523 mezzi quattrini, is worth
'S;. -\d. llerling ; and the paoli, ^\d. ilerling nearly ; or i/.
fierling = 4 fcudi 62 bajocchi, all valued in fdver. All
payments above 5 fcudi are made in cedole, or fcliedules, a
fort of bank notes, which cannot be refufed in payment,
and which are conftantly at a djfcount. At Malta, accounts
are kept in fcudi of 12 tari, each taro being iubdivided
into 2 carlini, 20 grani, or 120 piccioli. Thefe monies of
account are valued in filver and copper money, filver money
being to copper money as 3 to 2. At Mantua, a fcudo of
account is 6 lire, or 120 foldi. At Milan, a fcudo di cani-
bio, or imperiale, is reckoned at 5 lire 17 foldi, or 117
foldi imperiali ; a fcudo corrente at 5 hre 15 foldi, or iiy
foldi correnti : 1219 fcudi imperiali are equivalent to 1755
fcudi correnti. Among the filver coins are fcudi of 18
denari 21/,- grani, at 6 lire, and halves in proportion.
In copper the fcudi are about 10 denari 18 grani (or 100/..
15 dwts.) fine; but the lire are only 6 denari 14 gram (or
60Z. I li dwts.) fine. The fcudo imperiale is woith 5^. 2^^/.,
and the fcudo corrente 3/. 'ji/l- If valued in gold, the
fcudo corrente is worth 3^. 6\d. flerling. Accordi;ig to tt e
mint price of gold and filver in England, viz. 3/. 17^. io\d.
fer omice for gold, and p. id. per ounce for filver, the fcudo
of 7 lire at Bergamo is 35''. 67 in filver, and 36''.50 in gold :
— At Florence the fcudo d'oro, or gold crown, is 63"'. 97 in
gold: — at Genoa, the fcudo di cambio, or crown of ex-
change, is worth 36''. 75 in filver, and 36''.02 in gold ; and
the fcudo d'oro marche 85''.49 in filver, and 83''. 77 in eold :
— at Lucca, the fcudo d'oro is 55''.50 in filver, and 58''.27
in gold ; the fcndo corrente 51''. 80 in filver, and 54''.39 in
gold: — at Malta, the fcudo, or crown, is 2 [''.32 in filver,
and 23''. 34 in gold: — at Milan, the fcndo imperiale is
6o''.90 in filver, and 6l"'.6o in gold ; and the fcudo cor-
rente 42''.32 in filver, and 42''.78 in gold : — at Novi, the
fcudo d'oro marche is 85''.49 in filver, and 83''.77 in
gold : — at Rome, the fcudo, or crown, is 5 2''. 05 in filver,
and 5l''.63 in gold ; and the fcudo di llampa d'oro 79''. 37
in filver, and 78''.73 in gold : — at Sicily, the fcndo, or
crown, is 49*'.o2 in filver, and 49''.92 in gold. For the
aflay, value, &c. of the fcudo, fee the table under Coin.
For the imprefTions on the fcudo, and other particulars, we
refer to Kelly's Univerfal Cambifl.

SCUFFLE, or ScuFi'iER, in yjgricuhure, an implement
of fomewhat the fame kind as the fcarifier, but which is

s c u

moftly lighter, and employed in working after it. There
IS a great variety of thefe forts of implements defcribed in
works on agriculture. The following have been found to
perform the work well in adual pradice. It is noticed, that a
tool of this fort, invented in Norfolk, has been found iiighly
ufeful in that dillrift. It is defcribed in the Agricultural
Survey of the above county as being formed from a double-
brealled foot-plough, by taking off the breafts, and having
a fliare larger and flatter than the original one made. To
the end of the beam of the plough, a crofs-beam of wood,
three feet long, four inches broad, and four inches thick, is
fattened ; and at the dillance of twelve indies and a half
each way from the centre. of this crofs-beam, are inferted
two coulters, each twelve inches long, three inches broad,
and a quarter of an inch thick on the back, but reduced to
three-eighths in the front ; and into thefe coulters, at the
bottom, are rivetted two fhares, of nearly the fame fize as
the firft fliare, which vifas nine inches broad, but thefe two
only eight inches. The crofs-beam is flrengthencd by two
iron reins fixed to the crofs-beam, and alio to the beam of
the plough, in the beft manner for the purpole.

It may alfo be noticed, that the coulters which are fixed
to the crofs-beam do not ftand perpendicularly ; but in-
clining, as the coulter at the head of the plough : thus
they are fixed into a crofs-beam by means of a fcrew and a
nut, fo as to keep them quite fall and Heady.

The advantage of this fcuffler above any that the in-
ventor has feen is, that it is ufed with two liorfes only. It
does the work of more than two ploughs, as the three fhares
cut nearly the width of thirty inches, whereas two ploughs
would cut only twenty-four inches. It is ufed on farms
which confift of heavy land, as well as land of a mixed foil.
But a fcuffle recommended by Mr. Amos is occafionally
much in ufe ; which has wheels on which it is carried from
one field to another, and by which the depth of working is
regulated. Thefe wheels turn round upon their axles, and
alfo upon the under end of the upright fhaiik, in imitation of
bed-callors. The middle beams are the parts to which the
horles are fixed ; but there are likewife fide-beams ; and
the flianks of the lllares are fixed in the beams by nuts and
fcrews. They are fifteen inches long below the beams,
and made of iron, one inch and a half by half an inch
fquare : they are rivetted on their Ihanks. The handles for
managing the machine are about four feet three inches long.
This implement is faid to be of great utility in cleaning
bean and pea Hubbies, in order to their being fown witu
wheat. And it is very advantageous in deftroying weeds
upon fallows, where jjloughing might be injurious, cither
on account of the land being too moilt or very light in its
quality. It is likewife admirably adapted to the cleaning
ot land that has been fown with the garden pea, in order
to its being ploughed, harrowed, rolled, and drilled with
turnips or rape-feed in the latter end of fummer, at the
beginning of Augull.

And with this tool it is alTerted that one man and two
horfes are capable of fcuffling fix or eight acres per day.
It is advifed, that after the land is fcuffled over, it (iiould be
harrowed twice or three times in a place, and the weeds
colledled and dellroycd. But it has been made an objec-
tion to thefe forts of tools with lome, that they cannot be
made to operate in a beneficial manner, except where the
land has been previoufly brought into a fine condition, and
rendered clear from weeds. Thefe, as well as Icarifying
implements, arc likewife liable lo objection from their being
fubjedt to clog much when the lands arc wet. A tool
of this fort has however been employed in the midland
dillrids, which is faid to be in a great raealure free from
a the

s c u

s c u

the lart objeftion. It has been recommended by Mr. Bower.
In this tool, by the teeth being only twelve inches from
each other, and their mterfefting. that dillance is reduced
to fix inches, where the breadth of the (hares, from beuig
full three inches, afford another redueti > ., which brings
them fo near together, that the laud is almoll wholly
broken and reduced, and the intention of a ploughing as
well as a harrowing accomplilTied at once, without cutting
the roots <xf the couch-grafs in two, which is a great fupe-
riority that it poffefles over the plaugh. And from tlie
teeth bendmg forward, and having that kind of pofitio ',
the roots are brought to the top more perfectly, which is
another fuperiority over the plough. It has alfo much
fuperiority in the difpatch of work, four horfcs and a man
being able t« finifh fix acres or more of land of a fandy
quality in the courfe of a day. And the following are the
dimenfions of this tool. The length of the firit bull is four
feet and a half; and the length of the fecund bull three
feet nine inches. The teeth are two feet in length, and
bent near the bottom, in order that they m.ay li;- flat on
the earth. The length of the beam is fix feet. A'nd the
length of the iron axle-tree, for the fmall wlieeh, is one
foot and a half. The length of the iron that ihifts through
the beam, and faftens with a fcrew, is two feet.

Many other light tools of the fame defcription have been
lately provided by different implement- makers in different
parts of the country, which are well fitted for particular
ufes in the cultivation of land, and which, by their con-
venience and modes of working, fave much labour and
expencc. They are fome of them made with two rows of
fhares, five and four in each, about fix inches in breadth ;
the front ones cutting the interfpaces of the hinder ones,
by which means the work is done in an excellent manner.
The depth of working is regulated by fmall wheels that
let up and down. They prepare bean and other ffubbles
admirably for wheat or any other crops. They are a fort of
tool which is faft getting into general ufe by the farmer.

SCUFFLING in Crops, the pradice of putting them
into the foil or ground by meiMs of the tool called the
fcuffle. It is a praftice wliich has lately been much had
recourfe to in fome heavy, moill, land diftrifts with great
utility and advantage, and it may probably be employed in
almofl every fort with confiderable bcnciit, as much time
and labo«r, in the bufy period of the fpring, may thereby
be faved ; as the ploughing being performed in the leifure
feafon of the autumn, the feed can readily be put into the
ground by the operation of fcuffling in the early fpring
months. In all cafes where the ifate of the weather, and
the lands that have been ploughed for a bailey fallow, or
other purpofe, will not let that grain be put into the
grounds early in the fpring, this may be a good method of
proceeding, as further ploughing, in fuch circumlUnccs,
would be highly dangerous and improper. Such fallow.,
or other ploughing?, having had tlie full effeft of the frolts,
and the influence of the atmofphere during the whole of the
winter feafon, cannot but be well fitted for the operation of
fcuffling at this period, and by that means being made fit
for putting in the feed. The fame will frequently be the
cafe with all other lands which have been ploughed before
the commencement of the winter feafon ; fuch as thofe of
the tare, bean, and pea flubble kinds, as well as thofe turnip-
lands which have been cleared and ploughed at an early
period, and this method of preparing them for, ajid putting
in, the feed, may be had recourie to with great fafety and
advantage. There is no danger in this way of dellroying
the fine furface pulverization and tilth which is fo ellen-
tially neceffary for the reception of the feed, as is often

done by the ufe of the plough under fuch wet and un-
favourable circumllances of tillage lands. See Scarifyino,
and Tillage.

The working of the furface foil in this manner, and the
rehnquiihiiig of the ufe of the plough in fome meafure, is a
great modern improvement in the tillage lyftem, which it
moll fully praCtiled in Suffolk ; but it is fait coming into
ule in other diltricfs. In Eflex fonic farmers find it a more
effeftual and cheaper method of cleaning fallows than that
of truiting wholly to the plough. It ii alfo found uleful in
cleaning land for turnips, as well as in lightening the
ground in fly-eaten crops of that iort.

SCULCOATS, in Geography. See HuLL.

SCULION, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ariftotle,
and many others of tiie ancient writers, to the tilh called
by later authors catulus, a.id catulus major, and iu England
the bouncr.

SCULK, among Hunters, denotes a company; as, a
fculk ot foxes.

SCULL. See Skull.

ScvLL- Cap, in Gardening, the common name of a cuiioui
garden plant. See Scutellaria.

SCULPONEiE, among the Romans, a kind of (hoes
worn by flaves of both iexes. Thefc flioes were only
blocks of wood made hollow, like the 1' Tench, fabots.

SCULPTURE, Englj/h, is from the 'Lzx.m, Jculptura ;
and the verb Jculpo, I carvi or engfave, which is the fame
as the Greek Iv.i/fiJ : therefore baffo-relievo was called
anaglyphic in that language ; which word was alfo under-
Itood for carved leprefentations in general. The Greeks
had other words by which they fignified particular works
of fculpture ; as Ktxi-.sf, images ; and iinroi, types, or repri-
fentations in relief.

Sculpture IS the art of imitating vifible form by means
of fohd fubltances, either modelled, as clay or wax, or carved,
as marble. The principles of fculpture and of painting are
both the fame ; till painting divides itfelf into a dillindl
branch by the imitation of colour ; while fculpture is ex-
prefled by form alone.

Of Hebrew Sculpture. — As the bible is the moft ancient
hiltory we poilels, thofe inftances of the arts of defign
which arc mentioned in that facred volume ought to be
noticed, and particularly of Iculpture.

The hril mention of images is in Genefis ; where Rachel
ftole her father's gods, which are called Teraphim, or
images. Mention is made alfo in Genefis of Judah's fignet.

In Exodus, Mofes receives commands and inftrnctions con-
cerning the tabernacle ; that he Ihould caufe it to be made
according to the pattern which was fhewed him on the
Mount. And in order to this, Bezaleel and Aholiab are
intpired with the fpiritof God "to devife cunning works in
gold, and in lilver, and in brals, and in cutting of ftones, and
in carving of timber to work all manner of workmanfhip."

The importance of the arts of defign is here particularly
demonilrated by the manner in which Bezaleel and Aholiab
are called, even in the fervice of religion ; and filled with
the divine fpirit for their employment in the Tabernacle
and the Ark of the Covenant, as defcribed in the following
pailage by Mofes.

" And Mofes faid unto the children of Ifrael, fee, the Lord
hath called by name Bezaleel, the ion of Uri, the fon of
Hur, of the tribe of Judaii. And he hath filled him with
the fpirit ot God in wifdoir, in underft anding, and in know-
ledge, and in all manner ot workmanflup. And to devife
curious works in gold, and in filver, and in brafs. And in
tiie cutting of itoiies, to fet them, and in carving of wood,
to m^ke any manner of cunning work. And he hath put

SCULPTURE.

3t on his heart, that he may teach, both he and Ahohab,
the fon of Ahifamach, of the tribe of Dan. Them hath
lie filled with wildom of heart, to work all manner of work
of the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the
embroiderer in blue, and in purple, and in fcarlet, and in
fine linen ; and of the weaver, even of them tliat do any
work, and of thofe that devife cunning work."

Such infpircd works being ordained, and Mofes coming
down from the Mount to caufc all to be performed accord-
ing to tliL- divine will ; he finds that the people have made
a golden calf, crying out, " Thefe are thy gods, O Ifrael,
who brought thee out of the land of Egypt." The golden
calf is evidently the Egyptian Orus or Apis.

The manner of making the golden calf is thus dcfcribed
by Aaron : " I faid unto them, whofoever hath any gold
let them break it off; fo they gave it me; then I call it
into the fire, and out came this calf." It is alfo faid, «' He
received the earrings and gold at their hand, and fa(hioned
it with a graving tool after he had made a molten calf."

This dreadful attempt to annihilate infpircd art at its
birth, is vifited by a grievous judgment, but no more grievous
than is neceflary to its fecurity : for this deliverance from
Egypt was the deliverance of man, both as to his bodily
and mental faculties, from (lavery.

When the tables of (tone are renewed, that they may
be depofited in the ark, Mofes, Bezaleel, and Aholiab, and
every wife-hearted man, in whom the Lord had put wif-
dom and underttanding, fet about their infpircd work.

The tabernacle and its curtains and cherubim ; the
veil and its cherubim ; the ark and mercy-feat and their
cherubim ; the table of (how-bread and the golden candle-
ftick ; the altar of burnt-offerings, and the altar of incenfe ;
the laver ; the garments of Aaron, and his brealt-plate
and mitre and holy crown, and the garments of the fons of
Aaron.

Whether the cherubims which were woven in the curtains
and the veil are to be confidered fimply as mentioned in
Exodus ; or, according to the more expanded and poetical
reprefentations in Ezckicl, accompanied by their dreadfvil
wheels, containing Orion and Pleiades, Mazzaroth and his
fons, ArAurus and the chambers of the fouth, as men-
tioned in Job, Ifaiah, and Amos; like the reprefentations
on our celellial globe ; the difference will be only in their
more or lefs fplendid defign and embroidery. But the
defcription is more pofitive concerning thofe fculptured
cherubims which covered the ark of the teftimony.

" And he made the mercy-feat of pure gold. Two cubits
and a half was the lengtli thereof, and one cubit and a
half the breadth thereof. And he made two cherubims of
gold ; beaten o'jt of one piece, made he them on the two
ends of the mcrcy-fcat. One cherub on the end on this
fide ; and anotlier cherub on the otlier end on that fide : out
cf the nurcy-feat made h-e the cherubims on the two ends
thereof. And the cherubims fpread out their wings on
high, and covered with their wings over the mercy-feat ;
with their faces one to another ; even to the mercy-feat-
ward were the faces of the cherubims."

Th'fe figures, as alfo the candleftick and table, and all
other works of fculpture contained in the tabernacle ; to-
gether witii Aaron's brealt-plate, a fpan each way, four-
fquare ; containing twelve precious (tones, each engraved
with the engraving of a fignet, with the names of the chil-
dren of Ifrael ; mull have been worthy of their divine
author.

And the ncccfTity of fuch infpircd fculptures and other
infpircd works of art is explained fulficienfly in the deliver-
ance of Iffael from the idolatry of Egypt ; where no one

J

dared to praftife any art or fcieiice, but that of his fathers j
who, like him, were kept from every indication of individual
character. And the Hebrew being born a (lave, continued
fo while under the Egyptian yoke : let his infpiration be
what it would, he was compelled to work in making bricks,
and in iron-furnaces. Such then was the dehveraiice of
art and fcience from dedruftioii, and the earth from return-
ing to its primeval chaos.

All idolatrous fublUtutes for fine art, wood and ftone de-
formities, God, by the mouth of Mofes, repeatedly com-
mands the children of Ifrael to dellroy, in thefe and the
like words. " And dellroy all their pidlures and deftroy all
their molten images."

After the eltablifhment of Ifrael in Canaan, there are
continual indications of fine art. So early as the fong of
Deborah, we hear of thofe who delineate with the pen or
pencil of the writer. Gideon deitroys the altar of Baal, but
afterwards himlelf makes an idol. Micah's mother dedicates
gold and filver to the Lord, to make a graven image and a
molten image ; but Micah makes them a houfe of gods,
which he worfhips and caufes others to worihip, not ufing
them as works of art, but as idols.

We next hear of the image of Dagon, when the ark of
God is taken by the Philillines ; and of the golden emerods
and golden mice, which were put into a coffer by the fide of
the ark, for a trefpafs-offering.

The image which Michal placed in David's bed, to de-
ceive Saul's meffengers, fome fuppofe to have been a llatue
of David ; it is called a teraphim.

But the moft magnificent produdlion of Hebrew art was
the temple of Solomon. It contained the fame cherubim
that Mofes had feen on the Mount ; and they adorned and
covered the whole temple within and without. Two in par-
ticular were placed in the holy of holies, of coloflal dimen-
fions : they covered the place of the ark with their wings ;
the height of each was ten cubits, and the breadth each
fpread his wings was ten cubits. A figure five yards high
is capable of the greatelt efforts at perfeAion in art, and
this no doubt they had, bemg done by divine command, for
purpofes whofe importance reaches to the end of time.

The brazen fea of Solomon's temple, and its twelve oxen ;
the two pillars, Jachin and Boaz ; the candltllicks of pure
gold, twelve in number; the ten lavers, and their bafes and
wheels, and ornaments of hons and oxen, and cherubim,
works infpired by God and wrought by his holy Spirit, with
the other fublime ornaments of Solomon's temple, as alfo
Solomon's throne and its twelve lions. The excellence of
the work mud be confidered as equal to the ]Uirpofe of con-
taining the covenant between God and man, and other dif-
penfations relating thereto.

Thus, the art of fculpture was not only allowed, but en-
couraged and employed in the fervice of religion, in the re-
prelentation of divine attributes or the fymbols of divine
Providence ; and the abufe only of this art was forbidden
when perverted to idolatrous and impious purpofes.

But Solomon became an idolater : and it is laid, " then did
Solomon build a high place for Cliemofli, the abomination of
Moab, in the hill that lb before JenifaKm ; and for Moloch,
the abomination of the children of Amnion." l-'rom this time
fine art and iiilpiration were lucceflively removed.

It has been thought nccellary to be particular in giving
quotations from the bible coiicerhiiig the Iculpture of the
Hebrews, as it is the earliell of which we have any authentic
account. ^

There are found in Syria, in the prefent time, ruins of
monuiiunts called the fepulchres of the prophets. Th'fj-' "■'•
mains have nothing like the Egyptian or the Perfiaii ityle ot

conllrudion.

SCULPTURE.

eonftruftion, but are of Roman or Grecian origin, and mud
have been erefted in an age greatly pofterior to the prophets.
This feems to be allowed in the words of our Saviour to the
Pharifees : " Your fathers killed the prophets and ye build
their fepulchres." It ftiould feem that the Pharifees added
Roman ornaments to the iimple forms of ancient Hebrew
veneration, as is fiirnified in thefe words. " Ye build the
tombs of the prophets and garnifh the fepulchres of the
righteous."

There are engravings of thefe fepulchral monuments, pub-
liftied by Mr. Cafafs in Paris.

Of Babylonian and Per/tan Sculpture, alfo of Aftatic Sculpture
in general. — It may be proper to take only fome general no-
tice of the moil ancient fculpture of other nations of the
Eaft, of which our accounts are very imperfeft, previous to
the defcription of Egyptian fculpture, for two reafons ;
lit, that the fculptures of thefe nations will have coijfiderable
light thrown upon them by the Egyptian remains; and,
2dly, becaufe, as the hiitory and examples of Egyptian fculp-
ture are abundant and fucceffive ; tiiey lead us more natu-
rally and accurately to the great objeft of our prefe:it en-
quiry, Grecian fculpture.

In the very ruined (late of fome, and the utter devaftation
of moll of thofe countries in Alia which were once the
feats of art and fcience, the traveller in vain fceks for me-
morials of Noah, or of Abraham, or of Mofes, or even of
Solomon : all hiilorical record of tliefe early times is with-
out corroborative evidence from remaining monuments.

The firll method of tranfmitting ideas to potlcrity is fup-
pofed to have been by hieroglyphics or ideal writings, whe-
ther painted or fculptured. Such alfo was uled in Mexico
when firll difcovered. All the moft ancient writings ap-
proach to the figurative or ideal writing, every word being
as much as poflible a piAure or image. Some of the learned
have thought that the firll chapters of GenefK were origin-
ally tranfmitted in this way.

How fuch figurative words could have occurred, previous
to the art of ideal writing, cannot be eafily conceived. The
author of a figurative expreflion mull have a figurative idea
in his mind, and that is a hieroglyphic, which might as well
be painted or fculptured as written, and with infinitely
greater effedl on the reader.

The defcriptions of the creation and fall of man, of the
flood of Noah, of the building of Babel, and ^f the de-
parture of Abraham from Chaldea, are each of them a fub-
rime feries of ideal writing.

After the flood, when men began again to multiply upon
the earth, Nimrod's followers are faid to have " bnilded a city
and a tower, whole top fliould reach unto heaven." The
facred writings do not mention any thiiig of fculpture in
this building. But Berofus fays, that reprefentations of the
terrific forms that inhabited chaos previous to the creation,
were to be feen on the walls of the temple of Belus in Baby-
lon ; and that thefe confilted of human figures with wings,
of human figures with two heads, of others with legs of
goats and with horns ; and that they were executed both in
painting and fculpt\ire.

There are no works of fculpture difcovered in any coun-
try at all to be compared v.'ith Greek art. All the great
empires, previous to the age of Pericles, are vanilhed ; not
any thing of Nebuchadnezzar, nor of Semiramis, nor of Be-
lus; their names remain in hiilory but not in Iculpture, and
it cannot be certified whether the golden image of Nebu-
chadnezzar was merely a coloffus or a work ot fine art.

Much lefs can we fpeak of Belus, from any thing that
remains. Herodotus, in defcribing the temple of Jupiter
Belus in Babylon, fays it is a " fquare building, two ftades

in length on every fide, having gates of brafs, as may be
feen in our time, in the midll of this temple lta:d3 a
fohd tower of one Hade in height, and in length and breadth
the fame meafure. On this lower another is built, and a
third upon that, till they make up the number nf eight.
The afcent to thefe is by a way carried round the outfide of
the building to the higheil part, lu the inidit of the alcent
is a place, where thole, who go up may retl themfclvcs.
Within the uppermoll tower a fpaciouh dome is built, in
which a table of gold (lauds, at the fide of a niagnificeii*
bed. No image is leen in this place, but in a chapel whicl
Hands below within the temple, a large image of gold, rc-
prefenting Jupiter fitting, is placed on a throne of gold, bj
a table of the fame metal, all together weighing eight hun-
dred talents, as the Chaldeans affirm. Without this chapel
is an altar of gold, and another of a greater fize, which is
ufed when cattle of full age are facrificcd ; for on the golden
altar no other than fucking viftims may be offered. On the
great altar the Chaldeans confume yearly a thouland talent*
in incenfe, when they celebrate the feitival of this god.
Bcfides thefe things, a llatue of folid gold, twelve cubits
high, Hood formerly in this temple, which, becaule I did not
fee, I fliall only relate what I heard from the Chaldeans.
Darius, the fon of Hyllafpes, had defigned to take away
this, but had not courage for this purpole ; but Xerxes, the
ion of Darius, not only took away the llatue, bul killed the
pried who had torbidden him to remove it. In this manner
the temple of Jupiter Belus is built and adoriaed, not to
mention divers other donations confecratcd there by private
perfons."

Diodorus Siculus has given a defcription of the works of
queen Semiramis in Babylon. " She built two palaces, at the
end of the bridge upon the banks of the Euphrates. That
on the well had a high and {lately wall, built circular, upon
which were pourtraycd in the bricks, before they were burat>
the forms of all forts of living creatures, laid with great art
in curious colours. This wall was in circuit forty iurlongs,
in height a hundred yards, upon which were turrets a hun-
dred and forty yards high. The third and moll inward wall
immediately lurrounded the palace, thirty furlongs in com.
pals, and far furraounted the middle wall both in height and
thickuefs ; and on this wall and the towers were reprefented
the ihapes of all lorts of living creatures, artificially ex-
prelFed in the moll lively colours : cfpecially was reprefented
a general hiilory of all forts ol wild bealls, each four cubits
high and upwards. Among thefe was to be feen Semiramis
on horleback, linking a leopard through with a dart; and
nexi. to her, her hulband Ninus, in dole fight with a lion,
piercing him with a lance. This palace far excelled that on
the other lide of tlie river, both in greatnels and adornments,
for the outermoll wall ot that made of well burnt brick,
was but thirty furlongs in circumference, Inltead of the
curious portraiture of bealls, there were the brazen Hatues
of Ninus and Semiramis, the great officers, and of Jupiter,
whom the Babylonians call Bolus, and likewife of armies
drawn up in battalia ; and diverfe forts of hunting were
there reprefented, to the great diverfion and plealure of
the beholders. In the middle of the city ihe built a
temple to Jupiter, whom the Babylonians call Belus. Upon
the top ftie placed three Hatues of beaten gold, of Jupiter,
Juno, and Rhea, That of Jupiter Hood upright, in the
pollute as if he were walking. He was forty feet in
height, and weighed a thoufand Babyloiiilh talents. The
ftatue of Rhea was of the fame weight, fitting on a golden
throne, having two lions at her knees, Handing one on
either fide, and near to them two exceeding great ferpents
of filver, weighing thirty talents a piece. Here likewife

tbp

SCULPTURE.

the image of Juno ftood upright, and weighed eight hun-
dred talents, grafping a ferpent by the head in her right
hand, and holding a Iceptre, adorned with precious ftones, in
hor left."

But Babylon is now a ruin, nor are the caverns of the
earth found to yield any fragments of her ancient fculptures.
Among the ruins of the Perfian monarchy, which difplay
themfelves in melancholy ftate amidll the defarts, is Perfe-
pohs. The fragments of Iculpture that here remain are
very rude, and give an idea of the mere infancy of art,
though of gigantic dimenfions. Such are thofe fepulchral
monuments carved on high in the rock mentioned by Ifaiah
in thefe words. " He that hevveth himielf out a fcpulchre
on high, that graveth an habitation for himfelf in a
rock."

The ruins of Perfepolis prefent examples of Perfian fculp-
ture on the wall, aiid in tjie portals of its ruined palace,
and alio on the tombs of its kings. Their antiquity may be
about the time when Ahafuerus removed the feat of govern-
ment from Babylon to Shuftian. We hear that Alexander
tBok poiiellion of Babylon, Shuflian, and Perfepolis, the
chief cities of the Perfun empire, and burnt down the palace
of Perfepolis, of which the ruins now remain. They are
hardly more ancient than that removal of the Perfian go-
vernment by Ahafuerus, who is Darius Hyftafpes.

This palace of Perfepolis has its walls Itiil remaining on
three of its fides. Tlie extent of the front comprehends fix
hundred paces, from north to fouth ; it is three hundred and
niiiety from welt to ealt On the weft front are two mag-
nificent ftair-cafes, confiltirg each of two flights of fteps.
On the top of thefe ftair-cafes are feen two grand portals,
one fronting the weft, the other eaftward ; between them are
two magnificent columns, each fourteen feet in circumference
and fifty-four in height : within the portals are carved, in
ftone, the heads and breafts, and front feet projefting be-
yond the portals, of two animals fomewhat like fphynxes,
twenty-two feet from the fore to the hinder legs, and in
height fourteen feet and a half; they have the body of a
horfe, with the legs thick and ftiort, like thofe of a lion :
there is fome appearance of their having had human heads,
one of them having a crowned bonnet like a turret. The
other of thefe grand portals eaftward has two fomewhat fimi-
lar animals, but thefe have wings on their ftioulders, their
dimenfions being nearly the fame with the former. And at
the diftance of a hundred and feventy feet from this portal are
two ftair-cafes like the former. The walls which belong to
thefe ftair-cafes are fix feet fevcn inches high, of which the
lower ftonps make it evident that they were adorned with
fii;nros in low relief. The upper part of the flight is embel-
liftied with foliage-, and the reprefentation of a lion rending
a bull, much larger than life, and likewife in low relief.
The flairs are fcventeen feet in length, three inches high,
and fourteen inches and a half in breadth.

AVhnt remain of this palace are chiefly pillars and porticoes,
the pillars being fluted, having bafes and capitals of uncouth
ornament, of fonictimes an animal's head and neck, and
fometimes ornaments like Gothic arches. All the upper part
of the building is entirely dcftroyed, and what remain of
that below are only feparate members, which have little
curnicdion with each other. Some of the columns are 70
luct high, and have been as numerous as 76 in a range,
though but comparatively few remain, and thofe terribly
mutilated.

The other ruined portals are ornamented with figures
carved in theinfides of the jambs, of rude grandeur : on one
piirtal is a man fighting with a lion ; on another; a man fight-
ing with a grifl"on or horned lion ; andon a third.a fieure like a
Vol. XXXII.

kmg, with two figures behind him, one with a parafol, the
other with a fea-horfe's tail, which being fet in a gold
handle, is ufed in Perfia at the prefent time to drive away
flies. Over his head, in the air, is a little figure on eagle's
wings, perhaps a god or a genius. Another portal has a
great many figures in difli"erent compartments, one above the
other: in the top compartment is a figure fitting on a throne:
on another rui:,ed pilafter, which was once the fide of a door-
way, is a figure fitting on a throne, and behind him an at-
tendant ; beneath, in three compartments, are many little
figures much defaced. Other pilafters have had other orna-
ments, and unknown charafters of letters fhaped like the
heads of arrows, difpofed in diff'erent direAions and in dif-
ferent combinations. The windows of thefe ruins, fome of
which remain, were ornamented alfo with fculptures in the
fame manner as the doors. One that remains has a man
holding an animal by the horn, which is fingle and very long,
and bending backwards ; before them walks a figure of a
man with fomething in his hand, like a facrificing inftrument :
other windows have alfo the fame unknown characters of
letters engraved on their fides.

The ftair-cafes are half buried in the earth, and toward
the top very much broken ; they have each two flights of
fteps with landing places between, the walls of which, and
of the ftair-cafes, have been ornamented with fculpturc, in
two ranges, one above the other. The firft fix figures at the
entrance are fmaller than the reft, and have large veftmentt
with plaited fleeves, and a round bonnet rifing in plaits, and
larger in the upper than in the lower part ; they have hair
and long beards ; each holds a lance, and a quiver of arrows
is faftened at their back with a ftrap carried over the ftioulder.
The figure which is next in order, precedes a train of others ;
he holds the next by the left hand, and grafps a fork with the
right. It feems to reprefent an ecclefiaftic at the head of a
proceffion of others ; he is likewife arrayed in a large robe,
with a girdle hanging down very low. The three figures by
which thefe are fucceeded have /horter robes and fleeves,
with upper and under vefts, and pointed bonnets formed into
five plaits: thefe are properly the tiaras, called alfo re-
flexa, floped into a curve backwards, contrary to the tiara
Phrygia, which are bent forwards. Two of thefe figure*
hold a bafin in each hand ; a figure following them has two
hoops or circles in Iiis hands. This is followed by two
horles drawing a chariot, and by two other figures that
place their left hands, one on the back, the other on the neck
of the horfes. They arc all reprefented with hair and beards ;
the two laft bare-headed, the other has a bandage or diadem.
Between each compartment of fix or fcven figures, is a
kind of vafe, and the two firft figures always hold each other
by the hand. A horfe, led by the bridle, follows the two firft
figures in the fecond compartment ; three figures following
this, one of which bears fomething that icfembles a veftmrnt.
In the third compartment are five figures with httle balins
or buckets, and two others with balls or globes. Thofe in
the fourth compartment are not habited fo well as the others,
having only a very ftraight vcft, with a cinfture, and long
drawers, which are ftraight and plaited : three of thcle
figures have alfo bafins or little buckets in their hands, and
arc followed by a camel, having two hunches on his back,
with a little bell hung round his neck, after the manner of
the eaftern caravans, that the found may be heard at a dif-
tance, efpecially when they pafs through narrow defiles ; to
give notice alfo to the inhabitants of the carav.ui's arrival :
it is a fignal likewife to thofe who have loft their way, and
enables them to join their companions. The laft ciimpart-
ment is dilj^inguiftied by a figure bearing a pole, with a pot
fufpended at each extremity ; and in each of thefe pots arc
I fccn

SCULPTURE.

feen little water vefl'els in an upright pofition : the habit of
this figure is but indifferent. A mule, or an afs, is repre-
fented next, with two men armed with poles, followed by
another figure bearing two mallets. Several other charafters
appear next, and lad of all a great lion encountering a bull,
or fome other animal, from whofe forehead a fingle horn is
extended.

There are forty-eight figures of men and hearts in this
range, and as many m that above it, which confills of the
following figures. The firlt fix of thefe are meanly habited ;
each of them has fome veftment in his hand. Thole that
follow carry the fame, but are better arrayed. Moit of them
are greatly impaired by time. Thefe are followed by an ox
led with a halter. The only difference between this and the
third compartment is, that in the latter, two rams are led,
and each has a large crooked deflefted horn. After thefe
appears a figure armed with a buckler, and another leading
a horfe by the bridle, followed by a third with two hoops :
the other three are habited like the preceding figures. Next
comes a led ox, followed by a man armed with a lance and
(hield, behind whom appears two other figures, each with
three lances, and their fleeves longer than their vefts. The
lall figures that follow have very ftiort vefts, with drawers
that are long and ilraight, which come down to their feet ;
they are armed with long bucklers hanging at the girdles of
their waifts ; two of them have hoops in their hands, and a
third a fork ; they are followed by a horfe led by the bridle.

Such are the figures on this Itair-cafe, Toward the welt
fide, and toward the eail fide, are as follow. Twenty-eight
figures, each grafping a lance with both hands ; their veils
tre long and wide, and they are reprefented with hair and
beards, and feem to be bare-headed, unlefs we may fuppofe
them to wear a plaited bandage, or kind of diadem. Thefe
are fucceeded by a number of other figures, armed with long
bucklers, which are pointed and bent at one end, with a
(hort broad dagger hung at their girdles : their vefts are of
unequal lengths; they are like the laft figures in the drefsof
their heads ; they have alfo fome ornament in one hand, and
the other is placed upon their beard. This range confifted of
fixty figures, the laft of which are defaced. All thefe figures
feem to reprefent fome triumph, or proceffion of people
bearing prefents to the king, which was cuftomary under the
ancient monarchs of Perfia, and is praftifed at this day.

A traveller counted 1300 figures of men and animals re-
maining in this great ruin.

There is another immenfe ruin in the defarts of the an-
cient empire, called Palmyra or Tadmor, faid, in the Book
of Kings, to be built by Solomon. The prefent ruins of
this great city are very different from thofe of Perfepolis,
and indicate a much more modern conftruftion ; and that if
Solomon originally built this city, the Roman emperors, and
particularly Adrian, fo far re-edified it as to leave no traces
of greater antiquity.

As the remains of Palmyra, though vaft and ftately, are
more properly architeftural than fculptural, we (hall refer
the reader, to fatisfy further curiofity concerning them, to
the admirable work of Wood and Dawkins ; for whatever
remarks might be requifite on the fculptures of Palmyra,
would more properly belong to obfervations on that fubjeft
in the feftion of Roman fculpture. See Palmvra.

Balbec, near the fcite of the ancient Damafcus, is another
ruin of the fame defcription. (See Balbec.) As for thofe
many great cities mentioned by the Hebrew prophets as
flourifhing in their time in magnificence and riches, the places
of fome of them cannot be found, fuch as Teman, the capital
of Edom, and the cities of Moab and Ammon, of Afhur
and Aram ; fome are dwindled into little villages, and moft

have left no traces in the defart where they might be found.
With regard to Hefhbon and Rabbalh, and Bozra and Ha-
math, all the mighty cities defcribed by Ifaiah and Ezekiel,
as filled with multitude* in power, riches, arid magnificence ;
the cormorant and the bittern poflefs them, the wolf howls
there, and the wild beafts inhabit thofe forfaken places,
where ancient kings and their counfellors, and warriors,
thought they had built an everlalting habitation ; even Ni-
neveh and Damafcus are now indeed no more ; they are, as
the prophets faid, " gone down into the nether parts of the
earth," nor does hiftory deign to tell their tale.

And of the ancient Tyre, and its Hercules of ancient
Tyrian art, there are no remains. Herodotus fays, " I failed
to Tyre, in Phoenicia, becaufe I heard there was a temple
dedicated to Hercules. That temple I faw, enriched with
many magnificent donations, and, among others, with two
pillars, one of fine gold, the other made of a fmaragdus,
which ihines by night in a furprifing manner."

Tiie Tyrian Hercules, or god of Tyre, is thus defcribed
by the prophet Ezekiel. " Every precious ftone was thy
covering, the fardius, the topaz, and diamond, the beryl,
onyx, and jafper, the fapphire, the emerald, the carbuncle,
and gold. The workmanfhip of thy tabrets and pipes was
prepared in thee in the day that thou waft created. Thou
art the anointed cherub that covereft, and I have fet thee fo;
thou waft upon the holy mountain of God, and thou haft
walked up and down among the ftones of fire."

It looks as if there was fome omiflion in the account He-
rodotus gives of thi;; temple of Hercules, in Tyre. Hero-
dotus, indeed, faw this temple after the ruin of Tyre by Ne-
buchadnezzar, confequently not in its glory, as Ezekiel had
feen it ; he has defcribed the pillars as ftones of fire, but he
has not faid any thing of the god ; perhaps, in his time, the
ftatue of Hercules had been taken away by mercenary
cupidity, as the ftatue of gold in Babylon had been removed
by Xerxes. Such is the melancholy piclure of ancient times,
the fulfilment of the denunciations againft thefe ancient
empires ; " they utter a faint murmur out of the duft."

As there is a general refemblance in the early attempts at
fine art in different nations ; fo there may be a likenefs
traced between the productions of Hindoo fculpture and the
early produdtions of art in Egypt, Greece, and Etruria ;
however, we muft always remember that the accurate ob-
fervations made by the Greeks on beautiful nature, affilted
by the regular progrefs in fcience, foon gave their produftions
a decided fuperionty over thofe of every other people.

The caverns of Elephantis and Ellora are vaft halls exca-
vated in the rocks, equal in dimenfions to the large temples
of other nations.

That of Eilora is architecturally divided, by rows of
columns, into aifles ; the friezes, and pannels in the walls,
are filled with fculpture, detached, or in feries, of the my-
thological perfonages, and adts of the Brahmin religion.

The fculpture of Elephantis is of the fame kind, with
the addition, at one end of the temple, of a colollal buft of
the triple-faced Bramah.

The columns of thefe temples offer a continual variety of
ornaments in their capitals, (hafts, and bafes ; redundant and
extraordinary for the application of the lotus, canes, and
other vegetable and animal produdtions of the country, ia
which the human figure is occafionally introduced.

On the banks of the Ganges are continually feen fuch
ancient works of fculpture in the living rock, of inferior
dimenfions, but of the fame facred charader, obehflis mag-
nificently adorned, the figures of oxen, horfes, tygers, ele-
phants, &c.

The neceffity of haftening to the great objedl of oui
10 prefent

SCULPTURE.

prefent enquiry, Grecian fculpture, makes it impoflible to
do more than refer to examples for Hmdoo fculpture, as
they are fo elegantly difplayed by Mr. Daniel among thofe
ftupciidous buildings of the Ealt, which, in his exaft repre-
fentations, have not only honoured our own country, but
have gratified every lover of art throughout Europe.

Of Egyptian Art. — Egypt, the land of fcience, was vifited
by the moft diftinguifhed of the Greeks in arts and letters,
among whom we find more efpecially the names of Orpheus,
Daedalus, Linus, Homer, Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and
others of diitinguiflied wifdom ; all went to Egypt, as to
the wifeft nation of antiquity, for inftruftion. The earlieft
hiftorian, Herodotus, went alfo, and has given an account
of this extraordinary country. He fays, that in the time
of their king Amafis, Egypt contained 20,000 populous
cities. The remains, at this prefent time, as defcribed by
the lateft travellers, are more Ilupendous than thofe of any
other country, as five vaft palaces and thirty-four temples,
with their attendant fculptures and paintings : though de-
yaltated by the tempell of war deluge after deluge, ftill the
coloflal power of Egypt has a remnant left to teltify what
it once was.

Herodotus fays, on the authority of the Egyptian priefts
in his own time, from Egyptian records, that Meneti was
the firft king of Egypt, after whom reigned three hundred
and thirty kings : among thefe was a woman, named Nito-
cris. Ot the actions of thefe kings, he was told, no record
remained, except of Nitocns, and of Moeris, the laft of thefe
kings. He fays, I ihall, therefore, pafs them by; to relate
the memorable aftions of a fucceeding king, whofe name
was Sefoftris. That he conquered all nations, and caufed
his image to be carved on ftones in the countries that he
fubdued, which he defcribes thus. His figure is five palms
in height, holding a bow in one hand, and an arrow in the
other, and armed after the Egyptian and Ethiopian manner.
On a line, drawn from one fhoulder to the other, thefe
words are engraved in the facred letters of Egypt : " I ob-
tained this region by the ftrength of thefe arms."

After Sefoilris reigned fix kings. Statues made in the
time of the laft of thefe were in ruins in the time of Hero-
dotus, which was about the year of the world 3500. When
Herodotus faw them, the hands had dropt oft through age,
and were lying 011 the floor of the temple. Afterwards
reigned in fucceflion four kings, who were fucceeded by
twelve kings, all reigning at one time over Egypt, who
built the magnificent labyrinth which Herodotus defcribes.
Thefe were fucceeded by four more kings in fucceflion ; but
no work of importance is afcribed to any of them. They
were fucceeded by a king named Amafis.

The works of Amafis, as defcribed by Herodotus, arc
exaftly like thofe whofe ruins remain to this day. Hero-
dotus fays, that Amafis was a great lover of the Grecians,
and permitted them to cltablifh thcmfelves in Egypt, and
ereft temples and altars to the gods. He alfo took a
Grecian wife, and fent confecrated donations to Greece,
particularly a gilded llatuc of Minerva to the city of Cyrene,
a colony of the Greeks, with his own refemblance taken
from the life. To Lindus he gave two ilatues of ftone,
reprefenting the (amc goddefs, together with a hnen pec-
toral of admirable workmanlhip. He fent two ftatues of
himfelf, carved in wood, to the city of Samos ; where, our
author fays, this day they are feen Handing in the great
temple of Juno, behind the gates.

His works in Egypt Herodotus thus defcribes. " He
caufed a colofl'us, lying with a face upwards, 74 fi-ct in
length, to be placed before the temple of Vulcan at Mem-
phis ; and on the fame bafis eredted two ilatttes, of 20 feet

each, wrought out of the fame ttone, and ftanding on each
fide of the great colofTus. Like this, another is fee» in Sai»,
lying in the fame pofture, cut in ftone, of equal dimenfions.
He likewife built the great temple of Ifis, in the city of
Memphis, which well defervcs to be admired.

" He built the admirable portico, which ftands before the
temple of Minerva in Sais ; far furpafling all others in cir-
cumference and elevation, as well as in the dimenGoHs of the
ftones ; and adorned the building with coloftal ftatues, and
the monftrous figures of androfphynxes. One part of the
ftones employed in this work were cut in the quarries of
Memphis ; but thofe of the greateft magnitude were con-
veyed by water from the city of Elephantis, diftant from
Sais as far as a veffel can make in twenty days. But that
which I beheld with the greateit admiration was a houfe he
brought from Elephantis, made of one ftone. Two thou-
fand men, all pilots, were employed during three whole
years in the tranfportation of this houfe, which is in front
twenty-one cubits, in depth fourteen, and eight in height.
This is the dimenfion of the outfide."

Such works are afcribed to Amafis, who was conquered
by Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus the Pcrfian, about the year
of the world 3400, a hundred years before Herodotus ; fo
that 500 years will remain to be occupied in Egyptian hif-
tory, from Sefoftris to Amafis ; and within this time, thofe
Egyptian buildings and works of fculpture, which the
priefts reprefented to Herodotus as fo very ancient, might
eafily have been produced.

Thus a divifion is made between the fabulous and the hif.
toric ages, both in Egypt and Greece ; and a decided era
produced, which will not infringe on the truth of facred
fcripture, nor on the credibility of authentic Gentile hiftory ;
and by a comparifon of the remaining monuments, it may
give fome date to the early works of Egypt and Greece.

The moderns have been no lefs zealous to examine the re-
maining ruins of Egypt, than the ancients were to con-
template its ancient glories.

Of thefe wrecks, thefe ruins of ancient knowledge, the
late publications of Egyptian antiquities give majeitic and
awful ideas. Some of the drawings made by the French
Inftitute in Egypt have been publifhed, and they difplay
what Egypt once was.

The ruins of Egypt are contained in a compafs of about
550 miles along the banks of the Nile, among pyramid*,
and pillars, and porticoes, and fubterranean palaces hewn
out for the dead.

The firft objcAs of Egyptian fculpture that feize hold
on the imagination are the coloftal ftatues : among thefe are
the fphynx, and the ftatues called Memnon or Ofymandue.
The fphynx is fituated fo near tiic pyramids of Giza, as to
make it apparent that thofe malfes of folid bulk were ac-
companied by other maftes of ornamental fculpture ; and
being diverted of their gigantic accompaniments of intel-
lectual labour, the pyramids are left alone, inexplicable
monuments of loft wifdom as well as departed power.

The fphynx is thus defcribed by Ripaud : tlie length of
the rock, to which the form of this chimerical animal has
been given, is about 95 feet ; its height from the knees to
the top of the head is 38 feet. The ancients very generally
believed that there was a palTage in tlie body of the fphynx,
which led by iiihlcrraneous channels to the interior of the
pyramid. It is ftill conjeAurcd that, beneath thefe enofe
m'ous mades, caverns have been dug, winch fome fuppor-
to have been employed in the myfteries of initiation. On
the head of the fphynx there is a hole five feet in depth ; and
it may even extend further. There are alio appearances of
another opening of the fame kind on the back of the figure.
I J The

SCULPTURE.

The head of the fphynx bears the lineaments of a Negro.
It is deprived of the nofe.

Of this monument Denon fays : although the proportions
of the fphynx are coloffal, the contours are free and pure ;
the expreflion of the head is fweet, graceful, and tranquil.
It is the charaAer of an African ; the mouth and lips thick,
with a foftnefs in its movements, and a finede in its execu-
tion, truly admirable : it is the flefti and the life. At
whatever time this was produced, art was without doubt in
a high degree of perfeftion. If there is wanting in this
head that which we call (lyle, that is to fay, thofe forms,
juft and exalted, winch the Greeks have given to their
divinities ; it is but jiiftice to acknowledge, that there is no
great and fweet charaftcr of nature which we cannot admire
in this figure : if vre are furprifed at the dimenlions of this
monument, no lefs are we ailonilhed at its execution.

The temples of Kariiac and Luxor, on the right bank of
the Nile, together with thofe of Medinet Abou and the
Memnonium on the left bank, are fuppofed to occupy the
fituation of the ancient city of Thebes. The ruins of thefe
temples are of vail extent. The palace of Karnac was in
front 240 feet, and its depth near three-quarters of a mile.
It confuted of four great courts of nearly equal dimenfions,
comprehended within a long fquare : the firll court was oc-
cupied by four rows of columns ; the fecond court had
130 columns, the largeft 1 1 feet in diameter, the fmallclt
7 feet ; the third court was adorned witii obeiifljs 90 feet
high, and cololTal flatues, furrounded by various royal
apartments. On each fide of the entrance to the fourtli
court was a falcon of granite : the reft of the fpace was
occupied by porticoes, colonnades, and numerous chambers
for officers and attendants. This palace, with four de-
pendant llruftures of fimilar magnificence, but inferior pro-
portions, was approached by four paved rdads, bordered
on each fide with figures of animals, each 15 feet long. In
one avenue were 90 lions ; in another avenue, fphynxes ; in
another, rams ; and in the fourth, lions with hawks' heads.
From the ruined ftate of thefe avenues, we have no com.-
putation of the number of animals by which they were bor-
dered ; though it is almoft certain that they were not fewer
than 300, and it is poflible they might be many more. In
this palace 22 colofTal Itatues ilill remain, and a great many
Itatues of granite, and fragments of the fize of nature ; be-
fides which, the walls were nearly covered within and with-
out with baflb rehevos and piftures. The lefl'er ilrudures
in this group of buildings were adorned in the fame manner,
and communicated with the other palaces of Luxor and
Medinet Abou, as well as the Memnonium, which was the
magnificent tomb of Ofymandue or Memnon.

The Memnonium looks to the ealf : it is a palace of the
moll ancient conltruftion, and its dimenfions alfo colofTal.
In one of its courts are feen the remains of the celebrated
ftatiie of red granite, which may be confidered as that of
Memnon. Its height was 64 feet, and its remains are fcat-
tered 40 feet around it. One of its feet fubfiits almolt en-
tire, whofe breadth is 41 feet ; and one of its ears meafured
39 inches in length. The excavations are ftill vifible, where
the wedges were placed which divided the monument, when
it was thrown down by Cambyfes.

Between the Memnonium and Medinet Abou, and dif-
tant about half a league from each of them, are the remains
of a great number of coloflal ftatues and traces of buildings,
which indicate that thefe two places communicated with
each other by llruftures which filled up the whole fpace
between them. This mafs of edifices appears to have com-
pofed, according to Diodonis Siculus, the tomb of Memnon
or Ofymandue. We are confirmed in this conjecture, by the

conformity which cxifts between the monuments in their
prefent ftate, and the cxtenfive as well as precife defcrip-
tions which that writer has left of piftures which are found
in both palaces. They reprefent the fiegcs of fortified
towns, hoftile invafions, and viftories obtained by the
Egyptians.

The Memnonium has not been fini(hed, as well as the
greater part of Egyptian works, where, by the fide of ob-
jefts but roughly hewn, are feen examples of cxquifite
finifhing. Between the Memnonium and the palace of
Medinet Abou are the largcit coloffal Itatues which now
remain in Egypt : thefe are the figures now called Memnon.
They are both fitting, with their heads looking ftraight
forwards ; both their hands lying equally on their knees ;
their feet ilraight forward, and their legs in an upright
pofition, and both alike. One of thefe, according to the
defcriptions in Diodorus and Strabo, and thofe who copy
their writings, was the famous ftatue of Ofymandue, the
largeft of all the colofles. The height of them is about
58 feet. Three fmaller female figures accompany each of
the coloffal ftatues, which are ftanding one on each fide of
the chair, and one between the legs of the principal figure :
thefe are in bado relievo ; and that on the pedeltal or chair
of the fouthern figure wants no charm of delicacy in the
execution. It is on the leg of that figure, towards the
north, on which the inlcriptions are written of thofe illuf-
trious ancient travellers who vifited the ftatue of Memnon :
there are innumerable infcriptions ot names of all dates, and
in all languages.

But Denon gives it as his opinion, which is alfo that of
Ripaud, that the two ftatues now ftanding are the mother
and fon of Ofymandue ; the figure of Olyniandue itfelf
now lying in ruins, as was before defcribed.

The great temples of Hermopolis ; the great city of
Mercury ; of Tentyris, or Dendera ; of Latopolis ; of
Karnac ; of Apolliiiopolis, or Edfu ; of the iflands of Philae,
and of Elephantine ; are all now in ruins, covered with re-
maining examples of Egyptian fculpture, both in Itatues
and in hieroglyphical reprelentation, on the walls, and on
the pillars and porticoes, within and without ; many of
which are works of great labour and care, as well as intelli-
gence in art.

M. Ripaud fays, the execution of the figures engraved
on the exterior and interior walls at Dendera, is an example
of the highell point of perfedtion to which the Egyptians
attained. All the minutise of their drefs are finifhed with a
purity and delicacy moft admirable, confidering the imprac-
ticability of the Hone. The elevation of this temple is 72
paces in breadth, and 145 in length ; the portico is 60 paces
in length, and 30 in breadth. Its molt remarkable decora-
tion is the great zodiac, divided into two bands ; it enriches
the cieling of the two laft intercolumniations to the right and
left. The faloon fucceeds to the portico, and is fupported
by fix columns, whofe capitals difplay four figures of Ifis,
with the ears of a cat. The compartments of the walls are
decorated with pidtures, in which is a great number of
female figures.

On the terrace of the great temple is a fmall one, the
columns of winch are like thofe of the portico ; this temple
forms a fquare of nine feet, and is the portico of a chapel,
of which there are no traces. In the inner part of the
temple is an apartment, which is adorned with a zodiac ;
it is circular, and occupies one-half of the cieling. The
apartment appears to be confecrated to aftronomy. It is
feparated from another allronomical fculpture by a female
figure in has relief, of a large fize, occupying the whole
diameter of the cieling ; it prefents a contour eafy, and of

beautiful

SCULPTURE.

beautiful proportions ; its feet, well preferved, are in a beau-
tiful ftyle ; it does not prefent any attribute, except a col-
hr, which is often feen on figures of Ifis ; the hair is curled,
and falls on each fide of the face ; and on each fide of this
figure are hieroglyphical infcriptions.

At Luxor, which is part of ancient Thebes, are the re-
mains of a palace, having in its front two obelifks of granite ;
their height is feventy feet above the earth. Near thefe are
two cololfal figures buried up to the breads ; and judging
from the fize of what is above the earth, we may reckon
that thirty feet are buried, which gives a hundred feet
to thefe obeliflcs. They are in perfeA prefervation : the
hieroglyphics upon them are moft laborioufly finifhed; the la-
bour to cut them from the quarry mull have been immenfe, as
well as to tranfport them to the place where they now itand.
The parts preferved of the two colofles are admirable pieces
of fculpture, and were finifhed in the moil careful manner.
Behind thefe are two great moles, which formed the gate ;
t''ey are covered with fculptures reprefenting chariots drawn
by two horfes, each having only one conduftor.

It is remarkable, that neither the coloffal figures, nor the
monuments, are on a fine with each other, nor with the gate ;
alio, they are fo clofe together, that the diilance between
the moles and the obeliilts, comprehending the coloflal fta-
tnes between them, is but eleven paces ; each of which ob-
je.'ls in an infulated pofition, would altonifh the beholder
with its fize.

The temple of Hermuntis was confecrated to Ifis, whofe
delivery from Typhon is, fculptured on the walls in bailo
relievo ; It is a beautiful, elegant itrufture, but dreadfully
ruined.

Eine, the ancient Latopolis, has a temple, the portico of
which is m good prelervation ; it was dedicated to Jupiter
Ammon, as appears from a medallion over the gate in the
inner part of the ruin. Tlie hieroglyphics and piftures re-
prefent a great number of facrifices offered to this deity, and
to rams, h's emblems : the moft curious of thefe rcprefent
the offerings made to crocodiles, and the wor(hip of the
Nile. The triumphs of tlie figns of Leo and Cancer are
equally dillinguifhed. Hieroglyphics are fculptured in
relief on the columns, very beautiful for their workmanfhip.
This temple is one of the moll remarkable in Upper Egypt, as
». ell for the perfeift prefervation of the portico, and its parts
tiiat ftill remain, and their fine execution, as for the very
interelting piftures, which relate to thofe minutiaE of Egyp-
tian worfhip which are leall known : here is alfo found one
ot the remaining zodiacs. This is one of the molt beautiful
monuments of antiquity ; moft perfcft in proportion, and
beautiful in execution, of all the temples in Egypt.

Edfu, or Apollinopolis, is the moft fpacious as well as the
bi ft preferved of all the Egyptian temples, and where the
Egyptian architeclure difplays itfelf with fupreme magnifi-
cence. It was dedicated to Horus, tlie Apollo of the Greeks.
Here it is that the huge materials have been employed with
the greateft care, though many of the ftones have not been
pLccd perpendicularly on their capitals, and feveral of the
columns vary in their diameters. The drawing of the
figures is corredl, and there is fomc appearance even of
perfpcftivc in the ftatues of Ifis, that decorate the frieze of
the portico.

The fculpture is particularly beautiful in the capitals of
the columns that decorate this temple, every one different,
'>Mt every one beautiful ; they are totally original in the

Mipofition of their ornaments, and perhaps equally cx-
"-ellent with the admired Corinthian, or Ionic.

The temples at Elephantine and Philae are by no means
inferior to any in Egypt ; they are likewife adorned with

fculptures and paintings of the moft perfed Egyptian work-
man Ihip.

But the abodes of the dead were particularly diftinguiflied
by the care of the ancient Egyptians. All the Lybian
mountain, which is half a league to the weft of the Mem-
nonium, and ends oppofite to Medinet Abou, is pierced fr<jin
its bafe to three-fourths of its elevation, with a great number
of fepulchral grottoes. Thole which are neareft the furface
of the ground are moft fpacious, as well as the moft de-
corated ; thofe which are in the moft elevated part of the
mountain, are much more rudely contrived and execHted •
while fuch as hold the middle place bear an adjufted pro-
portion of fpace and ornament. Thofe which belong to the
poor are the molt interefting, becaufe they always contain
fome reprefentation of the arts which flouriftied, and the
trades which were praclifed at that epocha. The plan of
thefe grottoes is in a great meafure the fame. A door open*
ing towards the eaft difplays a gallery of about twenty feet
in length, fometimes formed in a ftraight line ; at other tirne<
it runs off from the entrance in an angle : it is indifferently
fupported by columns or pilafters. At the extremity of the
gallery is a well that leads to the catacombs, where the
mummies are depofited. The depth of thefe wells varie*
from forty to fixty feet ; and they are connefted by long
fubterraneous paftages rudely fhaped in the rock, which
terminate in a chamber of about thirty feet fquare, whofe
fides are fupported by pilalters, and contain large remains of
the mummies. There are evident traces of numerous other
fubterraneous communications, which probably lead to other
chambers that are at prefent concealed.

In the upper gallery are fculptured in baffo relievo, or
painted in frefco, a great number of fubjedts relating to
funeral ceremonies. The moft interelting pitlures which are
feen there, prefent a detail of circumltances connefted with
the ancient inhabitants of the country. There are repre.
fentcd their firit occupations, fuch as the chafe and the
filhery. Thence we may trace the progrefs of civilization
in the employments of the fadler, the cartwright, the potter,
the money-lender, the hufbandman, and in the duties and
the punifhments of the military life. Each grotto is adorned
with a cieling painted with lubjefts of fancy.

The tombs of the kings are about fix thoufand four hun-
dred paces from the river. They have been formed in a
narrow valley in the centre of the Lybian mountain. The
ancient way thither is not known, and the I pot is now gained
by an artificial paffage. Thefe lepulchres occujiy a large
ravine, which is flanked by the bed of a torrent. The plan
of one of thefe tombs will be fufficient to explain the general
difpofition of the reft.

Every grot communicates with the valley by a large g^te,
which opens to a gallery hollowed in the rock ; its breadth
and height are generally about twelve feet, and its length it
twenty paces to a lecond gate, which opens to another
gallery of the fame breadth, and twenty-four feet in length,
'i'o the right and left of this gallery are chambers of five feet
in breadth, and ten feet long. There arc lound paintings of
arms of coats of mail, tygers' n<iiis, bows, arrows, Iwords,
lances, and quivers. In other fepulchral chnmbers are found
houfehold utenfils, couches, chairs, Itools, cabinets of cx«
quifite forms ; and if the artilt has copied what cxifted,
it is certain that the ancient Egyptians employed the wood of
India carved and gilded ; there arc alfo other utenfils equally
elegant, as cups and veffels in all variety. Other fmirral
chambers are confecrated to agriculture ; others to the
utenfils of the ploughman ; others to inltrumcnts of inufic
elegantly executed. The detail of preparing food is alfo
there reprefented.

SCULPTURE.

It \» in one of thcfe chamber* where are feen the two
harps which were copied by Bruce. A third gallery fuc-
ceeds, of the fame dimenfions as the former, and leads to a
chamber above the level of the other apartments, which is
eighteen feet fquare ; from this chamber is the entrance to a
gallery of thirty-four paces in length. There is alfo an in-
clining gallery, whofe length is twenty -eight paces. At its
extremity is a corridor of fixteen paces, leading to a cham-
ber of eleven paces, which is connefted with another of the
fame fize, by a gallery of fix paces : a fquare faloon then
fucceeds, fupported by eight pillars ; its length is twenty
paces, and its breadth twenty : here is the farcophagus
which contained the mummy of the king. The Romans
made fome attempts to carry away this farcophagus from
the grotto where it is depofited ; they had even tried to level
the ground in order to facilitate its removal, but they very
foon renounced the impracticable enterprize.

To the faloon of the farcophagus another apartment fuc-
ceede, of twenty-five paces in breadtli, and forty in length ;
the height of the tomb is feven feet, its lengtli eight, and
its breadth fix ; the total length of the gallery is two hun-
dred and twenty-five paces. The tombs of the kings,
throughout their whole extent, are covered with piftures
and hieroglyphics, but the greater part are painted in frefco,
and reprefeiit the moil phantaltic fubjefts. The refearches
into Herculaneum have difcovered a great number of paint-
ings executed in a finiilar talle.

One of the moit interefting of thefe grottoes contains a
farcophagus that is iUU entire, and in its place ; its length
is fixteen feet, and height twelve, and its breadth fix ;
it ftill preferves the lid adorned with the figure of the king,
which is a fingle block of granite. How this was tranf-
ported acrofs the mountain, and afterwards introduced
through a fubterraneous paflage two hundred paces in
length, we can have no conception.

From the time of Strabo there were reckoned feventeen
tombs of kings ; and we (hall (till find the fame number, if
we may comprehend in this enumeration a fnperb grotto,
whofe plan is equally large and beautiful with that of the
fepulchres of the Theban fovereigns.

This grotto is half a league to the north of the Mem-
nonium, and is fcooped out at the bottom of a mountain,
whofe enclofure contains many other tombs : the entrance
of feveral of them is clofed, but the greater part of them have
been violated. It appears that thofe of the ancient Egyptians,
who had remained faithful to their worfhip, endeavoured to
conceal the knowledge of the fepulchres of their kings from
their conquerors, or from the profefTors of other religions.

Two of thefe grottoes remain unfiniflied, and a third is
altogether without fculpture ; and fome others offer to view
feveral decorative objefts in a very unfinifhed Hate.

The quarries of Silfilis, in Upper Egypt, prefent a fpecies
of fagade cut into door-ways of immenfe fize, and por-
ticoes, in which are other door-ways leading into tombs, in
the chambers and paffages of which are figures as large as
life, cut in the native rock, often only rough hewn, and
the walls are both fculptured and painted. On the borders
of the Nile we find thefe porticoes, entablatures, and cor-
niches covered with hieroglyphics cut in the rock. Beneath
thefe are a great number of tombs, all cut in the rock.
They are formed into galleries, at the end of which are
funeral chambers of feven feet by ten and eight feet by twelve :
thefe chambers, and the palfages leading to them, are orna-
mented with hieroglyphics traced upon th» rock, and finifhed
with coloured ftucco, reprefenting offerings ; the «ielings
are alfo ftuccoed with ornaments and fcroUs ; often they
are arched with an elegant elliptical arch, and painted and

fculptured in an exquifite ftyle, difplaying an agreeable
afibrtment of colours, and an efFeft rich and gracenil.

Molt of the tombs are entered by a fingle door and gal-
lery, and have only a fingle chamber, in which are one, two,
three, or four figures as large as life, cut out of the rock,
perhaps two brothers and their wives : the men fit in the
middle and the women on the outfide, with their hands pafTed
under the arms of their hulbands, who fit each with their
arms acrofs upon their bofoms. Some tombs have but one
figure, perhaps of one who led a fingle life ; another has
three figures, a man and two women ; the man in the centre
and the women on each fide, with their hands pafled under
the arms of the man, who has his arms eroded upon his
bolom. The figures of men have little fquare beards, with
head-drertes hanging down behind the flioulders ; thofe of
women have the fame head-dreffes, but hangisg before their
naked breafts. In fome chambers the floor is cut into many
tombs, of dimenfion and form to receive the mummies, and
in the fame number as the fculptured figures. Sometimes
the principal figure holds the flower of the lotus, an emblem
of death. And on the fide of the door-way, at the entrance,
we often fee the figure of a woman in fome attitude of
lamentation. Sometimes there are two galleries or entrancse
into a fingle tomb ; and one tomb in thefe quarries of Sil-
filis, the largeft and bell preferved of any, is J5 feet long
in front and 15 high, with an entablature having five doors :
the middle door is ornamented with an architrave covered
with hieroglyphics : within the door is a gallery or paifage
50 feet long and 10 wide, in the midit of which is an-
other door-way leading to a chamber, at the further end
of which are feven figures ftanding ; and on the infide of
the interior door are two niches, in each of which is a
figure alfo ftanding : other figures are alfo in the palTage or
gallery, all cut in the rock. In the fagade withoutfide are
feven niches, three large with figures, the others fmaller ;
thofe with the figures are all cut in the rock, the reft of
the rock remaining in its primitive form.

Such are the ruins of a nation fo celebrated, that it was
the place where the wife men of that truly wife people,
the Grecians, reforted as to the fchool of fcience.

The univerfal and profufe employment of fculpture by
the Egyptians, both in coloffal and minute dimenfion, for
public and domeitic purpofes, for the fervice of the hving
and the dead, all induce us to enquire into the principles
and quality of their produflions. '

We have not only the written evidence of ancient authors,
but the demonftrative evidence of remaining works, that
almott the whole of Egyptian fculpture was facrcd, that
is, reprefenting divine qualities, attributes, and perfonifica-
tions, if we except the hiftorical feries on their tombs and
palaces.

The Egyptian flatiles fland equally poifed upon the two
legs, having one foot advanced, and the arms either hanging
Itraight down, each fide ; or if one arm is raifed, it is at a
right angle acrofs the body. Some llatues fit on feats,
fome on the ground, and fome are kneeling ; but the pofi-
tions of their hands feldom vary from the above defcription.
Their attitudes are of courfe fimply redtilinear, and with-
out lateral movement ; their faces are flattifh ; the eyebrows,
eyehds, and mouths formed of fimple curves, flightly but
fharply marked, and with little exprefCon. The general pro-
portions are fomething more than feven heads high ; the
form of the body and hmbs rather round and effeminate,
with only the molt evident projeftions and hollows : their
tunics or other draperies are without folds in many in-
fiances. Winckelman has remarked, that the Egyptians ex-
ecuted quadrupeds better than human figures, for which

be

SCULPTURE.

he gives the two following reafons : firft, that as profeflions
in that country were hereditary, genius mu(t be wanting to
reprefent the human figure in perfeftion ; and, fecondly,
that fuperltitious reverence for the works of their anceftors
prevented improvement. This is an amufing but needlefs
hypothefis, for there are ftatues in the Capitoline mufeum
with as great a breadth and choice of grand parts proper
to the human form, as ever they reprefented in their lions
or other inferior animals. In addition to the other obferv-
ations on Egyptian ftatues, we may remark, that the form
of their hands and feet are grofs ; they have no anatomical
detail of parts, and are totally wanting in the grace of mo-
tion. This lalt defeft, in all probabihty, was not the con-
fequence of a fuperftitious determination to perfift in the
praftice of their anceftors : it is better accounted for in an-
other way : Pythagoras, after he had ftudied feveral years
in Egypt, facrificed loo oxen for joy of having difcovered
that a fquare of the longeft fide of a right-angled triangle
is equal to the two fquares of the lelier fides of the fame
triangle ; and thence it follows, the knowledge of the
Egyptians could not have been very great in geometry at
that time, which will naturally and fufficiently account for
that want of motion in their ftatues and relievos, which can
only be obtained from obfervation of nature ailifted by
geometry.

The ftate of Egyptian fcience in the time of Pythagoras
being noticed, leads us to another confideration refpecling
the date of their architefture and fculpture. Moft of their
great works are mentioned by the ancients as done in the
reign of Sefoftris, and afterwards. Sefoftris Hved in the
time of Rehoboam, king of Ifrael, about the time of the
' Trojan war, or looo years before the Chriftian era, which
fliews the arts of Egypt and Greece were in a progrefiive
ftate at the fame time. And from the Greeks refiding with
them to rtudy theology, philofophy, and fcience ; from the
great intercourfe, political and commercial, between the two
countries from the heroic times ; from the Greeks being long
fettled in the city of Naucratis, and other parts of Egypt,
we may fairly conclude their communication in arts was
juft as free as in other concerns, which feems the more
likely, as there is a confiderable refemblance in the features
and contour of the early Greek and Egyptian ftatues.

The Egyptian baffo relievos are ( generally but not always)
funk into the back-ground, being left level with the liiglit-ft
part of the relief; for which praftice two reaions may be af-
figned ; firft, that as many of thefe baiio relievos were cut in
exceeding hard itones, bafaltes and granite ; as much time
muft have been confunied to clear away the ground about
the figure, as had been employed to cut the figure itfelf ; but
befides the economy of time, when fome hundreds or thou-
fands of figures were engraven on the fides of a lofty obc-
liflc, or the walls of a temple ; the far greater number of
them were at a great diftance from the eye 50, 60 feet or
more ; in this cale the ground, being left perpendicular to
the figure the whole circuit of its outline, gave it a greater
breadth of ftiadow and diftinftncfs to the fpedtator. Thefe
badb relievos, which we comprehend in the general term
•hieroglyphics, or facred gravings, reprefent dift'erent fubjcdts,
according to the place and purpofc for which they were
employed. On the walls of tombs they reprefent the pro-
feflions, aclions, and funerals of the deceafcd : in palaces,
wars, ncgociations, triumphs, procefiions, trophies, with
civil, military, and domeftic employment of kings. In
temples, tliey were the fymbolical regiftcrs of theology and
facred fcience. On obeliflis, they exprefs hymns to the
gods, or the prailes of their kings. Ammianus Marcellinus
has preferved part of a tranllation by Hermapion, the

Egyptian, of the hieroglyphics on the ebelilk which for-
merly flood in the centre of the Circus Maximus ; and at
prefent before the church of St. John de Lateran in Rome.
It imports, that the fun, the lord of the univerfe, gives to
Ramefis the kingdom of Egypt, and dominion of all the
earth in the city of Heliopolis. This tranflation feems
fufficiently juftified in the upper lines of the hieroglyphics,
where a divinity is fitting, in the a&. of beftowing on a
man, who kneels before him, ftretching his hands to receive.
In the following line the fame man is feen again taking
pofleffion of an altar, on the fide of which is the ox
Apis, and on the top the mitred hawk, fymbol of Ofiris.
Thus of the facred emblems of Egypt.

The enormous works of Egypt have ftruck every foreign
vifitor with wonder and awe, from Herodotus to the mem-
bers of the French Inftitute. Herodotus fays, one of
their buildings is equal to many of the moft confiderable
Greek buildings taken together, and M. Ripaud obferves,
thofe works are fo prodigious, they make every thing we
do look little ; and indeed, if we confider the execution of
a ftatue 65 feet high, in fo hard a material as granite,
the boldelt heart would be appalled at the incalculable
labour and difficulties of the work.

In the Egyptian fculpture we fhall find fome excellent
firit principles of the art. Their belt ftatues are divided
into leven heads and one-third, or feven heads and one-half:
the whole height of the figure is divided into two equal
parts at the os pubis ; the reft of the proportions are natural,
and not difagreeable. The principal forms of the body and
limbs, as the breafts, belly, ftioulders, biceps of the arm,
knees, (hin-bones, and feet, are expreffcd with a flefhy
roundnefs, although without anatomical knowledge of de-
tail ; and in the female figures thefe parts often poflefs con-
fiderable elegance and beauty. The forms of the female
face have much the fame outline and progreffion towards
beauty in the features as we fee in fome of the early Greek
ftatues, and, like them, without variety of charafter ; for
little difterence can be traced in the faces of Ifis, in her dif-
ferent reprefentations of Diana, Venus, or Terra, or indeed
in the face of Ofiris, although fometimes underftood to be
Jupiter himfelf, excepting that in fome inftauces he has a
very fmall beard, in Ihape refembling a peg. The hands
and feet, Uke the reft of the figure, have general forms
only, without particular detail ; the fingers and toes are
flat, of equal thicknefs, little feparatcd, and without dif-
tinftion of the knuckles : yet altogether their fimplicity of
idea, breadth of parts, and occafional beauty of form,
ftrike the fkilful beholder, and have been highly prailed by
the bell judges, ancient and modern.

In their baftb relievos and paintings, which require variety
of action and fituation, are demonftratcd their want of ana-
tomical, mechanical, and geometrical fcience, relating to
the arts of painting and fculpture. The king, or hero, is
three times larger than the other figures. Whatever is the
aftion, — a fiege, a battle, taking a town by ftorm, there
is not the fmallell idea of perfpeftive in the place, or mag-
nitude of figures or buildings. Figures in violent aftion
are equally deftilute of joints, and other anatomical form,
as they are of the balance and fpring of motion, the force
of a blow, or the juft variety of line in the turning figure.
In a word, their hiftoric.il art was informing the beholder,
in the beft manner they could, according to the rude cha-
rafters tiicy were able to make. From luch a defcription,
it is eafy to underftand how much iheir attempts at hiftorical
reprefentation were inferior to their fiugle ftatues.

Wliat has been hitherto faid of Egyptian Iculpturc de-
fcribcs the ancient native fculpture of that people. After

the

SCULPTURE.

the Ptolemies, fucceffor* of Alexander the Great, were
kings of Egypt, their fculpture was enlivened by Grecian
animation, and refined by the ftandard of Grecian beauty.
In proportions, attitude, charatler, and drefs, Ofins, Ifis,
and Orus, their three great divinities, put on the Mace-
donian coftume ; and new divinities appeared among them,
in Grecian forms, whofe charaderiftics were compounded
from materials af Egyptian, Eallern, and Grecian theology
and philofophy.

In the reign of the Roman emperor Adrian, a number
of ftatues, in imitation of the ancient Egyptian, were made
to decorate the Canopus in his magnificent villa of Tivoli ;
feveral of which have been dug up, and placed in the Capi-
toline Mufeiim. But Winckelman has remarked of thefe,
that they may be known from tlie ancient Egyptian fculp.
ture, having no hieroglyphics on them. But, befides this
diftinftion, they are entirely unhke the genuine Egyptian ;
as the drawing and charafter are Roman, in Egyptian atti-
tudes and drefles.

The ancient authors, who give the mod fatisfaftory ac-
count of Egyptian antiquities, are Herodotus, Diodorus
Siculus, Jofephus, Strabo, Clemens of Alexandria, Jam-
blichus, and Orus Apollo.

The beft modern books on this fubjeft are Pococke's
Voyages, Savary's Travels in Egypt, Norden's Egypt,
Denon's Egypt ; to which may be added, the mod magni-
ficent work of Ancient and Modern Egypt, now publifhing
in Paris, which will occupy twelve folio volumei, contain-
ing 840 plates, from the obfervations, refearches, accounts,
and drawings, of the learned men and artifts of the French
nation, who formed the French Inltitute.

Of Grecian Sculpture. — After Egyptian fculpture, the
courfe of our fubjedl naturally leads us to confider the fame
art in Greece, which is thought by fome to have received
its firrt principle from Egypt, and certainly preferved the
charafter of Egyptian fculpture in many of its works,
dawn to a late date ; as Pliny obferves upon the works of
Egina.

In early times, the greater divinities were worfhipped
under the form of rude ftones ; and afterwards the lifelefs
reprefentation of the human figure was attempted, with the
eyes a little opened, the arms clofe to the fides, and the legs
united in one common pillar for the fupport of the mafs.

But about 1300 years before tlie Chrillian era, a fculptor
appeared, whofe works exafted the praife of poets, the
fpeculations of philofophers, the record of hiftorians, and
continued to be preferved with zeal, and fpoken of with
refpeift, centuries after fculpture had rifen to its zenith.
This was Dardalus, the countryman and contemporary of
Thefeus, not inferior perhaps in fame and variety of adven-
tures to that hero. Born of a royal race, the occafional
friend and adverfary of kings, admired for his works when
living, and honoured with a chapel by the Egyptians after
death ! to him are attributed various mechanical inventions,
fabulous and real ; a fine portico to the temple of Vulcan
at Memphis ; the Cretan labyrinth, which was the copy of
a hundredth part of the Egyptian labyrinth. Diodorus
Siculus fpeaks of his works in Sicily. Paufanias mentions
thofe remaining in Greece in his time, nine in number, of
which three may be particularly noticed : one a naked Her-
cules of wood. The works of Daedalus are indeed rude,
fays Paufanias, and uncomely in afped ; but yet they have
fomething as of divinity in their appearance.

Paufanias, befides the high charafter given of this ftatue,
mentions it twice in his Grecian Tour ; from which we muft
undcrftand that it was held in confiderable efteem and vene-
ration. This would naturally lead U8 to hope we are not

9

without fome copy of it in gems, coins, or fmall bronzes,
by which all the moft famous works of antiquity were mul-
tiplied. In the Britifli Miifeuni, as well as in the other
coUeftions of Europe, are feveral fmall bronzes of a naised
Hercules advancing, whofe right arm, holding a club, is
raifed to ftrike ; whilll his left arm is extended bearing the
lion's fkin as a (hield. From the Ityle of extreme antiquity
which charafterizes thefe Itatues, the rude attempt at bold
aftion, the pecuharity of Daedalus, the geperal adoption of
this aftion in the early ages, the traits of favage nature in
the face and figure exprefled with little knowledge but
ftrong feeling, by the narrow loins, turgid mufcles of the
breall, thighs, and calves of the legs, we ihall find reafon
to believe they are copied from the above-mentioned llatue.

The fame author fays, the Gnoffians had a chorus in
white Hone, made by Dxdalus for Ariadne, which is men-
tioned in the i8th book of the Ihad, as youths and damfels
dancing hand in hand. The moil early Greek baflb re-
lievos and paintings reprefent chorufes of the Graces and
Hours in this manner.

Enda;us, the difciple of Dxdalus, made a ftatue of
Minerva, which Paufanias faw in the Acropolis of Athens.
The learned author of the Introduftion to the volume of
Sculpture, publifhed by the Dillettanti Society, fuppofes
the heads of Minerva, on the early coins of Athens, were
copied from this Itatue, which feems very reafunable, when
we compare the llyle and coftume with other works of the
higheft antiquity. And here we mull obferve, that in the
early times of which we are now fpeaking, the rude efforts
were intended to reprefent divinities and heroes only.
Jupiter, Neptune, and feveral heroic charafters, have the
felf-fame face, figure, and aftion, as the Hercules of Dz-
dalus defcribed above ; the fame narrow eyes, thin lips,
with the comers of the mouth turned npwards, and pointed
chin ; the fame narrow loins ; turgid mnfcular forms of
breaft, thighs, and legs ; the fame advancing pofition of
the lower hmbs ; the right hand raifed befide the head, and
the left hand extended : and their only diltinilions were,
that .lupiter held the thunderbolt, Neptune the tndent,
and Hercules his palm branch or bow ; as may be feen in
ancient fmall bronzes and coins of Athens and Paeftum, and
on the moll ancient painted vafes. The female divinities
were clothed in draperies, divided in few and perpendicular
folds ; their attitudes advancing like thofe of the male
figures. The hair of both male asd female ftatues or paint-
ings of this period is drefted with great pains, collefted in a
club behind, and fometimes entirely curled, in the fame
manner as praftifed by the native Americans, and the in-
habitants of the South fea iflauds. Dzdalus and Endxus
firll formed their ftatues of wood. Metal was alfo ufed for
various purpofes of fculpture in the moft ancient times, as
we learn from Homer, Hefiod, and Plutarch.

Dipznus and Scyllis, the Cretans, were celebrated for
their ftatues in marble, about 776 years before Chrift ; ftill
retaining much of the ancient manner in the advancing pofi-
tion of the legs, the drawing of the figure, and the perpen-
dicular folds of drapery, diipofed in zigzag edges. Soon
after elaborate finifliing was carried to excefs, undulating
locks and fpiral knobs of hair, like cockle-ftiells, as well as
the drapery, were wrought with the mcft elaborate care and
rigid exaftnefs, whilft the tallelefs and barbarous charafter
of the face and limbs remained much the fame as in former
times. This paflion for high finiftiing in fculpture, will re-
concile to our reafon a paffage in Pliny ib. xxxv. c. 8. 1, which
has frequently been thought to diiagree with the general hif.
tory of ancient painting : he fays, " that the pifture of the
battle of Magnete, painted by Bularchus, was paid for,

with

SCULPTURE.

with its weight in gold, by Candaules, king of Lydia, who
was coeval with Romulus, and lived in the 20th Olym-
piad, or about 750 years before Chrift : thus," continues
Pliny, " proving the fame and perfeftion of the art." Now,
according to the fame author's account, the ancient painting
did not arrive at its greateft perfcftion until after the time
of Phidias, or two hundred and fifty years later ; and there-
fore it is likely that Bularchus's piftiire was chiefly valued
for the fame high finifhing we iee in the earliefl marble fta-
tues, of which the foUowmg are examples : — colofTal bulls of
Herculei and Apollo, in the Britiih Mufeum, moft likely
thofe donebyDipcenusand ScyUis for the Sicyonians: — very
ancient ftatucs of Minerva, and a priell of Bacchus, lately
in tlie Villa Albani, publilhed by Winckelman in his Monu-
mcnta Inedita, and Storia dell Arte. To thefe might be
added examples of extreme finifhing in early Greek pateras
and other bronzes. This obfervation on Bularchus's pic-
ture, and the fculpture of the fame time, will naturally lead
to another of more general comprehenfion, that the im-
provements in fculpture we have realon to believe followed
thofe in painting accordnig. to the dates, as far as we are
able to afcertain them in remaining works. Soon after this
time may be reckoned the A my clean Apollo, defcribed by
Paufanias as very ancient. The throne, with the image fit-
ting upon it, Paufanias conjeftured at not lefs than thirty
cubits ; he enumerates the fubjetts fculptured upon it ; they
comprehend the hiitory of the fabulous ages underneath.
The bafe is the fepulchre of Hyacinthus, which is entered
by a brazen door. In the fepulchre are many works of (culp-
ture. The figure of Apollo, Paufanias defcribes as of very
rude art. Paufanias aUo mentions a brazen Hercules of
ten cubits, as the work of a difciple of Dsedalus.

Philocles the Egyptian, or Cleanthes the Corinthian, is
faid firft to have introduced outlines among the Greeks, in
the praftice of which they were followed by Ardices the
Corinthian, and Tclephaiies the Sicyonian, who ufed other
lines within the outline, to exprefs the marking of the body
and limbs, alfo writing the names of thofe they painted,
which agree with the earlieft paintings on Greek vafes, as
their attitudes and peculiarities agree with early Iculpture.
Cimon Cleonius invented catagraphy, or the oblique repre-
fentation of images, to give different views of the face, look-
ing up, looking down, and looking backwards : he reprc-
fented the veins, and the folds and plaits or wrinkles in gar-
ments. This Cimon is mentioned as living before the time
of Phidias, which affords an additional argument for bcliev-
ing improvements in painting to have preceded thofe in
fculpture ; bccaufe oblique views of objeCls, and the veins
of the limbs and body, feem not to have been attempted in
fculpture before the time of Phidias.

Fortunately for us, the compendious hiflory of painting
and fculpture, left by Pliny, was felefled from the writings
of the bed Grecian artifts, and arranged, with attention to
the feveral improvements, in chronological order, with fuch
perfpicuity and comprehenfion, that whenever, from the bre-
vity of the work, we do not find all we wi(h for, yet by
attending to the information before and after, we fiiall be
eafily enabled to fupply the defefts from other writings or
monuments of antiquity. In this manner we (hall latisfy
ourfelves concerning the progrefs of fculpture, in the two
hundred and fifty years which elapftd between the age of
Dipcenus and Scyllis a. d that of Pliidias. The better draw-
ing of the figure, with a more careful attention to its parts,
more precifion and variety of attitude, a Icfs elaborate curl-
ing of the hair, the forms of tiie figure better (hewn through
the drapcricf?, are all certain figns of a nearer approach to
the age of Phidias. If we add to thefe obfervations the

Vol, XXXIl.

different ages of writing on works of fculpture, what let-
ters are wanting, and whether the infcription is in the Bouf-
trophedon or ploughing manner, we (hall not err much from
the date of the work.

From the few hittorical obfervatiojis now offered, it is
evident that fculpture was eight hundred years from the age
of Dxdalus, to the time immediately preceding Phidias, in
attaining a tolerable reprefentation of the human form,
which proves the flow growth of art perfected by manual
labour in the infant Hate of fcieacc ; whilll the means of
fubfiflence are precarious, the rights of individuals unde-
fined, and the general attention of fociety employed on felf-
prefervation and defence, rather than on the increafc of com-
fort or civilization of manners. Poetry and oratory, the
more independent efforts of mind, appear in the earlieft.
ftates of fociety, diltinguifh man as an intelleftual and ra-
tional creature, fcatter the firll feeds of knowledge, lay
down theories for the government of future generations, ex-
pand the mind, and diretl the powers towards whatever is
moft ufeful and moft defirable in the more perfeA ttates of
humanity.

The chief occurrences in the early hiftory of Greece are,
the Argonautic expedition ; the war of Thebes ; and the tak-
ing of Troy ; in which particular heroifm, or the united
achievements of petty ilates, are interwoven with poetic fio-
tion. Their confequences produced no confiderable change
in the manners of the people or the character of the coun-
try ; but the battles of Marathon and Salamis, which
deftroyed the Perfian army, whofe myriads, like locufts,
fwarmed over the country, ftruck the firft deadly blow to
the Perfian power, and gave a beginning to the Grecian or
third great monarchy of the world. An event of fo much
importance, by changing fortune and transferring power in
fo large a portion of the civilized part of mankind, raifed
the charafter of Greece, in proportion to the abafement
of Perfia. The Greeks, particularly the Athenians, tiie
champions of the war, whofe heroic ardour was increafcd by
fuccels, fought additional diftindlion by every great and
praife-worthy exertion of body and mind in arts and arms.
The accumulated wildom of ages, and difcoveries in fcience,
were taught by their philofophers ; their temples and public
buildings were raifed with a magnificence unknown before,
and decorated with all the powers of art. .lElchylus,
Euripides, and Sophocles, ennobled the minds of the
people by their dramatic poetry. The five exercifes which
formed the body to exertion and beauty, and the mind to
fortitude and patriotifm, were univerfally pra6liicd, culti-
vated, and honoured. In this general fpirit of enterprize
and improvement, Iculpture appeared in the fchool of Phi-
dias, with a beauty and perfection which cclipfed all former
efforts.

About 490 years before the Chriftian era, Phidiafi flou-
rifticd at the fame time with the philolophers Socrates, Plato,
and Anaxagoras ; the ftatefmon and commanders Pericles,
Miltiades, Themiftocles, Cimon, and Xenaplion, with the
tragic poets above-mentioned. This period was as favour-
able in its moral and political circumftances, as in the emula-
tion of rare talents, to produce the difplay and encourage
the growth of genius.

The city and citadel of Alliens had been burnt by the
army of Xerxes ; but the Greeks, being conquerors, raifed
more ftately buildings in the room of thofe deftroyed.
Phidias was engaged by P.-ricles in the fuperintend.ince and
decorations of the temple of Minerva, and other public
works.

Superior genius, in addition to hi« knowledg'- of paint-
ing, which he pradifed before fculpture, gave a grandeur

K to

SCULPTURE.

to his compofitions, a grace to his groups, a foftnefs to
flefh, and a flow to draperies, unknown to his predeceflbrs,
the charafters of whofe figures were llifT rather than dig-
nified ; their forms either meagre or turgid ; the folds of dra-
pery parallel, poor, and reprelenting geometrical lines, rather
than the fimple but ever varying appearances of nature.

The difcourfas of contemporary philofophers on mental
and perfonal perfeiftion, affifled him in feledting and com-
bining ideas, which (lamped his works with the fublime and
beautiful of Homer's verfe.

How this fculptor was efteemed by the ancients will be
underftood by the following ihort quotations. Phny fays,
'< Phidias was mod famous through all nations." And when
enumerating the moil celebrated fculptors of antiquity, he
fays, " but before all, Phidias the Athenian ;" and Qiiintilian
fays, that " his Athenian Minerva and Olympian Jupiter, at
Elis, pofleffed beauty which fecmed to have added forae-
tliing to religion, the majefty of the work was fo worthy of
the divinity."

After fuch pofitive and magnificent teftimony, there will
be ftill room for our furprize, in the delcriptions, fragments,
and other authentic memorials, of fome works only which
he condufted and performed ; fuch as the temple of Mi-
nerva, and the Acropolis of Athens, ercfted by Iiflinus
and Callicrates, under the diretlion of Phidias ; and to
him it is we likewife owe the compofitions, llylc, and
charafter of the fculpture, in addition to much affillance
in the .drawing, modelling, and choice of naked figures
and draperies, as well as occafional execution of parts in the
marble.

PUny fays, the emulators of Phidias were Alcamenes,
Critias, Neilocles, Hcgias ; and twenty years afterwards,
Agelades, Gallon, Polycletus, Phradmon, Gorgias, Lacon,
Myron, Pythagoras, Scopa.";, Parelius. In this lilt we cer-
tainly have the names of the fculptors employed on the
temples of Minerva and Thcfeus ; and as the (lyles of dif-
ferent hands are fufficiently evident in the alto and baflb re-
lievos, fo there might perhaps be no great difliculty in
tracing fome of the artifts by refemblance to others of their
known works..

The two pediments of tlie temple of Minerva were each
eighty-eight feet long, filled with compofitions of entire
groups, and ftatues from eight to nine feet high. The llory
of the wellern pediment related to the birtli of Minerva, or
rather perhaps reprefented her introduftion among the gods.
The eallern pediment was occupied by the contention of
Neptune and Minerva for the patronage of Athens. Forty-
three metops were charged with combats of the Lapithoe and
Centaurs, and a frieze of three hundred and eighty feet
round the wall of the temple, under the portico, was deco-
rated with the proceflion of the Grecian llates, in honour of
Minerva, in chariots, on horfeback, leading animals for fa-
crifice, bearing offerings, and prefenting the facred veil, in
prefence of the gods, fitting on thrones to witnefs the folemn
ceremony.

The marquis Nanteuil had a drawing made of the wellern
pediment of this temple, when the (latues were all, exceptmg
one, in their places ; and notwithllanding fome mutilations of
parts, the whole was lufficiently entire for the compofition
to be perfeftly underftood from the marquis Nanteuil's
Iketch, carefully compared with the original fragments in
the earl of Elgin's mufeum. In the centre, Jupiter fits hold-
ing his fccptre in his right hand, the thunder in his left ; on
the right of Jupiter, in an advancing pofition, Minerva takes
poffefiion of her car, while the reins are governed by Themis
and Mars ; from beliind Themis, a genius leads Viftory for-
ward to attend the patronefs of Athens ; on the left of

Jupiter, Vulcan (lands by his mother Juno ; Amphitrite
fits next, whofe foot refts on a dolphin ; Latona fucceeds,
with her infants Apollo and Diana, beautifully implying that
the maturity of divine wifdom was older than the fun and
moon. The lail group is Venus fitting on the lap of Ocean ;
the figures at each end of the pediment are not (hewn, be-
caufe they are mere contingents, fpeftators only ; not par-
taking in the aftion.

The idea of this compofition feems to have been fuggelted
by Homer's hymn to Minerva, a (hort poem, but one of the
author's highell flights ; in which he defcribes Pallas in full
flature, and completely armed, iffuing from the head of Jove ;
Olympus, the whole earth, and furrounding fea, trembling
at the vibration of her fpear ; the fun (laying his courfers in
their race, and partaking in the fame amazement with the
other immortals.

The ilatue of Minerva, in the Parthenon at Athens, one
of the mailer-pieces of Phidias, is thus defcribed by Pliny,
Paufanias, and other ancient authors. It is in height
twenty-fix cubits, formed of ivory and gold, ilandmg up-
right, her tunic reaching to her feet, holding a vidlory fix
feet high in her right hand, and a fpear in her left ; the
drapery is of gold ; the uncovered parts of the (latue are of
ivory ; the head of Medufa on the breall-plate of the goddefs
is of ivory ; at her feet is her (hield ; in the convex part of her
(hield tlie Amazonian war ; in the concave part is the war of
the gods and giants ; in the bafe Pandora's hiftory : the gods
are here prefent thirty in number ; the Lapithoe and Cen-
taurs are fculptured on her fandals ; a ferpent at her feet ad-
mirably executed ; a fphynx on the top, and a griffon on
each fide of her helmet. The quantity of gold in this (latue
was forty talents. Plato fays the eyes were of precious
ftones.

There was alfo, in the citadel of Athens, another Ilatue of
Minerva by Phidias, thus defcribed by Paufanias. Of the
fpoils taken at Marathon from the Perfians, Phidias made
Minerva's (latue of brafs, in whofe (hield the battle of the
Lapitha: and Centaurs was engraved by Mys, and painted
by Parrhafius, the fon of Evcnor. The top of the fpear, and
crell of the helmet, might be feen bv thofe who fail by Su-
nium.

But the great work of this great mailer, the ailoni(hment
and praife of after ages, was the Jupiter at Elis ; thus
defcribed by Paufanias. The god is feated upon his throne,
made of gold and ivory, a crown of olive branch on his head ;
in his right hand bearing a Vittory, alfo of ivory and gold ;
(he bears a fillet, and is crowned ; the left hand of the god
holds a fceptre of various coloured metals, an eagle of gold
fitting upon tlie fceptre ; his garment is of gold, and on his
g.irment are wrought animals and flowers, particularly the
lily ; his fandals alfo are of gold ; the throne is varioufly
ornamented with gold and gems, and alfo with ivory and
ebony : on it animals are painted in their proper colours,
and fculptured with great labour. Four viftories, as in the
dance, are on the hinder feet of the throne, two on each fide ;
and on the front the children of the Thebans taken away by
the fphynx ; and beneath the fphynxes, Niobe and her
children flain by Apollo and Diana ; on the frames that join
the feet of the throi:e ornaments are carved ; on that in front
Hercules warring with the Amazons. Paufanias numbered
upon them all together twenty-nine figures. Among Her-
cules' companions was alio Thefeus. There were alfo pillars
which adjoined to the feet fupporting the throne, equal
in fize to the feet. There is not an entrance underneath the
throne, as under that of Apollo at Amyclis. It is hollow,
but the fpeclator cannot enter, becaufe a wall includes the
throne. Of this wall, that part wliich fronts the door is
6 painted

SCULPTURE.

painted blue ; the fides have tlic piftures of Panxnus.
Amonp thefe is Atlas fuftaining Heaven and Earth. Her-
•:\iles ftands near him lifting off his burden. Here are alfo
iiL-n Thefeus and Perithous. Grascia and Salamis, two
iiiiures ; the kit of which carries a roltrum in her hand.
Hercules' flrife with the Nemean lion. Ajax under the re-
iiroach of Caflandra. Hyppodamia, daughter of Oenomaus,
ith her mother. Prometheus bound in chains, Hercules
iming to his help ; Hercules alfo, having (lain the eagle,
which was the punifhment of Prometheus on Caucafus, de-
livering him from his chains. On the hinder part is painted
Penthefilea dying, Achilles iupporting her. Tlie two
Hefperides bearing the apples of which they had the keep-
ing. Panpenus, the brother of Phidias, who did thefe,
painted alfo, in the Poccile of Athens, the battle of Mara-
tlion. Upon the throne, above the head of the god, Phi-
dias carved the Graces and the Hours. Three of them
large ; thefe are called daughters of Jove. Upon the
feat, lions of gold, and Thefeus warring with the Ama-
zons. Upon the bafe of the throne, which great male was
wrought in gold, are other ornaments relating to the god.
Tlie nfing Sun in his chariot, and Jupiter and Juno, and by
them the Graces ; thefe lead Hermes, and Hermes, Velta.
Cupid alfo from the fea receiving Venus, who was crowned
by Perfuafion. Apollo was with Diana, and Minerva with
Hercules ; and on the loweft part of all was Neptune, and
the Moon in her chariot urging on her horfes.

The temple at Elis alfo, which contained this aftonifliing
ilatue, was itfelf a noble work of Doric architefture ; the
architeft was Libon, an Elean. The fculptures on the
outfide of the temple have a relation to the great work
within. A gilded Viftory crowns the whole. In the front
pediment is the conteit of the chariot race between Pelops
and Oenomaus, and in the back pediment the Lapitha; and
Centaurs, with the nuptials of Perithous ; and in the temple,
and over the doors, the labours of Hercules in very many
compofitions, which are the work of Alcamenes. The
temple has brazen doors and an interior portico, which opens
an entrance to the Itatue of Jupiter : under the ilatue is in-
iciibed " Phidias, the fon of Charmides the Athenian, made
me."

It may be proper to take notice in this place, of another
temple dedicated to Jupiter Olympiu;;, at Athens, by the
emperor Adrian, and in it a coloiial Ilatue of ivory and
gold, defcribed as not inferior to the colofluies of Rhodes
and of Rome.

Paufanias defcribes alfo a temple and Itatue of .iEfculapius
It Corinth, in the following manner. Tiie Ilatue of JE,(cu-
iapius is almoll half the fize of the Olympian Jupiter at
Athens. It is of gold and ivory, and is the work of Thrafy-
medes, the fon of Arignotus, a man of Paros. He is feateJ
on a throne, holding a great ftalF, and with his other hard
nrefling the head of a ferpent ; a dog lies at his feet ; in liis
lirone the afts of the Argive heroes are fctilpturcd ; Bel-
lerophon killing Cliimira. Perfeus holds Medufa's head
cut off. Above the temple are places where thofe who
come to pray to the god repofe.

Several other llatues of great excellence, both in marble
and bronze, are mentioned among the works of Phidias,
particularly a Venus, placed by the Romans in the forum of
Odtavia. Two Minervas, one furnam.ed Callimorplios,
from tlic beauty of its form ; and it is likely that the fine
itatue of this goddefs in Mr. Hope's inufeum is a repetition
in marble of Phidias's bronze, from its refcmblance to the
reverfe of an Athenian filver coin, in attitude, drapery, and
helmet. Another ilatue by Phidias was an Amazon, called
Eucnemon, from her beautiful leg ; of which there i» a print
in the Mufeum Pium Clementinura.

Alcamenes was celebrated for his Venus Aphrodite, to
which Phidias is faid to have given the laft touches.

Praxiteles excelled in the highcd graces of youth and
beauty : Pliny fays he not only excelled other fculptors by
his marble ftatues in the Ceramicus at Athens ; but hu Venus
was preferable to theirs, and all other llatues in tlie world, to
fee which many failed to Gnidos. This fculptor having
made two Venules, one with drapery, the other without ;
the Coans preferred the clothed figure, on account of its
fevere modefty. The fame price being fet upon each, the
citizens of Gnidos took the rejefted ilatue, and afterwards
refufed it to king Nicomedes, who would have forgiven
them an iinmenfe debt in return ; being refolved, fays our
author, and with realon, to luifer any thing, fo long as the
ftatue of Praxiteles ennobled Gnidos. The temple was en-
tirely open in which it was placed ; becaufe every view was
equally admirable. The figure is known by the defcriptions
of Lucian and Cedrenus ; and it is reprefented on a medal
of Caracalla and Plautilla, in the cabinet of France. This
Venus exilled in Gnidos during the reign of the emperor
Arcadius, or about 400 years after Chrill.

This itatue feems to offer the firit idea for the Venus dc
Medicis ; which is likely to be the repetition of another
Venus, alfo the work of this artill, mentioned by Pliny.

On the reverfe of the emprefs Lucilla's medals, is i
clothed Venus, with an apple in her right hand ; which, from
the grace of its attitude, and its refemblance to feveral antique
marble ftatues, is likely to be the clothed Venus chofen by
the Coans.

Among the known works of Praxiteles, are his fatyr,
cupid, Apollo, the lizard-killer, and Bacchus leaning on a
fawn.

The celebrated Venus of Gnidos was found, about
eighteen years fince, in the neighbourhood of Rome, which
was afterwards the property of duke Brafchi, nephew of
the late pope Pius VI.

Polycletus of Sicyon, the fcholar of Agelades, was parti,
cularly celebrated on account of his Doryphorus, or lance-
bearer ; and Diadumenus, or youth binding a fillet round
his head. This ftatue was valued at an hundred talents. The
Doryphorus was called the Kule by artilts, from wliich
they fhidied.

The Difcobolus of Myron is afcertained by an antique
gem, and the defcription of Quintilian, who apologizes for
its forced attitude. An ancient example of lliis figure is
in the Britifli Mufeum.

The Difcobolus of Naucydas is uniformly admired for it*
forms and momentary balance.

The wounded man, in which might be feen liow much of
life remained in fiim, was the famous work of Ctcfilaus, and
perhaps is the fame as the ftatue commonly called the Dying
Gladiator, but more properly a dying herald, or hero, ac-
cording to Winckciman.

Ctefilaus, or Dcfilaus. is known by his wounded Amazon.

Pliny mentions the nine mufes by Philifcus of Riiodes ;
and the mufcs alfo, brought by Fulvius Nobilior to Rome.
From one of thefe feries mull be the greater number of thofe
formerly in tlie pope's mufeum, now in the g:iilery of France,
of which tlie Comedy is remarkable for grace, and the
Tragedv for grandeur.

Tiie Hermaphrodite of Polycles is one of the moll delicate
and graceful productions of antiquity.

Tile Apollo Philelius, or 111 love, by Canachus is wit-
nefled by many hue repetition"; in the different galleries of
Europe. .

The Ganymede, borne in the eagle's talons, is rxaftly

defcribed by Pliny. An example of this work exifti m

the pope's inufeum.

^ ^ K 2 The

SCULPTURE.

The Apollo Belvjdere is believed, by the learned Vifconti,
to be Apollo Alexicacos, the deliverer from evil, the
work of Calamis ; mentioned both by Pliny and Paufanias ;
and the liiftpry of its removal is given in the Mufeum Pium
Clemeiitiiium. Orly one fmall antique repetition of this
ftatue is to be found ; and indeed admirable and fublime in
its beauty as it is, there is a reafon which might render
it lets popular among the ancients than the moderns.
M'liimus Tyrius defcribes a ftatue by Phidias very fimilar
to thi-!, but in greater motion, either difcharging an arrow,
or preparing to do fo. (Tojom.) There are traces of this
ftatue in fome ancient baflo-rclievos ; and it is poffible the
ftronger expreflion of Phidias's work, together with the
authority of his name, might have diminiftied the public
attention to Calamis in a comparative production.

The Venus de Medicis was fo popular a favourite among
the Greeks and Romans, that a hundred ancient repetitions
of this ftatue have been noticed by travellers. The indi-
vidual figure is faid to have been found in the forutn of
Oftavia. The ftylc of fculpture feems to be later than
Alexander the Great : and ttie idea of this ftatue feems to
have its origin from the Venus of Gnidos.

We may now notice fome ftatues of great excellence,
which Pliny has not mentioned. And no wonder they are
omitted, when of more than 11,000 reckoned in his hiftory,
lie profeftes to give a catalogue of about 500 only.

The coloflal ftatues on Monte Cavallo in Rome we may
fairly prefume to be the works of Phidias and Praxiteles,
as infcribed on their pedeftals ; becaufe the animated cha-
rafter and ftyle of fculpture feem peculiar to the age in
which thofe artifts lived ; and becaufe, in the frieze of the
Parthenon there is a young hero governing a horfe, which
bears fo ftrong a refemblance to thofe groups, that it wowld
be difficult to believe it was not a firft idea for them by
one of thofe artifts.

The heroic Itatue by Agafias ttie Ephefian, commonly
called the Fighting Gladiator, is ftiewn by the ingenious
and learned Abbate Fea, to be Ajax, the fon of Oileus,
as his figure is fo reprefented on the coins of Locris, his
country.

The Hercules Farnefe was evidently one of the firft
favourites of antiquity, from its frequent repetitions in
bronze' and marble, gems and coins. Its hiftory, according
to thefe, feems to be this. The city of Perinthus was twice
befieged by Pliillp of Macedon ; the citizens, however, by
the ftrength of their fituation, their own valour, and the
intervention of friends, preferved their liberty. As their
city was dedicated to Hercules, they reprefented him on
their coins refting from his labours. The ftanding figure
is the Hercules Farnefe, which, on the coin, was copied, as
ufual, from an honoured ftatue in the city ; moft probably
from the work of Glycon the Athenian, whofe country
once dehvered them from the oppreflion of Philip. The
ftyle is later than the time of Alexander.

We (hall now proceed to thofe precious monuments of
art, the ancient groups ; in which we fee the fentiment,
heroifm, beauty, and fublimity ot Greece, exifting before us.

The group of Laocoon, animated with the hopelefs
agony of the father and fons, is the work of Apollodorus,
Athenodorus, and Agefanderof Rhodes. The ftyle of this
work, as well as the manner in which Pliny introduces it
into his hiftory, give us reafon to believe it was not ancient
in his time.

Zethus and Amphion, tying Dirce to the bull's horns,
an example of filial vengeance for a perfecuted mother, is
as heroic in conception as vaft in execution. The reftora-
lions of this group are fo bad, that they only become tole-

rable by fomething like an aflimilation of fpirit in flieir
union with the ancient and venerable fragment. It is the
work of ApoUonius and Taurifcus of Rliodes.

The group of Hercules and Antseus, in the Palace Pitti
at Florence, may be a marble, from the bronze of which
the copyift infcribed the name of the original artift.

The groups of Atreus, bearing a dead fon of Thyeftes ;
Oreftes and Eletlra ; Ajax fupporting Patroclus ; are all
examples of fine form, heroic character, and fentiment.
There feems only to be one reafon for their being
omitted by Pliny, that they were too recent at that time
to have obtained an equal rank in public eftimation with
the fine works of Phidias and Praxiteles, and their immediate
defcendants.

The group of Niobe and her youngeft daughter, by
Scopas, is an example of heroic beauty in mature age.
The fentiment is maternal affeftion : ftie expofes her own
life to (hield her child from the threatened deftrutkion.

The feparate ftatues of the children all partake of the
fame heroic beauty, mixed with the pafiions of apprehenfion,
difmay, or death.

To this feries belongs that fine example of anatomical
ftudy, in difficult but harmonious compofition, the group of
The Boxers.

The beautiful and iiiterefting group of Cupid and Pfyche
is not mentioned by Pliny, perhaps for the fame reafon that
feveral other fine works are not noticed, becaufe it was after
the times of thofe great mafters who were looked on as the
ftandard of excellence i:i his days. It is moft likely to have
been produced after the reign of Auguftus, when the Py-
thagorean philofophy was revived, from which its fubjeft is
taken.

From what has been faid, it will appear fculpture did
not arrive at its maturity until the age of Phidias, 490
years before the Chriftan era ; and Pliny's catalogue of the
moft celebrated Greek artifts continues 160 years later, or
to 330 years before Chrift. After which time, however,
the Laocoon, and feveral of the fineft groups and ftatues,
feem to have been executed : nor can we believe, from the
admirable bufts and ftatues of the imperial families ftill
remaining, that fculpture began to lofe its graces until the
reignof the Antonines: and, indeed, foftrong were the ftamina
of Grecian genius in the art of defign, that after the time
of the Iconoclaftes in the fifth and fixth centuries, when the
nobleft works were deftroycd, when great works of fculpture
were not required, even then, and until Conltantinople was
taken by the Turks in the 15th century, the Greeks exe-
cuted fmall works of great elegance, as may be feen in the
diptychs, or ivory covers to confular records, or facred
volumes ufed in church fervice.

The works of fculpture, here enumerated, will alfo fhew,
that almoft all the greateft and moft valued produftions were
of marble, and not bronze, as fome have been inclined to
believe. And although feveral of the ftatues mentioned by
Pliny were bronze, from which we have marble copies, yet
all the groups, with two or three exceptions only, are marble ;
and fome of the moft celebrated ftatues, as the Venufes,
and the Cupid by Praxiteles, with many others.

The principal fchools of fculpture were Athens and
Rhodes. The fculptors of the Laocoon, and the Toro
Farnefe, and the Colofl'us, were Rhodians ; and it is almoft
incredible, that from this little ifland, only forty miles long,
and thirteen broad, the Roman conquerors brought away
3000 ftatues. But we fhall more readily believe this when we
recollect that the force andenterprife of thefe iflanders were
fufficient to conquer the navy of Antiochus, commanded by
Hannibal.

Sicyou had long been the work-fbop of metals of all

countries.

SCULPTURE.

eountries. E^ina was alfo famous for bronze fculpture,
and continued the Egyptian ftyle.

Etrufcaii fculpture muft be confidered entirely the work
of Greek colonifts and their difciples.

The Sicilian fculpture is alfo Grecian. Some of their
finelt medals in particular are of the CorinthiaH fchool.

As the enterprife and tafte of the prefent age have refcued
two noble examples of Grecian fculpture, the pediments of
the temple of Jiipifr Panellenius, in the ifland of Egina,
and the frieze which furrounded the interior of the temple
of Apollo Epicures at Phygaleia, it may be proper to give
iome delcription of them in this place.

The figures, which were decorations of the eaft and weft
pediments of the temple of Jupiter Panellenius, were found
among the ruins, nearly under the fcite in which they had
been originally placed : their number was nine in the welt
pediment ; that in the centre was the figure of Minerva ; the
rell feemed to be combatants, as well in this pediment as
the fix figures in the eaft pediment. On each fide of an
ornament, in the centre of the weft pediment, were two fe-
male figures ; and at each corner of the pediment the re-
mains of a griffon. The ftatues were in fize fmall nature ;
and, according to Pliny's defcription, partaking of the
Egyptian ftyle of workmaufliip.

Among the ruins of the temple of Apollo Epicures at
Phygaleia, in the Argolis, were difcovered, in many pieces,
the frieze which adorned the interior of the temple. They
reprefentcd the battle of the Athenians with the Amazons,
and the Lapithae with the Centaurs. The compofitions are
grand and energetic ; the aftioiis are natural, original, and
elaftic ; the lines of the bodies and limbs are beautifully
variegated by the draperies, as flowing from the motion of
the figures, or flourilhed in the air by impulfe of wind ;
the beauty of the figures and countenances is heroic ; and
the general ftyle and charafter of the work referable the alto-
relievos in the temple of Thefeus. The figures are about
two feet high ; and the whole extent of the different baffo
relievos, taken together, about ninety feet.

Of Roman Sculpture. — The earlieft inhabitants of Italy,
'vithout doubt, praclifedthe fame kindof barbarous art, which
i-i common in all early ftages of fociety ; but the accounts
given by Herodotus, DioJorus SicuKis, and other Greek
writers of indifputable authority, concerning the emigrations
of Greeks into Italy, who fettled in that part wliich has
been called Magna Grecia, comprehending nearly the whole
weftern coall of that country, together with the evidence
of nearly every work of art which has been difcovered
within thofe limits, prove fatisfa(ftorily, that all the early
painting and fculpture, worthy to be called fo, are properly
colonial Greek, either the produftion of Greek artiftt them-
felves, or of natives who were their icholars.

We may obferve upon their coins, that they all fecin to
have been derived from the eavlieft coins and weights of
Greece. Their earlieft eaft money or weights, figned with
an ox, lead to a ftrong fufpicion that they were imitations of
fimilar weights alluded to by Homer, which had relation to the
value of an ox. Their eaft coins or weights are alfo marked
with the head of Janus, with two faces on one fide, and the
prow of a {hip on the otiicr ; but it is to be obferved that
this double-faced Janus, when bearded, is only an imitation
of the Greek heads of Jupiter, or the eaftcrn Bacchus, who,
according to the earlieft fyftems of piiilofophy, fees that
which is pall and that which is to come. When the head
of Janus is without a beard, it fometimes fecma to be a copy
of the head of Hercules, and fometimes of Mercury : and in
order to leave no chance of being deceived in the perfonage,
he is reprefented with the petafus or hat upon his head, as
well in the double as in the fingle head ; befides which, all

the divinities reprefented on fuch coins or eaft weight*, are
but copies from well-known heads of Grecian divinities, aa
Jupiter, Hercules, Mercury, Ceres, &c. ; and by far the
greater number of them from Grecian heads of thofe divi-
nities not earlier than the time of Phidias.

Concerning their painting, though it may be difficult to
make the fame affertiim fo politively and fo extenfively as that
concerning their coins ; yet we muft afl'ert that the fubjeftt
of their painting, whether on walls or earthen vafcs, reprefent
Greek philofophy, Homeric perfons and ftories ; fcenej
from the Greek tragedians or Grecian facred rites ; and that
the fuperfcriptions to thofe paintings are written in Greek,
expreffing Greek names of the artifts who painted, or the
perfons reprefented.

The fculpture alfo which has been called Etrufcan has the
fame Grecian charatteriftics with the paintings ; to which
we may add, in many inftances, that it reprelents Grecian
arms and dreffes.

The accounts given by Pliny of the figures of the
Roman kings, and other illuftrious perfons of early times in
the Capitol, together with the Terra Cotta figure of Jupiter
Capitolinus ; were from the Grecian fchools of art efta-
bhlhed in Etruria ; and fuch were all the works of painting,
fculpture, and architefture, executed for the early Romans,
who do not appear to have podelled any works of magni-
ficence or diftinguiflied merit, before the Scipioa introduced
them to an acquaintance with Grecian arts and letters.

After the enormous ravages and barbarities of Mummiut
at Corinth, and Sylla at Athens, the Romans ingrafted
tafte on rapine, and exhibited an inordinate cupidity and
oilentation for works of fine art, which paffed in feme in-
ftances for patronage. They filled their palaces, villas,
theatres, and public places with the fpoils of Greece.

Although fome general heads of Greek art have been
already delivered in this dilfertation, yet as Pliny the Elder's
writings contain fuch fatistaftory accounts of Etrufcan,
Italian, and Grecian fculpture, it will be highly proper to
give the Englifli rc.ider thefe accounts in his own words,
which were coUefted from the writings and treatifes of the
ablelt and moft learned artifts among the ancients. Pliny's
Natural Hiftory, 1. xxxiv. c. 7.

The Itatuary art was familiar in Italy in ancient times, ai
is fticwn by a Hercules coiifecrated by Evander, as it is faid,
in Foro Boario ; wiiieh is called the Triumphal, by his having
on the triumphal habit : befides the double Janus dedicated
by king Numa, wliich exprefles peace and war, and by its
fingers fignificB the number of days in the year, the god himlrlf
indicating the times and fcafons of the year. There are
alfo Tuican ftatues difperfed very widely, which there
is no dinibt were made in Etruria ; fuch were alio believed
to be their gods, except by Metrodorus Scepfius, which
furname was given to him through the hatred of tlic Romans ;
for two thouland ftatues, when the Volfcians were con-
quered, were difperfed abroad. VVe have wondered to fee
the original ftatues of ancient Italy, of wood perhaps, or mo-
delled in clay, the images of gods dedicated in temples until
the conqueli of Alia, from wiience came luxury.

It will be proper to fpeak of the firft origin of exprefTing'
likcnelfes in that kind which the Greeks call modelling, and
that it was prim- to ftatuary. This would extend to infi-
nity in a work of many volumes, if any perfon ftiould follow
up the fubjed : every one does what he is able.

When Scaurus was edile, three thoufand ftatues made
the fcene of a temporary theatre. Mummius, when he con-
quered Achaia, filled the city ; but dying, left his daughter
without a dowry, which was inexcufeablc. LucuUhs
brought many ; from Rhodes there are as many as three

thoufand ftatues.

Mutianus,

SCULPTURE.

Mutianus, thrice conful, brought not fewer from Athens :
from Olympia and Delphis, it is behaved, a greater
number.

What mortal can recount thofe which are mod diftin-
gui(hed or noted for fome reafm or other ; indeed, to
have named the diilinguiftied artiits would be a plea-
furablc talk. Their number alfo is infinite, when Lyfippus
alone produced to the number of 6io works, which were
all famous ; their number appeared at his death, when
his heirs opened his treafures ; he was uled, on receiving
his payment, to dcpofit a golden denarius for every work.
The art, in the fuccels of its darings, is elevated above
human faith. One example of this fuccefs we (hall offer :
the fimilitude exprefltd is not of God nor of man. Our
age faw in the Capitol, before it was confumed in the fire
of VitcUius's times, in the chapel of Juno, a dog of brafs,
licking his own wound, whole moll wonderful and un-
equalled verifimilitude iuggefted the reafon why it was dedi-
cated : the hfe of its keepers was pledged for its fafety.
Innumerable are fuch daring examples of art : malles have
been dcvifed equal to towers. Statues which are called
Coloilufes, inch is Apollo in the Capitol, brought by M.
LucuUhs from ApoUonia, a city of Pontus, of 30 cubits :
its expence was 5C0 talents. Such, in the Campus Martins,
is the Jupiter dedicated by Claudius Casfir, which is
called the Pompcian, from its vicinity to Pompey's theatre.
Such is that at Tarentum, made by Lyfippus, of 40 cubits ;
admirable in this, the hand being Ilretched out and in danger
of being broken by the llormy wind ; the artitl therefore
provided, it is faid, within a little mterval, an oppofing
column, to prevent a great wind from breaking his work.
Confequently, becaufe of its magnitude, and the labour re-
quired, Fabius V^errucofus did not meddle with it at the time
he brought from hence the Hercules which is in the Capitol.
But above all, as objects of admiration, was the Coloffas of the
fun of Rhodes, by Chares the Lindian, the difciple of Ly-
fippus before mentioned, 70 cubits in height. This ftatue,
after 56 years, was thrown down by an earthquake, but lying
prollrate it was ftill a wonderful fpedlacle ; few could clafp
round its thumb ; its fingers were larger than whole ftatues.
The vaft caverns of its broken members were difplaved
within great maffes of Hone, whofe weight kept it fteadfaft.
Twelve years it was in making, at the expence of 300
talents, which were fupplied by king Demetrius, being in-
terrupted by the tedioulnefs of delay. There are other lefs
CoIofTules in this city, 100 in number, each of which would
ennoble the place wherefoever it was fixed. BeCdes thefe
were thofe of the five gods made by Bryaxis, who made
many Colollufes in Italy, in particular an Apollo, which is
feen in the Tufcan library of Auguilus, 50 feet high, of
fine brafs, and exquifite workmanlhip. Sp. Carrilius made
a Jupiter, which is in the Capitol, from the breaft-plates,
helmets, and greaves taken from the Samnites, of an ampli-
tude to be feen from the temple ot Jupiter Latiaris. The
reft of the figures which are before the feet of the ftatue, are
alfo from his file. Two heads alfo are admired in the fame
Capitol, which P. Lentulus, the conful, dedicated, one made
by Chares above Ipoken of, the other by Decius, overcome in
the comparifon to that degree, as feemed by no means pro-
bable, according to the works of the artill. But in ftatues
of that kind, Zenodorus in our age has excelled. He made
a Mercury in the city of Gallia Arvernis, the labour of
ten years, which was afterwards fo approved, that he was
called to Rome by Nero, where he was defired to make the
coloffal ftatue of that prince 1 10 feet high, which (hould be
dttdicated to the fun, by way of reverence, and which is
among the atrocities of this prince. It is wonderful that in
his worklhop there does not remain any clay model of this

work of a large fize, but there are many firft /ketches in fmall,
like firll attempts. This ftatue indicates that the art of
founding in brafs is perilhed.

Nero had prepared liberally both gold and filver, and
Zenodorus in modelling and carving is not confidered as infe-
rior to any of the ancients. When he had finifhed the ftatue
for the Arvernians, Vibius Avitus, being the prefident of that
province, two cups were fculptured by the hand of Calamis,
which Germanicus Caefar highly valuing, gave to his pre-
ceptor, CafTius Syllanus, his uncle. As much as the excel-
lence of Zenodorus was greater, fo much may be found the
decay in works of brafs.

The ftatues which are called Corinthian are for the moft
part fuch as may be carried from place to place. Such was
that of the Sphynx, which Hortenfius, the orator, received
as a prefent from Verres, and occafioned a reply from
Cicero. When Hortenfius faid, in altercation with him, " I
do not underftand your enigma ;" Cicero repUed, " 5fou
ought, for you have the Sphynx at home." Nero, the em-
peror, it is faid, took about with him a ftatue of an Ama-
zon. And a little before our time, C. Cellius, the conful.,
always carried an image with him in the field of battle.
Alexander the Great had a tent fuftained by four fingle
ftatues, of which two are now dedicated before the temple
of Mars the Avenger, and the other two before the palace.
The art is ennobled by almoft innumerable leffer ftatues. Be-
fore all, Phidias the Athenian made a Jupiter of ivory and
gold. He alfo made flatues in brafs. He flourifhed in the
84th Olympiad, about 300 years from the building of Rome.
In the fame period his emulators were Alcamenet, Critias,
Neftocles, and Hegias. Afterwards, in the 87th Olympiad,
Agelades, Callon, Polycletus, Phradmon, Gorgias, Lacon,
Myron, Pythagoras, Scopas, and Parelius. Among thefe,
Polycletus had for his difciples Argius, Afopodorus, Alexis,
Ariftides, Phrynon, Dirion, Athenodorus, Dameas, and My-
ron. In the 95th Olympiad flourifhed Naucydes, Dinomenes,
Canachus, and Patrocles. In the I02d, Polycles, Cephillodo-
rus, Leocharcs, and Hypatodorus. In the 104th, Praxiteles
and Euphranor. In the 107th, Echion and Ttierimachus. In
the 1 14th was Lyfippus, in the time of Alexander the Great ;
and at the fame time Lyfiltratus and his brother Sthenis, Eu-
phronides, Softratus, Ion, Silanion, who was admirable,
none being more learned. He had for difciples Zeuxis and
Jades. In the 120th Olympiad, Eutychides, Euthycrates,
Dahippus, Cephiflbdcrus, Timarchus, and Pyromachus.
The art then ceafed. And again, in the 125th, revived,
though allowed to be inferior, yet approved ; Antasus, Cal-
liftratus, Polycles, AthenaEus,Calhxenus, Pyihocles, Pythias,
and Timocles. We Ihall pafs haftily over the moft diftin-
guifhed of the celebrated artifls in their diitindt ages. A
Venus was made with a kind of emulative contention, as for-
merly they made an Amazon, which was dedicated in the
temple of Diana, at Ephefus : that work was approved
which every artiil judged to be next in merit to his own.
This was the work of Polycletus ; the next was Phidias,
the third Ctefilaus, the fourth Cydon, the fifth Phrad-
mon. Phidias, befides the Jupiter Olympius, which no
one attempted to rival, made alfo, from gold and ivory,
Minerva at Athens, which ftands in the Parthenon. Of
brafs, alfo, before that Amazon juft mentioned, he made a
Minerva of fupreme beauty, from which it received the
name of Callimorphos. He made alfo Cliduchus, or the
key-bearer, and another Minerva, which iEinihus Paulus
dedicated at Rome in the temple of Fortune. Alfo two
ftatues clothed in the pallium, which Catullus dedicated in
the fame temple, and another which was coloffal, naked.
He firft difcovered the art of alto relievo, and demonllrated
its merit. Polycletus of Sicyon was the difciple of Age-
lades ;

SCULPTURE.

lades ; he made a ftatue of tender youth, called Diadumerius,
from his bindinjr on a garland, valued at one hundred talents.
Alfo one called Doryphorus, from his carrying a Ipear, a
youth in the vigour of his age. He made alfo what by ar-
tifts was called the Rule, feeking the lines of art from it as
from a certain law. He was the only man who made art its
own judge. He alfo made a ftrigilift, and one throwing a
die ; alfo two boys at the dice, which are called Aftra-
gali/ontes ; they are in the emperor Titus's court. No work
is judged to be more perfeft tlian this. Alfo a Mercury,
which belonged to Lyfimachus, and Hercules fullaining
Antsus from the earth, which is at Rome ; alfo Artemon,
an effeminate voluptuary, who was called Pcriphoretos,
from his being borne about in his couch. He was judged to
have perfefted the fcience. He was alfo highly flcilled in alto
rehevo, which had been firit difcovered by Phidias. But
what was peculiarly his own, he found out the balance of the
figure on one leg ; notwithitanding, as Varro reports, his
figures were fquared, and all imitated from one example.
Myron, born at Eleutheria, the difciple of Agelades, was
Tery famous for a heifer, praifed in celebrated verfes, whereas
many are commended more by the ingenuity of others than
their own. He made a dog and Difcobolus ; Perfea, fea-
monfters, and a fatyr admiring the pipes ; a Minerva ; a Pen-
tathlos, or mafter of the five excrcifes ; a pancratiaft or
boxer ; a Hercules alfo, which is at the Circus Maximus
of Pompey the Great. He made alfo the monument of a
jirafs-hopper and locufts, to which Erinna refers in her verfes.
He made alfo Apollo, which the trmmvir Antony took
away, but it was reftored to Ephefus by Auguftus, admo-
nilhed for this purpofe in a dream. No artitl, for multitude
or variety, furpaded Polycletus, or was more accurate in fym-
metry ; but although he was fo curious in the reprefcntation
of bodies, he did not exprefs the feeling of the foul. The
hair alfo, and the pubes, he made like the rude ancient
■work. Pythagoras of Rhegium furpalfed him in a Pan-
cratiaft, placed in Delphi ; and alfo Leontinus, who made
the pedeftrian Allylon, which is fhewn at Olympia, with
Libys, the boy holding tablets, and one bearing apples,
naked ; a Syracnfan, alfo lame, the fufferings of whofe
ulcer alfedl the beholder ; alfo Apollo the harper, the
ferpcnt ilain with his arrows, which is called Dicxus, and
which was taken from Thebes by Alexander. He firll ex-
prefTed the nerves and veins, and the hair alfo with accuracy.

There was another Pythagoras of Samos, at firft a
painter, whofe ftatues of the feven goddeffes naked, and an
old man, are very much praifed. This artill was faid to
have been indifcriminate in the likenefs of the face. The
tlilciple of Rheginus is iaid to have been his fifter'a fon,
called Soflratus. Whereas Tully affirms, that Lyfippus
was his difciple, which Duris denies. He firll became a
worker in brafs, from hearing tlio aiifwcr of Eupompus
the painter, who being queltioned who fhould be followed
of thofe before liis time, anlwered, (hewing a multitude of
men, that nature (hould be imitated, not the artiit. It is faid
that he made more ilatues than others, being moll prolific in
his art ; among which is a man uling the flrigil, which Mar-
• us Agrippa placed before his baths. This was very much
dmiredby the emperor Tiberius, who, not fatished with it
\\ here it was, had it brought into his chamber, and another
llatje put in its place, at which the people of Rome were
moved to refentment, and demanded it to be rellorcd, which
was done. Lyfippus made a drunken piper, a hunting
<log, and a chxriot and four horfcs, with the fun of Rhodes.
He made alfo Alexander the Great in many works, be-
ginning from his childhood, with a ftatue of whom the
emperor Nero being very much delij;hted, commanded it to
be covered with gold ; but afterwards, when the art was dif-

covered to be deflroyed by it, it was taken off ; and it was
efteemed more precious with the cuts and fears remaining in
the work to which the gold adhered. He made alfo He-
phxilion, Alexander the Great's friend, which has been
afcribed to Polycletus, who was loo years before him.
Alfo Alexander hunting, which is confecrated-at Delphos,
and at Athens a crowd of fatyrs : of Alexander's friends he
made the llrongeft refemblances. Metellns, when he con-
quered Macedonia, brought them to Rome. He made alfo
chariots with four horfcs, of many kinds. He added much
to the art of itatuary, exprefled the hair, made the head lefs
than the ancients, the body more flender and dry than the
ancients made theirs, by which the magnitude of the llaiues
app-^ared enlarged. The Latins have not the word fymmetry,
which he moft accurately obferved, by a new and untried rule
in changing the fquared ftatues of the ancients ; he faid
they made men as they are, he made them as they appear to be.
He left fons and difciples very much admired artifts, fuch as
Dahippus and Bedas ; but above all, Euthycrates, although
he emulated rather the conttancy of his father than his ele-
gance, and was plcafed with the auftere rather than the
agreeable. Therefore he beft exprefled the Delphian Her-
cules, and Alexander, Thefpis the hunter, and Thefpiades, a
battle of horfemen before Trophonius's oracle, chariots and
four horfes, m,any ftatues of Medea, horfemen, and hunting
dogs. His difciple was Tilicrates the Sieyonian, the ncareit
to Lyfippus of all his followers, fo chat their ftatues are
fcarcely diftinguifhable ; a Theban old man, king Demetrius,
Peuceftes, Alexander the Great's prcferver, worthy of fo much
glory. Artificers, who have brought thefe things together
in the volumes they have compoled, celebrate Telcphancs
the Phocean, unknown on other accounts, becaufe in Thef-
faly, where he dwelt, his works are concealed ; otherwife by
the fulfrages of others he is equal with Polycletus, Myron,
and Pythagoras. His Lariila is praifed, ;.nd his WrcfUer
with the thorns, and his Apollo. Some think he had no
other demerit, but that he gave his workfhops to Xerxes
and Darius. Praxiteles was alfo particularly happy, and
alfo celebrated in his works of marble. He made alfo in
brafs beautiful works ; the rape of Proferpine, the Sybil or
prophetefa, and the drunken woman, Bacchus, and a moll
famous fatyr, which the Greeks call Peribocton : ftatues
alfo which were before the temple of Felicity, and a Venus
which was confumed in the fire of Claudius's palace ; his
marble, famous through the eartii, was equalled by himlelf
only. Alfo ftatues called Sthephufa, SpiUimene, Oeno-
phorus, Harmodius and Ariftogiton, the Tyrannicides ;
which were taken by Xerxes, the Perfian king, and were
lent back to Athens by Alexander. He made alfo a youth,
ftealing upon a lizard, which he approaches to flrike with an
arrow : it is called Sauroftonon. He made two ftatues, ex-
prefling oppolite elfefts, a mourning matron, and a re-
joiciiig" harlot : they think this to be Phryne, dilcovering in
her the love of the artift, and the reward of the woman :
this ftatue polleffeg much grace. Calamis made a charioteer
with four horfes : in his horfes are never found aiijf defeft,
though he is thought to be dcfeftive in his men. 1 he fame
Calamis made other chariots, both with four and with two
horfes, in which the men are not inferior. Nothing is nobler
than his Alcmene. The difciple of Phidias, Alcamcncs,
worked in marble ; alfo in brafs he made a I'eiitalhlun, who is
called Encrinomenos. But Arillides the dilciple of Polycle-
tus, made chariots both with two and lourliorles. And Laciia,
by Iphicrates, is praifed. This is the harlot who in the lyre
and long was the familiar of Harmodius and Ariftogiton,
and partonk of their counfel in the Tyrannicide. She was
tortured to death, and did not betray liitm to the tyrant ;
wherefore the Athcuwns willingly iiold her in houour, not

that

SCULPTURE.

that they celebrate her as an harlot, but they have made an
animal of her name; and that the caufe of the honour might
be underftood, they forbade the artift to add the tongue.
Bryaxis made ^fculapius and Seleucus ; Bedas made Battus
adoring Apollo, and a Juno, which are at Rome, in the
temple of Concord. Ctefilaus made a wounded man fainting :
in which might be underftood how much life remained ; and
an Olympian Pericles, worthy of the epithet. He was ad-
mirable in his art, and noble men lie made more noble. Ce-
phiflbdorus made in the Athenian port an admirable
Minerva, and an altar to the temple of Jupiter the faviour,
in the fame port, with which few can be compared. Canachus
made aa Apollo naked ; it is called Philxfius in Didymxus:
it is of the jEginetic mixture of brafs. Alfo, a deer
fufpended in his fteps, that a Ime might be drawn under his
feet, retained only in the alternate bite of his hoofs and
heel, fo that turning about his teeth to both parts, he ftarts
from the repulfe of his action by turns. He made alfo Cele-
tizontes, or boys holding hatchets. Chaereas made Alexander
the Great and Phihp his father. Ctefilaus, or Defilaus,
made a Doryphoron and a wounded Amazon. Demetrius
made a Lyfimachus, who was prieft of Minerva fixty-four
years. He likewife made a Mmerva, which is called the
Mufical ; becaule the ferpents in her Gergon refound to the
ftroke of the harp. He alfo made Simenes, the horfeman,
who firft wrote on horfemanfhip. Da:dalus made, am.ong
hit famous works, two boys ufing the ilrigil. Dinomcnes
made Protefilaus and Pythodcmus the wreltler. Euphra-
nor's work is Alexander Paris, in which is praifed what is
intelligible at once ; the judge of goddeffes, the lover of
Helen, and alfo the flayer of Achilles. His is the Minerva
at Rome, which is called Catuliana, being dedicated in the
Capitol ijy Quintus Lutatius Catulus ; alfo the ftatue of
Good Fortune ; in his right hand holding a patera, and in
his left a fpike of corn and a poppy. Alfo Latona, the
child-bearer, in the temple of Concord, fuftaining in her
arms Apollo and Diana. He made alfo achariot with four, and
another with two horfes : alfo Cliduchon, or the key-bearer,
of the mod perfeft form; alfo a Virtue, and Griecia, both
of them coloiTal ; alfo a woman, admiring and adoring ; and
Alexander and Philip, in a chariot and four horfes. Euty-
chides made Eurotas, in which many faw that art was more
liquid than the river itfelf. Hegias made Minerva, and king
Pyrrhus, highly praifed ; and Celetizontes, boys ; and Cai-
tor and Pollux, before the temple of Jupiter the Thunderer.
In the Parian colony is the Hercules of Ifidorus. Eleuthe-
reus, the Lycian, was Myron's difciple, who made (worthy
of his preceptor) a boy, blowing the languid fire ; and the
Argonauts. Leochares made an eagle, who underftood what
he took away in Ganymede, and what he bore, fcarcely
touching the reft with his talons ; alfo the boy Autolycus,
victor in the Pancratium, on whofe account Xenophon
wrote his Sympofion ; Jupiter alio, thundering m the Ca-
pitol, praifed above all ; alio Apollo with a diadem. Ly-
cifcus made the boy Lagon, cunning, falfe, and impudent.
Lycus made a boy offering incenfe. Menechmus made one,
with his neck bended, and his face preffing his knee: tiiis Me-
nechmus wrote of his art. Naucydes made Mercury, and a
Difcobolus ; and, as it is thought, a perfon facrificing a ram.
Naucerus made a wreftler, drawing his breath. Niceratus
made uEfculapius and Hygeia, which are in the temple of
Concord at Rome. Pyromachus made a chariot with four
horfes, governed by Alcibiades. Polycles made a Her-
maphrodite, a noble work ; Pyrrhus, Hygeia and Minerva ;
Phoenix, the difciple of Lyfippus, Epitacrfes ; Stipax, the
Cyprian, one celebrated ftatue, an augur ; here was the
flave of the Olympian Pericles burning the entrails of a
facrifice, with a full mouth blowing the fit<!. Silanion made

Apollodorus the mod accurate among all in the art, and liis
own inimical judge, breaking the fcarcely perfed ftatue,
becaufe he was unable to fatisfy his own wilhes in the art,
and he was therefore furnamed the Madman : in this he
expreifed not the man made of brafs, but rage itfelf ;
a noble Achilles he alfo made, and Epiftate exercifing
the athletse. Strongyhon made an Amazon, which, from
the beauty of her leg, was named Eucnemon : the
emperor Nero always carried it with him ; he alfo made
a boy, whom the love of Brutus of Phihppi rendered
illuftrious with his name. Theodorus, who made the laby*
rinth at Samos, caft his own likenefs in brals : befides the
admirable refemblance, it is celebrated for the dehcacy
of its execution ; the right hand holds a file and the left a
fquare ; it was taken to Prxnefte. He alfo compofed a car
and driver, fo fmaU, that they might be covered with the wing
of a fly. Xenncrates, difciple of Tificrates, or, as others
fay, of Euthycrates, excelled, both in the number of his
ftatues, and compofed volumes on his art. Many artills
made Attains and Eumenes fighting again ft the Galatians.
Ifigonus, Pyromachus, Stratonicus,andAntigonus, compofed
volumes on the art. Boethius, although more excellent in
workingfilver, madeamoli beautiful infant ftrangling a goofe.
But of all the works I have mentioned (fays Pliny), the
principal were dedicated by the emperor Vefpafian in the
temple of Peace, and his other buildings, being brought
together by the rapine of Nero into the city, and difpofed
in fituations in his golden houle. Befldes, there are other
artitls equal in their merits, but none of their works are pre-
eminent; Arifton, who was ufed to workin filver; Calliades,
Ctefias, Cantharas of Sicyon, Dionyfodorus, difciple of Cri-
tias, Deliades, Euphorion, Eunicus, and Hecatius. Among
the f culptors in filver were Lefbocles, Prodorus, Pythodicus,
PolygnotU3 ; thefe were noble painters ; alfo among the
fculptors in filver ; Stratonicus and Scymnus, who was the
difciple of Critias. Pliny then enumerates thofe who made
works of this kind, as Apollodorus, Androbulus, Afclepio-
dorus and Alevas, who made philofophers ; Apellas made
adoring females ; Antigonus and Peryxiomenon made the
T)Tannicides above fpoken of; Antimachus and Atheno-
dorus made noble women ; Ariftodemus made wreftlers, and
a chariot with two horfes, with their charioteer ; philofo-
phers ; an old woman, and king Seleucus ; his Doryphorus
alfo is a graceful work. There were two of the name of
Cephiflodorus ; the firft made Mercury feeding the infant
Bacchus ; he made alfo an orator, with his hand raifed up,
but the perfon is uncertain ; the other reprefented philofo-
phers. Colotes, who worked with Phidias on his Olympian
Jupiter, reprefented philofophers ; alfo Cleon and Cen-
chramis, and Challicles, and Cephis. Chalcoflhenes made a
comedian, and an athleta ; Dahippus made a ftrigilift ; Dai-
phron, Democritus, and Dsmon, the philofophers. Epigonus
excelled almoft all the reft already recorded, in his imitation
of a trumpeter, and a mother piteoully embracing her flain
infant ; and Eubohs counting by his fingers. Mycon made
a beautful Athleta ; Menogenes a chariot and four horfes.
Nor was Niceratus interior to them all, rcprefenting Al-
cibiades in his attack ; and Demaratus facrificing ; his mother
lighting a lamp. Tificrates made a chariot and two horfes ;
Pitho placed a woman upon it ; alfo he made Mars and
Mercury, which are in the temple of Concord at Rome.
Perillus, "(vhom no one prifes, more cruel than Phalaris the
tyrant, made a bull, in which he promiitd that a man,
by the power of fire, might be compelled to bellow, but he
himfelf, by a more jutl atl of cruelty, was made to experience
it. Thus a moft humane art was called away from the iimi-
litudes of gods and men. Was it for this that fo many la-
boured to rear an art that it might become a torment >

Therefore

SCULPTURE.

Therefore one caufe of preferring his work was that, who-
foever fhould fee it might hate the hand that produced it.
Sthenis made Ceres, Jupiter, and Minerva, which are at
Rome, in the temple of Concord ; alfo matrons weeping,
and adoring, and facrificing. Simon made a dog and an
archer. Scopas worked in all kinds ; athletes, and foldiers,
and facrificers. Batton, Euchires, Gl:iucides, Heiiodorus,
Hicanus, Lophon, Lyfon, Leon, Menodorus, Myiagrus,
Polycrates, Polydorus, Pythocritus, and Protogenes, who
were famous in painting. Patrocles, Polis, Pofidonius, who
alfo carved excellently in filver ; they were Ephefians.
Periclymenus, Philon, Simenus, Timotheus, Theomnellus,
Timarchides, Timon, Tifias, Thrafon ; among all thefe the
moll known and remarked is Callimachus, always his own
calumniator, nor did he fet any limit to his accuracy ; hence
he was called Cacizotechnos : he exhibited memorable ex-
amples of his exceflive attention. His are the dancing Lace-
dsmonian females, an over-laboured work, in which all
the grace was taken away by the accuracy ; he alfo, as
it is faid, was a painter. One ftatue alone of Zeno, Cato
in his expedition to Cyprus, did not fell : not gratified with
the brafs, nor with the art ; but becaufe it was the portrait
of a philofopher ; this we obferve by the way, although
it may turn out an ufelefs example. One ftatue we mull
mention and not pafs over, though the author is uncer-
tain ; near the Rollrum at Rome, a Hercules, clothed in a
tunic of the Elean habit, with a frowning face, as fuffer-
ing in the higheft degree from the tunic. On this are three
infcriptions, L. LucuUus, imp?rator, from his ipoils ; the
other is the fon of LucuUus, a minor, from fenatus conful-
tum ; the third is, T. Septimus Sabinus, a curule edile,
from his private property reftored to the public. This
ftatue was thought worthy of fuch a diftinflion. Pliny,
1. xxxiv. c. 19, &c.

Dibutades, a Sicyonian potter, firft found the art of
making likenelles of clay, in Corinth, by the help of his
daughter, who being in love with a youth who was going
on a journey, fcored lines round the fliadow of his face
by a lamplight on a wall, which her father impreding
with clay, made a type, or call, and with the reft of his
pottery placed to be hardened in the fire. It was pre-
served in the Nymphaeum till Mummius overturned Connth,
ns it is faid. There are thofe who fay that Rhoccus and
Theodorus firft found out modelling in Samos, before the
Battiades were driven from Corinth. Demaratus fled from
that city, and in Etruria was the father of Tarquin, the firft
king of the Romans ; he was accompanied by Euchira and
Kugrammus, the modellers ; by thefe modelling was firft
broujrht into Italy. Painting them red, or mak.i;ig tiiem
of red clay, was firft praftifed by Dibutades ; he is the firft
who added maflis to the extremities of tiles which threw
off the fliowers, which at firft were called protypcs ; after-
wards he made cftypes, or moulds of them ; hence arifing to
the top of the temple, they were named models. The like-
nefs of man was taken from the face itfelf in plaftcr ; and
wax was produced in that form as poured into the plafter.
Lyfiftratus, the brother of Lyfippus the Sicyonian, improved
this invention ; he firft determined the reprefentation of por-
traits ; for before him, they endeavoured to make them as
liandfome as pofTible. He did the like in his ftatues. Such
improvements were made that no ftatue was produced with-
out a model. It appears, therefore, tliat this art was more
ancient than cafting in brafs. Damophilus and Gorgafus
were very eminent modellers ; they were alfo painters, who
exercifcd both arts : in the temple of Ceres at Rome, and in
the Circus Maximus, there are verfes infcribcd in Greek,
which fignify that tiie work on the right hand was tliat of De-

VoL. XXXII.

mophilus, and on the left that of Gorgafus: before tliis all the
work in this temple was Tufcan, as M. Varro fays. From
this temple, when it was reftored, the furface of the walk
being cut away, the pidlures were included in frames ; the
ftatues from the roofs alfo were difperfed. Chalcotthenes
made unburnt models at Athens, in a place which was called
Ceramicus, from his workftiop. M. Varro fays that he
knew a man named Pofis, who made at Rome b\inches of
grapes and apples, which could not be difceriied from real
ones. He alfo extols Arcefilaus, the intimate friend of Lucius
LucuUus, whofe cafts often fold for more than the other
works of his art ; by iiim was made a Venus Genitrix, in the
forum of Casfar ; it was placed before it was finiflied, from
the hafte of the dedication. Afterwards by the fame hand,
a ftatue of Felicity was to have been fet up, but both defigns
were fruftrated by death. A cup was made for Oftavius, a
Roman knight, the model of which in plafter coil a talent.
Pafiteles is praifed, who fays modelling is the mother of
ftatuary, fculpture, and engraving. This art was very
much ufed in Italy, and chiefly in Etruria. Turianus,
being called from Fregillum by Tarquin the elder, made the
ftatue of Jupiter, to be dedicated in the Capitol ; it was a clay
model, and, as ufual, coloured red ; his was alfo the model
on the top of the temple of a chariot and four horfcs, which
has often been fpoken of. In this way he made a Her-
cules, which at this day in the city retains the name of itt
material. Pliny, 1. xxxv. c. 43, 45.

The firft of all who were famous for marble fculpture, were
Dipocnus and Scyllis, born in the ifland of Crete. When it
was under the dominion of the Medes, before Cyrus began to
reign in Perfia, that is, about the 50th Olympiad, they betook
themfelves to Sicyon, which was a long time the workshop
for the metals of all countries. The images of certain
gods they publicly placed at Sicyon, but before they had
finifhed them, the artifts, complaining of fome injury, fled to
Etolia. Forthwith famine and barrenneis invaded Sicyon,
and direful aflliftions. A remedy being afl<ed from Apollo
Pythias, he immediately anfwered, "Let Dipocnus and Scyllii
perfeft the ftatues of tiie gods." Tiiey were intreatcd to
do this with great rewards and liberal ofiers. Thefe images
were Apollo, Diana, Hercules, and Minerva, which after-
wards were touched witli lightning from heaven.

In their time there was, in the ifjanil of Chios, Malas, a
fculptor ; then liis fon Micciadcs ; and then his grandlon An-
thcrmus, a Chian, whole fons, Bupalus and Anthermus,
were famous in this fcience in tiie age of Hipponax, the
poet, who, it is certain, lived in tiie 60th Olympiad. If
this family had traced back their progenitors, they would
have found art to have originated witli tiie commencement of
the Olympiads. Hipponax had a fiiigularly ugly counte-
nance ; wherefore his likenels, produced in a vulgar joke, was
held up to public ridicule : at which Hipponax, indignant,
bore fo hard upon them with the bitternels of his verfcs, ni
compelled them to hang themfelves. But this is an error,
for they made a great many ftatues afterwards in the
iil.iiids. In Delos, where tlie fong was compofed, they
could not efcape the cenfure ; but at Chios arc the works
of Anthermus, the Ion ; and there is Ihewn at Jafiun a
Diana, made by their hands ; and in Ciiios it is faid there
is a Diana of their work, whole face is much above the
fpeftator's eye, and fo contrived, tiiat to thufe entering the
temple Ihe appears fevere, but to thofe going out (lie ap-
pears exhilarating. At Rome tiieir llatues arc on the PaU-
tinc Hill, on the top of Apollo's temple. In their country
of Delos alio are their works, and in the ifland of Lclbos
Dijiurnu:'. has certain works at Ambracia, Argos, and
Cleonc. All thefe artilU ufed tlic white marble that comes

L from

SCULPTURE.

from the ifland of Paros ; which ftone took the appellation
of Ijrchnites, becaufe it was cut in the quarries by th; light
of the lamp, as Varro writes. Afterwards a much whiter
kind was found ; lately alio in the quarries of Lunenfium.
But of the Parian a wor.der is told : the ftony glebe, di-
vided by the wedge, fell apart, and an ima'^e of Silenus
appeared within. It muft njt be omitted, that thefe arts,
both of painting and ftatuary, fo anciently produced, were
taken up by Phidias in the 83d Olympiad, 332 years after-
wards : for Phidia'! brought forward tiie art ot Iculpture in
marble. His Venus at Rome, which is in the forum of
Oftavia, ii a work of the niaft beautiful perfection. He
taught Alcamenes the Athenian, who, it is certain, is dillin-
guifhed among the firft of the Athe;i'an:i ; whofe works are at
Athens, in many facred temples. Famed above the rell is
his Veaus without the walls, which is called Aphrodite in
the Garden. It 'S f^id that Phidias put the finiihing hand
to this lUtue. His difciple was Agoracritus of Paros,
fo agreeable to that as^e ; therefore many works are given
about in his name. There was a trial of il<ill between the
, mailer and the difciple, in making a Venus. Alcamenes
conquered not bv his work, but by the futfrages of his
city, which favoured him again It a It ranger. Under the
condition that it Ihould not be at Athens, Agoracritus
fold his Itatue. It is furnamed Nemelis. M. Varro pre-
ferred it to all (tatues. There are in the temple of Magna
Mater, in the fame city, works of Agoracritus. Phidias
is undoubtedly famous through all nations, which have
underltood the fame of his Olympian Jupiter. That
thole may know how defervcdly to praife his works, who
have not feen them ; we fliall offer feme arguments relating
merely to his ingenuity ; without comprehending the beauty of
the Olympian Jupiter, and referring merely to the ftrufture of
the Athenian Minerva. It is 26 cubits, compofed of ivory
and gold : in her Ihiold the Amazonian war is engraved ; in
the Iwelling part of the buckler, and in the concave part,
the war of the gods and giants ; in her fandals the Lapitlix
and Centaurs, every minute particular put together v\'ith the
greateft art. In the bafe is engraved the birtli of Pandora.
Here are gods produced, twenty in number : Vidtory is
chiefly admirable. The Ikilful liave admired the ferpent,
and, under the creft of her helmet, the fphynx of brafs.
Thefe are tranfient obfervations : the art can never be fuffi-
ciently admired, whil't it is known that he was no lefs diltin-
guilhed byfuch magnificence, than by the fmalleit things. We
have fpoken of Praxiteks, among the llatuaries of his age, as
having excelled in the glories of marble, others, and alfo
himfelf. His works are at Athens, in the Ceramicus. But
before all, not only of Praxiteles, but on the whole globe
of the earth, is Ver.us, which is viewed by multitudes who
fail to Gnidos. He made and alfo fold two Itatues, one
clothed, by means of which it was intended that there might
be a preference. Tne Ciians took one at the fame price, con-
fidering that as the more fevere and modelt. That which
was rejected was bought by the Gnidians. Immenfe the
difference in their fame! Afterwards king Nicomedes
would have purchaled that of the Gnidians, promifing to
pay the whole debt of the city, which was immenfe.' But
they rather bore all, nor without caufe, as long as the ftatue
of Praxiteles ennobled Gnidos. Her little temple was wholly
open, that the Itatue of the goddefs might be viewed from
all points ; the goddefs favouring them, as it was believed.
No paivt was feen with lefs admiration than another. It is
faid, a certain perfon was enamoured with the Itatue, and hid
himfelf in the temple all night. There are in Gnidos other
ftatues of marble, by illultrious artifts : Bacchus, by Bry-
axis ; and another, by Scopas ; and a Minerva. Neither is
5

there any other fpecimen of the work of Praxiteles more c«*
cellent than the Venus, that (hould be recorded among thef«
by itfelf. Of the fame artift there is one a Cupid, objefted
by Cicero again 11 Verres : it is that for which Thefpia wai
vifited. It is now in the Oftavian Ga'lery. His is alfo
another Venus, in a Parian colony of Propontis, like the
Venus of Gnidos in nnblenefs and alfo in injury. At Rome
are works of Praxitel"s : Flora, Triptolemus, Ceres in the
Servilian gardens. Good Fortune, and another llatue of
Good Fortune in the Capitol ; alfo the Maenades, and thofe
called Thyades and Caryatides ; and Silenus in Afiniuf
Polho's monument, alfo Apollo and Neptune. Cephiffo-
dorus was the fon of Praxiteles, and the heir of his art as well
as of his eitate ; whofe work of children embracing is at Per-
gamos, a very much admired and a noble performance of art :
the fingers fecm to imprefs the body rather than the marble.
At Rome his works are, Latona in a chapel of the palace,
Venus in Afinius Polho's monument, and in the temple of
Juno, which is in Octavia's portico, ^fculapius, and Diana.
The fame of Scopas contends with his : he maJe Venus,
and Pothon, and Phaethon, which arc wrTlliipped in the
facred ceremonies of Samothracia ; alfo the Palatine Apollo.
The fitting Veita is very much praifed in the Servihan gar-
dens ; two chamxteras or companions around her fitting on
the ground. Two like them are in Afinius's monument,
where is a canepiiorus, or man bearing a bafket, by the fame
artilt. But the greatelt honour in Cn. Domitius's temple, in
the Circus Flaminius, belongs to his Neptune and Thetis, and
alfo Achilles ; Nereides fitting upon dolphins, fea-monlters,
and hippocampi ;allo tritons, and a chorus of phorci and
prilles, which are different kinds of fea monlters, and many
other marine fubjefts, all by his hand. This was a inoft
famous performance, if it had been the whole work of his life.
Now, befides what has been faid above, we fhall fpeak
of things of which we are not certain. A Mars of his
work, coloflal, a fitting figure : it is in the temple of
Brutus Callaicus, in the Circus. Befides a Venus, in
the fame place, furpaffing the Gnidian, taking a pre-
ference to that of Praxiteles : it would have ennobled
any other place. Rome, from its greatnefs, has caufed
that work to be forgotten ; and the crowd of bufinefs and
of&ces draw away from obfervation, becaufe admiration
of fuch things is fitted to great filence and more leifure.
Equal doubt is in the temple of Apollo Sofianus, whether
Niobe and her children were made by Scopas or Praxiteles.
Alfo Janus the father, which Augultus brought from
Egypt, and dedicated in his temple, but of whofe hand it is
fame does not tell us. Likewife in Curia Oftavia, there is
queftion concerning a Cupid holding the lightning ; though
at length it is affirmed to be the likenefs of Alcibiades at
that age. Many other things arc in the fame gallery, svliich
pleafe, whofe authors are unknown : four Satyrs, with
Bacchus, one of whom holds a flying garment over his
fhoulder ; another fimilar Bacchus ; a third quieting a cry-
ing infant ; a fourth with a cup, fatisfying the thirit of
another with d'-ink ; two winds with flying yeits. Nor is
there lefs queltion who made Olympus, and Pan, and
Chiron, with Achilles, in the Septis ; particularly when
their reputation has rendered them worthy of the pledge of
their keepers' lives. Scopas had emulators in the fame age,
Bryaxis, Timoiheus, and Leochares, who are always
fpoken of together, becaufe they wrought together on the
Maufol.'um. This was the fepulchre of Maufolus, king of
Caria, which his wife Artemifia made for him, wlio died in the
fecond vear of the io6th Olympiad. It is a work reckoned
among the feven wondersof the world, wliich thefe great art ills
made. It isfrorafouth to north63feet,butfliorterinfiont : its

whole

SCULPTURE.

•whole circuit i» 41 1 feet, raifed in heiglit 25 cubits, fiir-
roui'ded with 36 columns. To the ealt it was fculptiired
by Scopas, to the north by Bryaxis, to the ibuth by Ti-
motheus, to the weft by Lcochares. But before the work
was fiiiifhed, queen Artcmifia, to whofe hufband's memory,
and by whofe command, this work was built, herfelf died
alfo. They did not, therefore, recede from the work,
judging this monument iiecefiary to the glory of their art.
Adjoined to them was a fifth artift, who, above the pedi-
ment, added a pyramid on 24 fteps, contrafting like a cone
toward the fummit. On the top of all is a chariot and four
horfes, of marble, which was the work of Pythis. This
being added, the height of the whole is 140 feet. The
Diana in the palace at Rome is by the hand of Timotheus.
In great admiration is a Hercules, by Mcnettratua ; and a
Hecate, in the Ephefian temple of Diai.a, behind the build-
ing ; in the contemplation of which, the keeper of the
building admonifhes you to fpai-e your eyes, luch is the
radiance of the marble. Not lefs eftim-ble are the Graces,
in the veftibule at Athens, which Socrates made. The
painter is another perfon, as fome think. But Myron, who
It famous for works of brafs, made a drunken old woman,
which is celebrated in Smyrna. PoUio Afinius being a
man of ardent courage, wiihed to exhibit it in the
monuments he colleded. Among thefe are centaurs
carrying nymphs, by Archefitas ; Thefpiades, by Cleo-
menes ; Ocean and Jupiter, by Entochus ; Hippiades, by
Stephanus ; Hermerotes, by Taurifcus, not the celebrated
carver, but one belonging to Tralhanus ; Jupiter Hofpi-
talis, by Pamphilus, difciple of Praxiteles ; Zethus and
Amphion, and Dirce and the bull, the cords being of the
fame ilone : it was brought from Rhodes, the work of Apollo-
nius and Taurifcus, with their parent, who contended concern-
ing the work. Menecrates was feen here ; but Artemidorus
was perfeft nature. In the lame plr.ce Bacchus, by Euty-
chides, is much praifed ; Apollo in hit own temple, on the
portico of 0£tavia, by Philifcus the Rliodian ; alfo Latona,
and Diana, and the nine Mufes, and another Apollo naked.
He who holds the lyre, in the fame temple, was made by
Timarchus. Within the portico of OAavia, in the temple
of Juno, the goddefs herfelf, by Diouyfius and Polycles ;
another Venus in the fame place, by Philifcus ; other ftatucs
by Praxiteles. Alio Polycles and Dionyfnis, fons of Ti-
marcliides, made a Jupiter, which is in the adjoining temple ;
Pan and Olympus wreftliiig ; and in the fame place Helio-
dorus, whicii is another of the noblett groups in the world ;
Venus walhing lierfelf ; Daedalus ftanding, by Polycharmus.
The work of Lyfias is held in great reverence, from the
honovir which it appears to have had : it is in the palace over
the arch. Auguftus Caefar dedicated it to the honour of
his father Oftavius, in a little building adorned with co-
lumns ; alfo a chariot and four horfes running, and Apollo
and Diana of one ilone. In the Servilian gardens are found,
very much ])rail'cd, Apollo, by Calamis, the fculptor ; Pyt hcas,
by Daflylides ; or, as other copies of Pliuy have it, the \>y&x
or pugiles by Dercylis ; Callifthenes, the writer of hiftory,
by Amphillratus. Of many the fame is more obfcurc, be-
caufe fame in great works is obftruftcd by the number of
artificers ; for each cannot occupy the glory which many
equally partake ; as in I^aocoon, which is in the emperor
Titus's palace, a work to be preferred before all both of
painting and ftatuary. It is made from one (lone, both
Laocoon and his children, and the wonderful connexion of
the fcrpents, by the conjoined counfeU of thofe gresteft
artifts, Agefandir, Apollodorus, and Athcnodorus, the
Rhodians. In the like manner, in the Palatuie palace of
Csfar, abounding with approved ftatucs of Craterus with

Pythodoruj, Polydc£lcs with Hermolaus, another Pj-tho-
dorus with Artcmon ; a Cngle ftatuc, by Aphrodifius
Trallianus alone. Diogenes, the Athenian, decorated the
Pantheon of Agrippa ; and the Caryatides, on the columns
of the temple, are approved among a few of his works, fuch
as being placed at the top of the temple, becaufe of the alti-
tude of their place, are lefs celebrated. Unhonoured it
one, not in the temple, a Hercules, to which the Car-
thaginians a great many years offered in facrifice human
viflims. It ftands on the ground, before the entrance ot
the portico that leads to the llatues of the Nations. There
are (landing the ftatucs of the Thefpiades before the temple
of Felicity, of which one was loved by a Roman knight,
Junius Pifciculus, as Varro relates ; admired alfo by Pafi
teles, who wrote five volumes on the noble works in the
whole world. He was born on the Itahan Greek (hore.
Rich both in the city of Rome and its towns, he made a
Jupiter of ivory, in Metellus's temple, which looks toward
the fields. It befell him, that in a iTiip, in which were African
wild beafts, ftanding at a den and carefully obferring a lion,
which he meant to carve, a panther broke loofe from another
den, not of flight peril to the diligent artift. He made many
works, as it isfaid ; but of thofe which he made, thename$are
not reported. Arcefilaus alfo is very much praifed by Varro,
who himfelf had a marble lionefs, as he fays, and winged
cupids fporting with her ; of whom fome hold her bound,
others force her to drink from horns, others kick her with
their (hoes : all of one ftone. He made alfo, for Coponius,
fourteen nations, which are in Pompey's Circus. I find Ca-
nachus (fays Phny) very much prailed among (latuaries for
works he made of marble. Nor muft Sauron and Batrachut
be forgotten, who made the temple of Oftavia, included iii
the portico. They were Lacedimonians. They are faid to
have been very rich, and they built this temple at their own
expence ; very earncttly hoping to have an infcription, but
it was denied them, notwithuanding they took another
place and method to obtain it. There are, at this time, in
the volutes of the columns, the fignification of their names
carved : a frog and a lizard. In Jupiter's temple is to be
feen a pifture, containing articles of drefs, and all other
things relating to women ; for when the temple of Juno was
completed, and they carried in the ftatue, they are reported
to have changed the moveables ; and that being guarded by
religion, even as the feat partitioned among the gods them-
felves : in the temple of Juno is confecratcd that which
ought to be Jupiter's. Pliny, 1. xxxvi. c. 4.
Such is Pliny's account of ancient fculpture.
It is well known, from the tcftimonies of later author*
who have written on the fubjtfl, as well as from the names
of Greek artifts found on their works, tliat all the nobler
produfticns of fculpturc executed at Rome after the time«
we are fpcaking of, were the produdlions of Greek artifts.
The buftsof the twelve Cifars from Juhus to Domitian
inclufive, are the fineft produftions of portrait Iculpturc.
The whole imperial ferics, both in bufts and ftatucs, down
to the emperors Balbinus and Pupienus, poftcls the highell
merit, and fcarccly in that period (hew the decline of art ;
but from the time of ijiefe emperors to that when Conllan-
tinc fixed his capital at Byzantium, the decline was fo
evident, that the life and beauty of formir times were nearly
extinguilhed in their produtlions.

Before we quit ancient Rome, we muft notice in x
grneral obfervation feme of the great workn of art <liU
remaining in that capital, which could not be properly in-
troduced in the foregoing fcries.

The Trajan column is one of the moft beautiful moiit).

menu of ancient Rome, and the moft fuperb column in

L 3! '♦'c

SCULPTURE.

the world. It was raifed about the commencement of the
fecond century, by the fenate and people of Rome ; in
honour of the emperor Trajan, after the viftory that he had
obtained over the Dacians. This column is admirable for
its height ; and more ftill for the beauty of the bas reliefs
with which it is ornamented ; which reprefent the firil and
the fecond expeditions, and the viftory obtained over king
Decebalus. Thefc bas reliefs are correftly defigned, and
moll beautifully executed. There are numbered more than
2500 figures, all in different attitudes, without counting
thofe of horfes, elephants, arms, machines of war, and an
infinity of others ; altogether forming a variety of ob-
jefts, which no one can fee without admiration. Upon
the capital of this column is a pedeftal, on which was
anciently a coloflal ftatue of Trajan in gilt bronze. In
the place of this ftatue, pope Sixtus V. caufed to be
placed, in the year 1588, that of St. Peter the apoftle in
bronze, which was modelled by Thomao Porta. The fame
pope caufed r.lfo to be cleared away the earth which en-
cumbered the pedeftal.

At the bottom of the pedeftal, or bafe of the column, in
one of the fides is a door, by which we mount to the top
of the column. The ftair-cafe contains 185 fteps, cut in
the fame blocks as the column : and to them are made 44
windows, wliich light the ftair-cafe ; and there is on the
top a baluftrade, by which we may walk around and enjoy
the profpeft of the whole city of Rome. The height of
tliis column is 118 feet, soraprifing the pedeftal of the
column and the ilatue on the top. The column alone, with
its bafe and capital, is 92 feet ; the pedeftal of the column
is 17, that of the ftatue 9 ; the lower diameter of the
column is 1 1 feet 3 inches, the diameter of the upper part
is 10 feet. This column is formed of 22 blocks of white
marble, fixed with lead one upon another. The fhaft of
the pillar is in 23 pieces ; the pedeftal in 8 ; the capital 1 ;
and the pedeftal of the ftatue another.

The magnificence of tliis column anfwers to that of the
ancient forum of Trajan, of which it occupied the centre.
The Forum or Square of Trajan was furrounded by grand
porticoes, and the edifices were built with the greateft mag-
nificence after defigns by the celebrateil ApoUodorus.
Thefe confifted of a temple or palace, where the confuls fat
in judgment ; the temple of Trajan, where was the Ulpian
library, ornamented with ftatues of the learned ; a fuperb
triumphal arch with four equal faces, that the fenate caufed
to be built to the honour of the prince after his death; and
a beautiful equeftrian ftatue of Trajan, in gilt bronze : the
ftatues, the cornices, the architraves, and the friezes which
ornamented thefe edifices, were alfo in bronze. It would
be difBcult to defcribe all the magnificence of this fuperb
fquare. Trajan caufed a valley to be filled up, and levelled
one part of Mount Quirinal, to make a level for this beau-
tiful fituation.

The Antonine column has given its name to the place of
which it is the principal ornament. It was raifed by the
Roman fenate, and by the emperor Marcus Aurelius An-
toninus, in honour of Antoninus Pius, his father-in-law,
whom he fucceeded in the empire. His afhes were enclofed
in a golden urn, and placed on the top, with his ftatue in
bronze gilt ; and becaufe he had not obtained any one great
viftory in war, they caufed to be fculptured around the
column the viftory over the Marcomanni. Time and vari-
ous revolutions, and above all the fires, which had been an-
ciently very frequent in Rome, have much damaged this
column. Pope Sixtus V. caufed it to be repaired in the
year 1589, and the ftatue of the apoftle Paul, in bronze
gilt, to be placed upon its fummit. This column is of

white marble, furrounded by bas reliefs from the bafe to
the capital. The artift appears to have taken for his model
the Trajan column ; it is of the fame ftyle, though of in-
ferior execution. The whole is compofed of 28 blocks of
marble : it is 15 feet in diameter, and 116 in height, with-
out including the ftatue, which is 13 ; and the pedeftal, on
which it is placed, which is 9. The column contains a
beautiful winding ftair-cafe of 190 fteps, which conduft
commodioully to the top ; it is hghted by 41 windows.

The arch of Titus was raifed by the fenate and people
of Rome to the honour of Titus Vefpafian, for his con-
queft of Judea and the taking of Jerufalem. It is of the
moft excellent workmanfhip, but has very much fuffered
from the injuries of time. It is ornamented with beautiful
bas reliefs, and two fluted columns of the Compofite order.
Under the arch is feen the triumph of the emperor, drawn
in a chariot by four horfes, accompanied by his liftors ; and
in the triumph the famous candleltick of feven branches, the
tables of the law, and other fpoils of the temple of Jerufalein.

The arch of Septimius Severus was raifed by the fenate
and people of Rome, at the beginning of the third cen-
tury, to the honour of that emperor, for having fubjugated
the Parthians and other barbarous nations. It is all of
white marble, with three arches and eight fluted columns
of the Compofite order, ornamented with bas reliefs, of
middling fculpture. It has fuffered very m ch, and becaufe
it is partly buried in the earth, we cannot fo well judge of its
beauty ; formerly there was an afcent to the top of the arch, by
a ftair-cafe in the interior ; and there was placed upon its roof
theemperor Severus in a triumphal chariot drawn by fix horfes.

After the famous viftory obtained over Maxentius by
Conftantine the Great, the fenate and people of Rome
caufed a triumphal arch to be raifed to his honour :
it is of the Corinthian order, having three arches ; the
two grand fronts are ornamented by eight fluted co-
lumns of yellow marble, and m:iny bas reliefs of very dif-
ferent merit. Thofe that were made in the time of Con-
ftantine make us perceive the barbarity into which the
fine arts were beginning to fall ; the others, on the con-
trary, which were taken away from the arch of Trajan,
prefent fuch beauties, as indicate an age when fculpture was
in high perfeftion. Thefe are twenty in number, of which
ten are of a fquare form, and are in the upper part ; eight
are round, above the fide arches, and tn-o others more large
under the grand arch. All thefe bas reliefs, and the eight
figures of Dacians placed upon the columns, prove them-
felves to belong to the expeditions and viftories of Trajan.

The arch of Marcus Aurehus formerly flood in the
Flaminian way, now called the Corfo, or principal itreet in
Rome; it was takVn down by Alexander Vll. ; two fine
remaining bas reliefs from which are at prefent in the Capi-
tol ; one of thefe is an apotheofis of the emprefs Fauftina,
the other is an addrefs of the emperor to the people of
Rome. The figures are larger than life.

In general obfervations on the fculpture of the arches
and columns here enumerated, we fhall remark, that the
earlieft of them, the arch of Titus, mult have been executed
about the year 70 of the Chriftian era, confequently when
fculpture had loft much of its prim.itive ideal beauty ; we
fhall of courfe find in thefe works lefs of fublimity and
more of coarfenefs in the forms, confilting of fubjeft*
which were confined to battles, oftentations, triumphs, and
afts immediately confined to them. The Roman generals
and foldiery, as well as the barbarians whom they fought
with and conquered, are reprefented with an individual
vulgarity of face and perfon, very different from the choice
feleftion of be»uty in the works of Greece, The drefs and

armour

SCULPTURE.

armour are more complicated and divided than thofe of the
ancient Greeks, added to the inferiority and confufion of
parts, ilill augmented by the introdudlion of fhips, bridges,
piles of wood, battering rams, catapults and other miUtary
engines, &c., wholly omitted in the works of the beil ages.
Ti>e contclts are of the coarfelt means, and of the moft
brutal force, unalleviated by any interference of lupreme
bfings, and unexalted by the beauty of the ancients. With
fuch a charadler in the whole, the fculpture on the arch
of Trajan, now the arch of Conitantine, is fuperior to
the red of thefe works. Upon the whole, although the
bas relief of the apotheofis of Fauftina, formerly on the
arch of Marcus Aurelius, is a more fublime conception,
the fculpture of the Trajan column has a great variety of
natural attitudes, according to the fituations in which the
perfons are placed, and the rehevo has that general breadth,
which is belt fuited to fhew the outline of the column in all
views. The figures and groups on the Antoninc column
are carved with a bolder relief; but fuch as deforms the
ihaft of the column by its irregular hollows, producing
fomething of the appearance of rock-work to the whole
outline. The fculpture on the arch of Severus is llill
more deteriorated in its tlyle and conduft ; and fuch of the
bas reliefs on the arch of Conftantine as were executed in
the reign of that prince, have fuch a Gothicifm and barba-
rity of execution, as would utterly exclude it from that
clafs of fculpture, which has moderate pretenfions to fcience,
or anv pretenfiou whatever to fentiment.

We mult not omit to mention fnme colofTal ftatues, Itill
cxifting entire or in parts in the city of Rome : ill, two
colotial ilatues of marble on Monte Cavallo, ftandmg be-
fore the pope's palace, each nineteen feet and a half high.
The figures are in the prime of youthful manly beauty ; the
faces are of the highcil clafs of Grecian beauty ; the figures
feem to breathe and move ; their pofition is advancing ;
with one hand each holds his charger. They have been
called Callor and Pollux, Achilles and Patroclus, Alex-
andiT and Hepheftion, alio Achilles, at the moment when
his horle declares the will of Jupiter ; on the authority of
two coins of Nero and Adrian Itruck at Corinth, bearing
on the reverfe a hero holding a horfe, much refenibling this
«;roup ; it has been called Bcllerophon holding Pegafus.
One of thefe Ilatues bears the name of Phidias on its pe-
deftal, the other ftatue feems to be this original, reverfed
by fome other artift, to ftand as its companion in fome con-
spicuous fituation.

In the cortile of the Capitol are remains in marble of the
colollal llatue of Domitiau, which appears to have been,
when entire, about forty feet high ; the head and neck to
the bottom of the gullet is of one Hone, and about eight feet
high ; the feet are each fix feet long ; the knees, elbows,
and lonie other fragments, are remaining. It appears to
have been nearly naked, to have flood ereff, to have had a
chlauiys hanging on the left arm ; and is perhaps the fame co-
lolTus of Domitian as that defcribed by Philo Byzantius,
according to his tellimoiiics from different Latin authors.

There is, in the lame cortile, a head in bronze, believed
to be that of the emperor Commodus, which from other re-
maining fragments was a colollal llatue alfo.

The equcllrian llatue of Marcus Aurelius, coifidcrably
above the fi/.e of nature, in the centre of the Capitol, of
noble workmanfliip, is fufiiciently known to lovers of art
by the prints of Perrier and other artills.

When Conllaiitine removed the feat of empire from Rome
to By/.antiuin, he and his fuccclfors are faid to have taken
from the ancient capital of the world, as many of the line
works of art as they could poflibly remove. The Greek

artilts were employed in their own country to decorate the
new capital, with the fame magnificence indeed as in former
times, and like their predecellors were employed in the caufe
of religion, not m emulation of Phidias's Jupiter or Piaxi-
teles's Venus, but in the caufe of that facred perfnn who
difclofed, and of his followers who propagated the new dif-
penfation of mercy. The archiledls were employed in build-
ing Sanfta Sophia and other great facred buildings in the
city ; and the painters and fculptors in the illullration of the
Old and New Tellament.

The controveriles of religion and philofophy had been
agitated with fo much violence by the philofophers of Alex-
andria againft the Chriflian divines, as induced the fucceflbrs
of Conftantine to abolifh the feiiools both of Athens and
Alexandria ; they alfo illued orders for the removal and de-
ftruftion of the Pagan idols ; and in the fourth and fifth
centuries it is believed that the Olympiai. Jupiter at Elis by
Phidias, and the Venus at Gnidos by Praxiteles, with others
of the mofl diitinguifhed works of Pagan fculpture, were
deftroycd, either by imperial orders or the ravage? of bar-
barians. The Iconoclafles, and the irruptions of the fol-
lowers of Mahomet and other barbarous people, very nearly
dellroyed all the remains of the fiiult Greek fculpture in the
Eall as well as in weitern Europe. This dellruftive fury
againft the arts and artifts, continued with interruptions for
two hundred years , Itill, however, the Chriftian Greek com-
pofitions from the Old and New Teftament, from the time of
Conftantine down to the thirteenth century, were followed
as examples of charafter and compofition by the reviver*
of art in weftern Europe, down to the limes of Michael
Angelo and Raphael.

After the facking of Conftantinople by the Venetians,
the only elforts of that feeble Hate were a few faint ilrug-
gles for exiftence, previous to its dellrudlion by the Maho-
metans.

To give fome idea of the magnificent fculpture which
adorned Conftantinople, we Ihall infert the defcription given
by Coniatus, of thofe fine works which decorated this city,
before it was taken by the Venetians.

The Roman conquerors, wlio were of an avaricious tem-
per even to a proverb, praftifed a new method of rapine and
plunder, unknown to thofe who had taken the city before
them : for breaking open by night the royal fepulchrcs in
the great grove of Heroum, they facrilegioully rifled the
corples of thofe blefled difciples of Jefus Chrift, and car-
ried ofl whatever was valuable in gold, rings, and jewels,
which they found in thefe rep<ifitories of the dead. They
fpared neither the houfe of God nor liis miiiifters, but
Itripped the great church of Sanfta Sophia of all its fine
ornaments and hangings, made of the richelt brocades of in-
cllimable value ; but tltey no fooner calk their eyes on the
brazen ftatues than they ordered tliem to be melted down.
The fine ftatue of Juno in brafs, which ftood in the forum
of Conllaiitine, tht-y chopped to pieces and threw intu the
forge. The head of this ftatue was fo large, that four yoke
of oxen could fearceiy drag it. On the bafe of it was
cut, in bafto relievo, the ligure of Paris prefenting Venus
with tlic apple of dilcord. The noble quadrilateral
pillar, fupported by leveral ranges of pillars, and which
by its height overlooked the whole city, and was both the
wonder and deli):;lit of the curious fpeftator, Ihared the lame
fate. This lofty column was adorned with rural reprelenta.
tions of all kinds of birds, folds of cattle, and ot Ihccp
bleating and lambs frilking and playing, &c. There was
alfo engravid upon it a view of the fea and fea-gods, fome
of whom were catching fifli with their hands, other? order-
ing their nets, then diving to the bottom, while fome in a
a wantoB

SCULPTURE.

wanton manner were throwing balls to one another. This
pillar fupportcd a pyramid on the top of it, on which was
placed the ftatue of a woman, which turned about with the
wind, and was therefore called Anemode. This excellent
piece was alfo mehed down for coinage, as was alfo an
equeftrian ftatue, fixed upon a quadrilateral pedeftal in the
Tauris. Tliis was a bold figure, of an heroic countenance,
and furpriling ftatlire. He was faid by fome to be one of
the fpies who were fent by Joftiua, the fon of Nun. With
one hand he pointed callward, with the other to the weit.
But this ftatue was generally reported to be Bellerophon
fitting upon Pegafus ; for the horfe was without a bridle,
as Pegafus is moftly figured, fcouring the plain, dcfpifing a
rider, flying and driving about in a headftrong manner. This
horfe and his rider were alfo melted down ; the barbarous
foldiers expreffing their utmoft fury againft the finell ftatues
and moft curious pieces of workrr.aniliip in the Hippocum.
The great ftatue of the Hefperian Hercules, which was fixed
upon a magnificent pedeftal, and clothed in a lion's (kin,
which feemed to live and affricrht the fpectators with his
tremendous voice, felt the effedls of military power. He
was not armed with his quiver, his bow or his club ; but
ftretching out liis right leg and arm, he kneeled upon his
left knee, and leaning upon his left elbow with his hand
open, fupported his head in a thoughtful manner, feeming
to lament his misfortunes. This figure was broad-cheiled,
the fhoulders were large, the hair long, curled, and reach-
ing to the waift ; the arms were brawny, and as long as thofe
made by Lyfimachus, which was the original of this, and
was the firft and lalt mafterpiece of his (l<ill. In ftiort, of
fuch a ftupendous fize was this ftatue, that his wrift was as
thick as a man's body, and his leg equal in height to any
ordinary perfon. This noble ftatue did not efcape the
rage of thefe mighty pretenders to virtue and honour.
Befides this they alio carried away the image of the afs and
his driver, which figures were fet up originally by Auguftus
Czfar at Aftium, of whom the ftory reports, that when he
went out privately in the night time, to take a view of An-
tony's camp, he met a man driving an afs, and aiking him
who he was and where he was going ? the man anfwered,
" my name is Nicon and my afs's name Nicander, and I am
going to Casfar's army." TThe ftatues of the hyxna, and of
the wolf which fuckled Romulus and Remus, underwent
the fame fate, and were coined into little brazen ftaters. The
feveral ftatues alfo ; of a man fighting with a lion ; of the
horfe Neilous covered with fcales behiijd ; of an elephant
with a moving probolcis ; of the fphynxes, beautiful as
women and terrible as beafts, which can occafionally walk
or fly in the air ; there was alfo the ftatue of a wild horfe,
pricking up his ears, curvetting and prancing : — this and
old Sylla were ferved in the fame manner. She was figured
like a woman to the waift, with a grim frightful look, juft
as fhe appeared when ftjc fent her dogs to deftroy Ulyfies.
There was alfo placed in the Hippocum a brazen eagle,
which was the invention of Apollonius Tyaneus, and a cele-
brated monument of his forcery. This impoftor being re-
quefted by the Byzantines to heal them of the bitings of
ferpents, which were then common among them, ufing charms
and diabolical ceremonies placed this eagle upon a pillar.
It was a pleafant fight enough, and deferved to be more nar.
rowly infpefted, for it made an agreeable harmony, and lefs
dangerous than the Syrens. Its wings were ftretched out as
ready for flight, and it was trampling upon a ferpent, which
wreathed itfelf about the eagle. The ferpent feemed to
make the utmoft effort to bite the eagle ; the eagle looked
brifli and lively, and feemed to have obtained the vift( ry,
^nd to be ready to bear him through the air m triumph, de-

noting that the ferpents that tormented the Byrantinei wouI<f
hurt them no more, but fuffer themfelves to be handled and
ttroked by them. But thefe were not the only curioGties to
be obferved in this aquiline ftatue ; for the twelve hours
were engraven under his wings, under each wing fix, which
ftiewed the hour of the day, by the fun darting through a
hole in each wing made for that puipofe. There was alfo a
fine ftatue of Helen, whole charms laid Troy in ruins ; her
fine proportions, in breathing brafs, captivated all beholders ;
her habit fat loofe upon her, which difcovered too great an
inclination to gallantry ; her long and delicate hair feemed
to wave in the wind ; it was braided with gold and jewels ;
her robe was girt about her and falling down to the knee ;
her lips feemed like opening rofes, you would fancy they
moved ; and fuch an agreeable fmile brightened her coun-
tenance, as entertained the fpeclator's eye with pleafure.
There was alfo placed upon a pillar a more modern ftatue of
a woman. Her hair hung down behind, combed clofe down
from the forehead backwards, not braided up but bending,
as if to the hand of the fpeftator. Upon the right hand of
this ftatue ftood the equeftrian ftatue of a man ; the horfe
ftood upon one leg, the other bore a cup with hquor. The
rider was of a large fize ; his body completely armed ; his
legs and feet covered with greaves ; his air was manly, rough,
and warlike. His horfe was mettlefome and high couraged,
pricking up his ears as if he heard the trumpet ; his neck
was high, his look fierce, as eager for the battle, rearing
up his tore-feet and prancing as a war horfe. Near this fta-
tue, hard by the eaftern goal called Rufius, were a range of
ftatues of charioteers, dextrous in driving the chariot and
turning the goal. They were very bufy m managing their
bridles and fmacking their whips, and direfting their horfes,
with their eyes fixed ftcadily upon the goal. There feemed
to be defcribed in thefe figures all the tumult and fury of a
chariot race, with the moft vigorous ftruggle for victory.
But what excited the greateft admiration was a large pedeftal,
having on it an animal call in brafs as large as an ox, with
a ftiort tail and a moderate dew lap, iomething like the
Egyptian cattle ; it had no hoofs ; it held in its teeth, ready
to ftrangle, another animal, clothed all over with fcales that
feemed impenetrable. This appeared to be a bafihfk ; it had a
mouth fomewhat like a ferpent's. Thefe figures feemed to
reprefent an odd kind of fight, each of them furioufly ftriv.
ing for victory. The creature which feemed to be the bafi-
lifk was in colour like a frog, and was all over bloated from
head to foot ; he was caftirg out his venom upon his an-
tagonift, to deftroy him, while he was reprefer.ted as bear-
ing upon one knu-e and in a languiftiing ilate. There was
alto a figure of another animal, in whofe jaws was repre-
feiited a fmaller creature whofe mouth was open, as almoft;
choaked by the teeth which held him, ftrugghng to get
loofe but to no purpole. His tail, which was very Ihort,
feemed to tremble ; his ftioulders, his fore-feet, and a part
of his body, were hid in the mouth of his enemy and maftied
by his jaws. This is the cafe with nations and kingdoms,
which thus mutually deftroy one another.

For further fatisiaftion concerning the ftate of fculpture
in the fourth and fifth centuries, a fhort defcription of the
column of Theodofius, ereded at Conftantinople, will be
added.

This column was, in its general Ihape and fize, an imita-
tion of that of Trajan in Rome ; although, by the defcrip-
tion of fuch travellers as faw it ftanding, it appears to have
been larger, and formed of the fame material, ftatuary mar-
ble, decorated hke that column, with a fpiral bas relief,
from the bottom to the top of the ftiaft, furmountcd by a
ftatue of the emperor. The pedeftal was covered with mi-
litary

SCULPTURE.

iitary bat reliefs, on one fide of which was the emperor,
fitting, crowned by two vittories, with a glory, including
the crofs. The fhaft of the column was drawn by Gentile
Bellini ; the fnbjefts are, the triumphal entry of Theo-
dofius, Arcadius, and Honorius, as it is believed, with the
captive Goths and Leller Tartars; their idols, kings, gene-
rals, waggons, horfes, dromedaries, elephants, and oxen ;
the captive multitude, with emblematical figures, rcpre-
fenting the city of Conftantinople : and the varioua figures of
the virtues, complimentary to the emperors, particularly re-
lating to their valour and clemency. Whoever defires to be
more particularly informed of the remainj of ancient fculp-
ture which decorated Conftantinople, may confult Gyllius
and Du Frefne, and tlie Byzantine writersi

Of Modtrn Sculpture. — From the fourth century the art
continued to decline, by the inroads, firit of the Goths and
Vandals, and afterwards of the Saracens : and this decline
is manifell in fragments and ruins of the ages as they fuccced
each other.

Theodoric, king of the Gothi', eftablifhed the feat of
his kingdom at Ravenna ; his reign was long, and as he
very much loved building, he applied himfelf in his capital,
and at Rome, and i.i the principal places of Romania and
Lombardy, to build fevera! palaces and churches, which are
yet to be feeii, all of them of a rude character, remote from
the principles of architefture, and the exact rules of the
ancients ; he caufed palaces to be built at Ravenna, Pavia,
and Modena, after a barbarous way ; which were rather
great and rich than of good architefture. The fame may
be faid of the church of St. Stephen at Rimini, of St. Mar-
tin at Ravenna, and of the temple of St. John, built in the
fame city in the year 438, by Gallia Placidia.

The capitals of columns in buildinifs erected by Theodoric
and his family, are grofs copies from the ancient Doric and
Ionic, in which no attention is paid to the outline : the
leaves and volutes are without relief; the wliole malles are
coarfe, and without effeft : the fculpture of baflo relievo
on the farcophagus of this king and his family at Rimini,
'which reprefents luir Saviour and his Apollles, is without
defign, and of the rudelt workir.aiiihip.

The church of St. Vitalis was built at Ravenna in 547.
Queen Theodolinda caufed the church of St. John the B.ip-
tift to be built at Monza, where was painted the hillory <if
the Lombards ; her daughter, queen Gundiperga, caufed a
church to be built at Pavia. They are all of the ancient
Gothic.

By the ancient Gothic is here meant a grofs imitation of
the Roman buildings and Roman fculpture, without har-
mony, proportion of parts, or defign, as nearly as thefe
unpratlifcd barbarians could imitate from the ruins of Ro-
man buildings, without any fcience, and with clumfy inllru-
ments.

If the Gothic kings who embraced the Chriftian religion
had their painters, fculpto: s, and architects, they had alfo, to
eountcraflt thi^fe, cruel wars to fupport againll the barba-
rians, who ftill remained averfe to art and fcience ; all Europe
was involved in fncli confnfion, that little fatisfaAion can be
derived from the hillories, and Hill lefs from tlie few barba-
rous remaining works.

In the year 496, Clovis, king of the Franks, was con-
verted to Chrilliauity ; he built the church of St. Peter and
St. Paul at Paris, which is now called St. Genevieve. The
fame rude vvorkmanfliip is in the church of St. Germain,
built by Childobert, fon of this king. Altliougli thefe two
venerable remains of antiquity have been dellroyed in the
French revolution, yet fpcciniens of the fculpture are pre-
ferved among tlu; French monuments at the church of the

Little Auguftini ; fome of which, faid to be of this ige,
appear to be much later, as the llatues of the kings in the
portico of St. Germain de Prez, which appear rather to
have been done in the eleventh century. The capital*
in this colleftion of the age of Charlemagne, brought
from St. Denis, exhibit fculpture, if fculpture it may be
called, in its loweil itate of abafement ; it is wanting in
every principle of art, both of defign and execution, and it
is not without attention that you can difcovt-r that its effort!
were intended for the reprefentation of human figures.

What we have faid of the ttate of fculpture in France
will anfwer equally well for every thing that was done in
England, Italy, Germany, and throughout the continent,
at this time.

In the year 805, Charlemagne built the church of the
ApoiUes in Florence, which has always been efteemed by
architefts of fingular beauty, fo that Brunilefchi took it as
a model fo long afterwards as the year 1400.

In the eleventh century, when the terrors of the Norman
invafions, in addition to thofe of former barbarians, had
pafled away, the governments began to be more regular and
eftablilhcd ; agriculture and commerce began to revive ; and
the crulades had diffulcd a ray of light among the northern
nations, derived from the arts and literature of the Ealt, fo
that then the arts of defign began that regular courle of
improvement which has been denominated their revival.

In 1016, the Pilaus founded their great church, called
the Dome of Pifa. The commerce they had by fea, and par-
ticularly into Greece, was a favourable means for the re-
eftablifhment of architedture and fculpture. They brought
from thence feveral columns and fragments of ancient archi-
tefture, of marble, which they made ufe of in this church.

They brought together by thefe means feveral Grecian
fculptors into Italy, and alfo Grecian painters, who worked
after their own old methods, for ufing in their painting only
fimple lines, which they coloured all over equally, without
any fliadowing : their works were not very artificial, not-
withllanding tliefe remainders of art taught the Italians
the praftice of painting in water colours, or frefco and
mofaic.

But among all the artifts of that time was Bufchetto, a
Grecian of Dulichium. Tht-- cathedral of Pifa was built
under his direttion ; fur befides the magnificence and fine
plan exhibited in this church, he iifed with great dexterity
tiiofe ancient pieces of Grecian architedture, to compound
together with hit : thefe were fragments brought from
Greece.

This great building excited in all Italy, and particularly in
Tufcany, thofe who liad any genius for defigiiing.

Thus the arts of defigning began to be revived in Tufcany
before they were known in other countries; and very great
fabrics were reared in feveral cities of Italy. At Ravenna,
in tlie year 1 1 yz, II Buono, a fculptor and architedt, built a
great many palaces and churches : he alfo founded at Naples
the calllc of Capoano, now called the Vicarage, and Callel
Delluovo ; alfo at Venice he built the lleepleof St. Mark.

In the year 1063, the Ipoils which the Pifans brought trora
Sicily enabled them to add to the magnificence of their cathe-
dral. The capitals and fragments of pillars they had liroiight
from Greece and Sicily, were employed in tlur cathedral
church and in the Bell tower ; in which latter building
every capital atmoll is of fine ancient Greek workmaniliip.
The farcophagi, Hill preferved in the Cainpo Santa, formed
the fchool in which Nicolo Pifan.> and his fucccllor improved
their fculpture. The confeqiiences of thefe improvementi
are feen in the works of Nicolo Pilano, wliicli are the pulpit
of Sienua, the pulpit of the baptillcry of Pifa, the has relief

of

SCULPTURE.

of St. Martin's at Lncca, the bas relief in the cathedral at
Otvictto, and in other parts of Italy, in which his conftant
attention to the ancip:it 'ins reliefs is every where obfervable.
At this time the crufad's h-.d .liffufed Tuch a fpirit of piety,
that m: ;;nificv.nl churches \vcr> built all over Italy, in the
defigninir of which, as well as the decoration with fculp-
ture, Nicolo Pifano and his fcholars were univerfally em-
ployed.

On the bafement in the weft front of the cathedral of
Orvietto, there is a f rie^ of baffo rehevos, the work of Ni-
colo Pifano and hi^ fchcol. contnining the moft important
fubjefts of the Old ant' New TelUment, from the Creation
to the Lnit Judgment, with feparate figures of the prophets.
The different fuijefts ar:; contained in a running foUage,
making the moft rici: and beautiful decoration to the four
bafements formed by the three doors in that part of the
church. The fiai es are each about twenty-two inches
high, very hi^hlv rinifhed in ftatuary marble. There is in
many of the.;\ a beautiful fimplicity of fentiment, and in
thofe of the Laft Judg nent, and the other bas rehefs that
immediately n late to it, there are various ftriking inftances
of paffion and terror. The pulpits alfo in the cathedral of
Sienna, and in the baptiftery of Pifa, which were before
mentioned, are magnificent architeftural defigns, richly
adorned with fcriptural baflo relievos by this artift.

At Pifa, in 1174, William Oltramontano and Bonnauo,
a fculptor, founded the fteeple of the dome. The royal
gate of brafs in tliis church was made by Bonnano.

John Cimabue was born at Florence in the year 1 2 1 1 ; he
very much improved the art of defigning ; his difciple
Ghiotto was both a painter and fculptor. Cimabue learned
his art of Greek painters, who were employed in Florence.
At the fame time with Cimabue, flourifiied Andrea Taffi, a
Florentine painter in mofaic ; he went to Venice to perfedl
himfelf in his art ; having learned that there were Grecian
painters who worked in that way in Venice, he engaged
ApoUonius, one of them, to come and work with him m
Florence, where they made ftveral pieces. Taffi learned of
this Grecian the art of making enamels and plaiters that
would laft a long time : he died in the year 1 294.

About the year 12 16 appeared Marchione, architeft and
fculptor of Arezzo, who worked much at Rome for the
popes Innocent III. and Honorius III. : he made the fine
chapel of marble at St. Mary Maggiore, with the fepulchre
of that pope, which is of the beft iculpture of thofe times.
But one of the firft architefts who began to reform in Italy,
was a German named James, who built of (tone the great
convent of St. Francis ; he dwelt at Florence, where he
made the chief fabrics ; he had a fon, named Jacopo Amalfo
Lapo, who learned architefture of his father, and defigning
of Cimabue. He founded the church of St. Crofs, at Flo-
rence, and feveral other buildings, the moft confiderable of
which is the magnificent church of St. Mary del Fiore.

John Pifano was the fon of Nicholas, and was alfo a
fculptor and architeft. In 1283 he was at Naples, and
built there, for king Charles, the new callle, and feveral
churches, and being returned into Tufcany, he made feveral
pieces of fculpture at Arezzo, and alfo of architefture in
that province, and died in the year 1320.

John Pifano deviated from his father's rigid imitation of
antiquity, in giving a more waving line to his figures, and
broader and lefs determined folds to his draperies, like the
paintings and defigns of Ghiotto. There is a general grace
and delicacy in the charafter of his figures ; of which the
bronze ftatues of a madonna and angels in the cathedrals of
Orvietto and Florence are examples : and there is fo ftrong
a refemblance between the ilyles of thefe ftatues and thofe

of queen Eleanor at Northampton, Geddington, and
Waltham, on her croffes ; as affcrds reafon to believe they
were produced by one of the ableft of John Pifano's fcholars,
if not from fome ftatue or model by himfelf: nor is it here
that the refemblance ceafes, for this ttrle i-; to be traced in
moft of the fculpturcs of Europe from this time to the reign
of Henry VII. This fculptor had for pupils, Agoftino
and Agnolo Sanefi ; they were, in th„- opinion of Ghiotto,
the beft fculptors of the time, which pi )cured them the
chief bufinefs of Tufcany. They worked alio at Bologna
and Mantua, and bred up feveral ii',;en'ous pupils, and
particularly carvers in filver, as I .ul Arctino, a goldfmith,
Maeftro Cione, and Jacomo Lanfranco, a Venetian, and
Peter Paul, of the fame city.

Ghiotto made defigns for the braEen doors in the bap-
tiltery of Florence, which were engraven by A 1 drew Pifano,
who alfo made feveral figures of marble in the church ot
St. Mary del Fiore. Andrew was as famous for fculpture
as Ghiotto was for painting. The bas reliefs on the doors
of the baptiftery reprefent the life of St. John the Baptift,
and pod'efs great fimphcity and grandeur for the age in
which they were produced.

Stephen Florentin, Taddeo Gaddi, and Peter Cavallini,
were fcholars of Ghiotto, and in 1 350 they formed at Flo-
rence an academy of defigning, which was the firft that had
been formed fince the revival of the arts. Taddeo Gaddi
began to coUetf ancient fculpture for his ftudies, and there
is a fine Greek body of a faun which belonged to him, which
is kept in the ducal gallery, and is known by the name of
Gaddi's Torfo.

This ingenious fociety was afterwards encouraged and
affifted by the princes of Medicis, which perfefted at Flo-
rence the eftabliftiment of the arts of defign, for there came
out of that fchool a great number of painters, fculptors,
and architefts, who cmbelhftied that famous city, and all
Italy, like another Sicyon, where, in the time of the firft
ancients, the firft academy of defign had been eftablifhed ;
this quickly ftiewed at Florence thofe great geniufes Lo-
renzo Ghiberti, Donatello, and Brunilefchi, and many other
ingenious contemporaries.

Bartoloccio Cione was a fculptor in bronze, gold, and
filver, and father of Lorenzo Ghiberti, who, befides fol-
lowing his father's profelfion, added to it the ftudy of
painting and architefture. He made the two fine brazen
gates in the baptiftery of St. John, one of which reprefents
the hillory of the Old Teftament, which Michael Angelo
faid was worthy to be a gate of Paradife ; the other gate is
adorned with the principal adfs of our Saviour's life. Be-
fides the beauty of the hiftorical fubjefts in the pannels, the
architraves and friezes of thofe gates are of exquillte defign,
containing flowers, fruits, plants, and animals, fo perfeft that
they feem to have been caft from nature. He executed a
figure of St. Matthew, in bronze, of a coloflal fize, in the
church of San Michele, but this figure is inferior to his
fmaller works, from an attempt at exceffive grace ; the folds
of drapery alfo are too minute, curvilinear, and not well ac-
counted for. He executed fome bafib relievos in bronze, of
the life of St. John the Baptiit, on the baptifmal font in the
cathedral of Sienna ; he alfo executed fome painting in the
iame church when he was young. Ghiberti made alfo feveral
curious (hrines, and a triple crown for pope Eugenius ; it
was of gold and jewels, valued at thirty thoufand ducats of
gold. Afterwards he became fupreme magiftrate of Flo-
rence, but itill praftifed architedfure, managing for fome
time the building of the church of St. Mary del Fiore.

Donatello very much excelled the fculptors who had
gone before him, in his copious compofitions, and the paflion

and

SCULPTURE.

and life of his defigns, and in the charafter of nature in his
ilatues, which are to be feen in Florence ; he was born in
1403, and lived to be above 80 years old. His ftatue of
St. George is a youthful pedeftrian figure, Handing with his
legs confidcrably apart, his two hands before him leaning on
his (hield. Michael Angelo admired the head of this figure
fo much, that he copied it in the monumental ftatue of Julian,
duke of Namurs. Donatello defigned fome fine bas reliefs
from the life of St. Anthony of Padua, wliich were executed
by one of his pupils, and decorate the principal altar of tlic
cathedral of Padua. He compofed and executed the greater
part of thofe noble bas reliefs from the life of our Saviour,
in bronze, round the two pulpits of St. Lorenzo, in Flo-
rence ; the fentiment, paffion, and eompofition of which, in
parts, it feems impoflible to excel. He executed different
ftatues of St. John, and crucifixes in wood, the charafters
of which are rather vulgar, and confequently very inferior
to his bas reliefs. It was faid of this artift, upon the
Pythagorean idea of tranfmigration, that either Michael
Angelo's foul energized in his body, or his in Michael
Angelo's. There is a bronze figure in the market of Flo-
rence, of Judith with the head of Holofernes, which, though
by his hand, has nothing linking in the attitude ; and its
drapery is confufed. But there is another llatue of a youth
naked, about twelve or fourteen years old, in the ducal
gallery, which is worthy to be ranked with the fine ftatues
of antiquity.

Brunelefchi, the friend of Donatello, was an excellent
fculptor, goldfmith, and architedl, and revived the true and
ancient way by his indefatigable care. The remains of his
fculpture are very few ; there is an admirable crucifix, carved
in wood by him, in the church of St. Mary Novella at
Florence.

About the year 1450 appeared Andrea Verrochio and
Dominic Ghirlandaio, Iculptors and painters in Florence.
Verrochio was an excellent fculptor and engraver, not only
in brafs, but alto in marble ; he was alio a good architect.
He was eftcemed of the firft rank of fculptors, and preferred
to Donatello and to Ghiberti, in making St. Thomas feel-
ing our Saviour's fide, which he conltrucied of brafs for the
oratory of St. Michael. He was the mailer of Pietro Pe-
rugino and Lionardo da Vinci, and other excellent pupils.
His laft work was the famous figure on horfeback of Bar-
tholomeo Cogleone da Bergamo, which is at Venice, in the
fquare of St. John and St. Paul.

Dominic Ghirlandaio was the mafter of Michael Angelo ;
he worked more in painting than in fculpture, particularly
in mofaic for pope Sixtus IV. in the Vatican. He was
particularly qualified as an inftrudor to that great man, from
the delicacy of his genius as well as his original and copious
invention.

But the progrcfs of art was greatly accelerated by the
progrefTive difcovery of thofe miraculous produdtions of an-
cient Greek art, which had been buried fo many ages, and
were by degrees reftored from the bowels of the earth.
Poggius, the fecretary to Eugenius IV., in the year 1430,
particularly enumerated all the remains of ancient magni-
ficence in Rome exifting at that time, among which he
reckons only five ftatues ; two of them were the colollal
ftatues by Phidias and Praxiteles, on mount Cavallo ; the
third the equeftrian ftatue of Marcus Aurehus, at that time
beforethechurchof St. John de Lateran ; the two others, per-
haps, were the figure called Marforio, which is a recumbent
ftatue of the Ocean, now in the Capitol ; the other 3 fragment
of the group of Ajax fupporting the body of Patroclus,
called Pafquin. The Laocoon was found in the vear 1506.

Vol. XX-XIJ.

In the year 1474 was born at Florence Michael Angelo
Buonarotti ; he was brought up to learning, but bufying
himfelf always in private about dcfigning, which his father
obferving, put him to Dominic Ghirlandaio. In a little
time Michael Angelo diftinguifhed himfelf above his other
difciples by the lurpnfing facility with which he defigned.
This great genius was very fortunately favoured by prince
Lorenzo de Medicis, who, with great love to art, and defire
to alTift men flvilled and learned f.herein, eftablifhed in the
gallery of his gardens an academy, which he filled with fine
pittures and pieces of fculpture, both ancient and modern,
and fought out at Florence thole young defigners who pro-
miled moft, to whom he allowed penfions to promote their
fludies. Thofe of the fchool of Ghirlandaio were chofen the
firft, and particularly Michael Angelo, who, having one
day taken up a piece of marble, fet about making a head,
though he had never before handled a chiflel, which fo
much furpiifcd prince Lorenzo, and he conceived fo great
an aHeftion for Micliael Angelo, that befides allowing
him the penfion, he made him a companion at his table,
and gave him a lodging at his palace. After the death
of this prince, his fucceii'or, Pietro de Medicis, continued
Michael Angelo the fame afFettion he had enjoyed from his
father.

At Rome he made a marble ftatue of Bacchus, with
feveral other marble ftatues. At his return to Florence, he
applied himfelf with the lame diligence, and made a David
of marble, which was fet up before the palace. Peter
Sodenni, the Gonfaloniere, and the citizens in general, were
fo charmed with the ftatue, that they required of him other
works in bronze and in painting. The Gonfaloniere then
ordered him to paint one half of the council-hall, and Lio-
nardo da Vinci the other.

Michael Angelo in this work gave proofs of the excellence
of his defigning, both with refped to the eompofition of
the fubjeci, which was tlie war of Pifa, and in the correft-
nefs of his naked figures ; and to have an opportunity to
fiiew it the better, he chofe the time when the foldiers were
bathing in the river Arno, to introduce the figures naked.
Raphael, and the artifts his contemporaries, improved the
grandeur of their defign from that cartoon.

Julius 11. being railed to the papal chair, fent for Michael
Angelo to Rome, rcfolving to engage him in a maufolcum
in St. Peter's, which was intended to ftar.d under the
centre of the dome, to be the moft magnificent of the kind
ever raifed, and the principal objeft in the church. Thi-
work, however, was delayed till the pope died, and then
one of its faces only, and upon an inferior (cale, was eredcd
by his nephew in the church of St. Peter in Vincolc.
The figures which decorate the architcfture of this tomb
arc thole of the pope, Mofes, and allegorical virtues. Two
ftatues of marble, which were to be part of this fcpulchre,
are now in the caftle of Richelieu in France.

The execution of this monument was interrupted by Mi-
chael Angelo being at the fame time employed by the
pope to paint in frefco the arched cieling of the chapel of
Sixtus IV., which fo much raifed his reputation, that bo-
fides the general applaulc that he received at Rome, the
pope rewarded him alio with feveral prefent.-. Julius II.
being dead, Leo X., his fuccclTor, honourtd Michael An-
gelo' no lefs than he had done, employing him on the archi-
tcdture of the front of St. Lorenzo at Florence.

After this, in the popedom of Clement VII., he defigned

the architeaure of the vcftry, in the fame church, for a

maufolcum for the houfc of Medicis, and adorned the eaft

and weft fides with the fepulchres of Julian, duke of Narauri,

M »od

SCULPTURE.

and the duke of Urbino, oppofite to each other ; with three
ftatues on the north fide, the Virgin and Child, St. Peter,
and another faint. Both architefture and fculpture are
llill admired among the fined produftions of this artifl.

The fortification of the city of Florence was committed
to him : he fortified mount St. Miniati ; but when the
wars of Italy in 152J obliged the artilts to leave Rome and
Florence, Michael Angelo was one of the number, and
went to Venice ; where' the doge Gritti employed him,
and he made the defign for the bridge of Rialto, which is
one of the matter-pieces of architedure. He painted in
that city fome piftures, and among otherj that of Leda,
which he gave to the duke of Fcrrara, who fent it to
Francis I.

The wars of Italy being ended, Michael returned to Rome,
and there finifhed the fepulchre of Julius II., after which
lie painted, by order of Paul III., the great front of the
allar, whereon he reprefented the Lall Judgment, it being
this only which was not finifhed of all the paintings in the
chapel.

The Laft Judgment, and the cieling of the Silline cliaptl,
may be confidcred, together, as the noblett production ot
modern painting exilting in the world ; and it is to be
doubted whether any work of antiquity could he compared
with it for grandeur of conception and power of execution.
He painted alio, in the Pauline cliapel, the Converfion of
St. Paul, in which the Saviour defcends in the midil of his
lieavenly minitters, as he addrellcs the fallen convert, who is
furroundcd by flying horfemen, and thofe on foot in dif-
ferent directions and inexpreffiblc terror. The Crucifixion
of St. Peter, on the oppofite fide of the chapel, exhibit? t!ie
horror ot the aftion, the patience of the faint, the grief of
attending friends, and tlie dolorous folemnity of the fur-
rounding multitude.

Michael Angelo, in his old age, applied himfelf more to
architefture than to fcnlpture and painting. After the
death of Anthony San Gallo, the pope appointed him chief
architeft of St. Peter's, and of the apoltolic chamber, al-
though he would have excufed himfelf from it ; but having
accepted tiie cliarge, he went to St. Peter's to examine
San Gallo's model, which not approving, on account of its
being a compofition of parts, without fuflicient reference to
a whole, he caufed another model to be made, which not
only produced a much urrander and more magnificent fabric,
but at one-eighth of the expence. And this great church
was finifhed according to the defign of Michael Angelo,
excepting the front, which is not his. While he carried on
this building he made alfo feveral others, which conflituted
part of the beauty of Rome ; fuch as the palace of Farnefe
and the Capitol.

After he had arrived at the age of 80, and had withdrawn
himfelf from mofl works fif importance, except the buildintr
of St. Peter's, he gratified the piety of his own mind, and
amufed his leifure hours in working on one large block of
marble a group of four figures, reprefenting the dead body
of our Saviour fupportedby Jofeph of Arimathea, attended
by two of the Maries ; a pathetic and noble compofition,
which he did not liv - to finilh. It is now to be ieen on the
back of the high iltar in the cathedral of Florence.

Michael Angelo died at Rome in 1564. He was almoll
go years of age. This great man, befides the affeftion of
feven popes, whom he ferved, is faid to have gained very
great reputation among the following princes ; Solyman,
emperor of the Turks; Francis 1., king of France; the
emperor Charles V. ; the princes of the republic of Venice ;
and all the princes of Italy, particularly with the great
5

duke of Tufcany, who reigned when he died ; for when his
body was in the church of the holy apoftles, and the pope
was about to fet up a fine fepulchre tor him, this great dukcr
caufed his body to he privately fetched away to be buried
in his capital city, and performed his funeral obfequies with
all imaginable pomp and fplendour. This pomp was cele-
brated in the church of St. Crois, at Florenc", attended by all
the academy of defign, who on that occafion gave fufficient
tettimony of the elleem they had for their matter by the
magnificent reprefeutation which the Italians call Catafalco,
and adorning the whole church with painting, and fculpture,
and lights. A panegyric was there pronounced over him
by MefFer Benedetto Varchi.

Michael Angclo's charatter, as a man and an artifV, was
equally honourable to painting, fculpture, and architefture ;
his integrity is unimpeached ; his geiierofity and gratitude
were princely ; his piety and temperance were exemplary ;
his ttudies were indefatigable ; his genius was fublime
and original ; and his execution equally powerful, beyond
all thofe who went before him and all his fubfequent
imitators.

John of Bologna was a fculptor of great merit, both in
bronze and marble, who lived rattier later than Michael
Angelo : his groups are remarkable for the good compofition
and fine undulation of his lines, of which the Rape of the
Sabines, in the market-place of Florence, is an inflance.
His itatue of Mercury rifing from the point of his toe into
the air is alfo juflly admired. Many fmaller works by this
artitl partake in the fame grace and beauty, and may be
fludied with advantage.

Bciivenuto Cellini, who was a goldfiniih and fculptor in
metals, executed a fine coloflal group, of Perfeus holding
the iiead of Medufa in his left hard, with the fword in his
right, and ttanding on the body from which the head has
been feparated : the pedeftal is moft whimfically adorned
with bas relief and chimerical figures relating to the fubjecl.

After thele avtills, the Florentine fchool of fculpture
lingered into a Itate of inanity.

Bernini was employed in Rome by pope Urban VIII.,
and built the noble femi-clrcular porticoes of St. Peter's
churcii. Hisbett work of fculpture is the group of Apollo
and Daphne : he defigned and modelled innumerable figures
for the colonnade of St. Peter's and the bridge of St. An-
gelo ; he executed the monuments of Alexander VII. and
Urban VIII. in St. Peter's ; the coloffal ttatue of St. Lon-
ginus ; and four doftors, which fupport the chair of St.
Peter.

This fculptor, whofe works were fo numerous, as he was
firft a painter, and formed in the Lombard fchool, endea-
voured to embodv Coreggio's ttyle of painting in fcnlpture,
forgetting the impofTibility of reprefenting flying draperies
and the extremitie,-. of hair in marble, which is fo eafily done
on canvas ; and which, when univerfally attempted, remains
an equal teftimony of the fculptor's want of judgment, and
the impofTibility of the attempt. Although there are fine
ideas in the general conception of both the papal monu-
ments above-mentioned, by this artift ; yet his allegorical
figures are affefted in their attitudes, fmirking and con-
ceited in their countenances ; their forms are flabby and in-
correA, and their draperies confufed : yet this flyle, de-
praved and flimfy as it was, in fpite of the beauties of
Nature, which continually appear before our eyes, and the
Grecian examples of rigid perfeAion which adorn the city
of Rome ; notwithftanding thcfe, it produced a train of
followers, Rufconi, Algardi, Moco, &c. &c. who continued
to be employed, till within thefe fifty years, in Italy,

where

SCULPTURE.

where the flimfy materials upon which they formed them-
felves were entirely worn out ; and the human intelligence
returning to the efl'ence of art, which is the imitation of
Nature, began the work anew, lludied the principles of the
ancients, and applied themfelves with diligence to a repre-
lentation of the human form divine.

This fame mode of ftudy has produced a new and a better
fctiool, which promifes fomething like a jufl emulation of
the bed dayi of Greece, in the works of that diftinguifhed
iculptor Mr. Canova, and fome other fculptors, both na-
tives and foreigners, in Italy.

The French nation, from its vicinity and intercourfe with
Italy, as well as from the friendihip which the early kings
of France cultivated with the emperors of Conftantinople,
always preferved a tafte for fine art in that country, and
fupplied the means of its improvement, both in painting
and fculpture. The large coUeftions of fine Greek maim-
fcripts, with their numerous beautiful illuminations, were
imitated by the French painters, and the nearnefs of the
countries to each other, enabled the French artifts to ftudy
iculpture and architefture in Italy, as well as the kings of
that country to fupply their great public works with
architefts and fculptors from Italy alfo. In the reign of
Francis I. Lionardo da Vinci, Benvenuto Cellini, and
Primaticcio, laid the foundation of a fchool of fine art,
fimilar to that in Italy, as improved from the lately dif-
covered Grecian works. The natives, who diftinguifhed
themfelves moft immediately after this period in fculpture,
were Pilon, Coufin, and John Goujon, whofe bas reliefs on
the fountain of the Innocents deferve admiration and praife.
In them is an union of the elegance of Raphael's Ichool,
with the Grecian purity and delicacy. The genius and
abilities of the people, added to national munificence, have
kept up a refpedtable fchool of fculpture in France till
the prefent time.

Whatever has been done in painting and fculpture in
Spain, was alfo derived from Italy. The native powers and
virtues of the Germans, which have contributed fo largely to
modern improvement in arts and letters, have not been de-
ficient in the art of Iculpture. Our prefent limits and objeft
will not allow us to produce many examples; therefore we ftiall
inftance one which would be honourable to any nation, in any
period. The monument of the emperor Maximilian, father of
Charles V., (lands in the church of St. Anthony at In-
fpruck : it it in bronze, and was made by Alexander Collins
of Mechlin, the fculptor. The idea of this monument is as
extraordinary as ttie effect is pathetic. Maximilian lies in
his imperial robes upon his tomb, elevated about five feet
from the ground. There arc, at the diflance of two feet
from the tomb, marble fteps about two feet high- On one
flep Hand eight coloflal ftalues of his illuftrious relations;
and on the oppofite ilep as many more facing them. They
reprefent diltingnifhed royal perfons from the time of God-
frey of Boulogne, of whom he was one. The fpeftator is awed
by this iilcnt and impofing affembly, who Hand in ftriking
attitudes and foleinn grief by their relation. The anions
are bold and forcible ; the armour is rich and elegant in tlie
higheft degree ; but it may be objefted that the ladies have
fomething of mufcular heroilm in their charafters.

There are feveral other fine llatues in bronze, of inferior
dimcnfions, reprelonting German princes, in the fame church.
There is alfo a moil noble monument by this artift in bronze,
reprefcnting St. George, with one foot on the dragon, which
he has juft flain.

England, like the other nations of Europe, chiefly de-
jived her arts and letters from her Homan conquerors- A Ifo

fhe is not without her obligations to Chriftian Greece as well
as ancient Greece, for the arts and learning of the different
ages. Thofe which were called Saxon architefture and fculp-
ture, were in faft only barbarous imitations of the provincial
Roman arts. The Norman architeAure and fculpture of
this country were likewife an imitation of Roman art ;
but through the more dillant medium of the Norman
French, fubfequent improvements in the revival of arts
were derived more or lefs remotely from Greek or Italian
ailiftance ; though, in juftice to tiie genius of the Englilh,
it muft be acknowledged that their progrefs in the art of
fculpture, down to the Reformation, kept a lefpeftable
pace with their neighbours on the continent, as may be ilill
feen by the fculpture on the weft front of the cathedral of
Wells, completed in the reign of Henry III. : in Exeter,
Litchfield, and Salifbury cathedrals, but more eipecially in
the fculpture in Henry Vllth's chapel in Weltminfter Abbey :
in alto relievos of fcripture fubjefts, monumental fculpture,
and fingle flatues, to be feen in different ecclefiaftical itruc-
tures throughout the kingdom. From the time of the re-
formation, when painting and fculpture were exiled from the
churches, the native genius of the country was left entirely
without employment ; and wherever painting was required
for the decoration of palaces, or fepulchral fculpture for the
churches, foreign artiits were employed, and, with little ex-
ception, fupphed the country with a degeneracy of French,
Italian, or Flemilh art. The belt of the foreign fculptors
who have been employed fince that time were Cibber, who
executed the ftatues of raving and melancholy madncfs on
Bedlam gates, the bas relief on the pedeftal of the London
column, the greater part of the kings in the Royal Exchange,
and a multitude of other ftatues for different buildings in
various parts of the kingdom : Roubilliac, who executed
feveral monuments for Weftminfter Abbey, with much
labour and attention to common nature, the compofitiuns
of which, however, are either conceits or epigrams, and
the parts are too often mean and vulgar. Scheeniacher exe-
cuted fome of the ftatues on St. Paul's, and the bas relief
in the pediment ; but he is not diftinguifhed by pre-eminence
and ability.

Since the eftablifhment of the Royal Academy, and the
frequent employment of the fculptor's talents in public
monuments, the art has been praAifed by natives, whofe
own induftry, Itudics in Rome and foreign countries, and
the zealous exercife of their profefFion, iiave raifed workf
equally creditable to the country and their own talents.
Mr. Bacon's works have been much admired. Mr. Banks hat
left ftatues and baflb relievos which miglil be ranked with
fome of the beft works of antiquity : and fomo of tlie public
monuments by Englifh fculptors of the prefent day, might
be compared with advantage with the ableft produftions of
the fame kind on the continent.

In the general treatife on an art, we cannot pafs over in
perfeft filence the produAione of a great empire which lia?
pretended to the higheft antiquity in its cultivation ; the
ingenuity and beauty of whofe finer manufaftures .ind more
delicate works have claimed uiuverfal attention, and have been
admired and coUeAed by moft of the curious. Tiie Chincfe
Iculpture muft be noticed ; though, from tiie produAions we
have feen in Europe, and from the beft authenticated in-
quiries, we have great rcafon to believe that fuch of their
paintings and fcufptures as can lay any juft claim to thofe
titles, have received moft of their charms from European
communication. There it great reafon to belie\r that their
fmaller models and bronzes were improved from a very barba
rous ftate. Among other branches of knowledge by Cathohc
M 7 mifTionarics

SCULPTURE.

mifliofiaries who went over in the fourteenth century, their
arts received a further improvement from the learned and in-
genious Jefuits who vifited them in the beginning of the fevcn-
teenth century; and again in the beginning of Louis XVIth's
reign, fixteen Chinefe in the city of Paris were inftruded
in the European arts of defigning, light, and (hadow ; optics,
colour, and perfpeftive; fince which the painting and fculpture
of China have become more nearly allied to the European
praftice of thofe arts than ever. Thefe fafts are attelted
by the known attainments of the feveral miflionaries who
have vifited China ; by the teltimonies of the bell writers who
have written on that country ; by tlie reprefentation of Eu-
ropean head-dreffes and falhions in their works ; and by
Chinefe fubjedts drawn and engraved by Jefuits who were
refident in that country, and whofc ttyle of defigning fliew
that the Chinefe artifts, of the fame ages, formed their
fchool of art upon the works of thefe men.

Motives for tht Employment of Sculpture in Greece, and the
Encouragement given to the Art — The firfl motive for the
encouraijement of fculpture in Greece was religion, which
induced the feveral Hates and opulent individuals to vie with
each other in employing the choiceil talents of their country-
men for the production of the moil beautiful and approved
works, to adorn their temples and public places in honour
of the different divinities, wliich they believed to be their
more immediate patrons and protedlors in that Hate of poly-
theifm. This fpecies of piety became more popular ; and
its effefts became more general from another motive, the
relation which moll of the powerful families of Greece
claimed with the feveral divinities and heroes, by deducing
their own genealogies from fome one or more of them.

In a (late of fociety where the families of all lived nearly
in the fame habits of fimplicity, becaufe the luxury and
magnificence of private life created a jealoiify among fellow
citizens, likely to terminate in mod tragical confequences ;
in this ftate of fociety the more wealthy employed their
ftores in building and equipping fliips, railing troops of
horfe or foot, increafing the temples, placing in them magni-
ficent tripods, beautiful ftatues, or other collly gifts ; in
ftrengthening the walls of their cities, and all fuch public
works as provided for the fafety, or increafed the fame of
their country.

Patriotifm, in addition to religion, was another motive, not
much lefs powerful than the former, for the encouragement
of fculpture in Greece. The Olympic games, inilituted at
an early period in that country, encouraged thefe trials of
flcill to the utmoft extent, which educated the human frame
in the greatelt habits of ilrength, adlivity, and promptnefs
of exertion, for all the moll ufeful employments of peace
and war. They alfo publicly exhibited the fineil forms and
examples of perfonal beauty to the aifemblies of Greece at
the Olympian exercifes, and by that means enabled the
philofopher to analyfe, the phyfician to enquire and deduce,
the artift to form principles from nature for the pcrfeftion
of his works, and the generality of fpeftators to judge of
the phenomena of health, ilrength, aftivity, proportion,
and pleafing parts of the human form, among thofe who
were engaged in the exercifes, and rendered themfelves, by
their prowefs, abihty, and fortitude, theobjefls of univerfal
admiration and applaufe.

The immediate honours bellowed on the viftor was an
herbal crown, rendered equal in value to the richeft diadem,
by the approbation and congratulations of the whole Hate.
The vidlor was likewife honoured with a brazen llatue on
the very ground where he had fhewn himfelf properly quah-
ficd to be a defender of his country in war ; and for prudence,

aftivity, and fortitude, a valuable citizen in time of peace ;
and if any one obtained the crown three times in thefe ex-
ercifes, he was not only honoured with a bronze llatue on
the fpot, but that (latue was made an exaA portrait of him,
not only in the face, but every part of his body and limbs.
Thefe general remarks on the religion and public inllitutions
of Greece, will fufficiently account for the immenfe fums
expended in works of fculpture, and the prodigious multi-
tude of thefe works produced in that country.

The llatue of the Olympian Jove, made of ivory and gold
by Phidias at Elis, was paid for by all the fpoils taken from
the Pifans. If we might calculate a fmall part of thi;
llatue, only by the price of ivory at prefent, the covering
of ivory only, which mull have been perhaps the leall article
of expcnce in it, without the workmanfhip, could not have
coft lefs than 2000/. There were 80C0/. Iterling of gold in
the (latue of Minerva made for the Acropolis, belides the
ivory, workmanlhip, and all other expeiices.

We are befides told of another llatue of the fize of nature,
valued at 19,200/. ; and of another, the Venus of Gnidoi,
which was refufed to be given up for the payment of the
debts of a whole city ; and thus we cannot wonder that
works produced froRi the noblell motives, and rewarded by
tlie highell gifts that man can bellow on man, were of a fu-
prenie excellence, which have commanded the admiration and
interell of all fucceeding ages.

Concerning general Beauty in the ancient Works of Sculpture.
— After a general view of the motives and circumllances
which produced theie works in public, we fhall next enquire
into the more private motives, attainments, and qualities
which enabled the artilts to produce inch works, and here
we mull remember the obfervation of Socrates, that the
difpofitions of the mind may be exprefled by the forms of
the body ; and as Socrates himfelf was a Iculptor of no
mean excelitnce, and a philofopher of the highell characler
alio, what ho fays upon this fubjeft cannot be too carefully
attended to ; and indeed it applies to the progreffive improve-
ment in this art from the moll rude reprelei.tation of the
human form to tlie moll perfecl ; and to the feparate confi-
deration of the mind and i(s quahties, by which the human
form is animated.

As It has been obferved in a former part of this article,
the earliell attempts to reprefent the human form in all na-
tions are almoll equally barbarous and imperfect; we fhall,
therefore, begin our defcription of Grecian imitation, when,
bv a more general comprehenfion of fcience, her imitation
of its archetype was fuperior to fuch barbarous primeval at-
tempts in general.

Thefe attempts and their improvement have always fuc-
ceeded bell in thofe parts of the human figure which are
nearell to our view, or prefent themfelves to us as moll
flriking and important. In fuch reprefentations, the fea-
tures of the face are more accurately reprefented than any
other part of the figure. The body, the arms, and legs at-
traft the mod general and lefs dillindt notice ; therefore the
firll improvements in the earliell ftatues of Greece remain-
ing, approach only to fomething like a more tolerable propor-
tion, exprefs the arms in general meagre long forms, with
the (houlders fomewhat more round and prominent, and the
fingers feparated by nearly parallel channels. The body is
diitinguilhed by the paps of the breaft, the line of the ribs,
and the navel. The legs and thighs have little more
of variety in their forms than a fmall knee-pan, and
fome projetlion of the calf of the leg, with feet and
toes formed with as little attention to nature as the
hands. In this itate of improvement little variety of aAion

will

SCULPTURE.

will conlequently be expeAed. Sitting, lying, running, or
ftriking, will nearly comprehend the whole extent of the
artift's variety in a fingle Itntue or has relief. In this ftate
of improvement it is in vain for us to expeA any difcrimina-
tion between the charafters of gods and men ; they were
all repreiented by the fame forms : and Jupiter, Hercules,
Mercury, and Neptune, were only known from each other
by the thunderbolt, the bow, the caduceus, or the trident.

According to the general improvement of fcience, as the
obfervation of the courfe of the heavenly bodies, the divi-
fiojis of land, and marking out the plans for building on the
ground, had introduced lome praftical application of geo-
metrical lines and figures, which muft precede obfervations on
the balance and motion of bodies ; and as fomething more
like anatomical knowledge was obtained from the facrifice
of animals, or obfervations on the dead left on the field of
battle, or a human fl<eleton cafually found : as thefe aflill-
ances afforded light on the llrufture and movements of man ;
io the artilt, applying principles as he became mailer of
them, copied his example with more accuracy, and repre-
fented the parts more in detail.

The next Hate of improvement we (hall obfcrve is a nearer
copy of ordinary nature, in which the hair, however, is
ftraight, the eyes full, the eye-lids gently marked, the bottom
of the nofe and the line of the mouth curved upwards at
the corners, giving a kind of finite to the face ; the breall
a little more prominent ; fome indication of the mufcles
of the abdomen by crofs parallel lines ; the hollow in the
loins behind, and the general form of the blade-bones, more
natural ; more diftinftion between the breadth of the upper
and lower portions of the thigh ; the general forms of the
feet and hand?, more accurate according to their angles and
divifions ; and the biceps mufcle marked in the arm, and
the elbow. Specimens of thefe diffi^rent fteps of improve-
ment may be feen on the Greek painted vafes, particularly
thofe which have black figures on them. There arc alio many
fmall bronzes, which are dcmonftrations of the fame pro-
grefs of improvement.

In the age of Phidias, when geometry had made confi-
derable advances, as we find by the writnigs of Plato, when
anatomical reiearclics had been profecuted with iuccefs by
Hippocrates, in addition to the advantages of feeing the
human figure in more perfedion, from the eilablilhmcnt of
regular government, the more regular fupplies of agricul-
ture for living, and other improvements in civilization moft
favourable to the beauty of the human figure : — with thefe
advantages, the human figure was reprefented with the dif-
tindtion of youthful beauty and elegant proportion, as well as
with the Itrength and agility which indicates a rather fpare
diet and great excrcife, of which the rtatue called Thcfeus in
lord Elgin's coUeftion is an example.

It is remarkable, that perfonal beauty of countenance and
elegance of form frequently occur in works about the time the
Parthenon was built ; although in the fame works there is an
evident want of proportion and perfpeftive in fome of the
parts, with the moll carelefs confufion of the drapery. But
we mult remember that the courfe to excellence is progreflivc,
even to the greatell genius, and that all arts are perfcited by
the accumulation of difcoveries and long prafticc.

Having mentioned the firit dawnings of beauty in Grecian
fculpture, this will be the place for fnme enquiry concerning
that beauty which fo eminently dillinguilhed their belt
works. A people long acquainted with the naked human
form, and tlie exertions of the human figure, would praiiti-
cally learn, that a particular make was favourable to a parti-
cular exertion, as long legs were favourable to walking and

running : broad (boulders and a full che(l were accompanied
by ftrength. The obfervations of phyficians would affiil in
afcertaining the more convenient form of all other parts of
the body and limbs for Itrength and exertion ; then enquiries
into the animal economy of the body would aflill their de-
terminations relating to health or ficknef-;, in the whole or
the parts, according to outward appearances. All this
would aflift the artilt in the determination of what he fhould
choofe and what he (hould rejeft in his imitations. The
bloom of youth, the prime of manhood, and the parts beft
formed for all the ufes and exertions of the body, would
become his ftandard example for the mod fortunate attempts
of his art ; and having proceeded thus far, he would be
able the more readily to dillinguifli the various characters of
tender infancy, the venerable folcmnity of advanced age, and
the graceful forms of female elegance.

But other dillinftionsand other charafteriftfcs ftill remain
for the artilt to become acquainted with, to qualify him for
the extenfive reprelentation of gods, demigods, and heroes,
human creatures and infernal beings ; and this could not be
done by the fimple reprefentation of common forms and
common exprelTions, fuch as continually prefeatcd themfelves,
but by a feleftion from nature of whatever was moll excel-
lent in form, accommodated to the higheil qualities of mind,
to reprefent the higher orders of beings, and their oppofitcs
in tlioie which are below humanity, and partaking of noxious
and infernal nature.

Mere form, however harmonious in its proportions, or
beautiful m the fmoothnefs and perfeftion of its finilhed fur-
face, without the exprcffion of fentimcnt and aclion, is but
dead, and no other than a corpfe which has been quitted by
its immortal fpirit ; therefore the artill's great and moft im-
portant interell, after he had obtained the geometrical forms
of body, was to watch the (Irongell moll decided emotions
of mind, in order to give animation to his works. It was
his concern to inveftigate and reprelent decidedly the
llrongeft aff^eftions, conjugal, parental, focial, and filial ;
the fentiments of piety and religion ; the incitements of paf-
fion in their different degrees, whether of love or hatred ; for
by thefe means only his works fallened on the kindred affec-
tions of the fpedtator, and obtained his elleem.

The Greek artills who gave thefe firft mental improve-
ments to their works, fouglit for nobility of leiitimcnt and
dillintl charafters of gods and heroes from the writings of
Homer ; illullratcd by the fpeculatioiis of Pythagoras and
Plato upon the effcntial qualities of divinity, in their omni-
potence and extent, and the limited powers of humanity,
derived and finite.

From thefe they learned that all bodily perfcAions and
beauty were derived from mental beauty and perfection ;
that as forms which cxprefled healthful bi>dies and their parts
were the moll perfed, as far as form and animal power ex-
tend ; Io the exprcffiuns of the moll perfed mental qualities
added the moil perfed animation of beauty to thole terms,
and gave the moft perfed charadcrs of magnanimity, juf-
tice, benevolence, and dignity to the faces and figures of their
divinities, and in an inferior degree to their heroes : and
whatever perfedion of face or pcrfon they would expifft,
they found could only be done by the frntinient of that vir-
tue and beauty of men by which it was immediately caufcd.

.hipiter, the chief of their gods, was reprelentod in the
molt perted human form ; powerfid in his make, benign i"
his countenance, and of that mature age when wildoni is
unitetl to the full develop.nient of the bodily powers. His
full beard and abundant flowing hair are confillent with the
greateit dignity the human head is capable of ;2Hd the lion-

SCULPTURE.

like hair and forehead decide the majrnanimity of the cha-
rafter. The broad chell, the Urength and proportion of
the Hmbs, the whole folemnity of the perfon, at the (lighteft
view, announces, according to the Homeric expreflion, the
father of gods and men.

The next divinity in dignity to Jupiter is Apollo, whom
we can readily believe to be the exaft reprcfentation of
his father, in the dignity of youth ; his features are his
father's in youthful bloom and beauty ; the form of his
body and limbs partake of his father's ftrength in youthful
lightnels and agility ; his countenance is adorned by his
flowing locks, according to his age, more light and varied
than his father's ; his fentiment and employment are alfo
fuited to his age and more limited offices. Jupiter, feated
on his throne, has little aftion or corporeal employ-
ment ; his mental energy regulates the univerfe by his nod ;
and liis fingle exertion is the difcharge of his irrefiftible
thunder. Apollo is feen in love, in meditation of immortal
poetry to accompany his lyre, deftroying Python, medi-
tating the cure of difeafes, or inflifting death by his arrows.
Bacchus refembles his brother Apollo fo exaftly, that
they cannot always be diftinguifhed one from the other ;
yet he frequently partakes of a more feminine nature, ac-
cording to the Orphic defcription of his double fex.

Mercury, with the fame beauty as his brother, and the
fame youthful refemblance to his father, has a more athletic
form, approaching to heroic, as being the patron of gym-
naftic exercifes, and melTenger of the gods. His hair is (hort ;
he wears a fmall round hat or petafus, which is winged ; he
^ has alfo wings to his ankles.

Mars differs little from Mercury in form or countenance,
excepting that he is fometimes bearded, and frequently
wears a helmet upon his head, or is drefled in complete
armour.

Neptune refembles his brother Jupiter, but his hair is
more difturbed, and he is in general entirely naked.

Pluto alfo refembles Jupiter and Neptune, but his eyes
are more ilaring and fpeftre-like ; his abundant hair falls
more over his forehead, and gives a greater gloom to his
countenance : he is clothed in a tunic and pallium, holds a
fceptre in his left hand, and is attended by the triple-headed
dog Cerberus.

The goddeffes are lefs diftinguifhed from each other than
the gods. The height of female beauty, in dignified figure,
with noble mien, is common to them all.

Juni) is reprefented with a regal diadem and fceptre, ge-
nerally clothed in the tunic and peplus, or large veil : her
countenance is lofty ; her eyes and lips are full ; her hair is
turned up, and tied in a knot behind in fimple majefty ; her
veil is fometimes over her head.

Minerva is diftinguilhed by the ferene aufterity of her
countenance, and ihe wifdom of her charafter. She is
armed with a helmet and aegis, and bears a fpear in her hand,
but in other rcfpefts is drefFcd like Juno.

Venus is dillinguiftied by her tender foftnefs and graceful
aftion ; fhe is reprefented as parting her hair and rifing from
the fea, modeftly covering her perfon as returning from the
bath ; or dreiled in a light and thin tunic or veil, and en-
gaged in thofe concerns of the toilette to heighten or pre-
ferve beauty. She is frequently attended by Love, who is
reprefented as an infant divinity.

Vefta and Ceres have much the appearance of Juno ; the
firft diftinguifhed by her lions and myftic drum ; the other
by ears of corn.

Diana has her hair coUefted on the top of her head ; like
Jier brother Apollo her tunic is fuccinA, not reaching lower

than her knees, its length being fhortened by the tying of
her zone ; (he wears bufliins, and is generally running, or in
an attitude which relates to the ciiace.

Hercules, the- firtt of their heroes, and who in early times
was one of their greateit gods, was not reprefented with
that irrefiftible ftrength and mufcular force in the time of
tlie firft Greek fculptors, in which he was reprefented after-
wards, and he changed his arms as well as his figure, for be-
fore the time of ^fchylus his arms were a bow and (heaf
of arrows ; but as his labours became fuch as required more
natural force, according to later mythologifts his bodily
powers were increafed, and his arms changed from the bow
to the club. His ilrength is proverbial, and his powerful
for^n known to every one, by his numerous reprefentations in
fculpture and painting. It is well remarked by Winckel-
man, that in the likenefs found in the antique ftatues be-
tween the faces of Hercules and Jupiter, there is a charafter
of the bull given to the head of Hercules, by the (hort hair
and the bull forehead. As a proof that this mixture of the
bull in the head of Hercules is not fanciful, there are buftt
reprefenting a mythological modification of the Herculean
charafter, with the bull's ears, horns, and dewlap. ^

We fhall defcribe the fawns as one clafs, companions and
minifters of Bacchus ; in this clafs we fhall mention the
Sileni, the fofler-fathers or nurfes of Bacchus, one of which
is a dwarfilh figure, with a round belly, fat limbs, a So.
cratic merry face, a bald head, a long beard, undulated and
divided ; his body is more or lefs covered with hair. This
Silenus is alfo occafionally called Ampelus. The other Sile-
nus is a well-proportioned elderly man, rather a fpare figure,
with a philofophical countenance, with a head and beard
bearing fome diftant refemblance to Jupiter. Both thefe
Sileni are crowned with ivy, and have pricked ears.

The fawns have round faces, fhort nofes, and a grinning
exprefTion ; their hair is fhort, ftiff, and like that of a goat.
Their bodies are ftrong, their mufcles tendinous, like thofe
of wild animals, and fuited to the elallicity of their aAions ;
they have (hort goats' tails.

The fatyrs have goats' legs, their bodily conformation like
the fawns, they have pricked cars, fometimes long goatifh
beards, and frequently faces refembling rams or goats.

The Titans and giants are Herculean figures to the waift :
fome of them have the lower limbs human, and correfpond-
ing to the upper part of their figures j others from the mid-
dle end in ferpentine folds inftead of human legs. Their
heads have an H«-rculian charadter, fuUen and terrific ; there
are i'erpents in their hands, perhaps relating to their infernal
punifhments.

Ocean and the divinities of feas are all Herculean figures,
in countenancL refembling the Saturnian family in youth or
age ; they are generally naked, though fome are veiled
downwards ; and Ocean himfelf has a veiled head. The in-
ferior divinities of the fea, as tlie family of the Tritons, and
their various diftindions, have hair, faces, bodies, and arms
like the fawns, but with finny hair and gills, tlieir lower
halves ending in the tails of fiihes, horfes, bulls, &:c.

The geniufes of mountains are robult figures, with folemn
countenances, flowing hair and beards, crowned with pine,
oak, &c.

The nymphs of Earth and Ocean arc beautiful entire female
forms, with hair fometimes flawing, fometimes tied in play-
ful attitudes. The marine nymphs are frequently coUetted
in affeftionate groups, and employed in ftretching out their
flying veils to the wind.

The Three Graces are the beautiful female companions
and attendants of Venus ; they are reprefented as three

beautiful

SCULPTURE.

beautiful virgins, in the flower of youth, embracing each
other.

The nymphs of Diana are habited like their patronefs.
The Furies are handfome, but with a terrific expreffion
of countenance ; their hair difhevelled, winged, and with
two fmall ferpents rifing from the tops of their heads. Their
drefs IS a fuccinft tunic, hke Diana's, and they have fnakes
and torches in their hands, to torment tlie wicked.

What has been faid is fufficient to convey a general idea of
deified perfonification in Grecian mythology ; but thofe who
haveoccafion for a more intimate knowledge of their fyllem
of theology, and its different relations, as well as its innu-
merable allegorical forms and monfters, mult be referred to
their poetical and mythological writers, and the various
publications of ancient painting and fculpture, with their
illullrations by the learned.

Concerning the Beauty of Parts in the Human Figure, its
Balance and Motion. — The ancients have obferved that the
human figure is infcribed witiiin the fquare and the circle ;
the fquare, when the feet are clofe together, the polhire
upright, and the arms extended in a parallel line ; when
the length from the extenfion of the oppofite finger is equal
to the whole height, from the crown of the head to the fole
of the foot ; which general obferv^tion leads to the determi-
nation, not only in the pofition of the bcdy and limbs, but
to the balance of the figure, by geometrical lines. The
human figure being laid upon its back, the arms and legs, ex-
tended like the fpokcs of awheel, may be inicribedin a cir-
cle, the centre of which is taken from the navel. When the
figure Uands upright, equally poifed upon both feet, the
centre of gravity falls in a perpendicular Imt- from the gul-
let between the two ankle;.

When the figure reds on one foot, the centre of gravity
falls from the gullet, perpendicularly on the bottom of the
tibia bone of the leg on which it rells.

If the figure is in equipoife, the centre of gravity falls
from the gullet between the legs.

In advancing from that point before the leg, and in fwift
running, it is at every interchange of Hep far before the
fo(;t which is next to be placed on the ground.

The figure, in bending fidcways to balance itlelf, mull ftill
retain an equality of weight round the centre of gravity,
to preferve its balance by Itretching out the oppofite leg or
arm.

For further fatisfaftion concerning the motion of the
human figure, confult Borellius de Motu Animalium ; Cow-
per on the Mufcles ; and Lionardo dj Vinci on Painting.

To obtain a more pofitive idea of the form of the
luimiin figure, as well as its balance, together with the
breadth of its parts, a reference to a geometrical figure is
particularly ufoful. F<;r inftance, view it in profile, and
we (liall fee that its column or general mafs io not perpen-
dicular, but confifts of undulations, through the middle of
which we may fuppofe the centfe of gravity pafitd perpen-
dicularly downwards. The head is tlu'own forward over
tiie neck and the breart, to ferve as a counterbalance with
the breall againll the projeAion of the (houlders ; and the
projection of the nates counterbalances that of the abdo-
men ; fo that the back-bone beginning from its uppermoll
joint, which immediately fnpports the (l<ull, after being a
little curved inwaids, thong's nearly (Iraight for the firil
feven joints, afterwards forms a bold curve outwards be-
tween the (houlders for the next twelve joints downward to
the loins, partaking in the fame hollow with the ribs, to
contain the organs of the thorax.

The projeftion of the thighs in front is oppofed lower
down on the oppofite fide by the projection of the calves

of the legs ; not only for a counterbalance, but alfo for
counteraftion ; and for the fame reafon the bending forward
of the body from the head downward is counteraAed by
the length of the foot, and its rcfiilance for fupport.

The general form of the head, viewed from the top, is
circular, being larger at the back of the head and narrower
at the forehead. The general view of the head in front is
egg-formed. The fimpleft charaAer of the profile is that
of the nofe, little differing in (traightnef^ from the line of
the forehead ; the lips and chin making Imall projeAions,
each about a quarter of a circle. This is the moll gene-
ral and fimple idea of the human face, and that principle
upon which moil of the ancient ideal heads are formed.
Force and pafllon are deviations from this principle by the
application of curves in the outline more or lefs bold, and
the face of infancy is defcribcd by one portion of a circle
forming the forehead, and another the cheeks, with a fmall
nofe between.

In the ancient fculpture, the moll perfeft necks for youth,
beauty, and llrength, are nearly circular, like the portion of
a column. The breafts are elevated and broad ; the line of
the ribs is nearly a portion of a circle gently exprcifed,
a little below the nearly llraight line, which terminates the
breafts above. The aMomen has a gentle channel from the
pit of the llomach to the navel. The lower mufcles of the ab-
domen to the OS pubis are a little fwclled and nearly plain.
The fides of the ribs under the arms are marked with gentle
divifions diagonally, tending downwards in front, which in-
dicate the ribs and mufcles which immediately cover them.
The back of the trunk between the neck and the loins is a
curve outwards, as has been already dcfcribeJ ; and the fpine,
or back-bone, which is the pillar of fupport to tlie upper
part of the body, the arms, and the head, Ihews behind as
an indenture between the two rounded portions of the back,
on which tli? blade-bones and their mufcles form a gentle
and rounded flattened fwell immediately below the neck.
The commencement of the arms, as they are afSxed to the
body, has a bold and rounded form, in the upper part of which
is united the head of the upper arm-bone, to the end of the
collar-bone before, and the blade-bone behind ; the arm, be-
ginning at the feparation from the trunk and continued to the
wriil, is a diminifliing cylinder. The upper arm finiihing at
the elbow is broader, and fideways flatter than the lower
arm. The lower arm is flattened the contrary way, and
lefs than the njijier p:irt of the limb. The wrill is a rounded
flattened form in youthful bodies full of flefll. The hand
is hollowed withinfide, and a little rounded without ; the
thumb extends to the firll joint of the firll finger ; the mid-
dle finger is the largeft ; the next finger outwardly is next
in length ; the finger between the thumb and the middle
finger next in length; and the little finger Ihorteil of all:
they are lefs in bulk as they are fliortcr, and diminilhed down-
wards cyhndrically. The male hand and finger has more
of breadth and ilatncfs ; the knuckles are more fquare and
decided even in yc.uth. The female hand is more rounded
and flefliy ; the fingers are more perfectly cvllndrical and
tapered, the knuckles lefs decided, having little more dif-
tindion than gentle hollows in the more conllraincd pofi-
tions of thofe knuckles, which unite the fingers to the
hand. The nails in men arc more fquared, in women more
rounded, long, and delicate.

The loins of the body are in the fide view confiderably
curved ill from the rib«, and projeA again in a gradual ob-
liquity from the bottom of the ribs to the bottom ol the
nates. In the front of the liijure, the trunk terminates at the
OS ilium or bafon bone, which is marked immediately be-
fore the projeding mufcles, which ternunatc the line of

the

SCULPTURE.

the trunk, and innmediately above the fetting on of the
thigh, and is marked with a ftrofig line obhquely defcending
to a point at the grcateft projeftion of the os ihum in front,
and forming from thence a nearly Inverted femicircle to the
top of the OS pubis.

The thighs are fulleft and roundeft immediately at their
feparation about half way downwards : they gradually di-
minifh toward the knee.

In the upright figure the knee-pan above, with the (kin
and fat immediately below it, form wliat is altogether gene-
rally called the knee-pan, of an oval figure, and is the great
diftinftion of the knee in front, between the thigh and
the leg. The inner line of the principal bone of the leg,
or tibia, is a little curved outwards in a hollow of about
^o degrees. The inner ankle is higher than the outward.
The calf of the leg is molt projcfting, near one-third of
the way from the joint to the bottom of the heel, and
behind in a flattifli forked divifion, fends a ilrong mufcle
united with the tendon of the heel, making together the
backward profile of the leg. The outfide of the leg has
its principal curvature rather lower than the infide. The toes
are (horter than the fingers ; the longell toe is next to the
great toe; the great toe is the broadeil ; and in thole not
ufed to wear ihoes, divided from the fecond toe by a con-
fiderable feparation. T!ie three toes on the outfide of the
foot are fhortened in a diagonal line. The charafterillic-: of
the male and female in this extremity are nearly the fame as
in the hand.

In llronger figures the joints arc marked with more
Itrength and complication, the mufcles are more decided,
more of the tendons are feen, and occafionally the veins,
particularly towards the lower parts of the extremities.
The flefhy projeftiiig parts of the figure in old age are
more flattened, which indicates the diminution of elafticity
as well as mufcular ftrength.

The female figure is generally about one-tenth (horter
than the male; its bones are more (traight, and lefs rugged
towards the joints, as the attachment of its mufcles are
(lighter; the forms of the body and the limbs are more
rounded : the differences of the male and female bofoms are
well known. The (boulders of the female are narrower in
proportion than thofe of the male ; the loins are narrower
and the hips are broader.

In infancy, although the proportions are very different
from the adult male or female, vet the ronnJneis of the
limbs and body, little diltinguilhed by the m.u'king of bone
at the joints or projeciing mulcle between the jomts, ap-
proaches nearer to the fmooth and generally rounded furface
of the female figure.

Vitruvius informs us, from the writings of the molt emi-
nent Greek painters and fculptors, that they made their
figures eight heads or ten faces high, and he initances dif-
ferent parts of the figure meafured according to that rule.
The great M. Angelo adopted this rule, as we fee by a
print from a drawing of his. We fliall adopt this method
in giving the moll general proportions of nature and the
Greek ftatues.

Proportions. — Divifions of the human figure in length.
From the os pubis to the top of the head, one-half of the
figure ; from the fame point to the fole of the foot, the
other half.

There are three equal divifions from the acromion of the
fcapula to the bottom of the inner ankle, ill. From the
acromion to the point in the fpine of the ilium, from which
the reftus and fartorius mufcles begin. 2dly. From thence
to the top of the patella. 3dly. From the top of the
patella to the bottom of the inner ankle.

From the bottom of the os pubis to the bottom of the
patella, is the fame length as from the bottom of the
patella to the folc of the foot, two heads each ; but we
mull obferve, that the ancients generally allowed half a
nofe more to the length of the lower limbs, exceeding the
length of the body and head.

The arm, from the top of the humerus to the bend, one
head and a half; and from the bend of the arm to the firft
knuckles, the fame.

Breadth of the upper arm, one nofe and a half ; fide
view, two nofes ; lower arm, tliickeft part, one nofe and a
half; wriit, one nofe.

Breadth of the (lioulders, two heads ; of the loins, one
head and one nofe ; acrofs the hips or trochanteres, one head
and two nofes. Depth of the cheil, one head and one-third
of a nofe ; of the loins, three nofes and one-third ; of the
ghitaei, one head. Breadth of the thigh, three nofes; of
the calf of the leg, two nofes ; of the ankle, one nofe. The
foot is one head and one nofe in length.

The female figure (hould not be fo tall as the male.
Tlie (houlders and loins (lioidd be narrower, and the hips
broader.

The proportion of the Hercules Farnefe and the Torfo
Belvidere are nearly one-fifth more in breadth than other
ftatues.

But the ancients varied the proportion according to the
charafter and age of the perfon. There are examples of
the Silenus, and Hercules alio, when he partook of the fame
charafter, excecdinglv dwarfitli, not exceeding four or five
heads in height ; and there are examples on fome of the
Greek vafes of figures nine or ten heads.

Drapery. — To introduce our obfervationson the draperies
of the antique llatues, we will firlt enumerate a few of thofe
garments in which they are molt generally clothed ; and
we will begin with tlie largelt and coarfeit woollen garment,
called the pallium, which was a large piece of fquare, or
fquarilh cloth, perhaps about feven feet long, but not fo
wide ; this was generally worn by being folded over, per-
haps one-third ot the breadth : one end applied to the left
fide of the body, carried under the right arm, and thrown
over the left (houlder in front ; it formed broad and fimple
malTes before and behind, with a few bold and diftincl folds,
which left the body and limb: well accounted for be-
neath. It was, according to the convenience of the wearer,
thrown in a variety of different manners : fometnres cue
arm was wrapped in it, fometimes the other, and fometimes
nearly both ; all the llatues of philoiopliers, excepting the ,
Cynics, are clothed in this manner.

There were other garments nearly of this kind, which are
very commonly leen ; particularly the manly peplus. The
figures of Jupiter and Efculapius are fometimes leen wrapped
in the peplus, which appears to have no other diltinftion from
the pallium, than that it is made of a finer texture, confe-
quently produces fewer and more numerous folds, and its
corners are fometimes ornamented with taflels, or knots.

The clila:na feems to have been a finer and lighter wool-
len garment than the peplus, much lefs, but, like that, of a
long fquare ; this garment is particularly appropriate to
youthful heroes, and is feen on the colollal llatues of Monte
Cavallo, the Mcleager, and many youthful heroic figurc>
on Greek vafes, and the yoiing heroes in the frieze o!
Horfemen in the Parthenon at Athens.

The tunic, or kiton, was an under garment, alfo worn by
men in early times ; thij had no fleeves, and hung ovt-r the
left (houlder, leaving tiie right (houlder entirely bare, not to
impede adlion ; in after times it had Ihort fleeves, was full in
the body, and when not girded, hung down below the mid-
leg ;

SCULPTURE.

I<g ; but when collcfted by the girdle, did net reach lower
than the knees. This feems to have been made in general of
the fame material with the chlsna. The chlamys is a mi-
litary and hunting cloak, faftened with a button on the right
flioulder, as that worn by the Apollo Belvidere.

Female Drapery. — The kitor, or tunic, was worn by the
Greek women in very early times, but was generally made to
pafs over each (houlder, excepting Amazons, or female war-
riors, Avho lometimes had the right flioulder left bare ; but
the female kiton, or tunic, reached to the feet, and was lower
than the ankles, even when girded by the zone. This was
made of a finer material than that worn by men : it is called
bombyx, and appears to have been produced from a thread
ti'oven by wafps, or infefts of that kind, and to have formed
a delicate and fine texture, capable of producing, long and
variegated fold?, without lefiening the diltin6t appearance of
the figure underneath.

The pephis, or long veil, is defcribed as a dignified gar-
ment by Homer ; it was worn nearly in the lame manner by
women as by men, and is a charafleriltic of dignity, as Juno,
Minerva, Vefta, and Ceres are feldom or never feen v/ithout it
in a placid Hate.

Befides the kiton, the dignified female Greeks had another
garment, which anfwered the fame purpofe, called the peplo-
kiton, which appears to have been one piece of cloth doubled
over at the top, folded round the left fide, the left arm
having palled through the top ; open on the right fide,
which prefented two cafcades of folds : thefe are continu-
ally feen on the Greek vafes.

Many other garments were worn by women, which fre-
quently occur in ilatues, baffo relievos, and painted vafes,
which anfwer to our (hifts, petticoats, handkerchiefs, and
boddices, and are eafily dillinguirtitd in the works of ancient
painting and ftulpture ; but as a more intimate acquaintance
with thofe concerns the antiquary rather than the artift, we .
fhall refer thofe who are curious on the fubjeft to lexicons and
fcholialls for further information.

The Iloman toga appears to have been originally
Italian, and was fo entirely appropriated to the Romans,
that they are thence called gens togata. ColleiSled in its
folds, it appears to have been of an oval figure, through
the opening of which the head, the right arm, and half the
body on the right fide palled, the garment relling on the
left llioulder, being fupported by the left hand, falling be-
low the middle of the right leg, and prefcnting almolt in-
numerable continued curvilinear folds, which encircle the
figure before and behind from the left flioulder downwards.
A lap of this garment was brought from behind over the left
flioulder, tucked into the upper part in front under the
right bread, which fold was called the cinftus Gabinus, and
was laid to-be a fafliion brought from the city of Gabia. It
was worn by emperors, confuls, noblemen, and Roman citi-
zens : in general it was made of a fine woollen cloth, as moll
of the Roman garments were.

In reflefting on the beauty of drapery, we mull always
refer to the beauty of th'.' human figure which it covers ;
and as garments are worn for a defence againit the weather,
or from motives of modeily, they fliould never be fucli an in-
cumbrance as to impede aflionor overload the figure, either
by their quantity or mode of wearing ; which rule being ob-
ferved, the general idea of form and adlion will always be
intelligible underneath ; and thus, however the figure may be
covered, the plainer parts of the garment will give a breadth
.of light and fliadow to the mafs, and its folds a beautiful
variety of form, either in harmony with, or in oppofition to,
the forms of the limbs and body.

The cafcade, or zigzag fold of a long full garment hang-
VoL. XXXII.

ing from the flioulder towards the feet, by the irregular
geometrical effefts of its light and fliadow, ftiades the undu-
lation of living forms on the oppofite fide of the figure, whe-
ther covered with drapery or not, with an advantageous
variety.

The fine and web-like draperies, fuch as that of the Flora
Farnefe, fliew all the forms of the body and limbs with
nearly the fame dillinftnefs as if they had remained uncovered,
at the fame time that the gentle radiated curvilinear folds,
upon a near examination, contrail the beautiful forms of
the body by a. variation of lines tenderly affimilated with the
flefli, in fuch a manner as induces the fpedtator to believe
that the lealt motion of the body will produce a different,
and equally pleafing new arrangement in the folds of the
drapery.

What has been faid concerning drapery comprehends the
principles of the lubjeft ; for it was the intention on the fine
ftatues of antiquity to produce a noble breadth by their
draperies, confillent with the dignity of their mod illuftrious
charafters. In their more delicate charafters they con«
traded the beautiful form beneath by the graceful difplay
of lines in the drapery ; and in all their clothed ftatues, thcv
adorned the forms of the naked figure by perpendicular, cur.
vilinear, pendant, or zigzag folds, contraftnig the foma
and adding quantity, but leaving the figure and its pofition
perfectly intelligible.

In the figure of Bacchants in violent aftion, the flying
drapery becomes peculiarly ornamental ; verging from the
figure in undulating rays, which at its edges and extremities .
play upon the air in bolder forms, like the extremities of the
poppy-leaf.

The PraSice of Sculpture. — The firft operation of fculp-
ture, like that of painting, is defign. The fculptor firll
makes his idea evident by a flcetch or drawing ; he then
makes a fniall model, generally in clay, to try the effeCl or
his lines, forms, and light and fliadow, as well as the lenti-
ment of his ftatue, or compofition : but if the work requires
the utmoll accuracy and perfedlion he is able to give, he
makes a model of the fize in which the wood, marble, or
bronze is to be executed.

He models his figure firft naked in its juft aflion, and
accurate in its forms ; he then lays on his drapery, cither
from ftudies made after the living figure, or drapery laid
for the purpofe on a lay figure, or maniiikin.

The clay model, if large, muft be fupported by a frame.
work of iron ; and the mafles of clay may be kept together
by a number of fmall wooden croffes attached to the iron
frame-work, by wires of different lengths dilperfed in diflercnt
parts of the clay. This method is ufed by Mr. Caiiova, the
celebrated Venetian fculptor.

The tools ufed by the modeller are made of wood, or
ivory, with ends pointed, rounded, fquare, or diagon.il, with
which he forms his models ; marks out the hollows and dark
parts ; and does whatever he finds impraflic.able to perform
with his fingers only.

When the clay model is finilhed it mull be moulded and cad
in plaller; which caft mull .alfo be well fupported and fecured
by bars of iron well cemented, to prevent the ruft of the
metal from penetrating through the caft.

To copy the model in marble is performed in the fol-
lowing manner. A number of little black points muft be
marked upon tlic model, in every principal projeftion and
hollow, to give the diftances, heights, and breadths, fnffi-
cient to copy the marble with the gre.itcft exadtnefs from the
model. The ancients performed this, by confideriiig every
three points on the figure as a triangle, which they made in
the marble, to correfpoud with the fame three points in tlie
f^ model,

SCULPTURE.

node], by trying it with a perpendicular line, er fome other
fixed point, both in the marble and the model.

The moderns perform this ©peration in another manner.
After, by taking rough meafurts, they have found that the
block of marble is fufficient to make the ftatue equal m fize
with the model, they then fix it on a bafement of Itone, or
a ilrong wooden bench, called a banker ; in the front of
which is a long ilrip of marble, divided into feet and inches.
A ftrip of marble, divided exaftly in the fame manner, is
placed in front below the model ; and a wooden perpendicular
rule, the height of the whole work, which is capable of
being moved from the Itrip of marble or fcale under the
model, to the drip of marble or fcale under the marble, at
the workman's pleafure. This inftrument being firfl placed
upon the fcale of the model, and the exaft diflance being
taken, from its perpendicular, we will fay, to the point at
the end of the nofe of the model, and the perpendicular rule
being transferred to that fcale on which the marble is
placed ; the workman cuts away the marble from the per-
pendicular rule at the fame height, till he has arrived at
nearly the fame depth that thepoint of the model's nofe
was from the rule ; and by this means, he finds the point
of the nofe exaftly where it fhould be in the marble. He
proceeds in the fame manner with all the other parts of the
figure ; for example, the top of the liead, the chin, the
flioulder, and every other part of the body and limbs ;
until, by cutting down the marble at the fame height and
depth from the perpendicular line of the rule that he defires
to transfer from the model to the marble, he finds a cor-
refponding point to that he has taken from the model ; and
fo goes on until he has obtained the general proportions of
the whole work.

When this is done, the fculptor proceeds to work over
his ftatue with a flat-ended fteel tool, called a chilFel, whofe
fquare end is about five-eighths of an inch broad. In the
naked parts of the ftatue, and wherever there is a flat fur-
face, he proceeds in this manner : for inftance, we will fay,
upon the breaft of the figure, he cuts away the rough furface
from a given point in a ftraight line, to another given point
at fome diftance ; he then cuts away the furface from one
given point to another, exadlly parallel to the courfe his
chiflel went before ; he then cuts the marble in a line at right
angles with the former direftion of his chiflel. He continues
to work over the furface in the fame manner, continuing to
cut it away in lines parallel to each other, leaving the fpace
of about one-eighth of an inch between each courfe of his
chiflel : he afterwards cuts away the remaining rough fur-
face of one-eighth of an inch between each two courfes of
his chiflel ; thus obtaining a beautiful flat furface to his
work, which can be done by no other means, and may be
afterwards varied with the curvatures and indentures of
lefTer parts at his pleafure.

This method of cutting the ftone is followed, as much as
poflible, in all parts of the work ; that is, as much as all
the varieties of outline and hollows will permit.

When hollows are fo deep or intricate, that they cannot
be cut out with fmall chiflels ftruck by the hammer, drills
of different kinds are ufed to produce the rough hollows,
which are afterwards finiflied with the hammer and chiflel,
or by long tools fixed in wooden handles, ufed by the hand
only, without the hammer.

A particular dexterity is requifite in produeing the dif-
ferent charafters of the hair vi'ith the chiflel, to make it look
light and foft, whether curled, crifped, or plain ; and this
may be done by the hand of the praftifed fculptor, with
nearly the fame effeft as it can be by the painter, in laying
»n his colours with the pencil.

The finifliing of flelh in imitation of the fulnefs of mufcle;
the apparent phability of the fofter parts, the greater or
lefler durability of tendon and bone, may alfo be reprefented ^
on marble nearly to deception : but then the fculptor mutt ^
be well acquainted with the ftrutlure and appearance of the
parts he reprefents, and accurate in copying the objeft of
his imitation. To inform the mafs with life and fentiment,
whether it be of marble, bronze, wood, ivory, clay, or
wax, is the very end and purpofe of imitative art.

The laft finilh of marble, in the modern praftice of fculp-
ture, is performed by the ufe of rafps, and afterwards of files.
The beit rafps for fculpture are thofe made in Italy : the teetli
of thele rafps being cut more fharply than thofe made in
England, at the fame time that the ends of thefe rafps and
files are capable of being bent in any form, according to the
ufe for which they are to be employed.

When a piece of fculpture is required to have an ex-
ceeding fmooth furface, the pumice-ftone is ufed after the
file ; and fometimes the whole furface is rubbed or ground
carefully over with fmall pieces of grit-ftone, accommodated
to the various forms of the furface, as to fl'at fpaces, rounds,
and hollows of different depths. But the hair, in all cafes,
muft be finiflied with the tool ; and for this purpofe, the
edge of the tool muft be fliarpened with great accuracy and
acutencfs ; and if it is required that the work fliould be
very highly finiflied, the lait edge of the tool muft be given
by an oiled Tiirkey-ftone.

Chiflels may be fliarpened, for the diff^erent kinds of work,
either on one iide, or on both fides, horizontally, diagonally,
circular, or pointed.

The fculptor ufes large fquare four-footed ftrong ftools,
with tops which turn round upon little balls of brafs or
iron, on which he places the marble ilatue he works on.
Hir tools are fteel chiliels of different fizes and lengths;
their ends being from an inch broad, and diminithing in luc-
ceffion, till they become perfeftly pointed. Thefe are
worked with an iron-headed hammer, weighing from two to
four pounds, according to the hcavinefs or lightnefs of his
work. The firft tools ufed in waiting away his marble are
ftrong fteel tools, fliarpened nearly to a point ; which, being
ftruck with a heavy hammer obliquely, knock off the wafte
marble in much larger pieces than a broader pointed tool
would do.

The praftice of the fculptor alfo requires the frequent
ufe of the fquare and compafles, as his own ingenuity may
direa.

There are fome few fragments of marble ftatues, which
have been found in different parts of Greece, efpecially
where the works of fculpture have chiefly flouriflied, as
Athens, -lEgina, and Corinth, which appear to be the re-
mains of very early attempts in this art ; perhaps in an age
when making the proper tools was either not known, or
during the infancy of their invention. From thefe fpeci-
mens, the edges of the tools, and the manner of uGng them,
appear to have been equally imperfeft : the courie of the
tool is infirm, indireft, and ragged ; the furface it pafled
over, irregular. In the naked figure, the mufcles are httle
determined, and the forms confufed by the unpraftifed
manner of working. In the draperies, the edges are unde-
termined, and the hollows are few and fliallow ; a natural
confequence of the workman's want of power over his ma-
terial ; and therefore, of his defire to produce his idea in
the grofs, bccaufe he knew his incapacity to render a dif-
tinft and perfedl detail.

High finifliing in marble feems to have been a confe-
quence of working in bronze, for two reafons : firft, the
working of metals requires a confiderable knowledge in the

lO tempering

SCULPTURE.

tempering of tools ; and, fecondly, the firft high finiflied
fpecimens of remaining fculpture feem to be imitations of
bronze ftatues, from the hardnefs of execution refembhng
that of metal, and the reftihnear wiry forms of hair and
draperies. Whether this manuer of finiihing marbles was
firft introduced by Dipaenus and Scyllis, according to our
former fuppofition, or whether it was praftifed nearer the
moft diftingiiirtied epoch of art, it is certain that the work-
ing of marble with the greatefl poflible dexterity, fuch as
diftinguiihing fmall folds from one another, by cutting the
marble to a great depth between them, was praftifed con-
fiderably before the time of Phidias.

In the time of Phidias, it is certain the fculptor ufed
chiflels of all the different forms defcribed above, of the moft
convenient forms poflible for their works, and moft perfeftly
tempered ; of which we are affured, by tracing the forms of
the feveral inftruments in their execution, which is as free
and cliarafterittic of the parts imitated as could have been
produced by the pencil of the painter.

The Laocoon, the Apollo Belvidere, and the Venus de
Medicis, appear to have been executed by the chiftcl only,
without the afliftancc of the rafp or iile, though there is, in
the body and limbs of the Apollo, fome appearance of a
fmoother lurface having been obtained by rubbing with
pumice-ftone or wet grit-ftone. Many others of the fineft
works of antiquity, ftatues, groups, and bufts, appear to
have been finiftied with the chiftel only, and the uie of rafps
and files does not feem to have been very common in the
praftice of fculpture, till after the time of the twelve Cxfars.

The execution of fculpture feems to have dcfcended from
perfeftion in the fame lleps by which it rofc to it. In the
age of Adrian and the Antonines, extrenae high finifhing
was again in eftimation ; the furfaces were finifhed with a
dehcacy of fmoothnefs which almoft became a polifh ; the
fculptor tried to make the extremities of his hair fly before
the wind, and for this purpofe laboured his marble with a
delicacy of tooling, and a complication of drilling, that is
almoft miraculous ; and there are examples of hair, fo la-
borioufly executed in that age, that the fpeftator is left in
doubt concerning the poffibility of paying the iculptor for
his work, the time neceflary to accomplifh the undertaking,
and for the inftruments requifite to produce his eileft.
There are many examples of this kind in the portraits of
M. Aurelius and Lucius Verus ; particularly two colofTal
bufts of tliefe emperors lately exifting in the Villa Borghefe.

But the extreme attention to a polilhed furtace, and ex-
treme perfeftion of inferior purfuits, having withdrawn the
artift's mind from nobler conceptions and fublime fentiment,
he fooii defcended from the fculptor to the ftone-cutter, and
loft his diftinftion even as a mechanic, by adopting fuch a
poverty of workmanfliip as was fuited to his debafcd pur-
fuits ; and the age of Conftantine exhibits the fculptor
as incapable of following the noble conceptions of earlier
times, as of ftiewing any (kill in the mechanifm of his art
fiiperior to the unmeaning and unfuccefsful attempts of a
barbarous age.

During the ages of the Roman emperors, when beautiful
and expcnfive marbles were ufed to adorn their palaces and
public ftrufturcs, when the magnificence of effeft was con-
fidered witliout relation to expence, porphyry alfo was
manufactured for columns, pannels, and other architeftural
purpofes : it was alfo occafionally employed in fculpture,
in defiance of the extreme difficulty and expence of the
lebour, of which we (hall be enabled to judge from an inftance
mentioned ni Winckelman's Hiftory of Art : he fays that a
mafon was employed to hollow out a vafe in the Villa Albani,
the infide of which could not be above thirteen or fourteen
inches deep, and eight or nme inches in diameter ; he wa»

ten months at work upon this, attending his labour regH-
larly nine hours every day. Such a work in England, ai
mafons are paid at this time, would coft fixty-five pounds ;
the payment of the journeyman fculptor (hould be reckoned
at twice that fum.

There are fragments of drapery-figures executed in thii
material of fine tafte and beautiful fculpture, the labour of
which mull be exceifive ; but the two greateft works re-
maining of this marble are in the pope's mufeum ; one is the
farcophagus of Conftantia, daughter of Conftantine ; the
other of Helena, his mother; which laft is of enormoui
dimenfions, and covered with alto relievo of foldiera on
horfeback, and the heads of the emperor and his mother,
angels fitting, with feftoons on the top, &c. Many parts of
the alto relievo on this larcophagus were broken when it
was removed into the pope's mufeum, which were repaired
by the following procefs. The pieces of porphyry intended
for the reiteration were firft rudely (haped with a picking
hammer, that is, one end of the hammer being pointed, the
workman knocked the ftone with repeated blows of thi»
point, until he beat off little pieces, when it was reduced to
the general form required : in this manner another inftrument
was ufed, called a matting hammer, one end of the hammer
being divided into four points, and being worked over witK
this inftrument, the whole of the former very rough furface
was made fomewhat more regular ; after this, pointed tools
were ufed, ftruck by a hammer, to take off as much as
poflible the itill remaining roughncfs of the furface, and
to make particular hollows more exaftly, the workmaa
wearing fpeftacles all the while to prevent the fplintera of
the ftone from flying in his eyes, which otherwife would
blind him in the courfe of a few minutes labour. The tools
for this work are tempered to the hardnefs of a razor, and
feldom bear more than four or five blows with the hammer
before the points are broken. The laft procefs is to g^ind
the furface down with grit-ftone and emery, till a fmooth face
is obtained ; the whole being a procefs of immenfe labour
and expence. The Egyptian obelifks, which are of red
granite, with the hieroglyphics upon them, muft have bee«
wrought by a procefs fomewhat fimilar to the manner of
working porphyry.

Of IVax-AIodeH'mg. — Wax-modelling is properly a branch
of fculpture, inafmuch as it affords patterns and examples
for very numerous articles of fine art in metals: altliough,
from the nature of the material, no wax model of the Greek
or Roman times has come down to us, they muft have been
almoft iimumerable during tlie bell ages of Greece and
Rome, judging only from their fmall figures of divinities in
bronze, of which, perhaps, upon an average, every pcrfon,
rich and poor, might have half a dozen, fo that the amount
of thefe fmall images, from patterns of wax, would be nearly
fix times in number of the population of the civilized world
at any one period.

Wax-modelling befides is required for the p.itterns of all
goldfmiths' and chafcru' ornamental work upon a fmall fcale.
AH the fine medals of tiie popes were copied from fmall
models in wax of the moft dillinguifhed (culptors.

To make the bell modelling wax, take two cakes of
Virgin's wax, break them in pieces, put them into a clean
pipkin, and add the quantity of the fmallcft hazel-nut of
Venice turpentine, and about double the quantity o\ flake
white reduced to the fineft powder ; place the pipkin over
a (low fire till the wax is melted, ftir the compofition to-
gether, and it is the bell wax which can be ufed for model-
ling.

Models of diflcrcnt coloured wax maybe made by putting
pounded red, blue, yellow, &c. inftcad of flake white, aC'
cordintr to the colour required.

N 2 Wax-

s c u

s c u

Wax-rnodelling is performed, like the fame art in clay, by
pointed inftrumeats of wood and ivory.

Sculpture in bronze and filver is praftifed in the fame
manner by the model as Pliny defcribes it to have been done
by the ancients, and is of three kinds. The fubjeft is either
call from a model, or carved from the folid metal, or chafed
from a model upon a flat piece of metal, which is beat hollow
on the one fide, to produce the relief, out of which the chafer
works the intended figure or figures on the other fide. The
inftruments ufed in chafing are, for fmall works, a fmall
liammer with a long elallic handle, which gives the blow
a quick and artificial force ; alfo chifi'els and points, fome-
•what like thofe ufed in the fculpture of marble on a fmaller
fcale.

The tools for carving in wood are To univcrfally known to
carpenters, upholfterers, and the diffe.-ent orders of wood
carvers, that the defcription of them would be ufelefs.

For further illuftration of this article, the reader is re-
ferred to the engravings which are dilUnguifhcd by the word
Sculpture. Thefe confift of felcft fpccimens of the fculpture
of different ages and nations ; particularly the finell ex-
amples of Greek and Roman fculpture.

SCULTENA, or ScUTENA, the Panaro, in Ancient
Geography, a river which commenced on the iouth of the
Apennine, and purfuing a northerly courfe, difcharged itfelf
into the Padus or Po.

SCULTETUS, or Scuultz, Joh.v, in Biography, a
dillinguilhed furgeon, was born in the year 159J at Ulm,
where his father was a water-man. The latter was enabled
to afford his fon a good education, and fent him to Padua,
where he ftudied medicine under Spigeliu.-, and took the
degree of dodor in philofophy, furgery, and phyfic, in the
year 1621. On his return to his native city, he was ad-
mitted into the college of phyficians in March 1625 ; and
for twenty years he pradlifed his profcfTion with great re-
putation. Being fent for to Stutgard, to adminifter pro-
feilionally to a fick gentleman of that city, Scultetus was
there attacked with a fit of apoplexy, which terminated his
life on the firll of December 1645. ^^ appears to have
praftifed furgery extenfively, and to have been very bold in
his operations, efpecially in thofe of bronchotomy, of the
trephine, and for empyema. His principalwork is entitled
♦' Armamentarium Chirurgicum, 43 Tabulis sere incifis
Ornatum ;" and was publifhed after his death, at Ulm, in
1653. It fubfequently palled through many editions, and
was tranflated mto mofl of the European languages. Elpy
' Did'. Hid. de la Medecine.

SCUM, or Si'UME, Spuma, a light excrement arifing
from liquors, when briflily ilirred ; called alfo foam or
froth.

Scum is alfo ufed for the impurities which a liquor, by
boiling, catts up to the furface ; and alfo for thofe taken
from off metals, when in fufion ; thefe are alfo called fcoria.
Scum of Lead, is a kind of recrement, of various colours,
procured from melted lead.
Scum of Nitre. See Nitre.
Scum of Salt. See Salt.

Scum of Silver, is what we commonly call htharge of
filver.

Scum of Sugar, in Agriculture, a fubftance foraetiraes
ufed as a manure. See Sugar Scum.
Scum, Sugar of the. See Sugak.

SCUMA, a word ufed by fome of the chemiits for
fquama, the fcale.-. of any metal, and particularly applied to
the flakes flyine off from hot iron under the hammer.

SCUOE, Skuoe, or Slwoe, in Geography, one of the
Faroer or Feroe iflands ; 5 miles S. of Saiidoe. See
Feroe.

SCUPl, in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper Moefia,
in Dardania, according to Ptolemy.

SCUPPERS, in a Ship, are certain channels cut through
the water-ways and fides of a fliip, at proper diUances, and
lined with plated lead, in order to carry the water off from
the deck into the fea. The fcuppers of the lower deck of
a fhip of war are ufually furnifhed with a leathern pipe,
called the fcupper-hofe, which hangs downward from the
mouth or opening of the fcupper. The intent of this is to
prevent the water from entering, when the fhip inchnes
under a weight of fail. Falconer.
Scupper Nails. See Nails.

SCUR, in Agriculture, a precipice faced with rock.
SCURCOLLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Abruzzo Ultra ; 18 miles S. of Aquiia.

SCURELLUR, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges, between the Pfeudollome
and the river Barif. Ptolemy.

SCURF, in Medicine, Furfur, fmall branny or powdery
exfoliations of the cuticle, which occur after flight inflam-
mations of the fkin, a new cuticle being formed underneath
during the exfoliation. ..

Scurf may be formed upon any part of the furface of the
body ; for wherever the (kin is inflamed, the cuticle never
faiU to be feparated and fall off. This exfoliation, when
the inflammation is confidcrable, as in fcarlatina, take
place in the form of large maffes, or of fmaller fcales ; but in
the minor degrees ot inflammation, fuch as of the tormatiou
of pimples, or in flight erytliematous affections, a mere fcurfi-
nefs enfues. In fome cafes of Icurf, indeed, as in the dan-
driff of infants, and in other forms of pityriafis, little or no
inflammation is perceptible; but in other cafes, as in the
fcurfy porrigo, affecting the heads of adults, the inflamma-
tion is often confiderable, and accompanied by fevere itching.
The fcurf itfelf, indeed, if it be permitted to accumulate,
becomes the fource of excitement to the inflammation, as
well as to the itching fenfations.

The firft Hep in the treatment of fcurfy a£Feftions is,
therefore, the careful removal of the fcurf, as it is formed :
but this muft be effected by gentle mc^ns, and by wafhes
which do not augment the inflammatory aftion, where that
is confiderable. Hence ablution with fimple water, or
fome flight farinaceous decoclion, as of bran, is to be pre-
ferred to foaps and other irritants. This clearance of the
furface having been effefted, fome gently reftringent lotion,
fuch as lime-water, with or without a little of the liquor
ammonise acetatis, or a weak iolution of the falts of zinc,
may be employed with advantage ; or if the irritability of
the parts be confiderable, th6 faturnine fubltances may be
preferable. See Pityriasis.

SCURFF, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name for a fpecies
of falmon, called alfo in fome places the bull-trout. It never
grows to any great fize, and differs plainly from the falmon
of the common kind in this, that its tail is even, and not
forked ; its head is fhort and thick, and its flefh is lefs red
than that of moll of the falmon kind. See Trutta under
the article Salmo.

SCURGULO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Capitanata ; 7 miles S.S.W. of Dragonera.

SCURGUM, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the molt northerly climate of Germany. Ptolemy.

SCURRA, in Ornithology, a name by which the ancients
have called the monedula, or common jackdaw. See CoRVUS.
SCURRIZANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Capitanata ; y miles N.E. of Afcoli.

SCURVOGEL, in Ornithology, the name of an Ame-
rican bird, called by fonne the nhender-apoa, and by the
Brafilians /'a^;Vu?«a«7. See Mvcteria.

SCURVY,

SCURVY.

SCURVY, in Medicine, Scorbutus, a formidable and
often fatal dil'eale, ariiing from imperfeft nutrition, and
other caufes, and charafterifed principally by extreme de-
prcfTion of the vital powers, together with fponginefs of the
gums, ecchymofes, or purple blotches, on the (l<in, and
Ipontaneous hsemorrhages. From its frequent occurrence
in long voyages, it is ioinetimes called emphatically theyi-a-
J'curvy ; but it is by no means pecuhar to fcamen, and
was defcribed as an endemic of the land by the earliell
writers.

After having ftated this brief charafter of the difeafe, it
can fcarcely be necell'ary to remark, that the term /curvy is
moll erroiieoufly and abfurdly ufed- in popular language ;
being applied, in fact, to all d'lfeafes of the Jim, of a flow
and chronic nature, however various in their elfential cha-
racter, and poflefling nothing in common with the true
fcurvy. The fl<in, in fcurvy, indeed, is not the feat of the
dilcale, but is only deranged, like other organs of the body,
in the progrels of the malady ; and that derangement is
totally different from the mflammatory, pimply, pullular,
or fcaly conditions of the llcin, which occur in leprofy, tet-
ters, and other cutaneous diiorders, ufually mifcalled fcor-
bul'tc. This miftake requires correction, not merely as a
matter of nomenclature, but becaufe a great pra6tical error
refults from it ; namely, the admmillration of antij'corhiuic
remedies in thefe cutaneous diforders, which cannot be
cured, and are often aggravated, by them. The late Dr.
Willan conferred a benefit on the profeffion, by his definite
difcrimination of thefe lail-mentioned diforders. See Cu-
TANEOU.s D'lfeafes.

The fcur%>y, properly fo called, was firlt accurately de-
fcribed, and received its name, in modern times ; and it is
the fnbieft of difpiite, as in the cafe of lome other difeafes,
whether it was known to the ancient phyficians, or is a ma-
lady of more rtcent origin. The firft fpecific accounts of
the difeafe appeared in the early part of the fixteenth cen-
tury, when the name of the malady ieems to have been fa-
miliar among the vulgar : but the lymptoms were noticed
by the early voyagers in the precedmg century ; for con-
fiderably more than half the crew, who accompaiiied Vafco
de Gama, in his voyage round the Cape of Good Hope, in
the year 1497, were deltroyed by this difeafe. Olaus
Magnus, in his hiftory of the northern nations, publiflied in
1555, has defcribed the difeafe at confiderable length, and
ftates that it was known to the inhabitants of Saxony by the
TMma of fc/jorliuk, ox fcorbiic ; whence the Latin term yi-or-
butus, and our aj)pellation yi'Mriij'. The term fignified yirt'-
mou'.hy and was probably applied to the difeaie in coufe-
<(uence of the fpongy ulcerations of the pums, with hxinor-
rhages, and loofening of the teeth, which are among the
more fevcre fymptoms of the complaint. Dr. Lind, how-
ever, fuggefts, with ftill more probability, that the name
was derived from a Sclavonic word,72o;i, fignifying dfcafe;
the fcurvy being endemic in the northern countries of
Europe, from whence we borrowed the appellation.

Molt of the continental writers have maintained that, al-
though the ancients have not defcribed the fymptoms of
fcurvy, as a finglc dillincl difeafe, they have, however,
mentioned feveral concurring fymptoms, which can fcarcely
be iiippofcd to belong to any other malady: wliile Drs.
Freiiid, Lind, Trotter, and fome other authors of this
country, contend, that the Greeks, Romans, and Arabians,
tefidiiig ui fouthern climates, and unpradtifed in long voy-
ages, probably never witnelfed the fcurvy, and thence have
no where accurately defcribed it. The rarity of the difeafe,
wnder fuch circumllances, will probably account for the im-
perfeA defcriptions which they have left : but fiegcs and

feafons of great dearth were not uncommon in thofe timen,
and gave rife at lead to the ignis facer, which appears to have
been nearly allied to fcurvy ; and the following obfervations
relate to no other known difeafe.

Hippocrates, when dcfcribing the difeafes of the fpleen,
mentions fome fymptoms which accompany the enlargement
of that organ. " The colour of the body," he fays, " is
changed, and becomes black and pallid, like the rind of a
pomegranate ; the breath is fetid, and the gums alfo emit a
bad fmcU, and fall away from the teeth ; ulcerations break
out in the legs, refembliiig epinyclides ; the limbs are ema-
ciated, and the bowels do not difcharge their contents."
(Lib. de internis AfFeCl.) And again, in his fecond book
of prognoflics, Hippocrates obferves, " In thofe who have
tumid fplcens, the gums are difeafed, and the mouth emits
a fetid odour ; but thofe whofe fpleens are enlarged, with-
out any confequent hjemorrhages, fucii perfoiis are attacked
with ill-conditioned ulcers in the legs, and black fears."
Here we have an additional fymptoni of fcurvy mentioned,
%<i%. the haemorrhages, which were omitted in tlie former
defcription. Thofe, however, who expert to find only the
utmolt accuracy in the works of Hippocrates, will perhaps
be furpnfed to find that he has agani defcribed, ftill more
diftinftly, the fym.ptoms of fcurvy, under another appella-
tion. For in the fame book (refpefting internal difeafes)
in which he has noticed the enlarged fpleens, he mentions
the fymptoms of the ileus hamatius {'iA'.o: ai'^xTiTy- ), or
bloody iliac difeafe, in nearly the fame terms. " This difeafe
begins in the autumn, and exhibits the following fymptoms.
The mouth and teeth emit a fetid fmell, and the gums fepa-
rate from the latter, and blood flows from the nofe ; iome-
times aifo ulcers break out in the legs, and while fome of
thefe heal, others break out afrelh ; and the (kin about them is
of a black colour, thin, and tender." This may be deemed a
good brief defcription of (curvy ; and if the commentators are
right in their correction, the concluding fymptom is equally
charafteridic : " the patient is indifpolcd to walk, or to ufe
any exertion." The palfage, as it Hands in Hippocrates,
however, aflerts the affirmative, that the patient is difpoled
to exertion ; a circumltance fo inconfiitent with ulcerations
of the legs, hsemorrhages, and the other fymptoms, that the
commentators agree that the negative particle ^ mull have
been omitted. Van Swieten remarks, tiiat the epithet of
thin or tcndtr-Jhinned (\!rToj<f/j'/i), which Hippocrates ap-
plies to thofe patients, is particularly charaderiftic of the
fcorbutic (late ; fince " we obferve in the fcurvy, that the
flighted injuries break into the fkin, and leave (lubboru
ulcerations in it ; and this more remarkably happens in the
legs, where only fcratching them with the finger-nails will
often raife an excoriation, that is followed by an ulcer of
long continuance." (Comment, in I5e)erli. Aph. 114S. )
Celfus, when treating of the alfeflions of the fplccn, men-
tions this indifpofitioii of ulcers to heal : " Ulccra ant om-
niiio non fanefcunt, aut ccrtc cicatricem vix recipiunt." And
we may add, that the opinions of tlie commentators, rclpcA-
ing the fentence above mentioned, is confirmed by the llate-
mcnt of Celfus, who didiiiAiy aflVrts, that exertion is
painful and difficiilt. (De Medicin.n, lib. iv. cap. g.) Paul
of iljlgina (lib. iii. cap. 49.). and Avicenna ilib. iii. fi-n. ij.
tra£t. 2.}, as well as other Greek and Arabian phylician.i,
defcribe the fame fcorbutic lymptoms as conneCied with
tumid fpleen. Modern obfervatiou has occafionally de-
tected enlargement of the fpleen in I'corbutical cafc^, as in
an indance related by Dr. Mead (Monitael Prxcox. Mcd.lS
but fuch an enlargement is not always prefent, and it 1*
probable that Hippocrates and the ancients, who faw the
difeafe but fcldom, had generalized too hatlily from a

limited

SCURVY.

limited experience, when they pronounced thefe fymptoms
as exchifively connefted with enlarged fpleen.

A difeafe is alfo mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, as oc-
curring in the Roman armies in particular fituations, which
can only be referred to fcurvy. In this difeafe, which Pliny
afcribed to drinking the water of a certain well, when it oc-
curred in the army of Germanicus while encamped near the
Rhine, an afFeftion of the gums, with a falling out of the
teeth, is faid to have been combined with a lofs of mufcular
power in the lower extremities ; the former affeftion being
cA\eAJ}omacfice, (quafi a-ro/j^-i; /.xKifx, oris vitium,) and the
Iztter/celetyrie. (Plin. Nat. Hift. lib. xxv. cap. 3.) Similar
afFeftions, to which the fame appellations are given by
Strabo, are faid to have prevailed in the army of iElius
Gallus, when in Arabia. (Geograph. lib. xvi.1 Some authors,
however, have denied that t)\\% fceletyrbe could be a fcorbutic
fymptom ; becaufe Galen has ftated fcektyrbe to be a kind
of paralyfis, in which the patient is unable to walk ftraight :
but fuch a term might be fiifficienlly appropriate to that
rigidity of the joints, which often occurs in fcurvy.

On the whole, therefore, we are difpofed to believe, with
the early writers upon this fubjeft, that the fcurvy was
known to the Greek, Roman, and Arabian phyficians ;
although, from its comparative rarity in fouthern climates,
it did not occur fo often, or fo extenfively, ar to claim their
attention very ftrongly. That it may occur in any climate
where there is a dearth of fre(h foad, is very obvious ; for it
18 found equally at fea and on the land, in Greenland or in
the great South fea, in befieged towns, in frozen countries,
and in (hips, when fre(h food is not to be obtained. Poupari
has very correftly remarked, that the malignant fcurvy of
Paris bore a confiderable refemblance to the peftileiitial ignis
facer, defcribed by Lucretius (lib. vi. ) ; an opinion which
Dr. Lind, confounding this ignis facer with the plague of
Athens, defcribed by Thucydides, confiders as deferving
no ferious confutation. But the ignis facer was extremely dif-
ferent from the true plague, as well as from the peftilence
defcribed by Thucydides (fee Plague) ; it feems to have
been, hke fcurvy, the refult of dearth, the X.oi,uo,- /xsTa Xi^o/,
of which we hear fo much in ancient hiltory ; it had feveral
fymptoms in common with fcurvy, but was a febrile difeafe ;
and has been afcribed in modern times to difeafes of corn,
inftead of the fcarcity and deficiency of that nutriment.
See Ergot; \ghis Sacer ; Kriebel Krankheit; &c.
For the obfervations of Poupart, fee Memoires de I'Acad.
des Sciences, an. 1699.

Symptoms of Scurvy — The firll indication of the approach
of fcurvy is an averfion to any fort of mufcular exertion ; a
lazinefs, or ftrong inchnation to fit Hill i)r lie in bed ; which
is accompanied with a fpontaneous laffitude, or a fenfe of
heavinefs and pain throughout the body, and efpecially in
the mufcles of the limbs and loins, like that which arifes
from great fatigue, which foon becomes aAual feeblenefs, fo
that the lead exercife, efpecially in afcending or defcending
a declivity, induces fatigue and (hortnefs of breath. With
this averfion to motion and diminifhed power of exertion,
there is alfo very early a change of the complexion, which
becomes pale and bloated, or fallow, efpecially about the lips
and comers of the eyes, where there is a greenifh tinge.
Thefe two fymptoms, indeed, the difinclination to exertion,
and the fallow countenance, often portend the approach
of fcurvy, while the patient eats and drinks heartily, and
feems otherwife in good health : and the fpeedy laffitude
and difficulty of breathing upon motion, are among the
moft conflant concomitants of the diftemper throughout its
courfe.

As the difeafe advances, other fymptoms appear. Among

thefe the flemaeaee, or morbid condition of the mouth, is one
of the firft that prefents itfelf. The gums become hot and
painful, and foon fwell, growing foft and fpongy, and of a
livid hue, and afterwards extremely putrid and fungous,
conftituting one of the moil didiuguilhing features of the
difeafe. This occafions great fetor of the breath, and the
loofening of the teeth, which become moveable in their
fockets, and may be taken out without force or pain, and
even fall out fpontaneoudy. Haemorrhages alfo take place
from the flighted preffure on the gums, or even with-
out any apparent caufe, as well as from the nofe ; and
ultimately from other parts of the body, where the cuticle
is delicate, or the furface broken, in confequence of the
apparent lofs of cohefion in the folids, and efpecially in the
vafcular fyftem.

From this caufe the fhin alfo exhibits fome of the mod
driking chara(fteriltics of fcurvy. It becomes dry, and
fpotted over with difcolourations of a red, blueifh, purple,
and black hue, of various fizes, from the petechia, or fpots
like flea-bites, to the mod extenfive ecchymofes, of the fize
of a hand-breadth, or larger, fuch as are produced by the
fevered bruifes. Thefe appear chiefly on the legs and
thighs ; but often alfo on the arms, bread, and trunk of the
body ; and fometimes, though more rarely, on the head and
face. They confid, in faft, of effufions of blood under the
cuticle, from the rupture of the fmall veffels. As the dif-
eafe advances, this laxity and lofs of cohefion in all the folids
becomes dill more manifed, by the frequent and profufe
bleedings which are liable to occur from different parts of
the body ; efpecially from the nofe, gums, ftomach, bowels,
lungs, kidnies, and bladder, and from the ulcers and fungous
excrelcenccs which arife on the furface. In fome patients,
the hzmorrhages from the bowels are accompanied by fevere
pains and diarrhoea ; while others, without either a purging
or gripes, difcharge great quantities of pure blood by the
anus. Other marks of laxity appear in the cedematous fwell-
irig which takes place in the legs, beginning firlt about the
feet and ankles ; which, however, is more painful than com-
mon anafarcas, and retain longer the imprelTion of the finger.
They appear remarkably alfo, in the great facihty with
which the flighted bruifes and wounds degenerate into foul
fungous ulcers, as well as in the fpontaneous appearance of
fuch ulcers, and the breaking out of long-healed fores, and
even the difunion of old fratlures in bones. " Whatever
form.er complaints," Dr. Lind obferves, " the patient has
had, efpecially bruifes, wounds, &c. ; or whatever prefent
diforders he labours under, upon being afflifted with the
fcurvy, his old complaints are renewed, and his prefent ren.
dered worfe." Indeed the fcurvy often fird fliews itfelf by
the changes in difeafed parts. " Thus, when a perfon has
had a preceding fever, or a tedious ficknefs, by whieh he
has been much exhauded, the gums for the mod part are
fird affeded, and a laflitude condantly attends ; whereas,
when one has been confined from exercife by having a frac-
tured bone, or from a bruife or hurt, thefe weak and de-
bilitated parts become almod always fird fcorbutic. As
for example, if a patient labours under a drain of the ankle,
the leg, by becoming fwelled and painful, and foon after
covered with livid fpot?, gives the fird indication of the dif.
eafe. And as old ulcers on the legs are very frequent
among feamen, in this cafe likewife the legs are always fird
affefted, and thefe ulcers put on a fcorbutic appearance,
although the patient feems otherwife perfectly healthy, and
preferves a freli good colour in his face." (Lind.) The
effeil of the dfeafe upon former maladies is drongly de.
pitted by the elegant writer of lord Anfon's voyage. " But
a moft extraordinary circurodance," fays that gentleman,

" and

SCURVY.

" and what would be fcarcely credible upon any fingle evi-
dence, is, that the fears of wounds which had been for many
years healed, were forced open again by this virulent dif-
temper. Of this there was a remarkable inftance in one of
the invalids on board the Centurion, who had been wounded
above fifty years before at the battle of the Boyne ; for
though he was cured foon after, and had continued well for a
great number of years paft, yet on his being attacked by the
(curvy, his wounds, in the progrefs of his difeafe, broke out
afrefh, ard appeared as if they had never been healed. Nay,
what is ftill more aftonifhing, the callus of a broken bone,
which had been completely formed fur a long time, was
found to be hereby dilTolved, and the frafture feemed as if
it had never been confolidated." (A Voyage round the
World in 1 740 — 4, by lord Anfon, compiled by the Rev. R.
Walter, chaplain to the Centurion, p. 102.) The ulcers,
which occurred in the legs of the fcorbutic patients on this
occafion, are faid to have been " of the word kind, attended
with rotten bones, and fuch a luxuriancy of fungous flefh,
as yielded to no remedy." The edges of thefe fcorbutic
ulcers are of a livid colour, and puffed up with the fungous
excrefcences, which are not inaptly called by the failors,
bullock's liver, fince to this fubltance, when boiled. Dr. Lind
lays, they bear a near refeniblance, both in confidence and
colour. They often arife in the courfe of a night to a mon-
ftrous fize, and although deftroyed by caultics, or the knife,
(in which lall cafe, a copious bleeding commonly enfues,)
are found at the next drefling as large as ever. Dr. Lind
affirms, however, that " they continue in this condition a
confiderable time without tainting the bone." (Lind on
Scurvy, pt. ii. ch. 2.) Thefe fcorbutic ulcers, which are
Angular and uniform in their character, are diftinguiflied
from all others by being fo remarkably offenfive, bloody, and
fungous.

In addition to thefe affeftions of the lower extremities,
(to wliich however they are not exclufively confined,) in the
advanced ftage of the fcurvy, " the patients moil commcmly
lofe the ufe of their limbs, having a contraftion of the ten-
dons in the ham, with a fwelling and pain in the joint of
the knee. Indeed, a lliffncfs in thefe tendons, and a weakncfs
of the knees, appear pretty early in this difeafe, generally
terminating in a contrafted and fwellcd joint." (Lind, loc.
cit. ) We have given this defcription in the words of Dr.
Lind, in order to ihew how didinftly it anfwcrs to the ac-
count of the fcehtyrbe, occurring in the Roman armies, in
conjunftion with \.\\t Jlomacace.

In the progrefs of the fcurvy, the patients commonly
complain of pains, wliich are often moving from part to
part. Some complain of a general pain in their bones,
wliich is mod violent in the limbs and loins, and cfpecially
in their joints and legs; and a pain, with tightncfs and op-
prcffion in the bread, is very common. The head is feldom
or never affefted, unlefs the patient is feverilh, which is un-
ufual ; for, as Dr. Lind well obfcrves, the difeafe is alto-
gether of a chronic nature, and fever may be judly reckoned
among its adventitious fymptoms. It is remarkable, indeed,
that in the word flaijcs of the fcurvy, with all the fcvcre
fymptoms above defcnbed, with painful fpreading ulcers of
the (nrface, with contradlcd limbs, haimorrhages, fpongy,
putrid, dinking gums, over-run with Iprouting flelh, and
often deeply ulcerated, with inability to make the lead muf-
cular exertion, without fainting or perhaps dying ; yet the
patients, even in this dage, have a good appetite, with their
fenfes er.tire, and, though eafily dejedlcd and made low-
fpirited, yet, when in bed, they make no complaint of pain
or ficknefs, and appear to be in tolerable health. This fin-
gular charafterittic of the difeafe is well depifted by the

reverend author before quoted. " Indeed, the effcfts of thU
difeafe," he fays, " were in almoll every inftance wonder-
ful ; for many of our people, though confined to their ham-
mocks, appeared to have no inconiidcrable fhare of health ;
for they eat and drank heartily, were cheerful, and talked
with much feeming vigour, and with a loud Itrong tone of
voice ; and yet on their being the lead moved, though it
was only from one part of the fhip to the other, and that in
their hammocks, they have immediately expired ; and othert,
who have confided in their feeming itrength, and have re-
folved to get out of their hammocks, have died before thejr
could well reach the deck. And it was no uncommon thing
for thofe who were able to walk the deck, and to do forae
kind of duty, to drop down dead in an inllant, on any en-
deavours to aft with their utmod vigour ; many of our peo-
ple having perifhed in this manner during the courfe of thi<
voyage." Lord Anfon's Voyage, loc. cit.

Few of the authors, who have defcribed the difeafe, have
been very indudrious in the examination of the bodies of
thofe who have died. The mod ample account of the dif-
feftionj of fcorbutic patients has been given by M. Poupart,
in his account of the difeafe, as obferved at the hofpital of
St. Louis at Paris. The principal phenomena defcribed by
him were the refults of the general extravafation of blood,
and of the diffolution and feparation of parts naturally-
united. Thus tTie bodies of the mufcles were often found
fwelled and hard, from the blood fixed among their fibre*,
fo that the limbs remained bent or contrafted ; and the epi-
phyfes of the bones were found feparated, the cartilages of
the dernum were looiened from their union with the bony
part of the ribs, and the ligaments of the joints were
corroded and loofe. He adds, that the mefenteric glands
were generally obdrufted and enlarged, and the fpleen three
times bigger than natural, and fell to pieces as if it confided
of coagulated blood.

Caufes of Scurvy.— Y\\t predifpofing caufes of fcurvy,
or thofe circumdances which produce a predifpofition to the
complaint, are various. Preceding difeafes, whether of the
acute or chronic kind, render perfons more liable to the
fcurvy, where the exciting caufes exid : and inactivity and
indolence greatly facilitate the attack of the malady. Thofe
who are recovering from fevers, or who have been weakened
by long attacks or relapfes, mod readily fall into fcurvy ;
and the marines on (hip-board, who have Kfs work, com-
monly fuller in a much larger proportion than the failors.
On the other hand, however, cxceflive fatigue and over-
exertion, which exhaiid the drengtli, as well as want of
deep, contribute to accelerate the attack of fcurvy. An
attention to this point was one of the mod edcAu.-il means
employed by captain Cook for the prevention of fcurvy
among his crews, as well as the avoiding of cold and moil-
ture, from whicii much predifpofition to the difiafe .irifes.
A date of defpondeiicy and gloomincfs of mind conlribiitcg
alfo materially to invite and aggravate the fcurvy : it at-
tacks the difconfented and repining, while pcrlons of more
cheerful difpofitions cfcape. Hence perliap;; newly-imprellcd
feamen are found to be particularly liable to it ; and the in-
habitants of befieged towns are obferved to be very fulccp-
tible of its impreffiaiis.

The principal exciting caufe of fcurvy appears to be the
ufe of a certain Imd of diet ; and it is probable th.U every
fpecies of diet, which, either from being difficult of digef-
tion, or from containing but little nutriment, fails to nourijU
the body, is capable of producing the difeafe under ort am
circumdances : we fay, it is probable ; for we fliall have
occalion to fliew hereafter, that this notion 18 not entirely
confident with all the fads, and is lomcwhat inconl.dent

efpceully

SCURVY.

efpecially with the nature of the remedies. As the difeafe
is molt frequently occalioired in modern times by 3.fea d'nt,
it has been afcribed to the ufe of falted meats ; but this
opinion is ahogether erroneous, and has been amply refuted
by Drs. Lind, Milman, and others. It has occurred, indeed,
to a great extent, where faked meats were not uled ; but it
has been equally prevalent where the diet confifted princi-
pally of farinaceous or other unfermented vegetable matters,
fuch as hard bifcuits, peas, and beans, or of fmoke-dried
fifli or flefli, cheefe, &c. In fome experiments, made by
Dr. Stark in his own perfon, relative to the effefts of par-
ticular articles of diet, fymptoms of fcurvy were induced
by living a fhnrt time exclufively upon fugar. (See Stark's
whole works, 4I0. Loud. 1788.) And in the Ruflian armies,
at the fiege of Afoph, in 1 736, and fubfequently in their
march to Oczakow, the fcurvy prevailed to a great extent,
although their diet did not confiit of falt-proviiions. They
had little fuel to enable them to drefs their viftuals, and the
fat indigei^ible fi(h of the river Don, being half-cooked, and
their bread ill-baked, produced frequent ficknelfes, and ul-
timately the fcurvy. (See Dr. Nitzfch's account of this dif-
eafe fn the Ruffian armies, quoted by Dr. Lind.) The fame
calamity occurred in the imperial army in Hungary, about
the fame period, although the army had frelh beef in plenty;
but their other food conlilled of a grofs and vifcid bread, or
other farinaceous matters, and efpecially of a fort of glu-
tinous pudding, called rollatfchen, which was principally eaten
by the Bohemians, who were indeed almoll the only people,
who fuffered from the fcurvy. (See Geo. Hen. Kramer.
DifT. epiftolica de Scorbuto ; which contains the cafe of the
imperial troops, addrefled to the college of phyficians at
Vienna.) There is no doubt, therefore, if we examine the
hiftory of the malady, that perfons predifpofcd to it, ii they
live upon any fpeci^-s of iiidigeftible food, whether it be of
an animal or vegetable nature, — whether preferved with fait,
or not at all impregnated with it, — will be equally attacked
with fcurvy ; and thofe perfons are obferved to fufter the
moft, who make the freelt ufe of thefe indigellible fub-
ftances. In all thefe inllances, however, frejb vegetable fub-
ftances did not probably conftitute any conliderable portion
of the diet.

Other exciting caufes, however, mull co-operate with
this diet to produce the fcurvy, efpecially in its fevere de-
o-recs. And hence whatever contributes to impair the health,
and deprefs the mind, during the ufe of inch food, mate-
rially accelerates the occurrence of fcurvy ; and we have al-
ready ftated the effefts of indolence, over-fatigue, and the
depreffing paffions, in predifpofing the conltitution to take
on this difeafe. Indolence and inaftivity conduce to excite
the fcurvy, becaufe the hai^d and indigellible diet jult alluded
to requires a certain degree of exercife to fubdue it in the
ftomach. The influence of ext rtion was curioudy exempli-
fied in the cafes of thofe perfons who have wintered in high
northern latitudes. The fcurvy was the (ource of fatality
which they had to dread : and it is fingular, that th'^fe who
went prepared to fpend the winter in thele frozen climates,
and fupphed with provifions, clothing, fuel, &c. have uni-
formly died of the fcurvy ; while thofe who have been ac-
cidentally left, without any provifion, have efcaped that dif-
eafe and enjoyed good health. In 1633 two trials were
made by the Dutch of ellablifliing wintering-places at Spitz-
bergen and on the coail of Greenland, in latitude about 77°
or 78°. Seven failors.were left at each, amply furnilhed with
every article of clothing, provifion, and utenlils, thought
tiecelTary or ufeful in fuch a fituation. Tlie journals of both
companies are preferved. The men at Greenland began to
make a conitant fire to fit by in October, ferved out their
2

allowance of brandy, and now and then killed a bear : but
in March they were all very ill of the fcurvy ; and on April
fixteeiith the firft man died, and all the reft were entirely dif-
abled, except one perfon. This poor wretch continues the
journal to the laft day of Apnl, when they v^ere praying for
a fpeedy releafe from their miferies. They were all found
dead. The men left at Spitzbergen killed but one fox the
whole time. The fcurvy appeared among them fo early as
November twenty-fourth, and the firft man died January
fourteenth : the journal ends February twenty-fixth ; and
thefe too were all found dead. Accident, however, foon
afterwards gave rife to an experiment which had a very dif-
ferent refult. For on the fame fide of Spitzbergen, and in
nearly the fame latitude, a boat's crew, confifting of eight
EngHfhmen, v.-ho had been fent afhore to kill deer, were by
fome m.iftake left behind, and reduced to the deplorable ne-
ceffity of wintering in that dreadful country, totally unpro-
vided with any of the neceffaries. Takinjr advantage of a
large fubftantial wooden building, creAed for the ufe of the
coopers belonging to the fiflicry, they rendered it warm and
comfortable by building a fm.illsr one within it, and by deer-
fkin beds, &c. They were tolerably fupplied with fuel from
old caflcs and boats, which they broke up, and, before the
cold weather fet in, they laid-in a confiderable ftock of veni-
fon, having killed a good number of deer, the greater part
of which thev roafted, and flowed in barrels, referving fome
raw, which became frozen. This venifon, with a few fea-
horfes and bears which they killed fi-om time to time, confti-
tuted their whole winter's provifion, except a very unfavoury
article, which they were obliged to make out with, at firll
two and afterwards four days in the week, which was whale's
fritters, or the fcraps of fat after the oil has been prefled
out. Their only drink during the whole time was running
water, procured from beneath the ice on the beach, till
January ; and afterwards fnow-water melted by hot irons.
The melancholy of their fituation was aggravated by the
abfence of the fun from the horizon, from Oftober four-
teenth to Fcbruar)' third, of which period twenty days were
palled in total darknels. They contrived, however, to keep
their fire and lamps continually burning during this period.
At the approach of fpring, they had the good fortune to
kill feveral white bears which proved excellent food ; and
thefe, together with wild fowl and foxes which they caught,
enabled them to difpenfe with their fafting days on the
mouldy fritters, and foon improved their vigour. Upon
this fimple fare, without fpiriis or fermented liquors, they
were able to pafs this rigorous winter, unaff ftcd by fcurvy
or any other difeale : at the return of the (hips on May
twenty-fifth, they ali appear to have been in health ; and all
returned in fafcty to thiir i.ative country. (Set Mem. of the
Liter, and Philof. Society of Manchefter, vol. 1. p. 89, et
feq ) Another ftil! more ftnking illuftration is related by
Dr. Aikin, in the paper juil referred to, in the cafe of four
Ruffians, who were left at Spitzbergen, ai.d alio found a
hut in which they refided above fix years, living on the bears,
deer, and foxes, which they caught, and drinking the run-
ning water in fummcr, and melted ice in winter Three of
them remained entirely free from the fcurvy during the whole
of their abode ; but the fourth died of it, after lingering to
the fixth year. This perfon, it is remarked, was of an in-
dolent difpofition, and could not conquer his avciflon to
drinking the rein-deer's blood. The continual exervife, re-
quired by the hunting of thefe animals, appears to have been
the great fonrce of health, and to have kept at a dillance the
fcurvy, which is endemic in Lapland, Norway, Sweden,
RufTia, and in latitudes much lets northerly than Green-
land.

Other

SCURVY.

Otlier circumftances, both on (hip-board and on land, by
impairing the general vigour of the conllitution, confpire
to produce the fcurvy. Thus it was obferved to be en-
demic at particular places in Holland, while others, where
the fame diet was ufed, remained entirely free from it.
RonlTccus, a very able and accurate writer on the fubjeft,
remarks, that it was much more frequent in his time at
Amderdam and Alcmaer, than at Goude and Rotterdam ;

d at Dort was hardly ever to be feen. He obferved,

i.'ed, that univerfally in all parts of the country, where
the foil was fenny and damp, it raged with the greatelt
violence ; and that the weather had great influence upon it,

utherly winds, if long continued, multiplying the difeafe,
cii.d rainy feafons rendering it quite epidemic and malignant.
The changes that have taken place in the condition of the
land, and in the mode of living, fince the wealth of Hol-
land has incrcafed, have rendered the difeafe much lefs
frequent, and have confined it almoft exclufively to the
})oor, who inhabit the low damp parts of the provinces,
and continue to live upon dried meat and coarfe bread,
Hid to drink unwholefome ftagnant water.

The effeft of certain depreffing paflions, not only in pre-
Jifpofmg to the fcurvy, but in exciting and aggravating
it, ha; been ftrongly manifeiled. Vander Mye exhibits a
curious and diverfified pifture of the operations of the paf-
iions of the mind during the famous fiege of Breda, when
tl;c fcurvy committed great havoc in that town. Upon
the report of bad news, it always fpread aftonifhingly :
but it was in a manner altogether checked by the arrival
or agreeable intelligence. And the writer of lord Anfon's
voyage obferves, " it was mod remarkable in all our re-
iterated experience of this malady, that whatever dif-
couraged our people, or at any time damped their hopes,
never failed to add nev vigour to the dillemper ; for it
ufually killed thofe who were in the laft. ftages of it, and
confined thofe to their hammocks, who were before capable
of fome kind of duty ; fo that it feemed as if alacrity of
mind and fanguine thoughts were no contemptible preferva-
tives from its fatal malignity."

On the Prevention and Cure of Scurvy. — It is cuftomary
in medical difcuflions, after dating the fymptoms and caufes
of any difeafe, to proceed to point out the effential nature,
or proximate caufe, as it is technically termed, of the
malady, before treating of the method of cure, which
ihould generally be deduced from the confideration of thi:;
whole of thefe circumdances taken together. In this cafe,
however, we can fcarcely difcufs the nature of the proxi-
mate caufe, without a previous knowledge of the means
by which the malady is prevented or removed ; fince theic
means tend to elucidate the nature of the fymptoms which
they remedy. We (hall, therefore, firll detail the means
of prevention and cure.

The prevention of fcurvy will conQd chiefly in remov-
ing or countcradting the prcdifpofing and exciting caufes,
which have already been enumerated. Much is done, there-
fore, by preferving a due degree of general health in the
individuals cxpofed to the exciting caufes ; and clpecially
by avoiding cold and moillure, by means of proper cloth-
ing, warm cabins, &c. ; and by avoiding indolence and in-
aftivity on tiie one hand, and over-fatigue, watching, &c. on
the other. The effedts of the former are exempliiied in the
comparative exemption of even the petty officers in a diip
of war, while the crew fuffer feverely. " The Channel
fleet," fays Dr. Milman, " has often buried a hundred men
in a cruize, and landed a thoufand more afllifted with
fcurvy, and yet among thefe there has not been a petty
officer. How does the condition of the petty officer differ

Vol. XXXII.

from that of the common failor ? The one 33 well at the
other is obhged to live on the (hip's provifions. The only
difference is, that the petty oificcrs fleep in clofe births, as
they are called, with canvas hung round, by which they
are (heltered from the inclemencies of the weather. Bcfides
the advantage of warm cabins, they are more warmly clad,
and having a greater plenty of clothes to diift, they are
lefs liable to continue wet, or to be fo unclean as the com-
mon men." (Milman on Scurvy, p. 31.) But the fecu-
rity from fcurvy, obtained by attention to thefe points of
general health, was mod drikingly manifeded in the judi-
cious management of captain Cook, by which he was en-
abled to repeat the voyage, in which the fcurvy had proved
fo fatal to lord Anfon's crew, without lofing any men by
that difeafe. The great navigator ftudied and enforced the
rules of general health with great alllduity, and his fuccefj
was complete. He was efpecially careful to guard againll
the too great fatigue of liis men, and to fccure them as
much as podible from the effefts of cold and moilture. In
the fird place, he divided them into three watches indead
of two, (except upon fome extraordinary occafions,) by
which means they had eight hours red for four of duty,
and did not get the broken fleep, which men in their fitua-
tions have generally obtained. They had thus time to re-
cruit their drength before they were fummoned to return
to their labour, and they were likewife thus lefs expofed
to the weather, than if they had been at watch and watch.
If the men got wet, they had generally dry clothes pro-
vided to fliift themfelves. Proper methods were taken to
keep the ftiips clean, and dry between decks. The ham-
mocks and bedding, every day that was fair, were not only
ordered upon deck, but each bundle was unlaflied, and fo
fpread out, that every part might be expofed to the air.
Befides the ordinary methods of wafliing and fcraping the
decks, captain Cook had fome wood put into a proper
dove, kindled, and carried fucceflivcly to every part below
deck ; which not only contributed to dry the fliip, but by
heating the impure air below, and rendering it fpetifically
lighter than the common air, to make it rife and pals
through the hatchways into the atmofphere. In the tor-
rid zone, he Ihaded his people from the fcorching fun, by
an awning over his de(;k ; while in his courfe imdcr the
antardlic circle, he had a coat provided of a fubdantial
woollen ftuff, with the addition of a hood to cover their
heads. The Ruflian boor, Dr. Milman remarks, fecms to
be greatly indebted to (iinilar nvans for his prclervation
from the fcurvy : for, ihouyli he lives in an extremely cold
climate, cats a good deal of falted meats, has no frefh vege-
tables for fix months of the year, and breathes during that
time tlie foul air of an unvcntilated apartment ; yet, cloth-
ing himfelf in warm flannels, covering himfelf at ni^ht
with warm flicep-fl<in3, providing for his clcanlin<>fs with
the regular ufe of the warm bath, he is feldom afllitlcd
with this calamity.

Captain Cook alfo attended to the nutriment of his meii.
Hard and falted meats require aflldance in their folution
and digedion in the doniach, and a plentiful fupply of
water was always carefully provided hv him. Salt-water,
indeed, may be rendered fweet by diilillation, which de-
privcs it of its faline parts, and may be made more palat-
able by impregnation witli carljonic acid gas, or with robs
and acid juices. This method, however, was not known
to captain Cook. In attending to the diet of his men, he
would not fun"er the fat, whicli is boiled out of fait bci-f
and pork, to be given to his men, as is cudomary. It did
not cfcapc that fagacious officer's notice, that fuch groft
indigeftiblc matters had a great tendency to excite fcuny.

SCURVY.

Thus, then, by an attention to cleanlinefs and ventilation,
by guarding agaiiift fatigue, cold, heat, wet, &c. and by
providing at all times plenty of frefh water, captain Cook's
feamen lived with impunity on their felt provifions. And
a fimilar inftance is mentioned by Dr. Trotter, in the cafe
of the Intrepid, a (hip of fixty-four guns, with a comple-
ment of five hundred men, in lord Rodney's fleet, which
did not lofe a man, except from wounds, for the fpace of
two years and a half. " This (hip was in a very fickly
Hate when captain MoUoy took the command ot her ;
but by the complete mode of difcipline, and attention to
the cleanlinefs of the crew and Ihip, which he eftabhfhed,
health was preferved in a climate reputed to be unwhole-
fome ; and that too, when expofed to the hardlhips which
follow a ftate of frequent or conftant preparation for ac-
tion." (Trotter on the Scurvy.) Even where the ex-
citing caufes exill, therefore, the fcurvy may be prevented
by extraordinary and continued difcipline in the care of the
general health.

Something ftill further, however, has been attempted, in
the way of prevention, by diminifhing the extent of the
chief exciting caufe ; although it may be queftioned, whe-
ther much has been effedted in this way. The Dutch were
fuppofed to have preferved their feamen from fcurvy by
the ufe of four trout with their fait proviiions, and this
article was recommended to the Britilh navy by Dr. Lind :
but it is prepared by a fort of fermentation, which pro-
duces the acidity ; and this fort of acetous acid, the pro-
duft of fermentation, does not appear to be a fubftitute for
the acid of frefh vegetables. Dr. Trotter, however, is of
opinion, that the virtues of this fubftance as an antifcorbutic
are very trifling, and that it has coft the government in its pre-
paration more than it is worth. Another fubltance has alfo
been employed in the Britifli fleet, as a fubllitute for frefh
vegetables in preventing fcurvy, on the recommendation of
Dr. M'Bride, viz. the ejfence or extrafi of malt. It was
recommended upon the hypothetical notion, that it con-
tained much of the cementing principle, as he called it, or
that principle which, when prefent in animal and vegetable
fubftances, prevents the procefs of putrefadion ; and that
by reftoring this principle to the blood, the difeafes, which
aiife, like fcurvy, from a putrid diathefis, (thus heaping
hypothefis upon hypothefis,) would be prevented and cured.
The truth, tiowever, is, that there is little or no carbonic
Bcid in this fubftance ; and the favourable accounts received
at the admiraltv of its beneficial effefts, which induced
them to eflablifh the ufe of elFence of wort as a part of
naval viftualling, are to be afcribed rather to its being a
wholefome, nutritious, and digeltible fubftance, confifting
principally of vegetable mucilage with fome fugar, than to
any fpircific antifcorbutic propertie<:. This appears to be
the opinion of Dr. Trotttr, and Dr. Lmd fpeaks of it
only as " a very nourifhing liquor, well adapted for fcorbutic
patients." It does not appear, however, that thefe articles
are fufScient fubilitutes for frefh vegetable productions ;
and they certainly do rot poflefs the lame powers, with the
latter, of curing the fcurvy, when it already exiils. With
the proper acids, which nave been generally adopted iince
the time of captain Cook, they contribute to the fiipport
of the general health, and therefore to the prevention of
fcurvy.

Tliere is another fpecies of vegetable matter, however,
which appears in (erne meafure to fupply the particular
fubftance, which frefh vegetables afford, and which is ufed
both as a preventive and a cure for the fcurvy, namely,
the acid of limes, lemons, and other fimilar fruits, which
the art of chemiltry has for iorae time fupplitd in a concrete

ftate. Thefe fubftances, we believe, are now confidered
as among the neceffaries for a long voyage, and are pro-
bably much more efficient than the four krout, eflence of
malt, &c.

Cure of Scurvy. — When the preventive meafures have
been neglefted, or ineffeftually employed, and the difeafe has
already appeared, it is very difficult to remove it, while the
circumftancesof diet, &c. remain unchanged. Where thefe
circumftances, however, admit of a change, experience has
fhewn that the cure is very fimple, and often very expedi-
tious. A pure, dry, warm air, with the ufe oi frefh vege-
tables, almoft of any fort, commonly proves effeftual. The
inllin<ftive feelings of thefick, indeed, direct them ftrongly to
the ufe of the chief remedy ; tor there is perliaps no defire fo
intenfe as that which the fcorbutic patient feels for the ufe of
green vegetables, fruits, and acids ; infomuch that the failors of
lord Anion's fliips greedily devoured X.h<: grafs, which was the
firil vegetable matter obtained. The vegetables and fruits
which contain the greateft proportion of acid, are the moit
effeftual remedies for the fymptoms of fea-fcurvy ; wtience
forrel and fuch like plants, but above all limes, lemons,
oranges, apples, currants, &c. aft in a manner as^y^ffj/fcx in
relieving the difeafe. All fucculent vegetables, and thofe
efpecially which are of an arcmatic nature, are ufeful, parli-
cularly when combined with the acid ones ; whence fcurvy-
grafs, horfe-radifh, cieftes, purflam, and the tftradynamise,
are ranked among the antifcorbutics, and numerous plants
have been fpecified by different writers as poflefTed of fpecial
virtues. On the whole, however, the acid juices appear to
be moft fpeedy and eff, tiual remedies lor fcurvy, efpecially
thofe which approach to the nature of the citric acid.

The teltimonies in favour of the fpecific curative powers
of thefe acids in fcurvy are fo numerous as to leave no doubt
of the faft. Even Dr. Lind, with whofe hypothefis re-
fpefting the nature of the difeafe the faft was not quite
compatible, admits, in his poitfcript, their linking efficacy.
" To what has been already faid," he obferves, «« of the
virtues of oranges a:id lemons in this difeafe, I have now to
add, that in feemingly the moft defperate cafes, the moft
quick and fenfible relief was obtained from lemon-juice ; by
which I have relieved many hundred patients, labouring
under almoft intolerable pain and affliAion from this difeafe,
when no other remedy ft-emed to avail." As the acid is apt
to operate violently upon the ftomach and bowels of thofe
who are much weakened. Dr. Liiid recommends tht- addition
of wine and fugar, as couftituting the bcft antifcorbutic,
and was in the practice of ordering about four ounces and a
half of lime or lemon-juice, and two ounces ff fugar, to be
put into a pint of Malaga wine, which was futficient for any
weak patient to take in twenty-four hours.

Dr. Trotter teftifies the extraordinary cure of thefe fcor-
butic fymptoms by the ufe of thefe acids, even though at
the fame time they produce a very lax or purging ftate of
the bowels, and fome degree of emaciation ; while, on the
other hand, the ufe of frefh animal food, ftrong broths, and
wine, produces comparatively very little benefit upon fcor-
butic perfons, although debility is the moft marked fymptom
of the difeafe. This diet and the Peruvian bark will often
produce no favourable change upon fcorbutic ulcers, and
the moft powerful ftimulant apphcations will not alter the
condition of thefe fores : yet in lefs than twenty-four hours
after the ufe of lemon-juice, the livid complexion of the
fores, with the black clot of blood on their furface, will
often difappear, and they will put on a florid and healthy
charader. The farther effetts of the lemon acid are thus
defcribed by Dr. Trotter. " The patient in the inveterate
ftage of the difeafe feeras to gather Itrength even from the

fight

SCURVY.

Tight of the fruit ; the fpirits are exhilarated by the tafte
itfelf ; and the juice is fwallowed with emotions of themoft
voluptuous luxury. The gums are gradually hardened, and
the teeth fixed in their fockets. The dull eye and bloated
looks in a few days put on the clear healthy complexion,
which alfo extends to the whole furface of the body. The
abforption of the effufed blood in different parts goes on
rapidly, and by marking the fpote, you may calculate the
progrefs of the abforption, and the cure of the difeafe.
This abforption befpeaks a degree of ftimulus communicated
to the lymphatic fyilem as well as the fanguiferous, as foon
as the blood has received a fufficient quantity of the vivify.
ing principle. From the effefts of the juice upon the bile,
the colour of the ftools is changed, and a lax ilate of the
bowels is the confequence. But it is to be obferved, that
this laxity of the inteftines may be moderated by giving the
fruit in fmaller quantities : a fpeedy cure, however, demands
that they fhould be given ad libitum, and the greater the
number of lemons taken in a day, the recovery will be mora
rapid in proportion. Loc.'cit. p. 142.

While, on the one hand, thefe frefli vegetables and vegeta-
ble acids fpecdily remove the fymptoms of fcurvy, experience
has fully afcertained, on the other, that the medicines callei
tonics, fucli as the mineral acids, fteel, Peruvian bark, and
the various vegetable bitters, which have alfo been confidered
as antifeptics, or antidotes of putrefaftion, are incapable of
affording any effeftual relief. And wine, which has been
found a valuable remedy in fome low fevers, gives but a
momentary tlimulus ; but it dots not retard the diieafe, nor
afford any permanent relief alone. It was clearly proved,
too, in lord Anfon's fleet and elfewhere, that abundance of
frefh provifions of animal fubftances and fifh, even with
plenty of frefh water, did not tend to arreft the progrefs of
the difeafe. The ufe of mercury appears to be injurious
under every ftage of the fcurvy.

In fpeaking of the predifpofing caufes of fcurvy, we have
mentioned the effeft of the deprefiing paffions in inducing
and aggravating the difeafe ; and we have now to mention,
on the other hand, the remarkable effefts of hope, and the
exciting paflions, in aiding the cure of the dilcafe. The
following llriking example of this medicine of the mind is
related by Vander Mye, in his account of the difeafe, when
it occurred during the fiege of Breda, fpreading dcfpair and
death around. " On the 2d of May, 1625, when the prince
of Orange heard of their diftrefs, and underllood that the
city was in danger of being delivered up to the enemy by
the foldiers, he wrote letters addrefled to the men, promifing
tRem the mofl fpeedy relief. Thefe were accompanied with
medicines againlt the fcurvy, faid to be of great price, but
of ftill greater efBcacy : many more were yet to be fcnt.
The effeds of this deceit were truly aftonifhiiig ! Three
fmall phials of medicine were given to each phylician, not
enough for the recovery of two patients. It was publicly
given out, tliat three or four drops were fufficient to impart
a healing virtue to a gallon of liquor. We now difplayed
our wonder-working balfams. Nor were even the com-
manders let into the iecret of the cheat put upon the foldiers.
They flocked in crowds about us, every one foliciting that
part might be refervcd for their ufe. Cheerfulnefs again ap-
pears on every countenance ; and an univerfal faitii prevails
in the fovercign virtues of the remedy. The herbs now began
to fpring up above the ground ; we of thefe made decoftions,
to which wormwood and camphor were added, that by
their prevalent flavour the medicines might appear of no
mean tfiicacy. The ftilf contraftcd linibs were anointed
with wax melted in rape-feed or linfeed oil. The invention
of new and untried phyfic is boalled j and amidlt a defeft of

every necefTary and ufeful medicine, a ftrange medley of
drugs was compounded. The effeft, however, of the de-
lufion was really aftonifhing : for many were quickly and
perfedtly recovered. Such as had not moved their limbs for
a month before, were feen walking the ftreets found, upright,
and in perfedl health. They boalted of their cure by the
prince's remedy : the motion of their joints being reltored
by a fimplc friftion with oil, nature now of itfelf well per-
forming its office, or at leaft with a fmall afliftance from me-
dicine. Many who declared that they had been rendered
worfe by all former remedies which had been admiiiiilered,
recovered in a few days, to their inexpreffible joy, and the
no lefs general furprife, by the taking (almolt by their
having brought to them) what we affirmed to be their
gracious prince's cure." This account of the curative in-
fluence of the paffions is fully fanftioned by the t^atemeHt
in lord Anfon's voyage, already quoted, and by a faft men-
tioned by Mr. Ives, in his journal. On the 30th of January,
1744, there were nearly feventy perfons ill of fcurvy in the
Mediterranean fleet ; yet the joy of approaching the enemy's
fleet, and the hope of beating them, had fuch an effeft, that
on the nth of February following, when the engagement
happened, there were not above five men not at their fight-
ing quarters.

Many remedies have been mentioned by different writers,
who have treated of fcurvy, and many local applications
and methods of curing particular urgent fymptoms, fuch a9
hemorrhages, fpongy gums, ulcerations, diarrhoea, ftiffnefi
of the tendons, &c. have been detailed ; but it is unnecef-
fary to repeat them ; finca the only effcftual mode of
alleviating particular fymptoms is the radical cure of the
conllitutional difeafe. " Fomentations, the warm-baths,
&c." Dr. Trotter obferves, " have been often tried for
the rigid tendons, and hardnefs of the mufclcs, but with-
out effedl : ilimulant applications have been equally un-
fuccefsful. For the difficult breathing and tightnefs about
the breafl, blifters and the whole train of expectorants arc
infufficient to relieve them. Opium itfelf, our laft and only
refuge in other cafes of acute pain, affords no rcfrelhing
flecp or eafe to the fcorbutic fufferer. We have heard
much of fudoriiics opening the pores of the flcin and foftcn-
ing the furface ; but this is trifling with the com])laint. It
is only the produce of frclh vegetation, that can adminifter
to him the reviving cordial ; and a few lemons will do more
to afiuage his anguifli than the whole art of pharmacy."
P. 231.

On the Nature »f Scurvy. — Various hypothefes liave been
framed at different times, according to tiie prevalent patho-
logical doftrines, to account for the phenomena of this
Angular and formidable difeafe ; and like moll other medical
hypothefes, they have hinged chiefly upon two principles,
by one of wliich they are referred to certain morbid condi-
tions of the blood or circulating fluids, and by the other
to morbid changes in the property of the living folids. If
we take into confideration, however, the whole phenomena
of the difeafe, its caufes, and remedies, we fluiU find
confiderable difficulty in admitting either of thele hypo-
thefes exclufivcly, and not a little in giving any lati:fattary
view of the fubjed, even by allowing tiie partial truth of
both.

All the older writers, being of the bumoral fchool, main-
tained the dodrine of a morbid flate of llie fluids, as the
proximate caule of fcurvy. Bocrliaave and his adiicrents
referred the difeafe to an acrimony of the fluids, which tlicy
fuppofed would be of a different quality, accorduig to the
different caufes which produced it ; thus it would be an
alkaline acrimony from fait and putrid provifions and foul
O 2 water,

SCURVY.

water, and an acid acrimony from bad forts of bread or
vegetable gluten, combined with a fedentary life. (See
Boerluavc, Aph. tijj.) Dr. CuUen, too, though he re-
liaquifhed much of the humoral pathology, was of opinion
that fcurvy was the effeft of " a preternaturally faline, and
confequently diffolved ftate of the blood," which was oc-
cafioned by a greater advance towards putrefaction, from
the abfence of the correftive of vegetable matters. (See
Firll Lines, par. 1812 — 13.) And fir John Pringle main-
tained a fimilar doftrine, that fcurvy was the refult of " a
gradually accumulating putrefaftion" in the blood, from
the putrefcency of falted food, which he deemed the chief
caufe of the difeafe. ( See liis Obf. on Dif. of the Army,
Appendix, p. xci.) In fact, the general opinion, for a
long period, deemed fcurvy the molt characleriilic example
of a putrid difeafe. And this putridity of the fluids was
inferred from the fetor of tlie breath, and of the ulcers ;
from the black colour and loofe confiftence of the blood ;
from the extenfive haemorrhages ; from the purple blotches
on the lliin, &c. But this is a gratuitous and erroneous
inference : for we have no lefs authority than that of Dr.
Lind, who made numerous experiments on the fubjeft, for
aflerting that blood, drawn from fcorbutic patients, even in
a dying ftate, difcovers no fenfible teft of either acrimony
or putridity, by the tafte or the fmcU ; that the ferum of
fuch blood is as taftelefs as the white of an egg, and without
odour ; that it corrupts in the air no fooner than the blood
of healthy perfons ; and that thin dices of mutton, immerfed
in this ferum, continued fweet and free from taint, as long
as In the ferum of perfons in health. We know, indeed,
from aftual experiments, that if the fmalleft quantity of
putrid matter be injefted into the blood-veffels, it is fol-
lowed by fpcedy death. (See a Diff. by Dr. Scybert, on
the Putrefaftion of the Blood, Philadelpiiia, 1793.) The
ordinary fecretions from the blood are not putrefcent, as has
bees aflerted. Dr. Lind affirms, " the urine in this difeafe
was not found to be more offenfive to tlie fmell, nor to
corrupt fooner, than that of a perfon in health ; and their
fweat is not fetid, or more difagreeable than when they are
ill health: the fame may be faid of their ilools." (Poll-
fcript, p. 5 1 5') The fame experienced phyfician juftly ob-
ferves, " the offenfive fmell from the mouth of fcorbutic
perfons, when ahve, feems to me to proceed folely from the
corrupt ftate of the gums. For in their dead bodies I
never perceived any unufual marks of putrefaftion ; they
were neither more offenfive, nor liable to corrupt fooner,
than any other corpfe." In a word, the notion of a putri-
dity of the circulating blood is not only unfupported by
aftual evidence, but is refuted by all fober faft and obfer-
vation ; and thefe experiments of Dr. Lind prove that there
is not even a pronenefs to putridity exiiting in either folids
or fluids.

Can we account, then, for the phenomena of fcurvy upon
the other hypothefis, which afcribes the malady to certain
morbid conditions of the living folid ? This view of the
fubjeft was ably advocated by doftor, now fir Francis
Milman, in one of the moft elegant medical efTays in the
Englifh language, publifhed in the year 1782, (Enquiry
into the Source of the Symptoms of Scurvy and Putrid
Fevers, &c.) ; and, in taft, it affords the moft rational expla-
nation of moil of the^fymptoms of the difeafe, according to
the phyfiological and pathological doftrines which modern
inquiries have tftabhflied. It is not at prefcnt, therefore,
ueceffary for us to enter into any minute detail of the
iymptoms, with the view of explaining them upon the
principle of a weakened and impaired condition of the ner-
vous fyilem, and of the mufcular irritability. This has been

accomplifhed at great length by Dr. Milman, taking this
ample enumeration of Boerhaave, in his 1151ft aphorifm, as
the text, to which we refer the reader.

This view of the fubjeft appears alfo to accord better, on
the whole, with our knowledge of the pre-difpofing and
exciting caufes of the difeafe above detailed. The various
kinds of diet, under which fcurvy occafionally originates,
is ill calculated to produce any particular acrimony of the
fluids ; and the dry pulfe and glutinous pudding of the
Bohemians on (hore could not have the fame tendency to
putrefaftion as the falted animal diet of feamen. Yet all
thefe fubflances might equally fail, from their indigeftibility,
or from the defeft of nutritious matter which they contained,
to fupport the ftrength and vigour of the moving fibre, and
would equally contribute, therefore, to produce that lan-
guor of the vital powers, which is fo conlpicuous in the
progrcfs of fcurvy. The analogy of fcurvy with the ignis
facer, admirably defcribed by Lucretius, which appears to
have been commonly the refult of famine, and often called
peftilence, (whence M. Poupart was correft in comparing
the epidemic fcurvy of Paris with fome of the ancient .
plagues) feems to fupport the fame doftrine. (See Ignis
Jacer.) And all the pre-difpofing caufes, on the one hand,
which arc principally debilitating caufes, fatigue, indolence,
want of fufficient fleep, cold and moifture, and the means of
prevention, on the other, which are fuch as fupport the
general vigour of the conflitution, moderate exercife, fuffi-
cient fleep, frefli air, warmth, &c. concur in eiiincing the
ftate of the moving fibre to be the fource of the morbid
fymptoms. The fame opinion is alfo farther fupported by
the extraordinary influence of mental impreffions in pro-
ducing and in preventing or curing the difeafe. Thefe im-
preffions cannot fuddenly change the chemical condition of
the fluids j but their influence upon the hving iohd, through
the medium of the nervous fyftem, is manifeft both in
health and difeafe, to a degree that unlearned perfons will
fcarcely credit. (See Imagination, Influenci of, and Imi-
tation. ) The difcharges of blood from the relaxed and
enfeebled orifices of the veffels, the gangrenous and confe-
quently putrefcent tendency of the gums, and other dehcate
parts, the fainting and even dying on the fiighteft exertion,
the dropfical fwellings, the labouring breath, the oppreffion
about the heart, &c. &c. appear to be the refult of dimi-
nifhed ftrength in all the mufcles, and of enfeebled aftion
in all the veflels, the confequences of a general failure of
the vital or nervous power.

Such, then, appears to be the advantage, in point of
argument and analogy, which the doftrine of difeafed folids
poffclTes over that of acrimony and putrefaftion in the fluids.
Neverthelefs this theory is by no means fatisfaftory : it is
in fome meafure, indeed, incompatible with the moft ftriking
and well afcertained faft, that the fcurvy is not curable by
thofe means which appear to contribute in general to the
ftrength and aftivity of the folids, fuch as fref.i animal
food, wine, bark, foups, &c. ; while it is fpecdily and cer-
tainly removed by the ufe of vegetable acids, which con-
tain no nutritive quality, and are fo far deftitute of corro-
borating power, that they even induce emaciation, while they
cure the difeafe. In truth, we can give no fatisfaftory
theory of this difeafe : but our pofleffion of a certain remedy,
and our knowledge of the means of prevention, may fairly
fuperfede all hypothefes upon the fubjeft. In this, and in
all other difeafes, experience and obfervation are the only
guides which the judicious phyfician will follow. The in-
iiinftive demands of the fick point out the fource of relief,
as hunger and tliirft lead us to food and drink ; and it is
enough to have obferved, that, by gratifying thefe demands,

the

s c u

s c u

the difeafe is cured, and to Lave inferred, that by antici-
pating them it is prevented from occurring. This is the
true fource of all our knowledge, medical or phyfical ; and
our hypothefes refpefting the obfcure agencies of nature,
which are incomprehenfible, as the empirics of old wifely
maintained, are at leaft fuperfluous : for they are not the
caufe, but the refult of our praftical information. " Re-
pertis deinde medicinx remediis, homines de rationibus
eornm diflerere cxpifTe ; nee pod rationem medicinam elie
inventam, fed poll inventam medicinam, rationem effe qus-
litam." Celfus, Pra^fat.

Before we conclude, however, we may be allowed to
notice one theory, to which modern chemillry has given
rife, but which appears to us to be as imperfeftly deve-
loped as thofe to which we have already alluded. Dr.
Trotter has advanced tliis doftrine ; and we believe the
late Dr. Beddoes has maintained a funilar opinion. As the
acidifying principle which cxifts, but is rather loofely
combined in the vegetable acids and green vegetables (the
oxygen of modern nomenclature), appears to be wanting, not
only in the faked and other animal fubftances, but alfo
in the farinaceous and unfermented vegetable food, which
has given rife to fcurvy, it has been iuggefted, that this
oxygen may be the remedy for fcurvy, and its abfence
from the folids and fluids of the body, the proximate caufe
of the difeafe. This fuppofition Dr. Trotter coufiders as
farther confirmed by the blackncfs of the blood difcharged,
and by the fpeedy change to a florid hue, which the fun-
gous ulcerations aflume, within a few hours after the acids
have been adminiftered. For it is well known, that fuch
a change is always the refult of the contadl of oxygen with
the blood, and that it takes place regularly in the lungs,
during refpiration, the black blood of the veins being con-
verted into florid arterial blood by that procefs. There is
fome plaufibihty in this view of the fubjeft ; but it affords
no means of explaining the concourfe of the fymptoms,
and does not lead us to any additional expedients for the
cure. In the application of the remedies all agree, and
their peculiar explanations of their operation are of light
importance. For, as the fage empirics of antiquity con-
tended, " nihil iltas cogitationcs ad medicinam pertinere,
eo quoque difci, quod, qui diverfa de his fenferint, ad
eandem tamen fanitatem homines perduxerint." Celfus,
loc. cit.

There is a Angular difeafe, which, in many of its fymp-
toms, refembles the fcurvy, and is commonly confidered to
be of the fame nature, but which differs very materially in
the circumflances under which it originates, and in the
remedies which it requires, of which we have already treated
at length under its proper head. This has been delcribed
under various denominations, fuch as land-fcurvy, petechise
fine febre, haemorrhxa petechialis, purpura, &c. See Pur-
pura, and HiEMORUH.EA.

Sc\JRV\-Grafs, in Botany. See CoCHLEAltlA.

Scurvy- Gr^yj, Scotch. See Soldanel.

SCUT, among Sport/men, the tail of a hare or rabbit.

SCUTAGE, ScuTAGiuM, in yinciait Cujloms. See

ESCUAGE.

SCUTARI, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Albania, anciently the rcfidencc of the
kings ot lUyricum, fitnatcd on a lake to which it gives name ;
now the refidence of a bcglerbeg, a Greek archbifhop, and a
Latin bifliop; 52 miles S.E. of Ragufa. N. lat. 42° 27'.
E. long. 19" 14'. — Alfo, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Natolia, on the Bofphorus, oppofite to Con-
itantinoplc, called by the ancients " Chryfopolis," as being
the emporium where the Perfians collefted the tributes of

their acquired dominions : this town, after having expe-
rienced many viciffitudesof profperity and adverfuy, is row
full of houies and mofques. It is a faftiion for the Turks
at Conltantinople to be interred at Scutari.

SCUTARIENSE Promoxtouium, \a Ancient Geogra-
phy, a promontory of Alia Minor, in the Thracian Bofpho-
rus, N.E. of Byzantium.

SCUTARI US, among the Romans, befidcs its ordi-
nary fignitication of a fliield-maker, v;as ufed to denote one
of the emperor's lile-guards, bccaufe their whole body was
covered with armour.

SCUTCHEON. See Escutcheon.

ScvTCHEoyi- Grafting. See En'grakting.

SCUTE, a French gold coin of 3^. 4//. in the reign of
king Henry V. And Catharine, queen of England, had
an affurance made her of fundry cailles, manors, lands, &c.
valued at the fum of forty thoufand_/2u/fj, every two of which
were worth a noble.

SCUTELLA, in Botany, a little diih, or faucer, is
ufed by Dillenius, Linnaeus, and their followers, for the pe-
culiar receptacle of the feeds in moll fpecies of Lichen', fee
that article ; and which is nearly all that we know of their
frudlification. This receptacle confilts of a fmooth difk,
almolt always of a different colour from the reit of the
plant, as well as from its own border. Its internal fubftance
is of a denfe fpongy, corky, or waxy texture, filled with
innumerable parallel vertical cells, each of which contains a
row of feeds, ufually eight in number, one above another.
The difk itfelf is either flat, flightly concave, ur fomcwhat
convex, bordered by a rim, formed out of the leafy or
crultaceous frond, and fometimes by an elevation of its own
fubftance. The latter is the cafe with thofe Lichenes deno-
minated tuberculatl, whofe difli often becomes fo much ele-
vated as to overtop, or obliterate, this kind of border.
The rim formed out of tlie frond is termed by Acharius
marga accejforius ; that whicli is of the fubilance of the difl^
is his margo proprlus .

Some confuiion has arifen in tlic Englifh denomination of
the part in qucllion, which is now univcrfally called ajhietd,
in preference to Dillenius's word faucer ; nor will any one,
furely, difapprove of the change. The fource of the Latin
fcutella is fciitum, a fhield, and Linnxus, in his Philofophia
Botatiica, appears to have intended uilng fcutel/um, a little
(hield, inflead oi fcutella, a little di(h. If he had kept to
the former, our Englifh word would indeed have been more
flridtly correft, but it is Hill fuflicieritly lo to preclude any
necefhty of altering what is now generally adopted.

SCUTELLARIA, derived from /fu/</Aj, a fmall difh
or faucer, apparently in allufion to the little concave ap-
pendage which crowns the calyx. Some have thought
it to be more direftly derived from fciilellum, a little fhield,
to which they have compared the appendage. Others have
preferred the name CaJJlcla, comparing the calyx oi the
fruit to a helmet. — Linn. Gen. 301. Schrcb. 397. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 3. 426. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 645. Prodr. Fl. Grace. Sibth. v. i. 424. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 3. 426. Juff. 117. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. v. 2. 11. Purlh v. 2. 402. Lamarck Illuilr.
t. 515. (Cafliida; Touriief. t. S4.) — Clafs and order,
Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Ferticillat^, Linn.
Labiate, .lull.

Gen. Cii. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very fliorl,
tubular ; rim almoft; entire, after flowering clofed with a lid,
permanent. Cor. of one petal, ringeiit. Tube very Ihort,
bent backwards ; throat long, comprefled. Upper lip con-
cave, trifid ; the middle fegmcnt concave, emargmatc ;
lateral ones flat, rather acute, lying under the middle one.

Lower

SCUTELLARIA.

Lower lip broader, erearginate. Stam. Filaments four,
concealed under the upper lip, two of them longer ; anthers
fmall. Pi/l. Germen fuperior, four-cleft ; ftyle thread-
fhaped, reiembling the ftamens in fituation and length ;
ftigma fimple, incurved, pointed. Perk, none, except the
clofed calyx, which is Ihaped like a helmet, triangular,
burfting- at the lower margin. Seeds four, roundifh.

Obf. Thia genus is eafily and fufficiently diftinguilhable
from all others by the fruit alone, for the clofed calyx, con-
taining the feeds, with its creft and lid, fomewhat refemblea
a helmet.

E(r. Ch. Rim of the calyx nearly entire, clofed, and
covered with a lid after flowering.

1. S. orientalis. Yellow-flowered Skull-cap. Linn. Sp.
PI. 834. Sm. Fl. Grscc. Siblh. t. 580, unpubhlhed.
(CafTida crientalis, cham^edryos folio, flore luteo ; Tourn.
It. V. 2. 129, with a plate.) — Leaves with deep parallel
teeth ; downy beneath. Spikes cylindrical, flightly quad-
rangular.— Native of Barbary and the Levant, flowering
from May to July. Stems nearly a foot high, branched from
the bottom, fpreading on the ground, lakuig root at the
lower joints. Leaves ftalked, almoft peftinate, more or lefs
downy ; green above, but white underneath. Spikes rather
fhort, compofed of bright-yellow very handfome Jloivers,
with ovate brownith bradeas. The whole herb is bitter.
Ill the Syjlema Vegetcibllium the corolla is faid to be purple
with a white lip ; confounding it perhaps with the next
fpecies.

2. S). grandiflora. Large-flowered Skull-cap. Ait. n. 2.
Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 635. — Leaves heart-lhaped, deeply
crenate, downy on both fides, (horter than their ftalks.
Spikes very ftiort, quadrangular. Corolla hairy, four times
longer than the brafteas. — Native of Siberia, and intro-
duced by Mr. Loddiges in 1804. It flowers in July. A
hardy perennial, like the laft, of which indeed it may
pofiibly be only a variety. The /pikes are (horter, and ths
corolla is larger in proportion to the fize of the braHeas, lilac-
coloured, with a yellow palate. Leaves rounder, lefs downy
beneath, but foft on both fldes. Dr. Sims fays " it ap-
proaches very nearly to the variety of S. orientalts found in
Georgia by Tournefort, and dcfcribed in his travels."

3. S. alpina. Alpine Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI. S34.
AlUon. Pedem. t. 26. f. 3. "Waldft. et Kitaib. Hung.
V. 2. 146. t. 137." — Leaves heart-fliaped, ferrated or
jagged. Spikes imbricated, roundifh or flightly four-
fided. Bracteas twice as fliort as the flower. — Native of
Switzerland a,nd Hungary. It flowers from June to October.
Stem procumbent at firft, then erect, very much branched,
from fix to twelve inches in height. Leaves on (hort llalks,
obtufe, downy. Fkivers pale violet-coloured, with a white
Hpper lip. Linnxus in Sp. PI. compares this to fupitia,
meaning the following, to which it is indeed very like

4. S. lupuliiia. Tartarian Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI.
835. " Schmidel. Ic. 272. t. 73." — Leaves heart-lhaped,
ferrated or jagged, acute, fmooth. Spikes imbricated,
roundifli or flightly four-fided. Brafleas the length of the
flowers. — Native of Siberia and Tartary, flowering from
June to September. Stems ftirubby and trailing. Leaves
jagged at their edges, fmooth on both fides. FloiL<ers white,
or blue, fometimcs yellowifli-white, very largr. In habit
greatly refembhng the lall, but different in colour, and
having much longer bradeas.

5. S. lateriflora. Virginian Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI.
835. (S. paluftris repens virgiiiiana major, flore minore ;
Morif. Hift. v. 3. 416. n. 7.) — Leaves fmooth, rough at
the keel. Clufters lateral, leafy. Brafteas fetaceous. —
Found on the fides of ditches and ponds between Canada

and Carolina, flowering from July to September. Purjb.
The flems of this fpecies refemble thofe of the following in
height and habit, but are fomewhat larger. Leaves (lalked,
ovate, ferrated. Flowers in lateral clutters, fmall, blue,
each partial ftalk bearing two fetaceous braSeas.

6. S. nervofa. Ribbed Skull-cap. Purfli n. 2. — Stem
nearly fimple, fmooth. Leaves feflile, ovate, toothed,
ribbed. Clufter terminal, lax, leafy. — On the banks of
rivulets in Virginia, flowering in July and Augull. This
perennial herb has blue_^9':t;i'/j-, which are larger than thofe
of the foregoing fpecies. Purjh.

7. S. galericulata. Common Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI.
835. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 523. Curt. Lond.
fafc. 3. t. 36. Fl. Dan. t. 637. — Leaves heart-lanceolate,
crenate, rugged. Flowers axillary. Common on the banks
of rivers, and wet ditches, as well in Britain as in other
parts of Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. Root
perennial, creeping. Stem ereft, one or two feet high,
branched in the middle, leafy, fliarply quadrangular, rough-
ifli. Leaves on very fliort italks, fpreading, unequally
notched, rugofe, veined, downy, paler beneath. Flowers
axillary, folitary, nearly fcfTile, in pairs inclined the fame
way, drooping, blue, or purplifti, and white.

8. S. hajlifolia. Haftate-leavcd Skull-cap. Linn. Sp.
PI.' 835. (Scutellaria folio non ferrato ; Rivin. Monop.
Irr. t. 77.) — Leaves quite entire; lower ones haltate ; |
upper arroW-fliaped. — Found on the fliores of frefli waters,
in Sweden and Auft:ria, but not very common. It flowers
in June and July. Root creeping. Stem generally fimple.
Leaves blunter than in the preceding, not at all notched, ;
eared at the bafe. Flowers axillary, folitary, in pairs, blue, I
larger than in the laft fpecies, to which it is very clofely
allied, and of which both Linnarus and Scopoli hint that it :
may be only a variety.

9. S. minor. Leffcr Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI. 835.
Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 524. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4.
t. 43. — Leaves heart -ovate, nearly entire. Flowers axillary.
— Rather a Icarce native of Britain, and the fouth of Eu-
rope, in a moill gravelly foil ; flowering about AugulL
Root perennial, creeping. Whole habit much refembling
5. galericulata, but the plant is about four times as fmall.
Stem branched at the bafe. Leaves broader, rugofe, moftly
entire, fometimes toothed at the bafe, and as it were flightly
hallate. Flowers of a delicate pink colour, rarely blueifli ;
their lip white, fpotted with red.

10. S. humilis. Dwarf Skull-cap. Brown Prodr. Nov.
HoU. V. I. 507. — Leaves ovate or heart-fliaped, coarfely
crenate ; dotted and rather downy beneath. Flowers axil-
lary'. Calyx fmoothifh, half as long as the corolla. —
Found by Mr. Brown at Port Jackfon, as well as in the
fouth parts of New Holland. We received fpccimens, in
1793, from Dr. White. This agrees in fize, and fomewhat
in habit, with the laft, but the leaves are fmaller, more
rounded, deeply notched, with curved briftly hairs about
their ribs and margins. Flowers folitary, oppofite, fpread-
ing different ways.

11. S. mollis. Soft Skull-cap. Brown ibid. — "Downy,
with capitate hairs. Leaves heart-fliaped, oblong-ovate,
deeply crenate. Flowers axillary ; their ftalks as long as
the footftalks." — Gathered by Mr. Brown near Port Jack-
fon.

12. S. angujliforia. Narrow-leaved Skull-cap. Purfli
n. 4. — " Unbranched, finely downy. Leaves linear.
Flowers axillary, oppofite. Stamens rather prominent."
— Found by governor Lewis, on the banks of the river
Koolkoofky. Perennial, flowering in June. PurJh.

13. S. parvula. Minute Skull-cap. Michaux Boreali-

Araer,

SCUTELLARIA.

Amer. v. 2. 11. furfii n. 5. — "Denfely downy, un-
Ijranched. Leaves feflile, ovate, entire, all uniform.
Flowers axillary, folitary." — Found by Michaux in Canada
and the country of the Illinois ; by Purlh on the banks of
rivers in Virginia. Biennial, flowering in June and July.
Not above two inches high. Flovurs fmall, pale blue.
Purjh.

14. S. caroliniana. Carolina Skull-cap. Lamarck Dift.

V. 7. 706. lUuftr. t. 515. f. 3. Purlh n. 6 " Branched,

very fmooth. Leaves ftalked, linear-lanceolate, acute, en-
tire. Cluftcrs lax, leafy. Calyx obtufe." — Gathered in
Carolina by Mr. Frafer. Poiret. Root perennial. Leaves
about two inches long ; th*' uoperones much diminifhtd, ac-
companying the^cwers, which are the fize of S- gakricu-
lata, yellowifli-white, fpotted at the apex with blue.

15. S. teucriifoUa. Germander-leaved Skull-cap. (S.
integrifoha ; Linn. Sp. PI. 836, excluding the reference to
Gronovius. S. cxrult-a virginiana glabra, lamii, aut potius
teucrii, folio, minor ; Pluk. AlmagelL 338. Phyt. t. 313.
f. 4. S. teucrii folio marilandica ; Rail Hid. v. 3. 310. )
— Leaves feflile, ovate ; the lower ones bluntly and dillantly
ferrated ; upper entire. Flowers axillary, folitary, on hairy
ftalks. — Native of North America. The Jlem is above a
foot high, unbranched, flender, fquare, fmooth, leafy.
Leaves refcmbli.ij' Veronica Teucrium, about an inch long,
nearly feflile, flijihtly dotted beneath, fmooth, except the
ribs and margin, which are clothed with curved briltly hairs.
Fh-wers turned one way, fmall. Calyx hairy at the ribs
and margin. Corolla hairy, blue. Such is the plant Lln-
rsEus intended as his integrifolia, which he received from
Kalm, along with another fpecimen, pafted on the fame
paper, which he did i.ot perceive to be merely a fmoothifh
variety of his own hyjfopifol'ia^ and which led him to quote
Gronovius's Flora Virginica improperly in this place, as well
as to choofe the name of integrijolia. This appellation, how-
ever, being erroneous, and having caufed much confufion
among fubfequent botanifts, is belt laid afide, and we have
preferred one taken from the very apt fynonyms of Plukenet
and Ray. The figure of the former however reprefents the
footjlalks too long, and the jloral leaves too fmall. Mr.

Piirfh feems not to have recognized this plant. At leaft we
can refer it to none of his fpecies.

16. S. hyffopifoUa. Hyftbp-leaved Skull-cap. L'nn. Sp.
PI. 836. Mant. 414. Willd. n. 12. (S. integrifolia ;
Ait. n, 10. Pur(h n. 7. Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2. iz.
S. virginiana, hyffopi angullis foliis, flore cacruleo ; Pluk.
Almag. 338. t. 441. f. 6. S. foliis iiitegerrimis ; Gron.
Virg. ed. I. 67, txclndiiig the references to Plukenet and
Ray.) — Leaves linear-lanceolate, obtufe, entire, fomcwhat
iialked, finely downy ; copioudy dotted beneath. Clullers
compound, rather lax, leafy, downy. On dry hills, in a
rich toil, from New York to Carolina, flowering from July
to September. Perennial, very variable in the fize and
figure of the leaves, fimple or branched Jlems. Flowers
large, handfomc, blue. PurJh. We fee no reafon to
transfer the name of integrifolia to this, which has already
one fo greatly preferable. The whole herb, as well as the
tal-jx and corolla, are finely downy and fomewhat Iioary.

17. S./trrala. Great Serrated Skull-cap. Andr. Repof.
t. 494. Pnrfh n. 8. — Leaves ovate, pointed, ierrated,
ftalked, nearly fmooth. Clullers compound, rather lax,
Klightly downy. Bradteas lanceolate. — In fields and meadows,
from Virginia to Carolina, flowering from July to September.
PurJh. The _y?cm is three feet higli. Leaves two or three
inches long, and above one broad, tapering at the bafe.
Flowers copious, large and handfome, of a fine deep blue.
This is a very ornamental perennial herb, worthy of culti-

vation in gardens. We received it from the fine colleftion
of James Vere, efq. at Knightfbndge. Mr. Purfh remarks
that "authors trke th> for tl • inlegrifnlia," meaning per-
haps Mr. Donn in his Hort. CaUal. Mi . Alton has it not ;
except under its true nanie, in the AJJenJa to his Epitome.

18. S. pilofa. Wood Skull-cip. Michaux Boreah-
Amer. v. 2. 11. Purfh n. 9, excluding the reference to
Plukenet. — Leaves rem .te. rhomboid-ovate, obtufe, roundly
trenate, tapering at the bale, downy. Clufters lax, moftly
compound. Bracteas lanceolate, nearly entire. — In fhady
woods, from Virginia to Carolina ; perennial, flowering in
Jily and Auguil. — Refembles the laft, but is a fmaller
plant, with only a few leaves. PurJh. Poflibly this author
may be right in his citation of Plukenet's figure, which we
have referred, like Linnasus, to our fifteenth fpecies. It is
impoflible, with fuch bad materials, to decide, but the words
of Plukenet anfwer bell to that fpecies.

19. S. havanenjis. Havannah Skull-cap. Jacq. Amer.
172. Obf. fafc. 2. 5. t. 29. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 11. —
Stem decumbent. Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped,
crenate. Flowers folitary, axillary. Each lip of the corolla
three-cleft. — Gathered byJacquin, on rocks near the fea at
the Havannah, flowering in December. A delicate, pro-
cumbent little branching herb, with nearly fmooth leaves,
much fhorter than the large, blue, axillary, flalked^swfr/.
It is faid to have been brought to Kew, in 1793, by Capt.
Bligh, and is marked by Mr. Alton as a perennial Hove
plant, flowering in May and June.

20. S. purpumfcens. Purple-leaved Weft-Indian Skull-
cap Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1013. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 66.
Willd. n. II. — Stem proftrate. Leaves ovate, fomewhat
heart-fhaped, toothed, fmooth. Clufters terminal, naked.
Each lip of the corolla three-cleft. — Native of the Caribean
iflands Stem herbaceous, branched, din"ufe, like the pre-
ceding, with afcending fmooth branches, five or fix inches
long. Leaves ftalked, obtufe, diltantly toothed, rather
hairy, of a purplifli-blue after the flowers are paft ; their

footjlalks very long and lax. CItiJlers eieft, folitary, many-
fluwered, lax, an inch or two long. Fhtuers blue.

21. S. indica. Eaft Indian Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI.
836. Willd. n. 15. (S. finica, betonicae foliis, floribus
albis ; Phik.Amalth. 190. t. 441. f. I.) — Stem decumbent.
Leaves roundifh-ovate, crenate, finely downy. Clullers
terminal. Brafteas blunt, ilalkcd, fhorter than the cilyx.
— Native of Ciiiiia and the Eall Indies. A hoary, branched,
decumbent herb, about a foot long. Leaves ftalked, rounder
and larger than in the two lafl. Flowers forming rather
clofe clujlers, two or three inches in length. The SerrafuU
amara, Rumph. Ambioii. v. 6. 459. t. 170. f. i. not 2,
can have nothing to do with tliis, being a fmooth plant,
with twin zxWhryf owers, and a capfiile, containing nume-
rous mxnvilc feeils. It feems that Linnirus did not always
advert to every particular in the defcriplions to which he re-
ferred ; for there is here no millake as to what he intended,
the plate of the Herbarium AmboincBfc being marked with
his own hand.

22. S. hirta. Cretan Skull-cap. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grxc.
Sibth. 1417. Fl. Grxc. t. 583, unpubliflied- (Caflidacre-
tica minor, cataria: folio, flore lubiaruleo ; Tourn. Cor. 1 1.
Scordote fecundo di Plinio ; Pon. Bald. 91. t. 93.)— Leaves
heart-fhaped, ferrated, hairy as well as the Item. Spike*
denle, unilateral. Brafteas ftalked, half the length of the
flowers. — Native of ftiady fituations on the mountains of
Cretff. The root is perennial, fibrous, fomewli.it woody.
Stems feveral, Ipreading, afcending, about a fpan high, le.ifv,
rough with fpieaduig hairs. Leaves rather p.ile, coarfcly
ferrated, hoary with long white hairs. Focijlalkt luiry,

' alnioll

s c u

s c u

almoft as long as the leaves. Spikes fomewhat aggregate,
ereft, denfe, many-flowered, hairy, two or three inches
long. BruSeas ovate, entire, longer than the calyx.
Flowers all turned one way. Calyx covered with very long
denfe hairs, fpreading in all direftions. Corolla downy ;
Its upper lip pale lilac ; lower, as well as the tube, green:ih-
white.

23. S. psregrina. Dark-red Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PL
836. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 12. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
t. 582, unpublifticd. — Leaves heart-fliapcd,ferrated, minutely
downy as well as the ftem. Spikes elongated, unilateral.
Brafteas two-ranked, ovate, ftalked, about the length of the
flowers. Corolla hairy, its lower lip notched. — Native of
Italy, Hungary, and the Levant. A more (lender and up-
right plant than the Jail, about a foot and half high.
Stem purplidi, downy, not hairy. Leaves oblong-heart-
(haped, neatly cienate, clothed fparingly with fhort hairs,
fometimes almoft fmooth. Spiles fix or eight inches long,
\vith large braSeas. Calyx covered with fhort hairs. Corolla
of a dark blood-red, with a pale yellow palate ; its tube
elongated, clothed with long fpreading hairs.

24. S. albida. Pale Hairy-cupped Skull-cap. Linn.
Mant. 248. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 3. Sm. Fl. Grace.
Sibth. t. 581, unpublifhed. (S. tcucrii facie ; Bauh. Hift.
■V. 3. 291.) — Leaves heart-fhaped, ferratcd, downy as well
as the ftem. Spikes elongated, unilateral. Bratteas two-
ranked, ovate, ftalked, nearly equal to the flowers. Corolla
downy, its lower lip entire. — Native of the Levant ; found
by Dr. Sibthorp on Mount Olympus. Very nearly akin
to the laft, and not in the leaft refembling orientalis, to which
Linnaeus, in his Sy/lema Vegetabilium, by fome unaccount-
able error, compares this fpecies. It is, if pofTible, more
ftrange that he (hould at one time have confounded albida
with alpina, as appears by his herbarium. S. albida differs
from percgrina in having broader, more coarfely ferrated
leaves, more crowded and numerous Jlowers, whofe corolla is
cream-coloured, downy, not clothed with long hairs ; the
edge of its lower lip even and entire, not lobed, undulated,
or notched. The calyx, on the contrary, bears much longer
hairs than that of peregrina.

25. S. altijfima. Tall Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. Pi. 836.
Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 13. (S. Columnae ; AUion. Pedem.
V. 1. 40. t. 84. f. 2. Willd. n. 14. CafSda; Column. Ecphr.
V. I. 187. t. 189. C. orientalis altifDma, urtici folio; Tourn.
Cor. II.) — Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated, acute, nearly
fmooth. Spikes elongated, unilateral. Brafteas ovate,
acute, ftalked, fhorter than the calyx. — Native of Italy,
Mount Caucafus, and the Levant. Miller cultivated it in
173 I, and one of his own fpecimens, compared with thofe
of AUioni, have enabled us to verify the above fynonyms,
and to reduce two reputed fpecies, of this difficult and con-
fufed genus, into one. The prefent differs from both the two
laft, in having haves twice their fize, befprinkled with only
a few minute fcattered hairs, fo as to feel nearly fmooth.
But its moft effential character confifts in the fmallnefs of
the bradeas, whofe points do not extend beyond the calyx.
The /pikes therefore appear almoft naked, confiiting of nu-
merous purple Aownyjloiuers, whole calyx, like Xheflower-

Jlalhs and bradeas, is rough with glandular vifcid hairs.

The laft fpecies in Linnaeus, Willdenow, and Aiton, 5.
cretica, require to be expunged, being the very fame plant
as Teucrium Arduini, Linn. Mant. 81, and announced as
fuch in Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. i. 392. Its calyx
and habit accord with Teucrium, not with Scutellaria.

Scutellaria, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
are; the entire-leaved ikuU-cap (S. integrifolia) ; the Flo-

6

rentine flcuU-cap (S. peregrina)) ; and the tsU Ikull-cap (S.
altifiima).

Method of Culture. — Thefe arc all raifed from feed, which
(hould be fown in autumn or fpring, but the former is the
better feafon, in the places where they are to remain, or in
a border to be removed afterwards. When the plants are
up they fhould be properly thinned out and kept free from
weeds.

They afford variety in the borders, clumps, and other
parts of pleafure-grounds, when properly planted in them.

SCUTELLUM, in Botany, a little (hield, fometimes
ufed for the fruftification of Lichens, inftead of Scu-
TELLA, fee that article.

ScuTELLUM, or Efculcheon, in the Hijlory of Infeds, is
the pofterior part of the thorax ; it is frequently triangular,
and appears to be feparated from the thorax by its inter-
vening future, as in moft of the coleoptera.

SCUTHINON, in Botany, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to a yellow wood, called alfo thapfum, chryfoxylon,
and Scythicum lignum. It was of a beautiful colour, and
was ufed in dyeing and in colouring the hair yellow, which
was the favourite colour of that time.

Tlie fame authors have fometimes alfo called it cythinon,
or cuthinon : this is only the former word with the initial/
taken away, as it was common with them to do in regard to
many words ; thus they called the fmilax milax, the fmaragdus
maragdus, and fo of many more.

SCUTIFORME O.s, m Anatomy, the chief bone of the
knee, c?Med ViVo patella, mola, &c.

SCUTIFORMIS, Cartilago, one of the pieces com-
pofing the larynx. See Larynx.

SCUTTLE, in Agriculture, the name of a (hallow baflcet,
or fort of wicker-bowl, much ufed in the barn and for other
purpofes. The large ones have handles, but the fmall ones
are without them. They are often alfo enaployed for liable
purpofes.

Scuttles, in Skip-Building, are fquare openings cut
through the decks, much lefs than the hatchways, for the
purpofe of handing fmall things up from deck to deck.
There are alfo fcuttles cut through the (liip's fide, fome for
the admiffion of air and light into the cabins, &c. between
decks, and fome between the ports of fmaller veffels, through
which the fweeps are ufed, to row the veflel along in
calms.

ScvTTLH-Hatch, in a Ship, the little hatch that covers
the fcuttle.

SCUTTLING, in Sea Language, the ad of cutting
large holes through the bottom or fides of a fliip eitlier
when file is ftranded or overfct, and continues to float on the
furface. It is commonly defigned for taking out the whole
or part of the cargo, provifions, ftores, &c. with all polTible
expedition.

The decks are fcuttled fometimes to put pumps down
to aifirt the chain-pumps on emergency or failure.

SCUTTOCK Hills, in Geography, hills of the United
States of America, in the diftridl of Maine ; 8 miles N. of
New Briftol.

ScuTTOCK Point, a cape on the coaft of Maine. N. lat.
44° 18'. W. long. 67° 58'.

SCUTULA, in Botany, fo named by Loureiro, froni
the fhape of its berry, which refembles a little fhield. — Lou-
reir. Cochinch. 235. — Clafs and order, OSandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, truncated, fpread-
ing, (hield-like, flefhy, coloured, fmooth on the out fide.
Cor. Petals five, roundifli, pointed, converging, (ituated vn
the margin of the calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, awl-ihaped,

inflexcd.

S C Y

S C Y

inflexed, inferted below the petals, and about equal to them
in length; anthers oblong, curved. Pi/l. Germcn imbedded
in the calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped, as long as the ftamens ;
ftigma fimple. Perk. Berry formed of the calyx, thickened,
of eight cells. Seeds folitary, fomewhat comprefled.

Efl'. Ch. Calyx entire, becoming pulpy. Petals five.
Berry of eight cells.

1 . S. fcuteUata. Loureir. — " Stalks many-flowered.
Berries compredcd." — Native of Cochinchina. A fmall
tree, about eight feet high, with fpreadiiig branches. Leaves
oppofite, lanceolate, entire, fmooth, thickelt at the margin.
Flowers lateral, many on a ftalk, all over viobt-coloured.

2. S. umhellaia. Loureir. — " Flowers in umbels. Berries
roundifh." — Native of bufhy places iu Cochinchina. A

Jhruh about four feet high, much branched. Leaves oppofite,
feflile, ovate, lanceolate, entire, thick. Floivers fmall,
terminal, variegated with white and blue, in umbels, or large
eymes.

The berries of this genus are faid to be of an aftringent,
ttrengthenmg quality, vying with thofeof the myrtle.

Scuiula refts entirely upon Loureiro's authority. Some
parts of his defcription we have omitted, as unintelligible.
The genus may polTibly be referriblc to Memecylon.

SCUTUM SoBiESKl, Sobiejk't's Shield, in AJlronoiny, a
conftellation formed by Hevelius ; the ftars of which in his
catalogue are fcven : four of thefe are enumerated in the
Aquila in the Britannic catalogu?. See Constellation.

Scutum, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a genus of the
tchini marini ; the charafters of which are, that it is a fhell
of an irregular figure, which on the lower part reprefents,
in fome meafure, a (hield ; on the fuperficies it has the (hape
of a five-leaved flower ; its mouth is in the middle of the
bafe, and the aperture for the anus at the edge.

Of this genus of the echini there are two kinds, the angu-
lar and the oval.

Of the firtt of thefe kinds, the angular fcuta, there are
only two known fpecies : the firit a lower flattiih kind, and
the fecond a more elevated one.

Of the fecond, or the oval fcuta, there are three known
fpecies. Klein's Echinod. p. 28.

Scutum, in Pharmacy, a name given to a folid ftomachic
topic, whether made in form of a bag, with medicinal in-
gredients fewed in it, or of a plarter. It is always fafliioncd
into the fliape of a (hield. The plalters, for this purpofc, were
ufed to be made of the warm ftomachic gums, and the bags
were filled with the warm aromatic powders ; and they were
worn to warm and itrengthcn the Itomach, corredl a cold in-
temperature, and promote digeilion, and prevent vomiting.

The patella, or knee-pan, is alfo fometimcs called by anato-
mi&s feutum.

SCYBALA, (TKiSy-Xx, in Medicine, an appellation given
to the cxcremeut of the bowels, when it is hard, dry, and
formed into fmall- mafles, or little balls, refembling the ex-
crement of fhecp. This form is always given to the llools
by their remora or delay in the intcftines, and is fomettmes
merely the refult of ordinary conftipation, and is then pro-
bably produced in the cellular furface of the colon, or great
inteltinc ; but in fome cafes, fcyhala are lodged higher in the
canal, exciting great irritation m the bowels, and even violent
purging of thin flimy itools, together with much fruitlefs
ftraining, or tenefmus ; which conltitute, in faft, one form
of the dyfentery, or flux. In thcic cafes, it is obvious that,
if aftringcnts are given, with a view of checking the purg-
ing, the difeafe mull be aggravated ; for the enemy is thus
clofer locked up in the bowels ; and that efl"eftual cathartics
muft be adminitlered by the mouth, to expel the accumulated
excrement. Accordingly the appearance of fcybala in the
Vox.. XXXII.

(tools, in thefe cafes, is the moft favourable fign, as it indi-
cates the removal of the caufe of the difeafe. Sec Dysen-
tery, and Tkne.'5Mus.

SCYBELITES, a term ufed by the ancients to exprcf?
a fort of muft, or juice of the grapes, which diftilled from
them fpontaneoufly, without prelHng.

SCYDRUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in
that part of Magna Graecia called Brutium.

SCYLACE, SiKi, a fmall town of Afia Minor, in Bi-
thynia, at the entrance and to the weft of a fmall gulf
called " Cianus Sinus." It was founded, according to He-
rodotus, by a colony of Pelafgi.

SCYLACION, a word by which the ancients cxprefled
the flelh of puppies, which they recommended as of great
fervice in many chronic cafes.

SCYLAX, in Biography, an ancient mathematician and
geographer, was a native of Car^'anda, in Caria. He it
noticed by Herodotus in the following paflage. " A great
part of Afia was difcovered by Darius, fon of Hyllafpei,
who wiftiing to afcertain the place where the river Indus falls
into the fea, difpatched various perfons in whom he could
confide, and among them Scylax of Caryanda. Proceeding
from the city of Cafpatyrus, and the Paftyian territory,
they failed down the river in an eafterly direftion to the fea ;
and then continuing their voyage on the fea towards the
welt, in the thirtieth month tliey arrived at the place
from which the Egyptian king difpatched the Phoenicians
to circumnavigate Lybia. After their voyage, Darius fub-
dued the Indians, and opened the navigation of the fea."
Suidas gives a very brief account of Scylax, in which he
has evidently confounded different perfons of the fame name.
« Scylax of Caryand;i, a mathematician and mufician, wrote
a periplus of the coa(ls beyond the pillars of Hercules, a
book refpcfting the Heraclides, a defcription of the cir-
cuit of the earth, and an anfwer to Polybius's hiftory."
The Periplus which ftill remains, bearing the name of Scy-
lax, is a brief furvey of the countries along the fliorcs of
the Mediterranean and Euxine feas, together with part of
theweftern coaft of Africa furveyed by Hanno. It com-
mences with the (traits of Gibraltar, and proceeding along
the coatts of Spain and Gaul, round the Mediterranean, re-
turns to the fame point, and then briefly defcribes thccoalU
of Africa, along the Atlantic, as far as the ifland of Cerne.
This, after all, is in general little more than an cnnmeration
of nations, towns, and diitaiires, though intermixed with
fome occafional notices of natural produAions, and in a few
inftances detailing the common f.ibles of the age. It con-
cludes with an account of the palfages acrofs the ha from
Greece into Afia, and an enumeration of twenty important
iflands, in the order of their magnitudes. A queltion ha«
been raifed whether the Periplus remaining be the work of
the ancient Scylax, or of tome later writer, and critics of
high rank in literature have taken oppofite fides. The fiib-
jctt is difcufled in the fourth volume of the AtheiiTum, 1808,
to which we refer our readers for the arguments on both
fides of the qiicilion. It is ahnoll certain that the ancients
poflelled the extant Periplus, and tiiat they altribute.l it to
the Scylax mentioned by Herodotus. It hai lome down
to us in a corrupted date : it was lirll publUhed from a pa-
latine MS. by Hoefchelius and others in the year 1600. It
was afterwards edited by Ifaac Vollius in 1631; ( by Gro-
novius in 1697 ; by Hudfon in 1698. Athcnxum, vol. iv.

Scylax, in /Indent Geography, a river of Afi.i, m Fob-
tus, whicli ran into the Iris, after this Litter river had pur-
fued an eafterly courfc, and watered the town of Aiiufia,
according to Strabo. SCYLD-

S C Y

S C Y

SCYLDWIT, in our Old Writirs, a muia or fine for
any fault.

It comes from the Siiion fci/de, i. e. Jdidum, and -wite,
i. e. pana.

SCYLITZA, John, Curopalates, in Biography, a Greek
hillorian, known for his abridgment of hiltory from the
death of Nicephorus Logothetes, in 8ii, to the depo-
fition of Nicephorus Botoniates, in 1081. Tliis hiftory,
from the year 1067, is the fame as that of Cedrenus, which
hascaufed a difcuffion among the learned, which of the two
was the plagiary. Scylitzais thought to have been a native
of Lefler Afia, and a prefeft of the guards before he at-
tained tlie dignity of curopalates. A Latin tranflation of
his hiftory entire, w-as publiflied at Venice in 1570 : and the
part concerning which there is no difpute was printed in
Greek and Latin, at Paris, in 1647. Moreri.

SCYLLA, in Ancient and Modern Geography, a rock at
the entrance of the Straits of Meflina, about 200 feet in
height, now cape Scigl'w ; which fee. Scylla was famous
in antiquity for the danger which it prefented to naviga-
tors who approached it. The rock, perfonified by Homer
in his Odyffee, and reprefented as a devouring monfter, has
been deitroyed by a late earthquake. Concerning its fitua-
tion with regard to Charybdis, and-other particulars, we refer
to Charybdis.

Scylla, or Scyllaum, a town of Italy, in Brutiura. —
JV.lfo, a defert iflaud in the vicinity of the Thracian Cher-
fonelus.

SCYLL^A, in Natural H'ljlory, a genus of the Vermes
Mollufca clafs and order, whole generic charaScr is, body
compreffcd, and grooved along the back ; the mouth confifts
of a terminal toothlefs aperture ; the tentacula or arms three
on each fide, and placed beneath. There arc only two

Species.

* Pelagica. The body of this fpecies is fixed; the four
extreme arms are ahke ; the middle ones papillous. It inha-
bits the ocean, and is generally found among floating fea-
weed. Independently of its fpecific character, it is defcribed
as having a roundifli oblong body ; broader behind, and ob-
tule ; the mouth is placed at the end of the fmaller extre-
mity ; the back is grooved with a crenulate hollow, by
■which it affixes itfelf to fea-weed ; the extreme arms are
fmaller and rounded ; the middle pair is oblong, foliaceous,
bending over and fprinkled within with papillae.

GoMPHODESsib. The body is detached ; the firft pair
of arms is naked and hollow at the tip ; the others have
branched fibres within. The body is about an inch long,
peDucid, yellnwiOi, with rully brown dots ; the back is flat,
dotted with brown at the margins, with a row of blue dots
down the middle ; the tail is comprefTed, with an elevated
rounded back, and furnifheJ on each fide with fmall branched
fibres ; the abdomen is dotted with blue, and rough, with a
row of five whililh papillx down the middle of each fide ;
the firft pair of arms is the lelfer, the rell are contiguous,
with a denticulate margin.

SCYLLEUM Pro.montorium, in Anctent Geography,
the promontory of Scylla, or of Skilleo, that part of the
Argolide which advances towards the fouth-eait.

SCYMNITjE, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, between
the Sapothrenae and the Amazons, according to Ptolemy.

SCYMNUS, m Ichthyology, a name ufed by ^Elian, Ap-
pian, and many other- of the old Greek writers, for the
fifh called fculion by Ariflotle. This is a fpecies of the
fqualus, called by Artedi and others the fqualus with the
pinna ani placed in the midit, between the anus and tail :
the catulus vulgaris and catulus major of authors.

SCYPHOPHORUS, in Botany, from <ry.\;^,;, a large
kind of drinking cup, and Zzp., bearing, alluding to the di-
lated cup-fliaped ftalks, refembling wine-glalies, borne by the
leaves, on whofe margins the fruftifying tubercles are feated.
This is the denomination of the 2 ill tribe, or feftion, of the
LiCTiENES, fee that article, in the Prodromus of Acharius,
which are well known to the vulgar, as well as the learned
botanitt, by the name of Cup-mofs, or Lichenes pyxidati.
The above name is however funk in that of Btomyces, in the
Vlf^'/^o^uj of that author ; though Michaux ufes it gtneric-
ally in his Flora Boreali- Americana, v. 2. 328.

SCYPHUS, among the Romans, a very large kind of
drinking cup. The Icyphus was called the cup of Her-
cules, as that of Bacchus, liberi patris, was named cantharus.
" SCYPPIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Ionia, on the confines of the country of the Co-
lophonians, according to Paufanias.

SCYRA, in our Old Writers, a fine impofed on fuch as
neglefted to attend the fcyregemot court, which all tenants
were bound to do.

SCYRA S, in Ancient Geography, a river or llream of
Laconia, which difcharged itfelf into the gulf of Laconia.
Near it was a temple of Apollo, and an altar of Jupiter.
Paufanias, lib. iii. Lacon. c. 25.

SCYREGEMOT, or Scykemot, in Ancient Cujloms,
a county-court held twice every year by the bilhop of the
diocefe, and the ealdorman, or Iheriff ; in which both the
ecclefiaftical and temporal laws were given in charge to the
county.

In the time of Canutus the fcyregemot was held tlirice
every year. Edward the Coiifeffor appointed it to be held
twelve times in the year.

SCYRI, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, in the
vicinity of Ariana.

SCYRIUM Marmor, a name given by the ancients
fometimes to a white, and fometimes to a yellowilh marble,
both ufed in the public buildings of the Romans, but feldom
in ftatuary, not being capable of a high polilh.

SCYROS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the Archi-
pelago, fituated to the E. of the ifle of Euboea, and very
near it. The ancients pretend that Achilles fpent the firll
years of his life here, difguifed like a female, in the court
of Lycoraedes. It was in alliance with Troy, as appears
from Agamemnon's having made a conquelt of it. See
Sciro.

SCYTALA, an ifland of the Arabic gulf.

ScYTALA, in Mechanics, a term which fome writers
ufe for a kind of radius, or fpoke, ftanding out from the
axis of a machine, as a handle or lever, to turn it round, and
work it by.

ScYTALA Laconica, in Antiquity, a ftratagem, or device,
of the Lacedaemonians, for the fecret writings of letters to
their correlpondents ; fo that if they fiiould chance to be
intercepted, nobody might be able to read them.

To this end they had two wooden rollers, or cyUnders,
perfedfly alike, and equal ; one of which was kept in the
city, the other by the perfon to whom the letter was direfted.
For the letter, a flviri of very thin parchment was wrapped
round the roller, and on this the matter was written ; which
done, itVas taken off, and fent away to the party, who,
upon putting it in the fame manner upon his roller, found the
lines and word-, which were before its application to tlie
roller coiifufedly disjoined, and altogether unintelligible, in
the very fame difpofition as when they were fiift written.
Plut. in Vit. Lyfand.

This expedient they fet a very high value on ; though, in

truth.

S C Y

S C Y

'.ruth, artlefs and groh enough : the moderns have improved
vaitly on tliis method of writing. See Cipher.

It (hoiild feem, that befides this fcytala, ufed for po-
litical and military purpofes, private perfons made ufe of a
.ontrivance fomewhat fimilar, to prevent deceits in con-
rafts ; but thefe were exaftly like our tallies.'
SCYTALE, in Zoology, the name given by the ancients
1 a fpecies of ferpent, which was very long and thin, and
-lually big all along the body, fo that the tail was noteafily
dittinguifhed from the head.

Linnaeus mentions two animals under this title ; one, a
fpecies of anguis or fnake, and the other a fpecies of the
Boa; which fee.

SCYTALIA, in Botany, elegantly fo named by Gxrt-
ner, from ^x\J]or, ajh'in, or hide, and !Ty.v\%\r,, a thong, in allu-
fion to the leathery fubftance and colour of the fliin of the
dried fruit, as alfo to the little (hield-hke tubercles, with
which its outfide is befet, refembling a coat of mail.
Schreber has followed this author : but the fame genus was
publifhed two years afterwards by Loureiro, under the name
of Dimocarpus, indicating its double or twin fruit, which
Willdenow has unawares retained, though in every refpeft
lefs eligible. Hence the latter appellation is alfo adopted in
the Hortus Kewenfis, the plan of this book being, as much
aspoffible, to follow Willdenow. Had we been aware that it
would have done fo in the prefent inftance, we might perhaps
have yielded our better judgment to convenience, and have
given the hiftory of the genus under the head oi Dimocarpus ;
but this not being the cafe, we (hall exhibit it here, acknow-
ledging our preference for Scylalia. — Giertn. Sem. v. i. 197.
t. 42. Schreb. Gen. 262. (Dimocarpus ; Loureir. Co-
chinch. 233. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 346. Ait. Hort. Kew.
▼.2.354. Euphoria; Jud. 247. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 306. )
Clafs and order, Octandria Monogynta. Nat. Ord. Trihilatt,
Linn. Sapindi, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very fmall,
with five minute teeth. Cor. Petals five, fmall, reflexed,
hairy on the inner furface, fometimcs wanting. Stam. Fila-
ments eight, fometimes but fix, awl-fhaped, hairy, longer
than the petals, dilated at the bafe ; anthers heart- (haped, in-
cumbent. P'tft. Germen fuperior, two-lobed, fomewhat
■ftalked ; ftyle fhortcr than the ilamens ; lligmas two, fpread-
ing. Perk. Berries two, ovate or globofe, with a coria-
ceous warty coat, pulpy within, each of one c^-ll. Seed
folitary, large, elliptical, polilhed, obliquely cut away at
the bafe, where it is inferted into the (lightly elevated bot-
tom of the pericarp.

Obf. Gartner has dcfcribed as a flelhy tunic of the feed,
what is really only the dried pulp of the berry.

Efl". Ch. Calyx inferior, with five (hallow teeth. Petals
five, hairy, or none. Berries two, coriaceous, warty.
Seeds folitary, elliptical, pohlhed.

I. S. Liichi. Lce-chce, or Apetalous Scytalia. (Di-
mocarpus Litchi ; Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 354. Loureir.
n. I. Litchi chincnfis ; Sonnerat Ind. Or. v. 2. 230. t. 129.
Sapindus edulis ; Ait. ed. i. v. 2. 36.) — Flowers with fix
ftamens, and no petals. Fruit with prominent warts. — Na-
tive of China, Cochinchina, and Tunquin. The celebrated
governor Hallings is faid to have fent this plant to England
in 1786, and it is marked as flowering in the ftove at Kew,
in May and June. The younger Linnxus, however, ap-
pears to have obtained a fpecimen of the leaves, from the
coUeftion of the marquis of Rockingham at Wimblcton,
during his (lay in England in the Ipring of 1782. The
Litchi is defcribed by Sonnerat as a large tree, with a foft
white wood, abounding in pith. The leave: are alternate,
ftalked, abruptly pinnate, eonfiiUng of three or four pair

of oppofi'tc, ftalked, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, entire,
equal leaflets, quite fmooth on both fides, evergreen, each
furniflied with a midrib, and numerous fmall interbranching
veins, the latter fcarcely viCble but in a dried (late. Each
leajlet i& three or four inches long. Panicles terminal, com-
pound, repeatedly branched. Flowers fmall, greeni(h,
with a very downy calyx, but' no petals. In fome we find
eight ftamens, but in the fame panicle others have only fix.
The berry, ufually folitary when ripe, is nearly globular,
concave at the bale, an inch or more in diameter, reddifh,
covered with very numerous, clofe, prominent tubercles. It
is of an agreeable flavour, and faid to be one of the beft
fruits of the countries where it grows. The Chinefe dry it
in ovens for exportation. Some which we have tafted, in
England, contained a firm very acid pulp, not unhke the
tafte of tamarinds.

2. S. Longan, Longan, or Many-petalled Scytalia.
(Dimocarpus Longan ; Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 354. Lou-
reir. n. 2.) — Flowers with eight ftamens and five petals.
Fruit nearly fmooth. — Native of China. Cultivated in that
country, Cochinchina, the Eaft Indies, the Mauritius, &c.
This is alfo a large tree, with a fweet and grateful/ru//, not
half thefizeof the laft, more precifely globular, and either
quite fmooth, or (lightly fcaly, not warty. The leaflets are
rather more numerous than in the former, (horter, blunter,
and more elliptical ; at leaft in our Eaft Indian fpecimens.
In one from the ifle dc Bourbon, marked Longan, the
leaflets are obhque, or unequal, at the bafe, alternate, and
taper-pointed. The /rtt/V is quite fmooth. We fufpeftthis
to be rather fome Sapindus, confounded with the true
Longan.

Loureiro mentions two more fpecies unknown to us, one
of which, his Dimocarpus informis, feems to be the wild
ftate of the Litchi, in the woods of Cochinchina. He
fpeaks of the wood of all the four as of an excellent qua-
lity, heavy and hard, of a brownidi-rcd. The fame author
relates, that the Z;/r/;/, being impatient of cold, as well as
of great heat, ismoft cultivated in the fouthern provinces of
China, and the northern ones of Cochinchina. As the fruit
will not ripen at Pekin in the ordinary way of cultivation,
trees in flower are fent thither by water, fo as to yield ripe
fruit, for the emperor's ufe, on their arrival. This is at-
tended with great labour and expence.

SCYTHjE, Sxt/Ga., among tlie Athenians, a defignation
fometimcs given to the officers, more ufually called lexi-
archi.

They had the name Scytha, becaufe they were often
natives of Scythia who were chofen lexiarchi, as being
brawny and llurdy fellows.

SCYTHARION, in Botany, a name given by the an-
cient Greek writers to a tree, whofe wood was of a fine
yellow colour, and was ufed in tliofe early times to dye
things yellow : it wa^ called alfo Seylhicum lignum, from its
country, and chrffoxylon, or golden wood, from its fine
yellow colour. It has been luppofed that this was tlie
fame with the colinus coriaria of the Romans ; but this is an
erroneous conjefture, fince the wood of tliis tree dyed a
yellow colour, and that a brownilh-nd, or a clear and pure
red, according as the infufion was made more or Ids ftrong.
This fcytharion, therefore, could not be the fame with the
cotinus, but it certainly is tlic fame witii the tha['fum of the
Greeks.

SCYTHE, in /floriculture, tlie implement uled in mow-
ing, being a crooked blade joined at right angles to a long
pole, or handle. It is fometimcB written fillic, or fylhc.

Sec Mowing. „ r- j

Common fcythcs arc of fcveral difl^Lrcnt conftruaions and

' p 2 kiiidi,

S C Y

S C Y

kinds, in different counties. In moft of thofe more towards
the northern extremity of the ifland, they are of a much
greater length than thofe which are employed in the fouthern
diftrii^ls of the kingdom. Both the extremes are, however,
probably difadvantageou in fome refpefls. Thofe which
are neither too long nor too fhort are unqueftionably the beft
fitted for general ufe, and capable of being employed with
the greatelt eafe and convenience by the labourer. The
tool is commonly furni(hed and fitted up differently for dif-
ferent purpofes, as has been noticed under the heads to
which they belong. See Mowing, Reaping, 8cc.

The ftiff Flemilh fcythe is in ufe in fome places for cut-
ting bean, and other ftrong crops of the corn kind. It has
the name of bean peck in fome parts of Effex ; and though
it is thought by fome to beat out the feed too much, in the
hands of workmen who underftand the ufe of it, very good
clean work can be made with it, without any fuch mifchief
taking place, and they rid work in this way much failer
than by the common tool and method.

In Cheihire, they make ufe of a itrong tool of this fort,
called the bodding-fcythe, the blade of which is about twenty
inches in length, but curved in a different way to the com-
mon fcythe, the edge being nearly in one way of it, in a
ttraight direftion from the heel to the point ; but the flat
part of the blade forms a curvature, which varies about four
inches from a llraight line. The handle or fneath, to which
the blade is fixed, is about three feet fix inches long, and
has one fcythe-hke handle placed about eighteen inches from
the top. When the work is performed, one hand is placed
upon the top of the fhaft or fneyd, and with the handle in
the other, the crown of the rulh root is fcooped out by the
concave part of the blade, in coiifequence of a fmart ftroke
being given by the tool. The early fpring is confidered as
the mod proper feafon for effefting this fort of bufinefs ;
and it is advifeable to carry off the rufh roots, and form a
compoft with them ; the hod-holes, or cavities made by the
tool, being filled level with the furface of the ground with
fome earthy material, and fown with hay or grafs-feeds.
This tool is yet but little known, except in the above dif-
trift, where it has been ufed to confiderable extent in many
parts, with the moft beneficial effefts in clearing the lands
from rulhes ; many fcores of acres of low meadow and
marfliy lands having been in this way freed from them, and
with the aid of gutters, rendered of more than double their
former value.

Short Itrong ftiff fcythes are made ufe of in moft places,
for clearing away and removing all forts of (hrubby plants
from grounds, fuch as thofe of the broom, briar, furze,
and feveral other fimilar kinds.

SCYTHIA, in Ancient Geography, is a vaft territory,
which has been confounded by fome geographers with Ta-
tary or Tartary, of which it is only a part (fee Tartary),
extended from the liter, or Danube, that is, from about
the 25th to almoft the ii6th degree of E. longitude. It
was divided into Scythia in Europe, and Scythia in Afia ;
including, however, the two Sarmatias, or Sauromatias,
now the Circaffian Tartary, which lay between and fepa-
rated the two Scythias from each other. Sarmatia was alfo
diftingui(hed into European and Afiatic, divided from the
European Scythia by the river Don or Tanais, which falls
into the Palus Mseotis, and from the Afiatic by the Rha,
now Volga, which empties itfelf into the Cafpian fea. (See
Sarmatia.) Accordingly the two Scythias were only
parted by the boundaries of Europe and Afia, that is, by
the river Tanais, delcending, as it is fuppofed, from the
Riphxan mountains into the Palus Maeotis. For, beyond
thole mountains northward, the Scythians did not advance

into any of thofe remote regions ; fo that thefe were tlic
proper confines of the Afiatic Scythia on the weft. The
northern boundaries reached to the Hyperborean or Frozen
fea, called alfo by the ancients the Scythian fea, the Cro-
nian, Amalchian or Almachian, the Dead fea, and by fome
other names equally expreffive of extreme cold and ice. Oa
tiie eaft, they are fuppofed to have extended to the pro-
montory of Tabis, and to have been bounded by the Caflian
mountains, which parted Scythia from the kingdom of
Seres, now Katai, Cathay, or Northern China ; and even
this laft was by fome of the ancients taken for part of
Eaftern Scythia ; fo that, on that fide, it had no other
boundaries, according to Ptolemy, than the unknown traAs
beyond it : and on the fouth it was bounded by the Indian
fea, by mount Caucafus, and the Cafpian. As to the more
northern parts of Scythia, it is, on account of its extreme
cold, uninhabitable, except by wolves and other wild beafts;
and hence they feem to have been unknown to the ancients
beyond the 50th degree north. Tlie territory beyond that
degree was denominated Terra incognita. But the fouthern
regions, better known to them, were divided into three
parts, vi%. Scythia within, and Scythia without, or be-
yond Imaus, and Sarmatia, which, as we have already faid,
lay between the former and the European Scythia, and
which had been fo blended with it, that the only difference
between them was the name. Accordingly, Ptolemy
bounds the Scythia on this fide of Imaus on the weft by
Afiatic Sarmatia, by mount Imaus on the eall, by the
Terra incognita on the north, and on the fouth and louth-
eaft by the Sacx, Sogdiani, and Margiani. The principal
mountains in this part Ptolemy reckons to be the Alani to
the eaft ; the Rhyranici, from which flowed the Rhymnus
into the Rha ; the Norofus, from which fprung the Daix,
the Afpifii, the Sapuri, the Syebi, and the Anaici. The
rivers were the Rhymnus, the Daix, the Jaxartes, the
Jaftus, the Polytimetus, and the Oxus. The inhabitants
of this part, according to the fame geographer, were, to-
wards the north, the Alani, Sufobeni, and Agathyrfi ; and
next to thefe, the Snetiani, the Maflaei, and the Syebi ; near
the Imaus were the Thaces ; near the eaftern fources of the
Rha, the Rhobafci, Azani, and Jordii ; to the fouth, and
near the river, was the country called Conadipfas regio ;
and near this, Corafphi, Orgazi, Jotae, and Aonfi ; next
to thefe, the Jaxartx, a confiderable nation, on the river of
the fame name ; to the fouth of the Satiani were the Molo-
geni, and next to them the Samnitae ; and below the Meffsi
and the Alani mountains were the Zaretae and the Sazones ;
to the eaft of the Rhymnic mountains were the Tybiacae ;
and below them the Zarets, Tabeini, Jaftx, and Macha-
geni, near mount Noroflus ; above them were the Orofljes
and Noroffi ; and more to the fouth, the Cachaffas Scythae ;
to the weft of the Afpifii, the Afpifii Scythas ; and eaft of
them, the Galadlophagi Scythae ; and eaft of the Syebi,
the Tapurei, and the Afcatancas Scythae. The Anaci lay
to the fouth of the Agathyrfi, and to the eaft of the Ta-
purei. The Afcatancae extended to mount Imaus ; and near
the Jaxartes, between the mouths of the two rivers, were
the Ariacx, the Sagaraucae, and the Rhibii, near the Oxus.
The Scythia beyond Imaus, according to the fame geo-
grapher, was bounded on the nortli by the mountains, on
the eaft by Serica, on the fouth by part of India on this
fide of the Ganges, and on the weft by the interior of
Scvthia and the Sacas. The mountains of this part are the
Auxacii, Caffii, and Emodi. The inhabitants were, towards
the northern part, the Abii ; to the fouth, the Hippophagi
Scythae, thofe of the Regio AuxaiAis, and the Rcgio Cafia,
the Chatae-Scythx ; and near the Emodi, the Charauni-

10 Scyths.

S C Y

Scythse. The towns were Auzacia, Ifiedon Scythica,
Charauna, and Soeta. Pompouius Mela afligns to the
Scythians much the fame extent and boundaries. The
Scythia Pontica was called by the Greeks Moefia.

The Afiatic Scythia, therefore, comprehended in general
Great Tartary, and Ruflia in Afia ; and, in particular, the
Scythia beyond or without Imaus contained the regions of
Bogdoi, or Oftiacoi, and Tunguri. The Scythia within
or on this fide of Imaus comprehended Turkeftan, and
Mongul, the Uftieck or Zagatai, Kalmuck and Nogaian
Tartars, befides Siberia, the land of the Samoiedes, and
Nova Zembla. The three lad mentioned countries, not
being fo foon inhabited as the former, were wholly unknown
to the ancients ; and the former were peopled by the Bac-
trians, Sogdians, Gandari, Sacae, and Maflageta:. Sar-
matia contained Albania, Iberia, and Colchis, which now
conllitute the CircafDan Tartary and the province of
Georgia. (See Circassia and Georgia.) The feas of
Scythia, befides the Frozen and Indian ocean, were the
Cafpian, the Euxine, and the Palus M<EOtis. The rivers,
befides thofe already mentioned, or the Rha or Volga, and
the Tanais or Don, were the Oby, Lena, Amur, and
Helum, all of which are in Great Tartary : to which we
may add the Jaxartes and the Oxus, which difcharged them-
felves into the Cafpian fea ; in which fea were iflands called
the Scythian iflands. The moft noted mountains were the
Taurus, Imaus, and Caucafus.

European Scythia, whofe confines weltward have been
fixed at the Tanais, reached towards the fouth-welt to the
Po and the Alps, by which it was divided from the Celtes,
or Celto-Gallia, and by the Rhine northward. On the
fouth it was bounded by the filer or Danube, and the
Euxine fea ; which boundaries were continually changing,
on account of the mutual encroachments of the Celtes and
Scythians ; and as to its northern limits, which have not
been precifely afcertained, they have been fuppofed to
ttretch to the fpring-heads of the Boryfthcnes or Dnieper,
a\id the Rha or Volga, and fo to that of the Tanais. The
.Hticients divided this country into Scythia Arimafpea, lying
eailward, and joining to Afian Scythia, and European Sar-
matia on the weft ; which were contiguous to each other,
and ftretching for fome interval from north to fouth, with-
out any perceptible line of feparation. In Scythia, pro-
perly fo called, were the Arimafpaei on the north ; the
Gctoe, or Dacians, along the Danube, on the fouth ; and
the Ni-uri between thefe two. It therefore contained the
European RufTia, and the leder Crim Tartary, eallward ;
and on the weft, Lithuania, Poland, part of Hungary,
Tranfylvania, Walachia, Bulgaria, and Moldavia. This
Scythia had no other fea befides the Sarmatian, or Mare
Scythicum, now called the Baltic, with the gulfs of Bothnia
and Finland, and the White fea joining to the Northern
ocean, all unknown to the ancients, if we except the Euxine
and Pahis Miotis, wliicli bounded it on the fouth. Its
lakes were thofe of Ladoga and Onega in Finland, un-
known to the ancient Sarmatians. Their chief rivers on the
fouth were the Donetz or little Tanais, Boryfthcnes or
Dnieper, Bog, Tyras or Dneifter, and the liter or Da-
nube, alL which difcharged themfelvcs into the Euxine ;
and on the north-eaft the Great and Little Dvvina, which
run, the firll into the White fea, and the other into the gulf
of Fn-.land, and therefore unknown to the ancients ; and on
the wlII the Villula, which flowed into the Scythian fea,
and divided Sarmatia from Germany.

The whole extent, therefore, of botli Scythias, including
the two Sarmatias, reached in longitude from the 20th fo
the 85th degree, or even beyond, and from the Alps lo

S C Y

the promontory of Tabis, and ftraits of Anian ; and in lati-
tude, from Caucafus to tlie Ardic circle, above 2S de-
grees. Herodotus indeed fays, that the Hyperboreans were
not of Scythian race, but another kind of people, fome of
whom were Androphagi, or men-eaters, fierce and cruel ;
and others, -viz. the Bald-heads, or Argrippeans, a wife
and peaceable people, efteemed facred by all their neigh,
hours : but he fpeaks of them merely by report, and with
diffidence ; fo that thefe regions were probably then un-
known, if not uninhabited. The five cities of Scythia,
which we have mentioned, were probably built after the
time of Herodotus, who takes no notice of any metropolis ;
though he mentions a confiderable branch of Scythians,
called Royal Scythians, whom he places along the banks
of the Tanais ; this river, as he fays, dividing them from
the Afiatic Sarmatians. The original Scythians of Hero-
dotus (1. iv.) were confined, by the Danube and the Palus
Masotis, within a fquare of 4000 itadia {4CX) Roman miles).
Diodorus Sicidus (vol. i. 1. ii. p. 155. ed. Weflel. ) has
marked the gradual progrefs of the name and nation. From
the mouth of the Danube to the fea of Japan (fays Gibbon,
vol. iv.), the whole longitude of Scythia is about no de-
grees, which, in that parallel, are equal to more than
5000 miles. The latitude of thefe extenfive deferts cannot
be fo eafily or fo accurately afcertained ; but from the 40th
degree, which touches the wall of China, we may fecurely
advance above 1000 miles to the northward, till our pro-
grefs is ftopped by the excefilve cold of Siberia. In that
dreary climate, inftead of the animated picture of a Tartar
camp, tlie fmoke which iffues from the earth, or rather
from the inow, betrays the fubterraneous dweUings of the
Tongoufes and tiie Samoyedes. The want of horfes and
oxen is imperfeftly fupplied by the ufe of rein-deer, and of
large dogs ; and the conquerors of the earth infLiifibly de-
generate into a race of deformed and diminutive favages,
who tremble at the lound of arms. Anc. Un. Hill. vol. iv.
See ScyriiiANs and Tartars.

SCYTHIAN, a word uied very often in the old Greek
writers on the materia medica, to diftinguifli the peculiar
fort of gum, or other drug, brought from the Scythians.

The Scythian and Indian drugs have been by many fup-
pofed different kinds of the fame medicine ; but this is an
error; for it appears very obvious, on comparing the writ-
ings of Galen, Aetius, iEgiueta, and other of the later
writers among the Greeks, with thofe of Diolcoridcs,
Theophraftus, and the other old ones, tliat the words
Scythian and Indian mean the fame tiling, and that what
the old writers have called Indian, thefe have called Scy-
thian.

The meaning of this is, that thofe things were c.illed
Scythian, which were brought from the country of Indo-
fcythia, or that part of Scythia which lay at the oftia of
the river Indus ; Ijut it is to be obferved, that though the
later Greek writers mean this by their term Scythian, yet
the word is ufcd in a very different fenfe by the Arabians,
Aviccnna, Serapion, and others ; and that wherever they
mention a drug under the name of Scytliian, they mean that
it comes from the northern parts of Scythia, on the con-
fines of Europe. Thefe authors having uiiderftood of this
Scythia what the Greek writers have faid of the other,
have made no fmall errors in regard to the hiftory of drugs,
having given bdelliimi, and many other gums, the produce of
only the Scythia of the Greek medical writers, to the
fruzen Scythia, before mentioned.

SCYTHIANS, in ylricient Geography, the inhabitanti
of Scythia, confidercd by fome geogr.ipiiical authors as the
fame people with the Tatars, or, as they arc more com-

monly.

SCYTHIANS.

monly, though crroneoudy, called, Tartars. (See Tar-
tars.) With regard to the etymology of the name of
Scythians we have many different conjeftures. Pliny feems
to intimate, that this appellation is derived from Sacai, a
people known by a fimilar name to the Greeks and Per-
fians. Bryant deduces it from Cuthia. Colonel Vallancey
traces its origin to words denoting navigation : others de-
rive it from the Greek word ctxi/^-j-jki, which exprefies the
fiercenefs of their countenance and natural temper ; and
others again deduce it from the Teutonic word fcheten or
Jhuten, to fiorjt, in which art this nation is faid by Hero-
dotus, Lucian, and others, to be fo expert, that the name
is given them on that account, the word Scytliian properly
fignifying a great Jhoolcr or archer. As the Tartars and
Mufcovites called themfelves Mogli, fuppofed to be an ab-
breviation of Magogli, the fons of Magog ; that of Scy-
thian might be either given to them by other nations, or
perhaps by the Celtes, whofe language did not originally
much differ from the Scythian or Teutonic. Sir WiUiam
Jones obferves, that neither Scythian nor Tartar is a name
by which the people now under our confideration have ever
diftinguifhed themfelves.

The Scythians have been confidered by fome writers,
with regard to their antiquity and origin, as the fame
people with the Gomerians, and as being the defcendants of
Gomer, the eldeft fon of Japhet. To this purpofe Hero-
dotus, Ptolemy, and Jullin have called the Scythians, who
emigrated into Afia, by fome names, and attributed fome
aftions and places to them, which, upon clofer examina-
tion, are found to have belonged to the Celtes or Gome-
rians, whom they had driven out of their European terri-
tories. Strabo informs us, that the old Greek hiftorians
gave the name of Scythians and Celto-Scythians to all the
inhabitants of the northern regions, though it is plain that
many of them were properly Celtes or Gomerians. And
he alfo adds, that fome of thofe people who inhabited
beyond the Cafpian fea, which fhould be the Scythians,
were, by the fame Greek hiftorians, called Sacx, and
others Maffagetae, though the former of thefe names, at
leaft, belonged only to the Celtes. Hence many learned
men have chofen to reckon them as one people, branched
out into that variety of names and charafters, under which
they are diftinguiflied in hiltory. See Celts.

Jofephus, who affirms the Scythians to be defcended
from Magog, the next brother of Gomer, has been fol-
lowed by many of the fathers, and by many moderns, be-
caufe they could find no better authority. In the migra-
tion of thefe ancient tribes into Europe, if Gomer's de-
fcendants turned towards the N.W., thofe of Magog may
be reafonably fuppofed , to have fpread themfelves towards
the N.E. into both Scythias, where we find the ancient
Mufcovites or Tartarians ; diftinguifhed by the name of
Mogli, corrupted or abbreviated poffibly from Magogli,
the fons of Magog. To thefe conjeftures it may be
added, that there is fcarcely a nation under heaven, that
fo fully anfwers the fierce and dreadful charadter which
the Scriptures give us of Gog and Magog, as that of
the barbarous Scythians ; though in faft this charafter
was too applicable to their neighbours in thofe early
ages.

Sir Ifaac Newton is of opinion, that both the Celtes
and Scythians had fpread themfelves over Leffer Afia and
Europe, before the year of the flood 1220, that is, about
the latter period of the Ifraelitifh judges. How foon the
Scythians began to eftablifh a regular government, and
what kind of government it was, it is impoffible even to
conjefture. It appears, however, from the teftimony of

Herodotus, that one or two tribes at leaft, that is, the royal
and free Scythians, were under a kind of monarchy, and
that thefe two diftinguifhed themfelves more than all the
others. Herodotus informs us, that in procefs of time,
when the .Scythians were likely to be invaded by Dariu?,
their king, dreading the invader, invited all the Scythian,
princes, i)/z. thofe of the Taurians, Agathyrfians, Neu«
rians, Androphagi, Melanchlxnians, Budiaris, and Sarma-
tians, to unite in giving him aflillancc. All thefe tribes
feem to have been branches of the fame flock, but differing
much in their manners and cuftoms. In confequence or
this application, the three laft named nations joined with
the king of Scythia, but the others refufed to fuccour him,
alleging that he was the firll aggreffor. Hence we may
conclude, that they had emancipated themfelves from the
yoke of the royal Scythians fome time before. As to what
the laws of the royal and free Scythians were, we may form
fome judgment from the excellent character that is given of
them by ancient hiftorians. Juftin (lib. ii. cap. z.) gives
the following account of them. The Scythians were a
nation, which, though inured to labour, fierce in war, and
of prodigious ftrcngth, could neverthelcfs fo controul their
paffions, that they made no other ufe of viftories than to
increafe their fame. Theft among them was reckoned fo
great a crime, and was fo fevercly punifhed, that they could
let their numerous flocks wander from place to pl.ice without
danger of lofing tliem. Thefe they eUeemed their greateft
wealth, living upon their milk, and clothing themfelves
with their llvins. Inftead of houfes, they ufed to convey
their wives and children about in covered waggons, drawn
either by horfes or oxen, and made capacious enough to
carry all their other furniture. Gold, filver, diamonds,
pearls, and other coftly ftones, were as much defpifed by
them, as they were eftecmed by other nations, fo that they
could not covet that which was of no ufe. What is ftill more
wonderful, thofe virtues, which the Greeks in vain endea-
voured to attain by learning and philofophy, were natural
to them, and they reaped thofe advantages from their igno-
rance of vice, which the others could not derive from their
knowledge of virtue. A nation of this charafter and way
of life could therefore want but few laws to fccure their
property ; fome others tlicy had with relation to religion,
cuftoms, and polity, which forbade, under pain of death,
any alteration in either ; which excluded their women from
the benefit of marriage, and every man from allifting at
their royal feaft, till he had killed an enemy. Some other
of their laws we fhall have occafion to mention in the fequel.
Upon the whole, what appears of them feems wholly cal-
culated to prevent luxury, fraud, and covetoufnefs, and to
chcrifh that martial fpirit, for which they are fo Juftly famed
in hiftory.

Some of the Scythian tribes, indeed, bear a quite dif-
ferent charafter, being reprefentcd of fuch fierce and cruel
dilpoCtion, as even to eat the flefli of their enemies. Thofe,
if under the fame government, were at fuch great dittance
from the centre of it, as to be out of the reach of its laws.
As the inclemency of the air in thefe remote regions might
probably incline them to cruelty ; fo the diltance and bar-
rennefs of their country might make them lefs heeded, and
probably more incapable of being reftrained by the com-
mon regulations of fociety. However, it muft be owned,
with refpeft to the warlike temper even of the true Scy-
thians, that it was not without a mixture of cruelty, if
they have not been wilfully raifreprefented by the Greek
hiftorians.

If we may reafon from fome fuccellions we find men-
tioned in hiftory, it feems their crovra was hereditary, and ,

9 y^^

SCYTHIANS.

yet their kings not fo defpotic as not to be depofed, or even
put to death, for the violation of their laws.

When any one of their monarch^ fell (ick, it was their
conllant cultom to fend immediately for three of their nioft
famous prophets, who commonly told h.m that fome Scy-
thian, whom they named, had perjured himfell by fvvearing
by the royal throne, which it feems was their mod iolemn
oath. The accufed peilon was thereupon fcized, and
brought before the king If he denied the faft, more
prophets were fent for; if they confirmed the evidence,
the man was immediately beheaded, and his goods were
divided among the three firft accufers. But if they ac-
quitted him, a new fupply of them was to be fent for ;
and if the majority of them abfolved him, then the firft ac-
cufers were tied hands and feet, and fet in a cart loaded
with faggiits, and drawn by oxen : after they had ftopt
the falfe prophet's mouth, as he was then ftyled, they
I fet fire to the wood, which confumed the cai-t and man,
[ and feldom failed burning the oxen to death. Our author
adds, that the male children of thofe whom the king con-
demned to death feldom efcaped the fame fate.

Another inftance of their great refpeft to their monarchs
is the pompons folemnity of their funerals, wliich was per-
formed as follows : the embalmers received the body covered
with wax, they opened and cleanfed the belly, and having
filled it with bruifed cyprefs, incenfe, parfley, and anifeeds,
they fewed it up again, and placed the corpie in a chariot,
and conveyed it from one tribe to another through all the
provinces of the kingdom. Every province, where they
received the funeral proceflion, was obliged to imitate the
royal Scythians in their mournful ceremonies, which con-
fided in cutting off one part of the ear, (having the head,
and piercing the left hand with an arrow ; in this guile,
they accompanied the hearfe to the next provmce, till it
reached that of the Gerrians, which was the remotell in
the kingdom, fituate along that part of the Boryfthenes,
v.'here it begins to be navigable. Here the corpfe was de-
pofited in a large fquare hole made in the earth, upon a
bed encompafled round with fpears, which they covered
with timber ; and fpread a canopy over the whole monu-
ment. In the vacant places of it they depofited one of his
favourite concubines, his head cook, groom, a waiter, a
mefienger, fome horfes, all ftrangled, and a number of
necefTary utenfils, and among others fome golden cups.
Then they threw the earth upon it, fo as to raife a high
mound, or artificial mountain. As foon as the year was ex-
pired they chofe fifty young men of the king's officers,
who were always to be Scythians of quality. Thefe, with
an equal number of horfes, were itrangled, their bowels were
taken out, and their bellies fluffed with ftraw. The bodies
of the men were fet aftride upon the horfes, and faftened
to them by an iron ftake. The horfes, thus mounted, were
fet upon femicircular boards, fupported by four pieces of
timber, and placed at a convenient diftance from each other
round the monument, the horfes having a loofe rein fattened
to another poll fet up for that purpofe.

The Scythians worOiipped a plurality of gods and god-
defies, but that which they reckoned their principal deity
was Vcfta, whom they called Tahiti. The two next in
veneration were .Tupiter, whom they called Papeus, and
Apia, or the Earth, which they eftcemed his wife. Jupiter,
it feems, they challenged for their proscnitor, and Vella
for their queen, as appears by the anfwer which one of
their kintjs fent to Darius, when he came to fubdue them
to his empire ; bcfidcs tlufc, they worfiiippcd Apollo, the
cclellial Vcntis, and Neptune, under the names of Oeto-
fyrus, Strippafa, and Thamimafades. But their favourite

deity feems to have been the god of war, to whom alone
they dedicated temples, altars, and images. How his tcnj-
ples were built, Herodotus doth not tell us ; neither is it
eafy for us to guefs. It doth not even appear from any
ancient authors, or other monuments, that ever they built
any properly fo called. Groves indeed they were famous
for creating to this deity. In thefe they affefted to have
one or more oaks of a mighty fize, which were accounted
fo facred, that to lop fo much as a branch or fprig, or
even to wound the bark, was accounted facrilcge, and
punifhed with death. Thefe oaks they never failed to
fprinkle plentifully with the blood of their viiSims, info-
much, that the rind of fome of the oldell of them was
covered or even encrufted with it. We are therefore in-
clined to believe, that Herodotus, who learned thefe things
by report, might, for want of a good interpreter, mittake
them for temples, and fuppofe them to be built like thofe
of other nations.

Befides the deities above named, we are told that fome
of them worfhipped fire as the principle of all things, and
gave it the name of Vulcan ; they ufed to fwcar by the
wind, and the fword, the one as the author of life, and
the other of death. They likewife looked upon Zamolxis
as a deity, to whom they committed the fouls of the dead,
and offered facrifices on their behalf. The royal Scy-
thians are affirmed by Herodotus to have acknowledged
all the deities above named, and to have offered facrifices
to Neptune in particular ; for all thefe various deities they
had not, indeed, temples, but altars and groves, and a fet
of priefls appropriated to each.

How fpacious thofe groves muft have been, may be feen
in the lafl quoted antiquarian, or be gueffed at by the vail
extent of the altars, which Herodotus tells us they eredled
in them to Mars, their favourite deity, one of which at
leaft they were obliged to have in every diltrift. It was
made of fmall wood tied up into bundles, and covered three
ftadia uf land in length and breadth, though it was not
proportionable in its height. The top of it, which was
quadrangular, had three fides perpendicular ; and the fourth
had a gradual declivity, to render the top of it eafy ot
accefs. One hundred and fifty loads of faggots were to
be brought yearly to each altar, to fupply thofe which had
been decayed by the inclemency of the winter. On the
top of each of tliofe heaps was creeled an old iron fcimitar,
which flood there as the image, or rather emblem of the
deity. To him, befides all other cattle, in common with
their other gods, and in much greater number, they facri-
ficed horfes ; and what was moi-c fliocking, every hundredth
man they took prifoner from their enemies. The priell
having poured a libation of wine upon the captive's head,
cut his throat, and received his blood into a bowl, with
which afcending to the top of the altar, he waflicd the
deity's fword. As to the viftim, they only cut off his
right arm clofe to the l-houlder, and throwing it up into
the air, left it cxpofed m the place where it fell, and the
rcll of the body in that where it was killed.

Of the viftims which they facnficed to Mars or to any
other deity, the horfe was elleenied the noblelt, and the
moll acceptable. As for fwine they detelled them, and
would not fufier any to remain among them. They alfo
offered to tlieir gods the firll fruits of the earth, the firll-
lings of their cattle, and a part of the fpoil they took in
war ; fending a confiderablc part of the latter to the Del-
phic Apollo, by a number of their honourable virgins,
under a fnfficient efcort.

Their alliances and contrafts were ratified with the fol-
lowing ceremonies : they poured fome wine into an earthen

vcfl'cl,

SCYTHIANS.

»eirel, into which the contrafting parties were to mingle
fome of their own blood, which they drew by a flight in-
cifion made in the finger, hand, or fome other part of the
body. They then dipped into the mixture the point of
fome warlike weapon, fach as a fcimitar, arrow, dart,
javelin, or battle-ax. The parties then uttered fome dire
imprecations on the firft breaker of the covenant, and,
having^ each of them taken a draught of the liquor, they
defired fome of the moft confiderable among the by-
ftanders to pledge them, and to be witneiles of the con-
traft, which was reckoned fo facred, that they thought
no punifliment fevere enough, either in this life or in the
next, for thofe by whom it fhovild be violated.

Their vifarlike temper and exploits were fufficiently
known to the ancients ; fcarcely is there any nation to be
met with in hillory, fo famous for conquering wherever
they carried their arms, even as auxiliaries, and themfelves
remaining itill imconquered. Their frugal and (imple man-
ner of life, may indeed be fuppofed to have been a great
prefervative againft fuch invafions, as other more opulent
and luxurious nations were expofed to. But it is plain,
this was not always the cafe, fnice we find they were once
invaded by the king of Perfia at the head of a moil puiflant
army, from the power of which nothing but their valour
and policy could have delivered them. Upon the whole,
fuch were their llrength and courage, whenever they entered
into an offenfive or defentive war, that, as Thucydides him-
felf tells us, no nation, either in Europe or Afia, could equal
them either for ftrength, valour, or conduft ; nor could
any thing refift their power, when they were unanimous
among themfelves.

Such care they took to cultivate this martial genius,
that even their women were inured to it betimes, infomuch
that no woman could be admitted into matrimony till (he
had killed at leaft one enemy with her own hands. As
for their youth, they were not without confiderable en-
couragements to infpire them with martial valour, or rather
ferocity, if we may rely upon the information of Hero-
dotus, who tells us that they were wont to drink die blood
of the firft prifoner they took, and to prefent the heads of
all the men they killed in fight to their monarch ; thefe
were either returned or regiftered, and the warrior enjoyed
privileges in proportion to the numbers he had (lain. They
ufed to take the (Icins of the (lain, to ftretch, dry, and tan
them, and then hang them at their horfes' bridles, where
they ferved both for trophies and napkins to the owner ;
he' being always moft eftcemed, who had the greateft num-
ber to difplay. Their pride, or rather barbarity, went fo
far, that they took off and dreffed tlie whole fliin of the
flain, and covered both their quivers and horfes, and fome-
times decked their own bodies with them; and ufed their
(kuUs for drinking cups.

Had they only exercifed this kind of favage pride againft
thofe who came to invade them, it might indeed admit of
fome excufe ; but it doth not appear that they gave much
better quarter to thofe whole territories they invaded.

In confequence of their living free from ambition and
cai"e, and eating plentifully of animal food, they acquired
ruddy complexions, and became fo plump and fanguine,
•that, to prevent their growing too unwieldy, they not only
afed a great deal of exercife, but even cauterized their
arms, (houlders, backs, and brcails, with a view to draw
off fuperfluous moiiture. They were remarkable for their
fidelity and friendfhip, which they ctteemed and gloried in
above all things. They commonly confirmed their friend-
fhip by fome fuch religious ceremony or oath, as we have
lately mentioned, but a Scythian feldona diffufed his attach-

ments to more than two or three individuals, efteeming it
very difficult, if not impoffible, to keep it inviolate with a
greater number. And when fuch a friendlhip was once
contrafted, there was no danger or death which they would
not expofe themfelves to for one another.

They were not more difpofed to friendfhip, than addifted
to refentment and revenge. If a man had received an in-
jury, which he was not in a capacity to retaliate, the cuftom
was for him to facrifice a bullock, and to roaft the flefh of
it in fmall pieces. Then he fpread the hide upon the
ground, and fat upon it, holding his hands down behind
him as if they had been tied ; upon which fignal all that
beheld him, whether friends, relations, or ftrangers, came
to inform themfelves about the injury and injurer, and if
they favoured his caufe, took up a piece of the meat, fet-
ting their feet upon the hide at the fame time, promifing
afTiftance accordingly ; one perhaps fent him five men and
horfes, another ten, more or lefs, according to their cir-
cumttances, or the nature of the injury.

How populous the Scythians were, we have not been
able to difcover. If it be allowed that they made frequent
and bloody inroads one upon another, we cannot but fup-
pofe that it muft have lelfened their numbers exceedingly.
On the other hand, if we confider their plain and laborious
way of living, their climate, conftant exercife, and other
advantageous circumftances, which rendered them hardy
and ftrong, prolific and long lived, we can hardly conceive
they could be other than a populous nation : for we are
told, that very few died of ficknefs, but that in general
they lived to a good old age, infomuch, that many of them
being weary of the world, before death took them out of
it, it was ufual with fuch to haften their exit by throwing
themfelves from an eminence into the fea, or into fome river.
Herodotus, however, who feems in doubt whether they
were fo populous as fome, or fo thin as others reprefent
them, gives us an authentic inflance and monument in
favour of the former, which is as follows : they had, it
feems, a cuftom, not uncommon to other nations, at their
firft taking of the field to muiter their fighting men, and
to make every man caft an arrow into a proper receptacle,
which at their return from the expedition was again taken
up. By this expedient they could ealily compute not only
the number of their men, but alfo that of their flain, or
of thofe who either deferted, or abfented themfelves from
the war. It was at fome fuch mufter as this, that one of
their kings, whom Herodotus names Ariantes, being pre-
fent, and obferving thefe heads of arrows to amount to an
immenfe bulk and weight, as he had indeed a prodigious
army under him, ordered them to be melted and caft, and
made a large capacious veflel, which our author tells us
was ftill extant in his time ; and, though full fix inches
thick, was large enough to hold fix hundred amphoras,
that is about fifty hogfheads, and remained a monument of
this prodigious army. What feems to be a ftronger argu-
ment of their being populous, is, the fucceflion of colonies
which they fent out, chiefly towards the fouthern parts of
the world.

The Scythians cultivated no arts or fciences, except
that of war, nor did they pay much attention to trade or
commerce, or any fpecies of agriculture except pafturage.
Their mode of hving was altogether incompatible with
commerce. They do not feem to have known any thing of
writing, until they brought it with them from Afia, after
their twenty-eight years' invafion of that country.

Their language is very much unknown to us ; but the
extent of their territories and their intercourfe, and niter-
mixing with various other nations, muft occafion a great

number

SCYTHIANS.

ninibcr of dialefts, from which motl probably have fprung
the Mufcovitifh, Sclavonic, Polifh, Danifh, Swedifli, Saxon,
and many others ; between which one can but barely dif-
cover affinity enough to evince their origin from the fame
mother. A great number of words and phrafcs that are
found not only in thofe northern languages, but alfo in the
JLatin, Greek, Arabic, and Perfic, fhcvv them to have
been fo many dialefts of the old Celtic. If thofe few relics
of the Scythian, which we have left in the names of their
kings, tribes, and diilrifts, do not fo plainly appear to be
of the fame extraftion, we muft remember they have pail
through fo many different hands, and have fo often changed
their drefs, efpecially among the Greeks, that they may
be eafily fuppofed to have quite loft their ancient form.
We may add, that feme of them are perfeftly Greek, or
tranflated from the Scythian into that language. Of this
kind IS the name of the Ooenes, a Scythian tribe, fo called
in Herodotus, from their hving upon the eggs of wild-
fowl, and derived from the Greek »«. The Nomades were
fo called from to/j.r., pajlure. Of the fame extraftion were
the Hyppodes, Androphagi, and fome others.

Their chief manufaftures feem to have confifted moftly in
building waggons for their families and baggage, which being
covered witli the Ikins of beafts, fhews that they muft have
had fome notion of tanning and dreffing leather. We may
likewife reafonably fuppofe, that they fabricated their own
weapons, which were fcimitars, javelins, axes, but efpecially
bows and arrows, at which they are faid to be fo expert,
that their very children were trained to fhoot at a mark,
even as they rode on horieback ; infomuch that it became
a common proverb, " that the Scythians were as dextrous
at their bows as the Greeks were at their lyre." Hence
Cyaxares, king of Media, is reported to have fent his fon
to be brought up under them, to learn the ufe of the bow.
They were fo expert in horfemanfhip, as to have acquired
the epithet of W-irolo^'fixt by Herodotus and Lucian. Their
women are affirmed to have been fo well trained to riding
and (liooting, that they did not fall ffiort of the men in
thofe exercifes. The ancients obferve, that they had nei-
ther mules nor ades ; and the reafon they give is, that the
country was too cold for thofe creatures. Experience has
fince fticwn the contrary, at leaft with refpeft to the latter;
but the true reafon feems to be, that the horfes, which they
bred in great numbers, could anfwer all the purpofes of
the other two fpecies, and at the fame time be more fwift
and expeditious.

As for agriculture, it doth not appear that they had any.
Herodotus indeed tells us of one province, whofe inhabit-
ants called themfelves Olbiopolitans, and the Greeks Bo-
ryfthenians, as they lived on the north fide of that river ;
and thefe he likewife called iuifbandmen, becaufe they
fowed grain, not for food, but for fale. But the reft
of the Scythians wholly neglefted it, chufing rather to
roam where they found the bcft palture for their cattle,
and contenting themfelves with the fpontancous produfts of
the earth, with<nit being at the trouble of manuring it.
And this is in all likelihood the caufe why we read of fo
many deferts, forefts, and large uninhabited trafts of land
between tribe and tribe, in the writings of ancient hiftorians
and geographers. How they difpofed of the wool of their
ildcks we know not, but, by their clothing themfelves
with the n<ins of wild or tame beafts, we may conclude
they did not manufafture it into cloth ; and as thofe Ikins
were of their own dreffing, they wanted ftill lefs the help
of foreign manufaftures. Smiths they muft have had, for
making their arms, waggons, and other neceflary tools.
As to their arrows, darts, and javelins, if their heads were
Vol. XXXII.

made of copper, they were probably caft in moulds. They
ufed ftandards of a particular make, which, when blown
open by the wind, exhibited the figures of ferpents and
dragons of feveral (hapes, and thefe were commonly borne
by men on horfeback.

Their chief riches and food confifting in their numerous
herds, they entrufted the care of them to ftiepherds, who
were a lower rank of Scythians, below the martial men,
though they too had Haves and captives in their fervice.
They ufed to move from pafture to pafture, with the per-
fons and families which were unfit to go to the wars. Thefe
chiefly lived upon honey, cheefe, and milk, more efpecially
that of their msres, from which creature, if Herodotus
was rightly informed, they had a ftrange way of forcing
plenty of it, by blowing wind into the privities ; but their
chief and choiceft food was the venifon they killed. What
provifions the warhke Scythians made, when they were ab-
fent from their flocks, we cannot guefs ; it is probable
when they came into an enemy's country, they feized upon
all the cattle they could meet with ; and when that failed,
they had recourfe to a compofition they carried about them,
of which we fhall fpcak prefently.

From an inftance or two recorded of their kings, we
conclude, they allowed of polygamy, and were not over-
itrift in their marriages. Plato feems even to intimate that
they had their women in common, though, if any fuch cuf-
tom prevailed among them, it muft have been only among
the more favage fort, for the royal and free men had wives ;
and fome of their kings we read of, who took them from
other nations, and of one of them who married his own
father's widow ; but whether the fame liberty was allowed
to private men we cannot affirm. The reafon the Scy-
thians gave for abhorring the Bacchanalian feafts of the
Greeks, namely, that it was abfurd to fuppofe, that a god
fhould drive men to all the violent tranfports of madnefs,
feems to fhew that drunkennefs was not common among
them. And indeed we do not find that they were much
addifted to feafting. Plutarch, in his Banquet of the
Seven Wife Men, fays, " that they neither had vines, nor
players on inftruments, nor public games." One wine-fcaft
they kept however once a-year in every diftrift, for thofe
who had fignahzed themfelves by killing one or more of
their enemies. Another we read of, which was ufed at
funerals. Some others they might have upon other occa-
fions not worth enquiring after ; but in general, tiiey were
remarkably abftemious, except in their adeftions for their
favourite women. Thcv talked little, but concifely and
nervoufly, efpecially about their warlike affairs. They
commonly travelled on horfeback, or in their domcilic vehi-
cles. When they had any rivers to crofs, they Laid their
horfe's (addle and weapons upon a (kin filled with cork,
and fo well fewn, that nut :■ drop of water could get into
it ; they then laid themfelves down on it, and taking hold
of tlieir horfe by the tail, made him fwim to tiio other fide.
They carried with them a certain compofition, in fmall
pieces like pills, one of which, upon occafion, would yet
aftbrd fufficicnt nouri(hmcnt for feveral dayi. Pliny adds,
that thc-y ufed the like expedient with tlieir liorfcs, by mean*
of what he calls the Scythian weed, upon the llrenglh of
which they could travel ten or twelve days without eating
or drinking.

Wiien any perfoa died, his ncareft relations canftd his
embalmed body to be carried in a chariot from houfc to
houle among his friends and acquaintance, who received
and fealled them in their turns, fetting part of the ban-
quet before the deceafed. This ceremony wat continued
forty days, after which tlic pcrfon was buried, and his at-
Q tcudaiitt

SCYTHIANS.

tendants purified themfelves, not by any ablution, but by
the fmoke of fome hemp-feed peculiar to the country,
which being thrown upon burning ftones, emitted a much
more agreeable perfume than the frankincenfe ufed in
Greece, and intoxicated the company, who concluded the
ceremony with hideous fhrieks. This fcrved inftead of
wafhing, which the Scythians never praAifed ; not even
the women, who ufed inilead of it to anoint their bodies
and face with a palle, made of cyprefs, cedar, and frankin-
cenfe, ground upon a rough Hone, and foaked in water,
which pafte being taken off next day, rendered their fliins
clean, (hining, and fweet.

Hitherto we have confined our chief attention to the
royal Scythians ; but there were other tribes or petty king-
doms that demand fome tranfient notice.

The Samaritans are affirmed by Herodotus to have been
the offspring of the Scythians and Amazons. Thefe war-
like women, or as their Scythian name, Aior Patta, im-
ports, man-Jtayers, in their flight from the Grecians, having
landed near tiie precipices of the Palus Msotis belonging
to the free Scythians, and having been perfuaded to be
married to them, did in their turn prevail upon them to
leave that part of Scythia, where they pretended they could
not conveniently live with them, and to pafs into the pro-
vince of Sarmatia on the other fide of the Tanais. Hence,
our author fays, the Samaritan women retained ftill the
Amazonian temper and way of life, being more warhke
than the refl of the Scythian females, and the language of
the country became a corrupt Scythian, becaufe the Ama-
zons never could perfeftly learn that language, but taught
it their offspring, corrupt as themfelves fpoke it. Here it
chiefly was, that a virgin was unqualified for matrimony,
till fhe had difpatched an enemy in the field.

The Taurians had this inhuman cuilom, that they facri-
ficed to a virgin all that were fhipwrecked, and all the
Grecians whom they caught upon their coafts. This
bloody offering was performed by knocking the perfon on
the head with a club, after many dii-e imprecations, and
flinging his carcafe down the hill on which their temple
was built, or as others told our author, by burying the
body, and referving only the head to be lluck on a pole.
Thefe Taurians pretended, that the virgin daemon whom they
thus worfhipped, was Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daughter.
They lived chiefly by war and rapine, and were very cruel
to thofe that fell into their hands. The Agathyrlians are
laid to have had their women in common, in order to link
the men more Itritlly together, and to prevent jealoufies,
and other ill effefts of matrimony. The Neurian province
beirg infefled with dangerous ferpents, they were at length
forced to leave it for that of the Budians. They obferved
the cuitoms of Scythia in moft particulars, only pretended
to greater Ikill in magic than they, and were reported to
be transformed into wolves for fome part of the year, after
which metamorphofis, they refumed their own fhape ; an
allegory which is fuppofed to mean no more than their
wearing of fl<ins with the fur outward during the cold
weather. The Neurians are mentioned alfo by Pliny, Mela,
and Steph. of Byzantium.

The worll of all were the Androphagi, or men-eaters,
who obferved neither laws nor juilice, and had nothing in
common with the refl, but their drefs and occupation of
breeding cattle. The Melanchoeneans were fo called for
affefting to go always in black ; they followed the Scy-
thian cuftoms, except that they fed upon human flefh,
which the free Scythians did not ; nor indeed did any other
tribes ufe it, at leaft as common food, but only on fome
particular occafions. The Budians were a populous nation,

famed for blue eyes, and red hair : in this province, above
all the reft, did they build them a city, and called it Ge-
lonus, whofe houfes and high walls were of timber, and
each fide of the walls was three hundred fl-idia in length ;
it had temples and chapels dedicated to the Grecian gods ;
and here they celebrated the Bacchanalia triennially. The
people of the province differed from thofe in the city, in
that the former apphed themfelves to the keeping of cattle,
and thefe to tillage and planting gardens, living upon the
produfts of them, and of their corn fields ; in a word, thefe
Gelonians were fo much more civilized in their manners
than the Budians, that they feemed quite another people.
They are fuppofed to have been of Greek extract, and to
have been in time quite blended with the Budians, who
were of Sarmatian origin, and contiguous to tfiem ; and
Herodotus obierves, that each preferved their own native lan-
guage. The Gelonians learned, among other things, the
cultom of painting their bodies from the Sarmatians, whence
that verfe in Virgil's Georgics, xii. v. iij.

" Eofque demos Arabum piftofque Gelonos."

This province abounded with otters and beavers, vfhich
afforded Ikins for wearing, and caftor for medicine.

The lail two nations or tribes of the Scythians worth
our notice, were the Nomades, inhabiting the country on
the north-wefl of the Cafpian fea, and the Maflagetes on
the weft. For an account of the Amazons, we refer to
that article. The Nomades differed fo little from the royal
Scythians, except in this appellative, that it is needlefs to fay
more concerning them, than that they led a wandering life,
living no longer in one place than they found plenty of
paflure for their cattle ; which being confumed, they re-
moved to frefh grounds ; and, when called to the wars,
left their families and flocks, with their fhepherds, till
their return. Pliny places them on the left fide of the
Cafpian fea, and fays the river Panticapes parted them
from the Georgii. Strabo adds, that they lived in waggons
inftead of houfes. (See Nomades.) For an account of the
MafTageta:, fee Massagetes.

The following table exhibits the names and fucceffion of
Scythian kings :

I.

Scythes.

12.

Panaxagoras.

2.

3-

Napis.
Phithra.

13-
14.

Tanais.
Saulius.

4-
5-
6.

7-

Sagiilus, or Protothyas.

Madyes.

Thomyris.

Jancirus.

15-
16.

17-

18.

Spargapifes.
Aripithes.
Scyles.
Oftamafades.

8.
9-

lO.

Indathyrfus.

Targitaus.

Calaxais.

19.
20.
21.

Ariantes.

Atheas.

Lambinus.

1 1.

Scholypethes, or perhaps
rather Scythopetes.

Madyes was a warlike prince, and it was under his con-
duft that the Scythians, having driven the Cimmerians, or
northern Celtes, out of Europe, and purfued them into Afia,
invaded the country of the Medes, and held the greater part
of Upper Afia in fubjeftion for twenty-ejght years. As
Scythia did not afford a fufficient fupply of food for its nu-
merous inhabitants, they difcbarged the fuperfiuous multi-
tudes towards the more fertile fouth ; and liaving rapidly
pafTed into Afia, their victorious army was led into Egypt.
Here tiicy made fome incurfions into the land of the Plii-
littines ; and in this expedition they are faid to have taken
the city of Bethfhean from the tribe of Manaffeh, on this
fide of Jordan, and to have called it, after their own name,

Scythopohs,

S C Y

Scythopolis, or the city of the Scythians. In their return
to Syria, feme of them plundered the temple of Venus at
Afcalon, and for their facrilege were puniftied with a kind of
flux of blood, common to the female fex, which defcended
to their pofterity as a mark of infamy. Thomyris, or Ta-
miris, was that heroine whom, we are told by Herodotus,
Cyrus the Great demanded in marriage. Indathyrfus was
the magnanimous prince who, having received from Darius,
the Perfian king, tlie proud challenge imphed in the de-
mand of earth and water as a token of fubjeclion, fent him
this remarkable reply ; that as he acknowledged no lord
but his progenitor Jupiter, and Vefta, queen of the Scy-
thians, he would (liortly fend him a more fuitabie prefent,
fuch as might, perhaps, make him repent of his arrogance.
This prefent, confiding of a bird, a nioufe, a frog, and five
arrows, was afterwards difpatched to him, without any ap-
plication. Gobrias explained to Darius the meaning of this
prefent, which the king had underllood to be a token of
fubmiflion, intimating that the Perfians muft not hope to
avoid the effefts of Scythian valour, unlefs they could either
fly like birds, plunge under water like frogs, or bury thcm-
felves in the earth like mice. The Perfian monarch invaded
the Scythian territory ; but the refult of the expedition was
that he ivas forced to retire with the lofs of the greatell
part of his numerous army, and glad to efcape with his own
life, though at the expence of his glory. Saulius was the
king of Scythia, who flew /inacharfis. See his article. The
laft king of Scythia, according to Juftin, was Lambinus.
For furtiier particulars relating to the Scythians, we refer
to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Juftin, Mela, Anc.
Univ. Hift. vol. iv. ; Gibbon's Hift. of the Decl. &c. of
Roman Emp. vols. i. iv. r. vi. ; and fir W. Jones's Fifth
Difcourfe, apud Works, vol. iii. or Af. Refearches, vol. ii.
See alfo Celts, GETiE, Goths, Huns, Sarmatians,
Saxons, Scandinavia, and Vandals.

SCYTHICUM Lignum, in Botany, a name given by
the ancients to a tree called feytbar'toa by the later writers
of the Greeks.

SCYTHOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sy-
ria, in a province called Decapolis.

SCYTHRANUS Portus, a port of Africa, in Mar-
marica, between Antipyrgus and the Cataeonium Promon-
torium, according to Ptolemy.

SCYTHROPS, in Ornithology, a genus of birds of the
order Pics. The generic charafter is, bill large, convex,
(harp-edged, channelled at the fides, hooked at the point ;
noftrils naked, rounded at the bafe of the bill ; the tongue
is cartilaginous, fplit at the point ; the feet are formed for
climbing. This genus, of which only a fingle fpecies is
known, is nearly allied to the Ramphajlos, from which it
principally differs in the greater itrength and ftoutnefs of
the bill, and in having the tongue entire at the fides, and
bifid at the tip.

Species.

Psittaceus. Tiiis bird has obtained different trivial
names. From the circumllance that it is found in New
Holland ; where, by the way, it is fometimes feen in fmall
flocks, but more frequently in pairs, generally in trees, and
uttering, during flight, a loud fcrcaming noife, not unlike
the crowing of a cock ; it is called by fome the Auftralafian
Channel-bird ; by others, tlie New Holland Channel-bird ;
and by fome, Pfittaceous Hornbill. By Dr. Shaw, it is fpe-
cifically defcribtd as the lead-coloured channel-bill, with the
tail-featliers barred with black and white. It is about the
fize of a crow, and meafurcs in total length about feventecn
inches, of which the bill meafures four inches. The general

SEA

proportions of the bird fomewhat rcfemble thofe of the
cuckoo, but with a longer and more cuncated tail. The
colour of the upper parts of the body, wings, and tail, is
deep blueilh a(h-brown, the tips of the feathers fomewhat
more intenfe than the reft ; the head, neck, and under parts
of the bird, are of a pale grey, or dove-colour ; the two
middle tail-feathers have a black bar near the tip, which is
white ; all the remaining tail-feathers arc a(h-brown externally,
but on the inner webs are white, croffed by numerous black
bars, and marked, like the middle ones, by a broader black
bar near the end, the tips being white ; the eyes and noftrils
are feated in a reddifh naked Ikin ; the bill and legs are of a
pale yellow, tlie former are marked on the upper mandible
by a longitudinal duilcy ftreak or two, and on the lower by
three or four dufl<y bars near the bafe. Dr. Siiaw has given
a figure of this bird, but it may be doubted whether, with
refpecl to magnitude, it is calculated to convey jull ideas of
the bird itfelf.

SCZEBRZESZIN, in Geography, a town of Auftrian
Poland, in Galicia ; j miles W. of Zamofcie.

SCZEZEDROHORST, a town of Lithuania; 60
miles S.E. of Brzefc.

SCZUCZYN, a town of Poland ; 35 miles S.W. of San-
domirz.

SDUR, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
20 miles S.S.E. of Sue/.

SE, or TsE, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Ho-
nan. N. lat. j6° 25'. E. long. 114° 14'.

Se, Felo de. See Felo.

Se, Per. See PERy^.

SEA, Mare, in Geography, is frequently ufcd for that vafl
traft of water encompaffing the whole earth, more properly
called Ocean ; which fee.

For the caufe of the faltnefs of the fea, fee Saltniss.

Sea is more properly ufed for a particular part or divifion
of the ocean, denominated from the countries it wafhes, or
from other circumftances.

Thus we fay the Iri/li fea, the Mediterranean fea, the Baltic
fea, the Red fea, &c. which fee refpeftively.

Till the time of the emperor Juftinian, the fea was com-
mon and open to all men ; whence it is that the Roman laws
grant an adlion againit a perfon who fhall prevent or molell
another in the free navigation or fifhing therein.

The emperor Leo, in his fifty-fixth novel, firft allowed
fuch as were in poflcflion of the lands, the fole privilege of
fifhing before their refpccSive territories, cxclufive ot ail
others ; he even gave a particular commilTion to certain per-
fons to divide the Thracian Bofphorus among them.

From that time, the fovereign princes have been endea-
vonring to appropriate the fea, and to withdraw it from
the public ufe. The republic of Venice pretends to be fo
far miftrefs in her gulf, that there is a formal marriage every
year between that fignory and the Adriatic.

To confirm this right, thofe who contend for it h.ivc al-
leged tlie example of Uladillaus, king of Naples, and the em-
peror Frederic III. and of fome of the kings of Hungary,
who requefted the Venetians to permit them to pafs through
that fea with their vcflels. That the empire belongs to tlic
republic to a certain diftancc from the coall, in the places
of which it can keep pofiefTioii, and which it is of importance
to hold in regard to its own fafoty, appears, fays V.ittcl, to
be incontcftible ; but he very much doubts, whether any
power is at prefent difpofed to acknowledge her fovtre ignty
over the whole Adriatic fea.

In thife laft ages, the Englifli have particularly claimed the

empire of the fea in the Chaniiel, and even that of .ill the (cas

cncompafTing the three kingdoms of Ewglaiid, Scotland, aoj

O 2 Ireland,

SEA.

Ireland, and that as far as the (hores of the neighbouring
ttatej. In confequence of which pretenfion it is, that chil-
dren born in thefe feas are declared natural Englifhmen, as
much as if born on Englirti ground. The juftice of this pre-
tenfion is ftrenuoufly argued between Grotius and Selden, in
the Man liberum, and Mare claufum.

The ufe of the open fea confilts in navigation and fiihing ;
along its coafts it is likewife of ufe for the procuring of fe-
veral things found near the (hore, fiich as (hell-fi(h, amber,
pearls, &c. for making of fait, and, in (hort, for the eftabhlh-
ment of places of retreat and fecurity for veffels. The open
fea is in its own nature not to be exclufively poiTelfed, as no
one is able to fettle there fo as to hinder others from paffing.
But a nation powerful at fea may forbid others to navigate
it and to fifh in it, declaring that it appropriates its dominions
to itfelf, and that it will dellroy the veffels that fhall dare to
appear in it, without its permiffion. Vattel, a highly ap-
proved writer on this fubjcft, inveftigates its right to do
this. It is evident, in the firft place, that nobody has a right
to appropriate to himfelf the ufe of the open fea : for he
who navigates or fiflies in it does no injury to any one, and
the fea, in both thefe refpefts, is fufficient for all mankind.
Nor does Nature give to any man a right of appropriating
to himfelf things that may be innocently ufed, and that are
inexhaullible, and fufScient for all ; fince, every one being
able to find in their ftate of communion what was fufficient
to fupply their wants, to undertake to render themfelves
fole mailers of them, and to exclude all others, would be
to deprive them, without reafon, of the benefits of nature.
Although the law of nature approves the rights of dominion
and property, which put an end to the primitive manner of
living in common, this reafon could not take place with
regard to things in themfelves inexhauftible, which cannot
therefore be juftly appropriated.

If the free and common ufe of a thing of this nature was
prejudicial or dangerous to a nation, the care of its own
fafety authorized it to fubmit, if poffible, that thing to its
dominion in order to permit the ufe of it, with fuch precau-
tions as prudence (hould direft. But this is not the cafe
with the open fea, in which people may fail and fifh without
the leall prejudice to any perfon, and without putting any
other people in danger. No nation then has a right to lay
claim to the open fea, or to attribute the ufe of it to itfelf
to the exclufion of others. The kings of Portugal have
formerly arrogated to themfelves the empire of the feas of
Guinea and the Eaft Indies ; but the other maritime powers
gave themfelves little trouble about fuch a pretenfion. The
right of navigating and fifhing in the open fea being then a
right common to all men, the nation which attempts to ex-
clude another from that advantage does it an injury, and
gives a fufficient caufe for war : nature authorifing a nation
to repel an injury ; that is, to make ufe of force againft any
one who would deprive it of its rights. Befides, a nation
which, without a title, would arrogate to itfelf an exclufive
right to the fea, and fupport it by force, does an injury to
all nations whofe common right it violates ; and all are at
liberty to unite againlt it, m order to reprefs fuch an attempt.
However, as each has the liberty of renouncing its rights, a
nation may acquire exclufive rights of navigation and fifhing
by treaties, in which other nations renounced, in its favour,
the right they derive from nature. Thefe are obliged to
obferve their treaties, and the nation they have favoured has
a right to maintain by force the poffeffion of its advantages.
Thus, the Houfe of Auftria has renounced, in favour of
England and Holland, the right of fending veffels from the
Netherlands to the Eaft Indies. Many examples of like
treaties may be found in Grotius, " De Jure Belli et Pacis,"

lib. ii. cap. iii. f 15. The rights of navigation, fiihing, and
others that may be exercifed on the fea, are imprefcriptible ;
they cannot be lolt for want of ufe ; confequently, when a
nation finds that itfelf alone has from time immemorial been
in the poffeffion of a navigation or fi(hery in certain feas, it
cannot, on this foundation, attribute to itfelf an exclufive
riiTht to them. But it may happen, that a want of ufe may
be attended with the nature of a confent, or a tacit paft,
and thus become a title in favour of one nation againft ano-
ther. Wlien a nation in the poffeffion of the navigation and
fifhery in certain l.ititudes, pretends an exclufive right, and
forbids any other interfering in it ; if thefe obey that
prohibition with fufficient marks of acquiefcence, they
tacitly renounce their right in favour of the other, and
eltablifh a right which the other may afterwards lawfully
maintain againll them, efpeciaUy when it is confirmed by
long ufe.

Neverthelefs, the fea near the coafts may become pro-
perty ; fo that the nation to which the coafts belong may
appropriate to itfelf an advantage which it is confidered as
having taken poffeffion of, and made a profit of it, in the
fame manner as it may poffefs the domain of the land which
it inhabits. But if, fo far from taking poffeffion of it, it has
once acknowledged the common right of other nations to
come and fifli there, it can no longer exclude them from it ;
it has left that fifhery in its primitive freedom, at leaft, with
refpcfl to thofe who have been in poffeffion of it. The
Englilh not having taken the advantage from the beginning
of the herring fidiery on their coaft, it is become common to
them with other nations.

A nation may likewife appropriate things, where the free
and common ufe of them would be prejudicial and dangerous.
This is a fecond reafon for which powers extend their do-
mions over the fea along their coaft, as far as they are able
to proteft their right. It concerns their fafety and the
welfare of the ftate, that the whole world be not permitted
to come fo near their poffeffion, efpeciaUy w^ith men of war,
as to hinder the approach of trading nations, and difturb na-
vigation. Thefe contiguous parts of the fea, thus fubjeft to
a ftate, are comprehended in its territory ; nor can any one
navigate them in fpite of that nation. But it cannot refufe
accefs to veffels not fufpefted, for innocent ufes, without vio-
lating its duty ; every proprietor being obliged to grant a
paffage to ftrangers, even by land, when it may be done
without damage or danger.

It is not cafv to determine to what diftance a nation may
extend its rights over the fea by which it is furrounded.
Bodinus pretends that, according to the common right of
all maritime nations, the prince's dominion extends even
thirty leagues from the coaft. But this exaft determination
can only be founded in a general confent of nations, which it
would be difficult to prove ; each ftate may, in this refpeft,
ordain what it (hall think beft, in relation to what concerns
the citizens themfelves, or their affairs with the fovereign ;
but between nation and nation, all that can be reafonably
faid is, that, in general, the dominion of the ftate over the
neighbouring fea extends as far as is neceflary for its fafety,
and it can render it refpedled ; fince, on the one hand, it can
only appropriate to itfelf a thing that is common, as the fea,
fo far as it has need of it, for fome lawful end ; and, as to the
other, it would be a vain and ridiculous pretenfion to claim
a right that it was no ways able to caufe to be refpefted.
The fleets of England have given room to its kings to attri-
bute to themfelves the empire of the feas which furround that
ifland, even as far as the oppofite coafts. (See Selden's
" Marc Claufum.") Selden relates a folemn aft, by which
it appears that this empire, in the time of Edward I., was
6 acknow-

SEA.

ncknowledged by the greateft part of the maritime nations
of Europe ; and the repubhc of the United Provinces ac-
knowledged it, in the fame manner, by the treaty of Breda, in
the year 1667, at lead fo far as related to the honours of the
flag. But folidly to eftablifh a right of fuch extent, it is
ncceflary to fhew very clearly the exprefs, or tacit, confent
of all the powers concerned. The French have never agreed
to this prctenfion of England, and in the fame treaty of
Breda jull mentioned, Louis XIV. would not even fuffer
the Channel to be called the Enghfh Channel, or the Bri-
ti(h fea.

The banks of the fea belong inconteftibly to the nation
that pofleiTes the country of which it is a part. The ports
and harbours are manifcltly a dependance, and even a part
of the country, and confequcntly are the property of the
nation. The fame obfervation is applicable to the bays and
itraits. With regard to llraits in particular, that ferve for
a communication between two feas, the navigation of which
is common to all, or to many nations, he who poflefles the
ilrait cannot refufe others a paffage through it, provided that
paflage be innocent, and attended with no danger to the
itate. Nothing but the care of his own fafety can authorize
the mafter of the ftrait to make ufe of certain precautions,
and to require the formahties commonly eitablifhed by the
cultom of nations. He has a right to levy fmall duties on
the veffels that pafs, on account of the inconvenience they
give him, by obliging him to be on his guard ; by the fe-
curity he affords them in protefting them from their ene-
mies, and keeping of pirates at a dillance ; and the expence
he incurs by maintaining light-licufcs, fea-marks, and other
things necellary to the fafety of the mariners. As to the right
of wrecks, fee Wreck.

If the fea is entirely cnclofed by the land of a nation,
with only a communication witii the ocean by a channel, of
which that nation may take poffcffion, it appears that fuch
a fea is no lefs capable of being occupied and becoming
property than the land ; and it ought to follow the fate of
the country that furrounds it. The Mediterranean was for-
merly included within the lauds of the Romans; and tliefe
people, by rendering themfilvcs mafters of the ilrait that
joins it to the ocean, niiglit fubjeft it to their empire, and
add it to their domain. They did not by tliefe means injure
the rights of other nations ; a particular fea being manifeilly
defigned by nature for the ufe of the countries and the peo-
ple who furround it. Befides, in defending the entrance of
the Mediterranean from all fufpefted veuels, the Romans
fccured at once the immenl'e extent of their coaft ; and this
rcafon was fufiicient to authorife their polleflion of it. And
as it has an abfolute communication with none but their
Hate, they were at liberty to permit or prohibit the entrance
mto it, in the fame manner as into any of their towns and
provinces.

When a nation takes pofleflion of certain parts of the fea,
It enjoys the empire, as well as the domain. Thofe parts of
the lea are withui the jurildiftlon of the territory of the na-
tion ; the fovereign commands there, he makes laws, and
may p\mi(h thofe who violate them ; in a word, he has the
iame rights there as at land, and in general all thofe given
him by the law of the Hate.

It ought to be obfervcd, however, that a nation may
polfefs as property the domain of a ftate at land or fea with-
out having the fovereignty ; it may liappcn alfo that it may
have the empire of a place where the property of the domain
with refpett to ufe belongs to fomc other nation. The
Englifli have never pretended to have a property in all the
leas over which they have claimed the empire. Vattcl's
Law of Nations, b. i. ch. 23.

The Xtrmfea is varioufly applied by failors, to a finglc
wave, to the agitation produced by a multitude of waves
in a tempell, or to their particular prntrcfs or direftion.
Thus they fay, a heavy fea broke over our quarter ; or, we
Shipped a heavy fea ; there is a great fea in the offing ; the
fea lets to the fouthward. Hence a Ihip is faid to head the
fea, when her courfe is oppufed to the letting or direftion
of the furges. A long fea implies an uniform and ileady
motion of long and extenfive waves ; on the contrary, zjhort
fea is when they run irregularly, broken and interrupted,
fo as frequently to burft over a vedel's fide or quarter.

Sea, General Motion of the. Mr. Daflie of Paris, in a
work publifhed about a century ago, has been at great pains
to prove that the fea has a general motion, independent of
winds and tides, and of more confequence in navigation than
is ufually fuppofed. He affirms that this motion is from
eail to we.l, inclining toward the north, when the fun has
paffed the equinoftial northward, and that during the time
the fun is in the northern figns ; but the contrary way, after
the fun has pafled the faid equinoftial fouthward ; adding,
that when this general motion is changed, the diurnal flux is
changed alfo ; whence it happens, that in fereral places the
tide comes in during one part of the year, and goes out dur-
ing the other, as on the coails of Norway, in the Indies, at
Goa, Cochinchina, &c. where, while the fun is ia the fum-
mer figns, the fea runs to the fliore ; when in the winter
figns, from it. On the moll fouthern coafts of Tonquin
and China, for the fix fummer months, the diurnal courfe
runs from the north with the ocean ; but the fun having re-
pafTed the line toward the fouth, the courfe declines alfo
fouthward. Phil. Tranf. N° 135.

Sea, Bafon of the. Fundus maris, a term ufed by geo-
graphers, and other writers, to exprefs the bottom of tiie
ica in general.

Mr. Boyle has publifhed a treatife on this fubjcft, in
which he has given an account of its irregulanties and va-
rious depths, founded on the obfervations communicated to
him by mariners.

The ingenious count Marfigli has, fince his time, given
us a much fuller account of this part of tlie globe, mollly
from his own experiments in many places, particularly along
tlie coads of Provence and La[)gucdoc. The entire bafon
of the fea is of fuch iinnienfe extent, and covered in many
places with fuch an unfathomable depth of water, that it \»
not to be cxpeded that it can be traced in every part ; but
as the whole may be gueffcd at, from fome part of it, and
as its general figure is of no confequence in a ftarch of this
kind, the obfervations of this curious author arc of great
value, in forming a judgment of the whole.

The materials whicli compofe the bottom of the fea,
may very rationally be fuppofed, in fomc degree, to in-
fluence the tafle of its waters ; and Marfigli has made many
experiments to prove, that folUlc coal, and other bituminous
fubilanccs which are found in plenty at the bottom of the
fea, may communicate in great part its bittcrnefs to it. See
Saltness.

We are not, however, to judge haflily, that there arc
not fo many beds of thefe at the bottom of the lea, at
would be necellary for fuch a purpofe, or to judge too
hallily againfl tlie exiftence of any other fubltanccs there,
becaufe we do not find proofs of tlicm by the plummet,
which in founding brings up otlier fubilanccs, and not thcfc;
for the true bottom of the lea is very often covered and ob-
fcured from us by another accidental bottom, formed of va-
rious fubllances mingled together, and often covering it to a
confiderable depth.

The entire gulf of Lyons, fituatcd between Cape Quie/.

in

SEA.

in RoufiUon, and Cape Croifit in Provence, forms a bank
above the furface of the water at the fhore, of the cxaA and
perfeft figure of an arch ; and within this there is formed
another fuch arch, making the bottom of the fea in that
place for a very great way from ftiore, which is of different
depths in various places, but ufually between fixty and
feventy fathom. See ^m-Shore.

It is a general rule among failors, and is found to hold
true in a great many inftances, that the more the Ihorts of
any place are deep and high, forming perpendicular cliffs,
the more deep the fea is below ; and that, on the conti'ary,
level (hores denote fhallow feas. Thus the deepeft part of
the Mediterranean is generally allowed to be under tiie
height of Malta. The obfervation of the Itrata of earth,
and other foffils, on and near the (hores, may ferve to form
a very good judgment as to the materials which are found in
its bottom.

The veins of fait and of bitumen doubtlefs run on the
fame, and in the fame order in which we fee them at land ;
and the ilrata of rocks, that ferve to fupport the earth of
hills and elevated places on fliore, ferve alfo, in the f.-ime
continued chain, to fupport the immenfe quantity of water
in the bafon of the fea. It is probable alfo, that the veins
of metals, and of other mineral fubftances, which are found
in the neighbouring earth, are in the fame manner continued
into the depths of the fea. The particles of metals in this
cafe, are probably carried off into deep water, and funk
among the fofter matter of the bottom, but fome of the
lighter minerals feem to have given colour to thofe beautiful
crufts, which are found upon many fea fubftances, and which
lofe their luftre in the drying. The fubterranean rivers,
and currents of water, make great changes in what would
be the natural furface of the bottom of the fea, where they
arife, each having a peculiar bafon of its own. We are in-
formed by numerous inftances of fubterranean currents, and
as we fee them break out in rivers on the furface of the earth
in fome parts, fo in others we may be well affured that they
break up the bottom of the fea, and empty their frelh waters
into the fait mafs.

In this cafe, the rufliing up continually of fuch a body
of water makes a roundifti cavity, and its running fome one
way, lengthens and carries on that cavity, till by degrees it
is loft, as the frelh water by degrees becomes blended with
the fait. Thus every river that arifes in the bottom of the
fea, alters the form of its furface, and makes a bafon for
itfelf, in which it runs a confiderable way. Many feas near
the fhore, and when the water is tolerably clear, fhew the
traces of thefe currents to the naked eye from the furface,
and the water taken up from them is found more or lefs
frefh.

The coral fitheries have given us occafion to obferve, that
there are many, and thofe very large caverns, or hollows in
the bottom ef the fea, efpecially when it is rocky ; and that
the like caverns are fomelimes found in the perpendicular
rocks, which form the fteep fides of thofe fifheries. Thefe
caverns are often of great depths, as well as extent, and
have fometimes wide mouths, equal to their largeit diameter
in any part, but fometimes they have only narrow entrances
into large and fpacious hollows. It is the common opinion
of the people about the place, that thefe caverns are pre-
pared by nature for the circulation of the fea-water ; but
that operatian, however neceflary, may be performed as
well without, as with thefe caverns, and they feem in reality
to be only accidental.

We daily meet with immenie hollows and caverns, na-
turally made in rocky mountains ; and as this part of the
bottom of the fea is almoft all rock, and its fides of the

fame nature, it is no wonder that the fame accidents (hould
happen, and like hollows be found, though with no parti-
cular intent of Providence in their ufe. Nay, there is this
farther reafon to expedl them in the rocks buried under the
fea than in thofe in hills, that the latter are in a flate of reft
and quiet, whereas the former are in continual reach of
water, which will infinuate itfelf into every crack or crevice
nature has left in them, and may be eafily fuppofed to have
burrowed its way in a fmall hole made by nature, till it has
formed of it a very large one.

From fuch obfervations he infers, that the bafon of the
fea was at the creation, or at its fecond formation after the
univerfal deluge, covered with or compofed of the fame
fubftances, as the furface of the reft of the earth is, that is
of rocks, clay, and fand, and other fuch fubftances. Over
thefe there is an artificial bottom formed of muddy tartareous
incruftations, dead weeds, broken fhells, and other bodies
of the fame kind, cemented together into a firm mafs or
cruft ; and in thofe places where this cruft has never been
formed, or where it has been broken, the bottom of the fea
is of the fame nature with the ilrata of the earth.

The bottom of the fea is covered with a variety of mat-
ters, fuch as could not be imagined by any but thofe who
have examined into it, efpecially in deep water, where the
furface only is difturbed by tides and ftorms, the lower part,
and confcquently its bed at the bottom, remaining for ages
perhaps undifturbed. The foundings, when the plummet
firft touches ground on approaching the fhores, give fome
ideas of this. The bottom of the plummet is hollowed, and
in that hollow there is placed a lump of tallow ; this being
the bottom of the lead, is what firft touches the ground, and
the foft nature of this fat receives into it fome part of thofe
fubftances which it meets with at the bottom ; this matter,
thus brought up, is fometimes pure fand, fometimes a fort
of fand made of the fragment of fhells, beat to a fort of
powder ; fometimes it is made of a like powder of the feve-
ral forts of corals ; and fometimes it is compofed of frag-
ments of rocks ; but befide thefe appearances, which are
natural enough, and are what might very well be expefted,
it brings up fubftances which are of the moft beautiful
colours.

Things of as fine a fcarlet, vermilion, purple, &c. as
the finell paint could make them, and as yellow as a folu-
tion of gamboge, are common ; and fometimes, though not
fo frequently, the matter brought up is blue, green, or of
a pure fnowy whitenefs. Thefe coloured matters fometimes
feem to have made up the whole bottom or mafs of the fur-
face, but more ufually they have been formed upon other
things, as upon the mud, or upon larger pieces of fhells,
corals, and the like, in the manner of tartareous crufts, and
thofe in fome degree refembhng the cruftaceous coats of
fome of the fea plants. The colours of thefe fubftances
are not merely fuperficial and tranfient, but many of them
are fo real and permanent, that they may be received into
white wax melted, and poured upon them, or kept in fufion
about them ; and when thus examined, they feem as if a
proper care might make tiiem of great value, as paints of
the finer kinds, where little is to be ufed.

The fame coloured matters that thus coat the fubftances,
found at the bottom of the fea in thefe places, are alfo fome-
times found extended over the furface of marine fubftances
of the harder kind, which are found in deep water. They
are always, in this cafe, in a fort of liquid form, being lodged
within, or embodied among a fort of jelly or glue of a
tranfparent fubftance, which in thefe cafes perfedly coats
over the whole. In this itate it gives the naturalift, who is
prefent at the fifhing up of his treafurcs, a tranfient profpeft

of

SEA.

of a very elegant kind, but this vanidiea while he admires
it. A piece of c<;ral, or other hard lubftance, thus coated
over, appears, as it rifes to the lurface of the water, of a
delicate green, blue, or purple ; but when taken above
■water it is found that this fine colour is only in the coat of
glue or jelly which covers the fubllance ; as foon as this is
wiped off, the colour is carried away with it, and the coral
Ihews its own native tinge ; and it is to no purpole to attempt
the preferving of it, by fufFering this glue to dry upon the
coral, for the colour flies away by degrees, as the moifture
evaporates, and the coral. Sec. whatever it be, is only fo
much the lefs beautiful, than it naturally would have been,
as it is covered with a dry yellowifh dirty looking horny
matter. Thefe are beauties in the fub-marine produdlions,
therefore, which can be only feen by thofe who venture out
in order to take them up.

The imall quantities of thefe elegant colours, which we
thus find fpread over the furfaces of marine bodies, as we
approach deep water, may give a rational idea of what we
Ihould find, were we able to examine the bottom of the fea
in its deep and unfathomable receffes. It is eafy to con-
ceive, that in thefe places wc fhould find great quantities of
the moft beautiful fubftances. Marfigli, Hift. Phyf. de la
Mer.

Dr. Donati, in an Italian work, containing an eflay to-
wards a natural hiftory of the Adriatic fea, printed at Ve-
nice in 1750, has recited many curious oblervations on this
fubjeft, and which confirm the above account of Marfigli ;
having carefully examined the foil and produftiona of the
various countries that furround the Adriatic fea, and com-
pared them with thofe which he took up from the bottom
of the fea, he found that there is very little difference
between the former and the latter. At the bottom of the
water there are mountains, plains, vaUies, and caverns,
fimilar to thofe upon land. The foil confills of different
flrata placed one upon another, and for the moll part parallel
and correfpondent to thofe of the rocks, iflands, and neigh-
bouring continents. They contain iloncs of different forts,
minerals, metals, various putrified bodies, pumice-flouL- and
lavas formed by volcanoes.

The adjacent countries, as well as the bottom of the
Adriatic fea, confifl of a mafs of a whitifh marble, of an
uniform grain, and of almoft an equal hardnefs ; and this
marble, in many places under both the earth and fea, is in-
tercepted by feveral other kinds of marble, and covered by
a great variety of bodies, fuch as gravel, fand, and earths
more or lefs fat. To this variety of foils, he afcribes the
varieties obferved with refpedt to the nature and quantity of
plants and animals found at the bottom of the fea.

One of the objedls which mod excited his attention, was a
cruft, which he difcovered under the water, compofed of
cruftaceous and teftaceous bodies, and beds of polypes of
different kinds, confufcdly blended with earth, fif.id, and
gravel ; the different marine bodies, which form this cruft,
are found at the depth of a foot or more, entirely petrified
and reduced into marble ; thefe, he fuppofes, are naturally
placed under the fea when it covers them, and not by means
of volcanoes and earthquakes, as fome have conjectured.
On this account, he imagines, that the bottom of the fea is
conflantly rifing higher and higher, with which other ob-
vious caufes of increafe concur ; and from this rifing of the
bottom of the fea, that of the level of the water naturally re-
fults ; in proof of which this writer recites a great number
of fads. Philofoph. Tranf. vol. xlix. p. 5S5, &c.

Sea, Dead. Dr. Perry made feveral experiments on the
water of the Dead fea, in order to find what particles it
contained. Upon infufing fome fcrapings of galls in it, it

becomes of a bright purple colour, but that not till it has
flood a confiderable time. On adding oil of tartar per deli-
quium to it, it becomes turbid, and looks as if globules of
fat were fluftuating in it ; this unttuous matter, upon its
long Handing in repofe, comes together in form of a fedi-
ment at the bottom. On pouring fpirit of vitriol into it, it
depofits a milk-white grealy fediment, which, after Handing
twelve hours, occupies about one-fif'lli part of the liquor.
On putting a fmall quantity of (acclianini faturni to it, it de-
pofits a fmall quantity of a greyifh powder ; being feverally
and feparately mixed witii a folution of fublimati.-, with fpirit
of fal ammoniac, and with fugar of violets, it neither fer-
ments nor depofits any fediment, nor changes colour, except
with the fugar of violets, with which it becomes green.

It is hi^ly faturated with fait, fo that it is to common
water in fpecific gravity, as five to four j and it has fo acrid
and llyptic a tafle, that on being held in the mouth, it con-
ftringes it in the manner of alum.

It appears, that this water is impregnated with a fort of
an acrid and alkaline nature, and a matter partly of a ful-
phureous, partly of a bituminous nature. Philof. Tranf.
N^ 462. p. 50. For the obfervations of other writers on
this fubjecl, fee Asphaltite lake, and Dead Sea.

Sea, lum'inoufnefs of the, is a phenomenon that has been
taken notice ot by many nautical and philofophical writers.
Mr. Boyle, after reciting feveral circumflances attending
this appearance, afcribes it to fome cofmical law, or cullora
of the terreftrijil globe, or at leafl of the planetary vortex.

Father Bourzes, in his voyage to the Indies, in 1704,
took particular notice of this phenomenon, and very minutely
defcribcs it, without affigning the true caufe.

The abbe Nollei was long of opinion, that the light of the
fea proceeded from eleftricity, and others have had recourfe
to the fame hypothefis. M. Bayon, in his " Nfemoires pour
fervir a I'Hiiloire de Cayenne, &c." Paris, 1778, informs
lis, that, having made a great number of experiments, in
different feafons, in order to find out the true caufe of this
phenomenon, he always found, that the luminous points in
the finface of the fea were produced merely by friciion.

However, there have been two hypothefes, which have
raofl generally been received, fur the folution of this pheno-
menon ; one of which afcribes it to the (hining of luminous
iiifedls or animalcules, and the other to the ligiit proceeding
from the putrcfadion of animal fnbltances. The abbe
Nollet, who at firll confidered the luminoufnefs of the fea as
an eleftrical phenomenon, having liad an opportunity of
afcertaining the circumllances of it, when lie was at Venice
in 1749, relinquifhed his former opinion, and concluded that
it was occafioncd either by the luminous afpctt, or by fome
liquor or effluvia of an infed which he particularly dcfcribes ;
but does not altogether exclude other caufes, and efpecially
the fpawn or fry of fi(h.

The fame hypothefis had alfo occurred to M. Vianelli,
profellor of medicine in Chioggia near Venice ; and both he
and M. Grizellini, a phyficiaii in Venice, have given draw-
ings of infefts from whicii they imagined this light to pro-
ceed.

A fimilar conjedure is propofed by a coirefpondrnt of
Dr. Franklin, in a letter read aX the Royal Society in 1 756 ;
the writer of which ap;)rehends, that this appearance may be
caufed by a great number of liulc animals, floating on the
furface of the fea, which, on being diflurbed, iniijht, by ex-
panding tlieir fins, or otherwifc nviving themfclves, cxpofc
Inch a pan of their bodies a? exhibits a luminous appearance,
fomewhat in the manner of a glow-worm, or fire-fly i that
tliefe animals may be more numerous in fome places than
others, and, therefore, that the appearance above- men-
tioned,

SEA.

tioned, being fainter and ftronger in different places, might
be owing to this caufe ; and that certain circiimltances of
weather, &g. might invite them to the furface, on which, in
a calm, they might fport themfelves and glow, or in ftorms,
being forced up, make the fame appearance.

Mr. Foiler, in his account of a voyage round the world
with captain Cook, in the years 1772, 1773, I774) and
177c, deferibing this phenomenon as a kind of blaze of the
fea, and having attentively examined fome of the illumined
water, expreffes his conviftion, that the appearance was oc-
caiioned by innumerable minute animals of a round fhape,
moving through the water in all diredlions. One of thefe
luminous fparks, which iluck to liis finger while he was ftir-
ring his water with his hand, was examined by the common
magnifier of Mr. Ramfden's improved microfcope, and was
found to be globular, tranfparent like a gelatinous iubltance,
and fomewhat brownifh ; by means of the greatell magnifier,
the orifice of a little tube was difcovered, which entered the
body of the animal ; within w-hich were four or five inteftinal
bags connefted with the tube. He imagines that thefe ani-
malcules may be the young fry of fome fpecies of medufa,
or blubber, and confi Jers them as poffefled of the power of
fhining, or of withholding their light at pleafure.

M. Dagelet, a French aitronomer, failing into the bay of
Antongil, in the ifland of Madagafcar, obferved a pro-
digious quantity of fry, which covered the fea above a mile
in length, and which he at firft took for banks of fand, on
account of their colour ; they exhaled a difagreeable odour,
and the fea had appeared with uncommon fplendour fome
days before. On another occafion, having perceived the
fea to be remarkably luminous in the road of the Cape of
Good Hope, during a perfeft calm, he remarked that the
oars of the canoes produced a whitifh and pearly kind of
lullre ; when he took in his hand the fhining water, he dif-
cerned in it, for fome minutes, globules of light as large as
the heads of pins ; upon preffing thefe, they teemed to be a
foft and thin pulp, and fome days after the fea was covered,
near the coafts, with whole banks of thefe little fifh in innu-
merable multitudes.

M. Dagelet, in his return from the Terra Aultralis in
1774, brought with him fcveral kinds of worms, which
ihine in water when it is fet in motion ; and Mr. Rigaud
affirms, that the luminous furface of the fea, from the port of
Breft to the Antilles, contains an immenfe quantity of fmall,
round, fhining polypufes.

M. le Roi, after giving much attention to this phenomenon,
concludes that it is not occafioned by any fhining infefts,
efpecially as, after carefully examining with a microfcope
lome of the luminous points, he found them to have no ap-
pearance of any animal ; and he alfo found, that the mixture
of a little fpirit of wine with water jull drawn from the fea,
would give the appearance of a great number of little fparks,
which would continue vifible longer than thofe in the ocean ;
the fame efFeft was produced by all the acids, and various
other liquors. M. le Roi is far from afferting that there are
no luminous infefts in the fea ; for he allows that the abbe
NoUet and M. Vianelli had found tliem ; but he is fatisfied
that the fea is luminous chiefly on fome other account,
though he does not fo much as offer a conjett ure with refpeft
to the true caufe.

Other writers, equally difl'atisfied with the hypothefis of
luminous infe<Sls, for explaining the phenomenon, which is
the fubjedl of this article, have afciibed it to fome fubllance
of the phofphoric kind, arifing from putrefaftion.

The obfervations of F. Bourzes, above referred to, render
it very probable, that the luminoufnefs of the fea arifes from
/limy and other putrefcent matter with which it abounds,

though he does not mention the tendency to putrefaftion, as
a circumitance of any confequence to the appearance.

The correfpondent of Dr. Franklin, part of whofe letter
has been already recited, obferves, thit feveral gentlemen <^
have been of opinion, that the feparated particles of putrid,
animal, and other bodies, floating on the furface of the fea,
might caufe this appearance, for putrid fifh, &c. will caufe
it ; and the fea animals which have died, and other bodies
putrefied in it fince the creation, might afford a fufficient
quantity of thefe particles to cover a confiderable portion
of the furface of the fea ; which particles being differently
difperfed, might account for the different degrees of light
in this appearance ■ but he adds, this account feems liable
to an obvious objeftion, viz. that as putrid fifh, &c. make
a luminous appearance without being moved or difturbed,
it might be expefted that the fuppofed putrid particles on
the furface of the fea fhould always appear luminous, when
there is not a greater light ; and, confequently, that the
whole furface of the fea covered with thole particles fhould
always, in dark nights, appear luminous, without being
difturbed, which, he fays, is contrary to faft. Frankhn's
Experiments and Obfervations, p. 274, S:c.

This difficulty is, in a great meafurc, removed by the
experiments of Mr. Canton, recited in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, vol. lix. p. 446, &c. which have the advantage
of being eafily made, and leave no room for doubt, that the
luminoufnefs of the fea is principally owing to putrefaftion.
Having put a frefh whiting into a gallon of fea-water,
neither the whiting, nor the water when agitated, gave any
light ; Fahrenheit's thermometer, placed in the cellar where
the pan was placed, Handing at 54° : tl-ie following evening,
that part of the fifh which was even with the furface of the
water was luminous, but the water itfclf was dark ; how-
ever, on drawing through it the end of a flick, the water
appeared luminous behind the ilick all the way, but gave
light only where it was difturbed : when all the water was
ftirred, the whole became luminous, and appeared like milk,
yielding a confiderable degree of light to the fides of the
pan, which it continued to do for fome time after it was at
reft. The water was moil luminous when the fifh had
been in it about twenty-eight hours, but would give no
light by being ftirred after it had been in it three days. He
then put a gallon of frelli water into one pan, and an equal
quantity of fea-water into another, and into each pan he
put a frefh herring, of about three ounces ; the next night
the whole lurface of the fea-water was luminous without
b?ing ftirred, but much more fo when put in motion, and
theupper part of the herring, which was confiderably below
the furface of the water, was alfo very bright ; while at
the fame time, the frefli water, and tlie fifh that was in it,
were quite dark. There were feveral very bright luminous ,
fpots on different parts of the furface of the fea-water, and
the whole, when viewed by the ligiit of a candle, feemed
covered with a greafy fcum. The third night the fight of
the fea-water, while at reft, was very little, if at all, lefs
than before ; but when ftirred, its light was fo great as to
difcover the time by a watch, and the fifh in it appeared
as a dark fiibftance. After this its light was evidently
decreafing, but was not quite gone befoi-e the feventh
night ; the frefh water, and the fifh in it, were perfeftly
dark during the whole time. The thermometer was gene-
rally above 60°. Having made artificial fea-water, deter-
mined by an hydrometer to be of the fame fpecific gravity
with the fea-water, by adding four ounces avoirdupois of
fait to feven pints of water, wine meafure, he put into a
gallon of this water a fmall herring ; and another into a
gallon of water, in which two pounds of fait had been dif-

folved

SEA

SEA

folved. The next evening, the whole furface of the arti-
liciil fea-water was luminous without being llirred, but
gave much more light when it was dilturbcd, and exhi-
bited the fame appearances with the real fea-water in the
preceding experimetit ; while the other water, which was
almolt as fait as it could be made, never gave any light.
The herring which was taken out of it the feventh night, and
walhed from its fait, was found firm and fweet ; but the
other herring wsi very foft and putrid, much more fo than
that which had been kept as long in frefli water. If a
herring, in warm weather, be put into ten gallons of arti-
ficial fea-water, inftead of one, the water, Mr. Canton fays,
will fliU become luminous, but its light will not be fo
(trong.

Thefe experiments confirm an obfcrvation of fir John
Pringle, that the quantity of fait contained in fea-water
liaftens putrefadlion ; but fince that precife quantity of fait
which promotes putrefaftion the mod, is icfs than that
which IS found in fea-water, it is probable, Mr. Canton
obferves, that if the fea were lefs fait, it would be more
luminous. See Putrefaction.

Mr. Canton obfervcd, as Mr. Ant. Martin Swed. Ab-
hand. vol. xxxiii. p. 225. had done, that feveral kinds of
river-fifh could not be made to give light, in the fame cir-
cunillances in which any fea-fi(h became luminous. He
fays, however, that a piece of carp made the water very
luminous, though the outfide, or fcaly part of it, did
not fliine at all. See this fubjeft farther difcuffed under
the article Exhibition 0/ L,]GHT/rom Living Animals.

Sea, Perils of the, in Marine Infurance, denote, in a large
fenfe, all the accidents or misfortunes to which perfons
engaged in maritime adventures are expofed ; but it has
been found convenient to dilUnguifh the loiles to which
Ihips and goods at fea are liable, by the " immediate caufes"
to which they may be afcribed. Accordingly the perils of
the fea mean only fuch accidents or misfortunes as proceed
from mere fea-damage, that is, fuch as arife from Itrefs of
weather, winds, and waves, from lightning and tempells,
from rocks and fands, &c. A lofs by the perils of the
fea may therefore happen, ift, by the fliip's foundernig at
fea, in which cafe it mull generally be total ; or, 2dly, by
ftranding, which is either accidental, in confequence of the
(hip's being driven on (hore by the winds and waves, or
voluntary, where flie is run adiore either to prevent a worfe
fate, or for fome fraudulent purpofe : this Itranding may be
followed by (hipwreck, which occafions a total lofs, and if
the fhip be got off in a condition to profecute her voyage,
the damage fuftained and the expences incurred will incur
only a partial lofs of the nature of a general average ; or,
gdly, by the fhip's ftriking againft a funken rock, or fome-
thing elfe under water, which may occafion tiie fpringing
of a leak, or abfolute (hipwreck. If a fliip be not heard
of within a rcafonable time, (he (hall be prefumed to have
foundered at fea. In fome countries there is a limitation
of time for this prefumption ; thus in Spain, if a fliip has
not been heard of for fix years from her departure on a
voyage to or from tlie Indies, (he is deemed loll ; but in
France, after a year from the fliip's failing, in common
voyages, and two years in ilijlant voyages, the infured may
abandon and demand payment, without other proof of lofs.
In England there is no fuch limitation of time. When an
interval, thought to be rcafonable by thofe who are con-
verfant in maritime aftairs, has elapfod, a liberal under-
writer will pay his lofs ; and if there be any ground for
doubt, he may either demand fccurily from the infured to
refund the money, in cafe the (liip (hould afterwards arrive
fafe, or he may trull to his remedy by aftion, f )r recovering

Vol. XXXII.

it back. If a (hip be driven by ftrefs of weather on an
enemy's coaft, and be there captured, this is a lofs by
capture and not by perils of the fea, for which the infured
may recover upon a policy againll capture only ; and yet
it has been holden, that capture is a lofs by the perils of
the fea, as much as if it were occafioned by (hipwreck or
tempeft. If (laves be thrown overboard, on account of a
fcarcity of water, occafioned by the captain's miftaking hie
courfc ; this is not a lois by the perils of the fea. The
cafe is the fame, if the (laves die for want of food, occafioned
by the extraordinary length of the voyage. And if a (hip
be deftroyed by worms, the lofs is not attributable to perils
of the fea. As to the cafe of throwing (laves overboard in
order to h'ghtcn a (liip and preferve it in a dorm, the prac-
tice h.is been judly reprobated by ferjeant Mardiall. Every
thing on board, hovvever precious, as he humanely and
rationally obferves, (hould be thrown into the fea fooner
than the mcaneft flave. PuffendorflF alfo maintains, that
whoever, under pretence of faving the (hip, Iball throw men
into the fea, wliether they be freemen or (laves, and whether
it be done by or without lot, is guilty of homicide ; for no
man, in order to fave his own life, has a right to take auay
the life of any other human being, who does not attack
him.

If, by fome extraordinary accident, as the violence of the
winds or waves, it becomes necelTary to flip a cable, or a
cable be broke, and an anchor loft, or a fail or ykrd be
carried away, this is a lofs by the perils of the fea within
the policy. Alio, if animals be infured, their death, oc-
cafioned by tempefts, by the (liot of an enemy, by jettifon
in a ftorm, or by any other extraordinary accident, is a lofs
within the policy ; but it is otherwife if their death be
owing to difeafe. The injury occafioned by one (hip's run-
ning foul of anotlier at fea, is a lofs within the policy, unlefs
it be imputable to the mifconducl of the mailer or marineri
of the (hip infured. In fuch cafe, however, this mifconduA
would, as ferjeant Marfiiall conceives, amount to barratry,
and the infurer would be liable for the lofs ; but an aftion
would lie againft the mafter of either (hip, to whom the
mifconduft is imputable, for the lofs which he has occafioned.
A lofs occafioned by .Tn accidental fire, not imputable to
the fault of the mafter or mariners, is a lofs within the
policy ; and in many places the infurer is held to be liable,
even when the fire happens by the fault of the mailer or
mariners ; but in France the infurer ifi not lield anfwerablc
in fuch cafe, unlefs, by the policy, he be liable for barratry.
For every lofs occafioned by capture, whether lawful or un-
lawful, and whether by friends or enemies, the infurer ii
liable. Mar{hall on Infurance, vol. ii. See Recai'TURe,
Ri.sk, and SALVA(iK.

SiiA-Atirlcr, in Ichthyology, an Engli(h name for a fea-fi(h
of the acus kind, called by Willugliby the acut lumbr'uiformit.
See AcL's and Syngnatihs.

It is a fiiiall fifti of a cylindnc (liapc, without fcales, and
of a greeni(h-brown colour, with fome admixture of >
reddifli-yellow.

Their fnout is long and hollow, and the mouth openi
upwards at its end ; the eyes are fmall, and their irii red 5
the gills are four on each fide, but are covered by a mem-
brane, and the whole body divided into rings like the
common earth-worm : it is ulu.iUy about three or four inches
long, and of the thicknefa of a goofe-quill ; it has but one
fin, whicii is fituated on the back. The anus is much nearer
the liead than the tail, and under the fnout there ii alwayf
a fle(hy tubercle.

The fifli 18 common on the coall of Cornwall. Willughby.

Sz\'Army. See Naval AuM V .

R Sra-

SEA

SEA-ytJrolal'C. See Astholabe.

SEA-Banis. (See Bank.) Malicioiifly deftroyinsr fea-
banks, by which lands may be overflowed, is made felony
without benefit of clergy by 6 Geo. II. c. 25, and
10 Geo. II. c. ^2.

SEA-Bal, in Ichthyology. See Chjetodon Vefpertilio.

SEA-Bear, in Zoo/ogy, the Phoca urftna of Linnasus, called
alfo by fome writers the fea-cat, and by Pennant the urfitu-
feal, inhabits together with the fea-lion and manati, from
June to September, the ifles tliat are fcattered in the feas
between Kamtfchatka and America, in order to copulate, and
bring forth their young in full fecurity. In September
they quit their ilation in a very emaciated Itate ; iome return-
ing to the Afiatic, and others to the American (hores, but,
like the fea-otters, they are confined to thofe feas between
latitude 50° and 56°. Thefe animals are alfo common about
New Zealand, Staten-ifland, New Georgia, and the Falk-
land Iflands.

The urfine feals lead, during the three months of fummer,
a very indolent life ; they are confined for feveral weeks to
the fame fpot, deep the greateft part of their time, eat
nothing, and are totally inactive, the employment of the
females in fuckling their young excepted. They live in
families, each male l-.aving from eight to fifty fen-.ak-5:, which
he guards with jealoufy ; and though they lie by tlioufr.nds
on the (hore, each family, conilfting fometimes of one hundred
and twenty, keeps itfelf feparate from the refl.

The uld animals, which are deferted by the females, live
apart, and are exceedingly fplenetic and quarrelfome, very
fierce, and fo attached to their old haunts, that they would
die fooner than quit them ; in defending thefe, difcord is
fometimes fpread through the whole (hore. The other
males are alfo very irafcible, and the caufes of their difputes
are generally fuch as tliefe ; an attempt to feduce any of
their females, the intruiion of one upon the ilation of
another, and interference in their mutual quarrels. Their
battles are fevere and bloody, and when they terminate,
the combatants throw themfelves into the fea, to vvadi away
the blood.

The males are very fond of their young, of which the
female generally brings but one at a time, and never more
than two : but they are very tyrannical towards the fe-
males, which, on the other hand, are very fawning and
fubmiflive.

The fea-bears fwim very fwiftly, at the rate of feven miles
an hour ; when wounded will feize on the boat, bear it away
with impetuofity, and fometimes link it. They can continue
a long time under water. When they want to climb the
rocks, they fallen with the fore-paws, and draw themfelves
up. They are very tenacious of life, and will live for a
fortnight after receiving fuch wounds as would immediately
deftroy any other animal.

The males of this fpecies are much larger than the females ;
their bodies are of a conical form, thick before, and taper-
ing to the tail ; the length of a large one is eight feet, the
greatell circumference five feet, and near the tail twenty
inches ; the weight Soolbs. ; the nofe projefts like that of a
pug dog, but the head riles fuddenly ; the noflrils are oval,
divided by a feptum ; the lips thick, and in the infide red
and ferrated ; the whifl<ers long and white ; the teeth, which
are thirty-fix in number, lock into each other when the
mouth is clofed ; the tongue bifid ; the eyes are large and
prominent, and capable of being covered at pleafure with a
flelhy membrane ; the cars are fmall and (liarp-pointed ; the
length of the fore-legs is twenty-four inches ; the feet are
formed with toes, but covered witli a naked Ikin, fo as en-
tirely to appear a (hapelefs mafs : the hind-legs are twenty-

SEA

two inches long, and fixed to the body behind, but capa-
ble of being brought forward, and the feet are divided into
five toes ; the tail is only two inches long ; the hair is long
and rough, under which is a foft down of a bay colour ;
the general colour of thefe animals is black, but the hairs of
the old ones are tipt with grey. The females are cinereous.
The fkins of the young, cut out of the bellies of their dams,
are ufeful for clothing.

The fat and flefli of the old males are very nanfeous, but
the fle(h of the females refembles lamb, and the young ones
roaftcd are as good as fucking-pigs. Pennant's Hill. Quad.
vol. ii. p. 526, &c. See Phoca Urftna.

SEA-Bt/iei. See Bisket.

SEA-Boat, in Naval Language, a vedel that bears the fea
firmly, without labouring heavily, or llraining her mads or
rigging.

SKA-Brtaches, a term ufed by the farmers to cxprefs the
overflowing of their low lands near the fea by the fea-
water.

Sea-falt, moderately ufed, is a great improvement to all
lands, but too much of it kills all forts of vegetables,
except fuch as nature has intended to live among it. See
Salt.

The fea breaking in upon lands thus, injures them greatly.
The owner is to flop the breach by which it entered with all
poffihle diligence, and then trenches and drains muft be cut
through all parts of the land to carry the falt-water into
fome one low place, from which it may be emptied by means
of an engine ; or if it be fmall in quantity, it may be laded
out by hand over the bank ; or if yet lefs, the fun and winds
may dry it away ; but in either cafe, the place where it was
fuffered to refl muft be covered with a large quantity of frcfh
earth, to take off from the too great ialtnefs of the other ;
and the whole land fhould be ploughed for three or four years,
to let in the rains and air to frcfhen it.

SEA-Bream, in Ichthyology, the Englifli name for thefifh
called by the generality of authors the pagrut and phagrus.
According to the new fyllem of Artedi, it is a fpecies of
ihe/pari, and is diflinguifhed by the name of the redfparus,
with the flcin carried into a finus at the roots of the back
fins, and the pinna ani. See Sparcs.

SEA-Bucilhorn, in Botany. See Hippophae.

SEA-Britf, in Marine Infiirance. See SsA-Letter.

SEA-Caiiage, in Gardening, the common name of an ufe-
ful garden plant. See Bkassica and Ckambe. See alfo
SEA-Kale.

SEA-Calf, Phoca ■vilulina in tiie Linnaean fyllem of
Zoology, is the common feal, with large black eyes, large
\vhifl<ers, oblong nollnls, flat head and nofe, tongue forked
at the end, two canine teeth in each jaw, fix cutting teeth
in the upper jaw, four in the lower, no external ears, body
covered with thick fliort hair, (hort tail, and toes furnilhed
with ftrong (harp claws ; its ufual length is from five to fix
feet ; the colour various ; dufliy, brindled, or fpotted with
white or yellow. This fpecies inhabits moft quarters of the
globe, but is found iu greateft number towards the north and
fouth ; they fwarm near the ArAic circle, and the lower parts
of South America, in both oceans near the fouthern end of
Terra del Fuego, and among the floating ice as low as lat.
6o''2i'S.

They are alfo found in the Cafpian fea, in the lake Aral,
and lakes Baikal and Oran, which are frefh waters, but
thefe are lefs, and more fat than thofe of the falt-water.
Seals bring forth two young at a time in autumn, which
are for a (hort time white and woolly, and fuckle them till
they are fix or feven weeks old in rocks or caverns, when
they take to fea ; as they cannot remain long under water,

they

SEA

they frequently rife to take breath, and often float on the
waves.

In fummer they fleep on rocks or fand banks ; if furprifed,
they plunge into the fea, and when at a diltance fling up the
fand with their hind feet, and make a piteous moaning, as
they fcramble along ; and if they are overtaken, vigoroufly
defend themfclves with their feet and teeth : they are foon
killed by a flight blow on the nofe, otherwife they will fur-
vive many wounds.

Thefe animals fwim with great ftrength and fpeed, and in
their own element fport without fear about fliips and boats,
which, fays Mr. Pennant, may have given rife to the fable of
fea-nymphs and fyrens. They are gentle and docile ; they
feed on all forts of fifli ; are themfelves good food, and
eat by voyagers : they are killed for the fake of the oil made
from their fat, of which a young feal will yield eight gallons ;
their flcins are ufeful in making wailtcoats, covers for trunks,
and other conveniencies ; and they are the wealth of the
Greenlanders, fupplying them with every neceflary of life.

We have a draught of this animal in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, N° 469, by Dr. Parfons, who obferves, that
Aldrovandus, Johnfton, Rondeletius, and Gcfner, have made
feveral millakes in the figures of this creature, fo as to con-
vey no jult idea of it.

Upon diflefting one of thefe animals, the ilomacli, intef-
tines, bladder, kidneys, ureter, diaphragm, lungs, great
blood-vefl'els, and pudenda, were like thofe of the cow ; tlie
hairs of the whiflcers were very horny and clear ; the fplcen
was two feet long, four inches broad, and very thin ; the
liver confilted of fix lobes, each hanging as long and as lank
as the fpleen, with a very fmall gall-bladder. The beaft was
long and flabby in its contexture in general, having a large
foramen ovale, and very great columns carnofa:. In the
lower ftomach were about four pounds weight of flinty
pebbles, all fharp and angular, as if the animal chofe them
of that form for cutting the food. The uterus was of
the horned kind, each of the cornna being thicker than the
body or dudt leading to them : the ovaria were very large,
being granulated on the furface with the ova, under a very
thin membrane ; and the opening into the tubes leadmg to
the cornua is a great hole.

The authors who have treated on this animal, are Ariftotle,
Pliny, Aldrovandus, Rondeletius, Gefner, Wolfgangius,
and .Tohnllon.

This animal is viviparous, and fuckles its young by the
mamillas, like quadrupeds ; and its flefli is carnous and muf-
cular. That difiedled by Dr. Parfons was feven feet and an
half long, though very young, having ftarcely any teeth,
and having four holes regularly placed about tlie navel,
which in time became papillae. (See FiiOCA Fitiilina.) Sec
a defcription of other fpecies of feal, with figures, by Dr.
Parfons in Phil. Trani. vol. xlvii. p. 109, &c. and Pen-
nant's Hill. Quad. vol. ii. p. ji8, &c.

SEA-C/>art. See Chaut.

SuA-C/a)', in yigriculture, a muddy fort of clayey matter
found on the (horesand bordersof thefea, whicliisof ablackifll
or blueifli appearance, and often of a very iUff tenacious qua-
lity, not cafily mixing with earthy foils. It moltly lies under-
neath the fandy ouzy matters that are collcfted in fuch fitu-
ations. Sec SEA-5'anfl'.

In Lancafliire they make ufe of a fat fort of fea-clay , which
is dug out clofe to the fhore on the lefs (tiff forts of land, when
in the (late of fallow for wheat, in the proportion of about
zoo fingle horfe cart-loads to the acre, and beheve it to an-
fwer better than the common fea-fand, or even fandy mud.
It may probably be of a marly nature.

SEA-CoaJi. See Coast.

SEA

SzA-Compcifs. See Compass.

Sea-Coto, in Zoology the Englifh name of the manati, a
ipecies of filh fo difl'erent from all the other cetaceous tribe,
to which It properly belongs, that Artedi, in his new fyftem
ot ichthyology, allots it a peculiar generical name, which is
tnchecus: in the Linnxan fyftem it is the TiuniECL-s manatu:,
which fee. This fpecies has thick lips, very fmall eyes,
two fmall orifices in the place of ears ; neck fliort, and
thicker than the he.id ; the greateft thicknefs of the body
13 about the (boulders, from which it grows gradually fmaller
to the tail, which lies horizontall)-, being broad, and thick-
eft in the middle, and growing thinner to the edges, and
quite round. Tlie feet arc placed at the (boulders ; beneath
the flcins are bones for five complete toes, and externally
arc three or four nails flat and rounded ; near the bafe of
each foot in the female is a teat ; the flcin is very thick
and h.ird, having a few hairs fcattcred over it, whence the
name trtcheais, formed of .5fi^, hair, and ^x'^o ,fjh. Thofe
animals of this fpecies, that were ineafured by Dampier in
the Weft Indies, vtieve ten or twelve feet long; their tail
tvveiity inches in length, fourteen in breadth, and four or five
thick in the middle, and two at the edges ; and the largeft
of them weighed twelve hundred pounds ; but fome have
been mentioned, the length of which has been fixteen feet
and a half, and even twenty feet.

According to Dampier, thofe which inhabit frefh waters
are much lefs than the others : they inhabit the rivers of
Africa, from that of Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope,
and abound in certain parts of the eaftern coafts and rivers
of South America, about the bay of Honduras, fome of
the greater Antilles, the rivers of Oronoque and of the
Amazons.

They fometimes live in the fea, and often near the mouth
of fome river, into which they come once or twice in twenty-
four hours, for the fake of feeding on the marine plants, and
they are fonder of brackilh or fweet water than of the fait ;
and delight in ftiallow water near low land, and in places
fecure from furges, and where the tides run gently. They
are faid to frolic and leap fometimes out of the water to
a great height. Their fiefh and fat are white, fweet, and
falubrious ; and the tail i)f a young female is much eftecmed,
and a fuckliug roafted highly delicious. The thicker part
of the flvin, cut firft into lengths of two or three feet,
ferves for whips, &c. and becomes tough, when dried, as
wood.

Thefe animals are taken by a harpoon ftuck in the end
of a ftafl^, which the Indians ufe with great dexterity. If
a female with a young one is (truck, (he takes it under its
fins or feet, and (hews, in extremity, the greateft affeftion
for its oftspring ; and the young one never torfakcs its cap-
tured parent, but becomes a lure prey to the harpooner.

This animal is called by Herrera taiirus marinus, or the
fca-lniU, and by others the iachas and la donna. The French
call it lamantln, or namentin, and the Portuguefe^ciic mmiller.

It may fecm (Irange, that fo ill-lhaped a creature as this
(hoiild have given rile to the ftories of the fyrens and mer-
maids, the fea-mcn and (ea-womcn, yet there ii great reafon
to believe, that all the fabulous accounts of tlufc monflers,
are owing to the fight of this animal, and of the common
feal, when raifing their head and Hioulder.i above tlic water.
Sec Ska -man.

Mr. Pennant has defcribcd an animal of this fpecies ;
which he calls the whale-tailed manati, and which the
Riiniaiis diftinguifh by the name of the nmrjha'm laroma, or
fva-coiu. This animal, whofe feet are merely peroral fins,
and fcrve only for fwimming, brings forth in the w.iter, and,
like the whale, fuckle.t its young in that clement ; like the
R 2 wliale,

SEA

SEA

whale, it has no voice, and, like that animal, has an hori-
zontal broad tail, without even the rudiments of hind feet.
It inhabits the feas about Bering's, and the other Aleutian
jilands, between Kamtfchatka and America.

In calm weather thefe animals fwim in great droves near
the mouths of rivers ; when hurt, they fwim out to the fca,
but foon return again. They live in families near one
another, each confiding of a male, female, a half-grown young
one, and a very fmall one ; the females oblige the young to
fwim before them, while the other old ones furrouiid, and,
as it were, guard them on all fides. I'he affeftion between
the male and female is very great, for if fhe is attacked, he
will defend her to the utmoft, and if (lie is killed, will follow
her carcafe to the very fhore, and fwim for fomc days near the
place where it was landed.

They copulate in the fpring, in the fame manner as the
human kind, efpecially in calm weather, towards the even-
ing ; the female fwims gently about, the male purines, till
tired with wantoning, ihe flings herfelf on her back, and
admits his embraces ; the leonine and urfine feals copulate
after the fame manner on fliore. Stellcr fays, they go with
young above a year, and bring forth one at a time, wliich
they fuckle by two teats, placed between the breads. They
are very voracious and gluttonous and feed not only on the
fucj that grow in the fea, but fuch as arc flung on the edges
cf the fliore ; and when they are filled, they fall afleep on
their backs. Their back and fides are generally above water,
and as their flcin is infeiled with a fpecies of loufe peculiar to
themfelves, numbers of gulls are continually perching on
their backs to pick out the infeds.

They continue in the Kamtfchatkan and American feas
the whols fummer, but in winter are very lean. They are
taken by harpoons faitened to a ilrong cord, but after they
are ftruck, it requires the united force of thirty men to draw
them on fhore. When one is flruck, its companions repair
to its help, fome will endeavour to overturn the boat, by
getting under it ; others will prefs down the rope, in order
to break it, and others ftrike at the harpoons with their tails,
with a view of getting it out, in which artifice they fomc-
tinies fucceed. Their noife is like the fnorting of a horfe,
which is occafioned by hard breathing. They are of an
enormous fize, fome being twenty-eight feet long, and eight
thoufand pounds in weight ; the head is fmall, oblong, and
almoil fquare ; the noilrils filled witli fliort bridles, the lips
double, and the mouth, near the juniSion of the jaws, full of
white tubular bridles, which ferve to prevent the food from
running out with the water ; the lips are alfo furnifhed with
briftles, which ferve indead of teeth to cut the roots of the
fea plants ; in the mouth there are no teeth, only two flat
white bones, one above and another below in each jaw, with
undulated furfaces, which anfwer the purpofe of grinders.
The eyes are fmall ; indead of ears there are two fmall ori-
fices ; the tongue is pointed and fmall, the neck is thick, and
the head always hangs down. Near the dioulders the circum-
ference of the body is twelve feet, about the belly twenty,
near the tail four feet eight inches ; the head is thirty-one
inches, and the neck nearly feven feet ; which diraenfions render
the animal extremely deformed. Near the fhoulders are two
feet or fins, two feet two inches long, without fingers or
nails ; the tail is thick, drong, and horizontal, ending in a
ftiff black fin, flightly forked. The flcin is thick and black,
and full of inequalities, and fo hard as fcaicely to be cut with
an ax. without hair ; beneath the Ikin is a thick blubber,
which tades like oil of almonds. The fiefli is coarfer than
beef, and will not foon putrefy. The young ones tafte hke
veal ; the (kin is iifed for (hoes, and for covering the fides of
boats. Pennant's Hiit. Quad, vol, ii. p. 536. &c.

The fea-cow of the gulf of St. Lawrence weighs from
fifteen hundred to two thoufand pounds, and produces from
one to two barrels of oil, which is boiled out of a fat fub-
dance that lies between the flcin and the flefh ; it carries its
young about nine months, and feldom brings forth more
than one at a time. The flcin is cut into flices of two or
tliree inches wide, and exported to America for carriage-
traces, and to England for glue. The teeth afford an in-
ferior fort of ivory, which very foon turns yellow. Philof.
Tranf. vol. Ixv. part 2. p. 249, &c.

SEA-Crow, in Ornithology, a name given by the common
people of many counties of England to the pewit ; which
fee.

SEA-Crow is alfo a name given by Edwards to the cut-
water of Catefby and Pennant, and to the black fliimmer
of Latham. See Rynchops Nigra.

&E\-Cyprefs, in the Vermes Zoophyta, a name given by
Ellis to the Sertul.^uia CypreJJlna ; which fee.

SsA-Daffocli/, in Botany. See Panxratium.

SsA-Devi/, in Ichthyology, an Engiifh name for the ri7na
pijliitri.v, or lophius pijfcatorius of Linnaeus ; a very remark-
able fpecies of fifh, of a middle nature between the cartila-
ginous and bony fifhes. See Lophius Pijcatorius.

The bronchial holes are three on each fide, which are
fitnated deep in the mouth, and open into marfupia or fac-
culi on the fide of the head, the fides of which are the bran-
chiodegse, having feveral long flender cartilaginous bone.?,
running longitudinally for their fupport, analogous to the
branchiodegal bones of other filhes ; and thefe facks. Dr.
Parfons conjeclures, may anfwer two ends, fird, to form
the membranje branchiodegse ; and, fecondly, to make a
convenient receptacle for the young till they are able to fhift
for themfelves. If this end, he fays, was not to be anfwered,
the branchia; might have been terminated near their origin
in the mouth, as in other fiihes. If this fifh does not bring
forth its young perfect. Dr. Parfons thinks there can be no
life alTigned for thefe facks ; but if they are viviparous, then
the young may probably be harboured in them, being capable
o( crawling into them, as we may iee by the pedtoral webs
on the under fide ; befides, as tliefe fifhes crawl on the bot-
toms of flioal places, watching and alluring their prev, the
young mud be proteAed by the parent, till they are able to
provide for themfelves, which may probably be when thev
grow too large to enter into thele marfupia;.

This fifh has either no iiollril?, or elfe they are hid witlii.i
the head, and has a fort of membranous rim running a!!
round the commifTures of its fides and belly. Its flefli,
when boiled, tades like that of the frog. Wiilughby's Hid.
Pifc. p. 85, Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvi. p. 126, &c.

&E.A-Z)ragon, or Draco marinus, a fpecies of Trachinus ;
which fee.

SEA-Drngs, among Mariners, are fuch things as hang
over the (hip in the fea, as (hirts, coats, and even the boat,
&c. when towed.

SEA-Eagle, yiquila marina, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of the
raia, with a fmooth body and a long ferrated fpine on a finny
tail. See Raia Aquila.

SiEA-Eel. See Eel and Murex.\.

&EA-Egg, or Sea-apple, the name of the roundi(h centronia,
with crooked or fefciculated fpines. See Centhonia and
Echinus.

SEA-Fans and Sea-feathers. See GoRGONlA and Spo.sgia .

SEA-F(iring, denotes the condition of a mariner.

SEA-Fight. See Engagement and Signal.

SEA-Fir, a fpecies of Sertularia ; which fee.

Sea-Fox, in Ichthyology, an Eiiglifli name for a fi(h of the

fqualus kind, called alfo the fea-ape ; both names being

5 giveu

SEA

fiven on occafion of the length of its tail in proportion to the
ody.

The old Greek writers have called it alopecia, and the
later vulpes marina, andjimia marina, whence the names y^a-
fox, znA/ea-ape. See Sen-Tox and Squalus Vulpes.

SB.\-Gagr. See Altitude and Gage.

SEA-Gate, at Sea. When two fhips are aboard one another,
by means of a wave or billow, the feamen fay, they lie aboard
one another in a fea-gate.

St,A.-Goofe, in Ornilhology, the Anas leiicoptera. See
Duck.

SEA-Grape, in Botany. See CoccoLOBA.

SEA-Gudgeon, in Ichffiyology, an Eiii;Hlh name given to
the fifh called by the generality of writers ^</&« niger, and
the gobius marinus.

Artedi, who has made a genus of the gobii, excludes the
common gudgeon, or gohio JiuviatHis, from it, but he admits
this fifh as a genuine fpecies of it.

Athenseus tells us of three kinds of gudgeons, the black,
the yellow, and the white. This feenis to have been very
plainly the black gudgeon of that author. Salvian, in his
figure of this fi(h, has given three fins on the back, but it
really has only two. See Gobius Niger.

SzA-Hair, a fpecies of Serlularia ; which fee.

SE-K-Hare, in the Hi/lory of Infeds, the name nf the
krnea ; a fpecies of the Aplyfta and alfo of the Tethys ;
which fee.

SEA-Hen, in Ornilhology, a name given by fome to the
lomwia, a web-footed bird, common on our coafl?, and
called the ^!;/7/i7n)<, or kiddo-w. See COLYMBUS Troi/e.

SEA-Bo//y, in Botany. See EliYNGiuM.

SEA-Hor/e, in Ichthyology, the Enghfli naine of the ^^ylo-
campus, a fpecies of the actis, according to the older writers,
and one of ihe Jyngnalhi of Artedi. See Syngnathus.

The many idle tales reported of this vaft amphibious
creature, fuch as his method of bleeding himlelf when dif-
tempered, his vomiting fire when enraged, and the like, have
made people, in ahnoll all ages, defirous of feeing the animal.
The Romans were fond of exhibiting it in their ihows of
wild bealts, and the defcription Pliny gave of it from thence,
was all the world knew of the creature for many ages. That
author's account, however, of its feeding on grafs on the
banks of the Nile, no way agrees with the teeth we find its
mouth fiirniihed with.

The (keletons of thefe animals, as rare as they are with us
at piefeiit in tlieir recent Hate, yet are found not untrequcnlly,
in part at lead, buried under ground, and that at great depths.
The bones of the head are dllferent from thofe of any other
known animal, and when found in fome parts of France, had
always puzzled tlie wits of the naturalilts there, who had in
vain compared them with thofe of oy.e\i, horfcs, &c. but at
length one of the heads of thefe animals being lent over to
France, cleared up the whole difficulty. The two jaws of
this weighed forty-five pounds, and were two feet long, a foot
deep, and a foot and lialf wide.

It is cafy to conceive fiom this, that the accounts we have
of the fizi •)f the animal are not fabuluiiti, th' fe bones cor-
fefponding very well with them. Mem. Ac:>d. Par. 1724.

Sea-horfe is alfo a name fimetimes, but improperly, given
to the rivcr-horfe, or hippopotamus.

Sea horlc is alfo a name given to that fpecies of feal called
walrus.

Ska Ka/e, in Gardening, the common name of a highly
nutritious ai d palatable culinary vegetable. It is an early
efcuknt plant, tlie young (hoots of which are ufed fomewhat
m tlie manner of afparagus, and may, it is faid, be grown,
by the method of cultivation which is given hereafter, to a fize

SEA

and of a delicacy of flavour greatly fuperior to that whicfi
is commonly brought to the table. See Crambe.

In addition to what has been offered under tliat term, it
may be noticed that the plant grows naturally the bell in a
fea fandy foil, or one which is of a loamy gravelly nature
near the Ihores of the fea. In the cultivation of it in the
garden, tlie improved method which has lately been advifed,
is that of preparing the ground for it by trenching it two
feet and a half deep, about the dole of the year or in the
beginning of 11 : when not that depth naturally, and of a
light quality, it is to be made fo by artificial mians, Inch
as the applying of a fuitable proportion of fine white land,
and very rotten vegetable mould : if the grouiid be wet in
the winter feafon, it Ihonld be completely drained, that no
water may llagnate in it near the bottom of the cultivated
mould, as the Itrength of the plants depends upon the dry-
ncfs and richnefs of the bottom foil. After which the
ground is to be divided into beds, four feet in width, with
alleys of eighteen inches between them ; then, at thi;-dif-
tance of every two feet each way, five or fix feeds arp to be
fovvn, in a circle of about four inches diameter, to the depth
of two inches. This bnfinefs Ihould be performed in a
ilridtly regular and exatt manner, as the plai.ts are after-
wards to be covered by means of pots for blanching tlienif
and the health and beauty of the crops equally depend upon
their Handing at regular dillances. If the feeds winch were
fown were lound and perfeft, they will come up and (hew
themfelves in the laft fpring or beginning fummer months ;
which as foon as they have made three or four leaves, al!
but three of the ftronged and belt plants fhould be taken
away from each circle ; planting out thofe which are pulled
up, which, when done by a careful hand, may be performed
fo as for them to have the whole of their tap-root in a fpare
bed for extra forcing, or the repairs of accidents. The tur-
nip fly and wire worm are to be carelullj guarded againit,
the latter by picking them by the hand from out of the
ground, and the former by the ufe of lime laid round the
young plants in a circle. Wiien the fummer mon'.hs prove
dry tlic bed, Ihould be plentifully watered. As loon as the
leaves decay in the autumn they Ihould be chared away,
and the beds be covered with light frelh eartii and land to
the thicknefs of an inch ; the ompolt thu< ufed having laid
fome time in a heap, and been turned feveral times, fo as to
be free from weds, and tlie ova of i'lfeds as well at grubs.
Upon thf fandy loam driffing, about fix inches in depth of
light liable litter is to be apphed, which completes tlic work,
ot the firft year.

I.n the fpring of the feeond, when the plants arc begin-
ning to piifli, the liable litter n to be raked olf, a little of
the moll rotten beia^ dug into the alleys, and another inch
depth nf loam and land apnhed. Cutting this year it to
be refrained from, notwithllanding fome of the plant! may
rife llrong, and the beds managed cxadly as belore during
this winter f afoii.

In the thi'd feafon, a little before tl»c plants begin to ftir,
the covering laid on for the winter it to be raked off', and ab
inch in depth of pure dry faiid or fine gravel now laid on.
Then each crcle of plants is to be covered with one of the
blancliing-pots already alluded to, prelling it firmly into the
ground, lo as to exclude all I gnt and air, a-, the colour and
Havour of the fhoois are greatly injured by rxpoturc to
either of them. When the beds ar.- twenty-fix feet long,
and four wide, they will hold iwcnt) ...ur blanchiitg-piiti,
with three plan's under each, makini; fvri.ty-two pbnli in
a bed. Tliey are to b- exami.i d from tin.e to time, the
young Hems biiiig cu' , when about t'l; -e inchc .ihovc the
grouud, care being taken not lo injure any of the rctnaiB-

SEA

ing buds below, fome of which will immediately begin to
fwell. In this way a fucceffioti of gatherings may be con-
tinued for the fpace of fix weeks, after which period the
plants are to be uncovered, and their leaves fufFered to grow,
that they may acquire and return nutriment to the root for
the next year's buds. When feeds are not wanted, the
rtowers (hould be pinched off by the finger and thumb, as
long as they appear. Where the expence of blanching-pots is
objefted to, the beds muft be covered with a large portion
of loofe gravel and mats ; but the faving is trifling, when the
time and trouble of removing and replacing the gravel, for
the cutting of the crop and fecuring th- plant, are confidered.
By this mode of management, fea-kale is faid to have been
cut which meafured ten, eleven, and even twelve inches in
circumference, and that each blanching-pot on the average
afforded a di(h of it twice in the feafon.

The blanching-pots for this ufe are fomewhat of the fame
(hape and fize as the large bell-glafles commonly employed
in market gardens for railing tender vegetable crops, but
made of the fame materials as the common earthenware,
having a handle at the top. They may be about a foot and
a half in diameter at the rim where they apply to the ground.
Forcing S:a-Kak. — It is fuppofed that no vegetable can
be fo eafily and cheaply forced as this, or require fo little
trouble ; as the dung is in the finelt itate poflible for fpring
hot-beds, after the common crop has been cut and gathered.
The principal circumftance necellary in this bufinefs, is that
of being very attentive and particular in guarding againil
too great a heat. The temperature under the blanching-
pots (hould conftastly be kept as near fifty-five degrees of
Fahrenheit's fcale as poflible, and on no account higher
than fixty at any time. In this intention, in either of the
two concludmg months of the year, as the fca-kale may be
wanted more early or late, a fuitable quantity of frefh (table
dung (hould be coUefted and prepared, to cover both the
beds and the alleys from two to three feet in height ; as
in the quantity to be laid on, a great deal muft always be
left to the judgment of the gardener, as well as to the date
of the feafon as to mildnefs or feverity.

It (hould invariably be well prelFed down between the
blanching-pots, heat-fticks being placed at proper intervals,
by the occafional examination of which the heat below will
be readily (hewn. When the dung has remained in this
fituation four or five days, the pots (hould be examined to
fee the ftate of the (hoots. It not unfrequently happens
that worms fpring above the furface, and fpoil the delicacy
of flavour in the young (hoots. In order to prevent this, it
is beft to cover it with dry fea-coal afhes, which have been
fifted neither very fmall nor very large. Salt has alfo the
power of deftroying them in an effedual manner, without
injuring the fea-kale.

The crop, it is faid, will be ready to cut and gather in
three weeks or a month from the firft application of the
heat ; but as much danger and mifchief are the confequence
when this is violent, it is advifed to begin foon enough, and
to force flowly, rather than in too quick a manner. It is
likewife neceffary to cut the leaves off a fortnight or three
weeks before they decay, in thofe plants which are intended
to be forced at a very early period.

It is alfo fuggefted that the blanching-pots ufed in
forcing (hould be made in two pieces, the uppermoft of
which (hould fit like a cap upon the lower; as the crop
might then be examined at all times without difturbing the
hot dung. See Tranfaftions of the Horticultural Society
of London, vol. i. p. ij.

&E\-Lark, in Ornithology. See Charadrius Hiaticula,
and Embbriza Mujlelina,

SEA "^

SEA-Laurel, in Botany. See Phyllavthus, and Xylo-
phylla.

Sex-Lows. See Laius o/"OLEitoN, UsES and CUSTOMS
of the Sea, and Marine Ikslrance.
SEA-Leecl). See Hirldella Marina.
SEA-Letter, or Sea-brief, in Marine Infurance, one of the
documents expefted to be found on board of every neutral
(hip. This fpecifies the nature and quantity of the cargo,
the place from wliich it comes, and its deflination. This
paper, however, is not fo neccflary as the pafl'port, which
is the permifTion from the neutral ftate to the captain or
mafter of the (liip to proceed on the voyage propofed, and
ufually contains his name and refidence, the name, defcrip-
tion, and deftination of the (hip, with fuch other matters
as the praftice of the place requires. This document is in-
difpenfibly neceflary for the fafety of every neutral (hip.
Hubner fays that this is the only paper that is rigoroufly in-
filled upon by the Barbary corfairs, by the produftion of
which alone their friends are protefted from infult. The
paffport in moft cafes fupplies the place of the fea-letter.

SEA-Lion, P/.'Oca leonina of Linnaeus, in Zoology, is a
fpecies of feal, which inhabits the feis about New Zealand, '
the ifland of Juan Fernandez, tlie Falkland Hands, and that
of New Georgia. Tiie animals of this fpecies are feen in
great numbers m June and July, the breeding feafon, on the
ifland of Juan Fernandez, whither they refort in order to
fuckle their young on fhore, and where they continue till
September : they bring forth two at a lime ; and during
this feafon, the female is very fierce. They arrive on the
briieding iflands very fat and full of blood, and their blub-
ber has been found a foot thick ; one of them has been
known to yield a butt of oil, and the blood has filled two
hogfheads.

Lord Anfon's people eat the flefh, calling it beef by way
of diftinftion from that of the common feal, which they
called lamb. The old animals, except at the breeding fea-
fon, are very timid ; and to prevent furprife, each herd
places a fentinel, who gives certain fignals at the appear-
ance of danger ; they adbciate in families, like the fea-bears,
and are equally jealous of their miftredes. They are of a
lethargic nature, and fond of wallowing upon one another
in miry places ; they grunt like hogs, and (nort like horfes.
During the breeding feafon they abllain from food, and
become very lean ; at other times tiiey feed on fifh and the
fmaller feals. The male has a projefting fnout, hanging
five or fix inches below the lower jaw ; the upper part con-
fills of a loofe wrinkled flcin, which the animal when angry
has the power of blowing up, fo as to give the nofe an
arched appearance ; the feet are fhort and dufl<y, having
five toes on each, furnlfhed with nails ; the hind-feet appear
like laciniated fins ; the eyes and the whidiers are large ; the
hair on the body is fhort and of a dun colour ; that on the
neck a little longer, and the diin very tliick. The length
of an old male is twenty feet, and the greateft circumference
fifteen. The nofe of the female is blunt and tuberous at
the top ; the noftrils wide ; the mouth breaking very little
into the jaws; two fmall cutting teeth below; two fmall
and two large above ; two canine teeth, remote from the
preceding, five grinders in each jsw, and all the teeth conic ;
the eyes oblique and fmall ; no auricles ; the fore-legs
twenty inches long ; the toes furnilhed with oblong flat
nails ; the hind parts, inftead of legs, divided into two great
bifurcated fins ; no tail ; and the whole covered with fhort
ruft-coloured hair. The length from the nofe to the end of
the fins is four yards, and the greateft circumference two
and a half. Pennant's Hift. of Quad. vol. ii. p. 531. See
Phoca leonina.

Sea-

SEA

StA.-LouJe, pedlculus marinus, a name given to the Mo-
lucca crab.

SEA-Lvngs, in the Hi/lory of In/eils, the Enghfh name of
a fpecies of medufa.

SEA.-Man. We have many accounts, even from authors
of credit, of fomething refembling the human figure feen
at fea, and fancy has carried them to fuch a height, that the
truth of the defcription is loft in moft of thcni.

The fyrens, which we have accounts of even in Bartho-
lin, and the fea-man, or iomo marinus, as it was called, feen
and defcribed by Barchewitz, give the greateft credit to the
ftory ; but writers are fo fond of telling marvellous thmgs,
that great allowances are to be made in the reading.

The general defcription of the fea-man is, that from the
navel downwards the whole is only a fhapelefs lump of fleih,
without any the lealt mark, either of limbs, fins, or tail.
On the breaft there ftand two peftoral fins, which are each
compofed of five bones or rays, refembling the human hand,
and connefted together by a membrane like the toes of a
duck, or fome other water-fowl's foot.

Thefe fins are what have the appearance of fomething
human, and when feen about the bofom of a white-bellied
fifh, may be taken for hands with fhort arms, and the refem-
blance of a head is eafily fancied. Thefe fins are not pecu-
liar to any one kind of fifh ; but the manati or fea-cow, the
rana pifcatrix or lophius, and many others, have them. It is
probable, from moft of the accounts we have, that the
manati, or fea-cow, is the creature which, being feen raifing
its head above water at a diltance, and extending thefe
peftoral fins, which are what it fwims with, has given rife
to the idea of the upper parts of a human figure.

As to the defcription of a (hapelefs lump of flefli making
up the lower part of the animal, it feems too contrary to
the courfe of nature in all other fea-animals, to have any
foundation in reality, and probably was only the invention
of the defcriber, to make out what he did not fee above
water.

It is true, that Barchewitz takes great pains to prove
that the fea-man, or homo marinus, he defcribes, was a
wholly different creature from the fea-cow ; but his defcrip-
tion of it carries too little the air of any thing in nature, to
meet with an eafy credit.

It is wonderful, that fo judicious a writer as Artedi
fhould give any faith to the exillence of fo ftrange a fifh as
this, but he mentions it with a great air of diftrult, and
wifhes a more perfcft iiiilory of it, if it any where exifts.

The public are often impofed upon by cheats, who fhew
different things under the name of fea-men, mermaids, and
fyrens ; but if we may judge of the generality of thefe
creatures, thus fhewn, by the lateft inltancc among us, they
are very wretched counterfeits indeed. This creature was
faid to be a young mermaid taken on the Acapulca ihore,
and maintained its credit fo well in London, as to afi'ord
the proprietor a comfortable fubfiflcnce for ten months
among us, though no other than a human foetus of about
eight months, with a iiydrocephalus head, and with the
two legs growing together, and covered by one common
membrane : the toes of this foetus were beat out into a re-
femblance of fins.

Sea- Mari, a point and confpicuous place diftinguifhcd
at fea. See L,AND-Mari, Beacon', and Buoy.

Sea-ATo/s. Sec Coralline and Conkkrva.

SEA-Moufe, in the Hijlory of InfcEis, the Englifh name of
the aphrodita.

S'E.A-Mud, in Agriculture, that fort of muddy depofition
which is often taking place on the fhorcs and coalls of the
fea, and which occaiionally forms a conftituent part of the

SEA

foil of the lands in fuch neighbourhoods. In fome inftanceg
it is of a rich improving quality, but in the otiui cafes it
partakes of a clayey unprodudive nalua-, ilpeclaily tii<.t
which is of a black, tough, crude defcription. In fome
places where this material is found of ufc as a manure, they
diftinguifliitinto two kinds, or that which is taken from the
furface, and called ^;wn-y«(/ mud, or fludge, and tliat which
is raifed or taken before it is covered with green fw;'rd,
denominatedy/oi mud. The former is by much the richeft
and llrongeft as manure, therefore the beft calculated for
application in this way, where it can be procured.

It is fometimes employed in preference to marie, though
that iubftancc may be more ready at hand, in the proportion
of about three roods to the flatute acre, being laid on the
lay ground in autumn, that is to be broken up in the follow.
ing fpring months. It is moitly got by digging it up only
one fpit depth from the furface. After being fprcad out,
and well broken down and reduced, it is turned down into
the foil by the plougli. It is ufeful for oat, barley, po-
tatoe, and wheat crops, producing a large return. It is
alfo very durable as a fubftance of this nature, lafting
longer even than marie, and being never liable to injure
grals-lands. This fort of rich fta-mud is mollly met with
on the banks or fhores near the mouths of large rivers
which empty themfelves into the fea, but in other cafes
its fertilizing properties are often lefs to be depended upon.

The muddy matter which is combined with fandy mate-
rials on the fea-coafts in fome diltridts, is alfo found of great
utility as a manure.

SEA-Nett/e. See Nettle.

SEA-Oai. See Wreck, and Flcus.

&EA-Officer. See Ori'iOEii.

Sea-0///o«, in Botany. See SciLLA.

&EA-Olter. See Otter.

Sea-OuJc; in /Igriciihurc, a rich fort of mud or depofition
raifed from the fea-fhores in different parts of the kingdom,
and which has been found in many cafes of much uie as a
manure. It might probably be found good, and in large
quantities, in many fituations on the fea-coalls, where it
has not yet Dcen tiiougiit of by the farmer. As there can,
however, be no doubt of its poflefFing a highly enriching
property, it fliould be diligently provided in all places
where it can be had. It is ftated, in the Norfolk Agri-
cultural Survey, tliat Mr. Palgravc, at Colterflial, ulcs much
fea-oufy mud fcrapcd up by the bfar from the bottom of
Yarmouth Haven. He lays on forty loads per acre, and
has tiius manured feventy acres ; the improvement is very
great. It was found on trial that it is a calcareous oufy-mud ;
and that on fcald.-. or burning-places, and faiid or gravel, it
forms a cold bottom, and is an cffeftual cure. Fifty loads
per acre of fea-oufe have been ufed on the upland loams of
Warham with very great fuccefs ; (uperior crops the con-
fequcncc. And another fubftaiice may be confidercd under
this head, though in the above Agricultural Survcv it lias
been defcribed under that of fea-weed, which it does not
fcem fo properly to belong to. It is found on tlio coafl at
Thornham, being marked in Mr. Fadcn'8 map of the coun-
try for what is termed crabs, fcalps, and oat-roots. It is
ftated by the writer on examining it, to be obvioufly the
ruins of a foreft of large trees, the flubs and roots remaining,
but in fuch a ilate of decay, that with a fpade he dug into
the centre of many, and might have done of all, \nth as
much facility as into a mafs of butter. Where the flump*
are not found on digging, a black mala of vegetable fibrcj,
apparently confifting of decayed branches, leaves, rufhcn,
flags, &c. is turned up : to what deptli this vegetable
itratum extends, has not been afcertained, but at fome

cricks

SEA

erpeks on the very erlt^e of the fea at low water, there is a
very line foapy iea-oufe at two or three feet depth : the
extent of this once fylvan region, which every common'
tide now covers, can fcarcely be lefs, in one place only,
than from five to fix hundrt-d acres. There is not an ap-
pearance of any tree lying at prelent from the lliimp, a^
jf blown down or left after falhng, but rather that of
a forell cut down in hatte, the ftems cleared and hurried
away, leaving the branches to rot ; but this is mere cor;-
jedure. It is remarkable that there is not, as he is in-
formed, any mention of this ruined forell in the old
hiltonaiis of the county ; nor does tradition ofl'er the leail
conjecture or report on the fubjecl. Trees, roots, and
ftumps, are very common in bogs, wherever found ; but
here is not the trace of any thing like a bog, the earth is
folid, and all a fine oufe, or fea-clayey mud. It is added
that Mr. Rifhton viewed thefe relics with the eye of a
farmer ; for experiment, he fent his carts down for fome,
and fpread ten loadj per acre of it, for turnips : it anfwered
perfedly, and on comparifin equalled his yard-dung, and
alfo raps-cake. In another experiment, he manured two
acres for wheat, with a compolt, confilling of nine loads of
this weed, (or oufe,) and three chaldrons of lime mixed;
one acre with yard-muck ; one acre with tallow-chandlers'
graves, fixteen bufhels, and the reft of the piece with rape-
cake ; the graves were, in effetl, far beyond all the rell ;
betvi'een which the ditFerence was not very perceptible.
The expcnce only u. per load ; but if a barge was floated
to the fpot, and anchored when the tide was in, tor loading
at low water, it might be procured at a much cheaper rate.
And it is fuggefted, that this ingenious cultivator has
opened a real mine to fuch farmers as Ihall have the faga-
city to dig in it : it appears alloniftiing, he thinks, that
none of them Ihould long ago have made the fame experi-
ment, and confequently have profited by fo beneficial a
vicinity.

Without doubt, by proper examination, other fituations
might be found to afford fubftances that might prove ufeful
as manures.

SeaOW, in Ichthyology, a name given by many to that
fi(h which we more ufually call the lump-jijh, the lumpus of
Willughby, &c. and the cyclopterus of Artedi. See Cy-
CLOPTERUS lumpus.

SE.\-Pea, in Botany. See PisuM.
SB\-Pearch, in Ichthyology. See PeRCA.
SEA-Pen. See Sea-xES.

SEA-Phea/ant, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the
duck kind, but differing from all the other fpecies in the
ftiape of its tail, which has two long feathers llauding out
beyond the reft, and terminating in a point. It is called
more generally the cracker. See Duck.

Sea-Pic. Ste Pica marina, and Hjematopus ojlralegus.
SEA-Pigeon-Pea, in Botany. See Sophora.
SsA-Piie, in Ichthyology. See Esox belone.
Sea Pink, in Botany. See Cerastium.
SEA-Pla/its, a denomination comprehending thofe marine
produftions which are formed by infefts, and which properly
belong to the animal kingdom : however, they fo much
refemble vegetables in their form, that they have been long
taken for plants called by this name, and claifed under the
vegetable kmgdom.

Count Marfigli, who was at indefatigable pains to colleft
the various fea-plants of feveral places, divides all thefe pro-
du<Elion8, which he referred to the rank of vegetables, into
three clafles. The firft clafs contains the foft or herbaceous
ones ; fuch are the alga, called fea-iurecis, the Jucufes or
fea-oais, the /ea-mofci or confervt, and the different fpecies

SEA

of fpunges : the lecond clafs comprehends thofe that are
ligneous, or of a woody hardnefs, which were called litho-
phyta by the ancients, as if their hardnefs approached to
that of itones ; thefe, Marfigli fays, confift of two fub-
ftances, a cortical and an internal ; the cortical part, while
in the fea, is foft, but in drying becomes as hard as chalk,
and eaiily crumbles between the fingers ; the internal fub-
ftance feems more of the nature of horn than of wood ;
when burnt it throws out a fpume, or froth, like that which
horns or feathers of animals yield in the fire, and their fmell
in burning is of the fame kind ; the branches of thefe are
very pliable, bending in the manner of whalebone, and giving
the fame refittance to a knife in cutting. The third clafi
comprehends thofe plants which are of the hardnefs of ftone,
and which fliould properly be called the lilhophyta: thefe
are the feveral ipecies of coral, madrtpora, and the like.

Marfigli endeavours to explain the differences of thefe
feveral fubftances, and to account for the manner of their
receiving nourifhment, agreeably to the fyftem which pre-
vailed in his time, and which appropriated them to the clafs
of vegetables. Marfigli, Hift. Phyf. de la Mer. Mem.
de I'Acad, Par. 17 lo.

By later experiments and obfervations, it has been fuffi>
ciently demonftrated by M. Peylfonnel, Bernard de Juffieu,
Donati, &c. that thofe marine fubftances wliich Marfigli
thought to be plants, are the work and habitation of animals.
See on this fubjett the articles Cor.al, and Corallines.

Dr. Lifter apprehends, that thofe fubftances, which in
his time were thought to be fea-plants, fcrve to render a
great deal of the fea-water frelh, and give it in mifts to the
clouds, whence it again falls on the earth : this is eafily
proved by experiment, thus ; if a quantity of fea-water
be put into a long glafs body, and into it there be put a
large and vigorous fea-plant, fuch as the common fea-
wreck, and the head placed on the glafs, and a receiver
fitted for it without cutting the joints, there will daily diftil
into the receiver, without giving any fire below, a clear and
fweet water, frefh and potable, and without any difagree-
able or unwholefome quality. The quantity is but Imall
that is obtained in this way, but it is evident, that in the
fame manner a very immenie quantity of the fea-water is
every hour made frefh, and raifed up into the air from the
infinite number of plants that grow in it. Dr. Lifter even
thinks that the tropic winds, which blow conftantly one way,
may be owing to this fort of caufe. Philof. Tranf. N° 156.
See Tropic 'winds.

SEA-ParJlane, in Botany. See Atriplex.

Sea- Quadrant. See BACK-Jlaf, and Quadrant.

Sea-Roow, denotes a fufficient diftance from the coaft, as
well as from any rock and fliallows, by which a fhip may
drive or feud without danger of (hipwreck.

SEA-Salt. See Salt.

SEA-Sand. See Sand, and Common Salt.

SEA-Sand, in Agriculture, that fort of fand which is
thrown up in the creeks and other places on the coafts of the
fea, and which is often very ufeful as manure. The fea-
fand, which is thrown up in creeks and other places, is very
rich and proper for this purpofe. In the weftern parts of
England, which lie upon the fea-coafts, very great advan-
tage is made of it. The fragments of fea-fhells, which are
always in great abundance in this fand, add to its virtues ;
it being always the more efteemed by farmers, the more of
thefe fragments there are among it. The fand of this fortj
which is ufed as a manure in different parts of the kingdom,
is of three kinds : that about Plymouth, and fome other
of the fouthern coafts, is of a blue-grey colour, like afhes,
which is probably owing to the Ihells of mufcles, and other

fifh

SEA

nih of that or tlie like colour, being broken and mixed with
it in great quantity. Weftward, near the Land's-End, the
fea-fand is very white ; and about the ifles of Scilly it is
very ghftening, with fmall particles of talc. On the coads
of the North fea the fand is yellowifh, brown, or rcddifh,
and contains fo great a quantity of fragments cf cockle-fliells,
that it feems to be chiefly coinpufed of them. That fort
of fea-fand is accounted bell, wliich is of a reddifh colour:
the next in value to this is the bhicifh, and the white is the
worft. This kind of fand is the bell when taken up from
under the water, or from fand-banks, which are covered by
every tide. And it is remarked, that the fmall-grained
fand is the mod fudden in its operation, and it is therefore
bed for the tenant who is only to take three or four crops ;
but that the coarfe, or large-grained fand, is much better
for the landlord, as the good it does lads many years.
Where fand is dredged out of the fea, it is ufually much
dearer than where it is taken from fand-banks.

In the northern parts of Lancadiire, and in Cornwall, the
more light forts of land in the vicinity of the fea-fhores, are
in many cafes much improved by the application of fea-fand
upon them. The praAice is to lay it on in a pretty thick
manner, in order that it may be well incorporated with the
foil, by the different ploughings before the wheat is fown.
In this way large crops are often afforded, and the effefts
of the dreffing lad feveral years. It ia likewife found very
beneficial when applied thinly over the furface of grafs-lands
in rendering the herbage more fine and fweet. It i» a fub-
dance that might in many fituations be much more exten-
fively made uie of than has hitherto been the cafe. See
Sand, Shelly.

This fort of fand is confidered as a vafl treafure by the
farmers in fome parts of the county of Cornwall, at has
been already hinted at, efpiecially where the fea-coaft is
extenfive. It is fuppofed to be a fubdance that feeds the
com, as well as pulfe-crops and roots, well, and which is
highly ufeful on padure-land ; it being material to the value
of farms whetiier they are near to or remote from it. It
is, however, procured from great didances in fome cafes.
Its goodnefs greatly depends, however, upon the quantity
of calcareous and animal matter which it contains, in addition
to the mechanical effefts which it affords ; with fome kinds
of it, flimy, earthy, ligneous vegetable, and animal matter,
are combined, in which cafe it is denominated lig or liggan,
and thought of great value for potatoe crops. The large-
fized coral fand is fuppofed the mod lading in its effefts ;
but the fmaller grained and fhelly forts are extenfively ufed
in fome places.

When this fort of fand is applied alone, either on tillage
or grafs-land, it is called clean fanding ; but it is more
ufually laid on in mixture with earth and dung in the way of
a compod. It is employed in all the proportions of from
three hundred to thirty lacks of fixteen gallons each, to the
cudomary acre of that didrift. Its utility depends much
on the nature of the lands, being more beneficial on the
moory and the thinner forts of foil, than on the deep loamy
kinds.

It is computed that more than 54.,ooo cart-loads of it arc
taken from the harbour of Paddow alone, and that the ex-
pence of land-carriage for this article only, for the whole
didrift, is more than 30,000/. a-year.

In fome of the northern parts of the county of Lancadcr,
fea-fand was formerly much had rccourfe to on tillage and
other land, as has been fecn above, but it has lately been Icfs
employed. They apply it from 80 to 300 or 400 fingle
horfe cart-loads to the cudomary acre, every ten or twelve
years, moftly for the wheat crop. The dry fea-fand was

Vol. XXXII.

SEA

formerly made ufe of, but very feldom at prefent, as the
muddy, or that dug from fome depth, and intermixed with
mud, IS now found much better. It is of a blackifh ap-
pearance, and faid to lad longer in the foil, and produce
better crops than the common fand. In one trial, the
muddy fort had vadly the advantage, both in the immediate
and future crops. It is fometimes, hkewife, laid upon the
grafs, it is faid, with good and lading effeds. In three
fmall trials made with it by the Rev. Mr. Stainbank, it
feemed however to be of little utility. He applied it on
two ridges, on common padure, on meadow and on
ploughed land, in the quantity of 200 fingle horfe cart-loads
to the cudomary acre of each, and found not the lead alter-
ation or improvement in the crops of any of them. It is,
however, remarked, in tlie Agricultural Survey of the
North Riding of York, that in man/ cafes in the vicinity of
the fea, ufe has been made of fea-fand as a manure with con-
ftant fuccefs, and that for the didnfts of Clcaveland, and
the coad where the wet adheCve clays want draining and
breaking, and in mod parts of which it might be eafily pro-
cured. It would be equally ufeful. It is fuppofed to be
there difregarded in confequence of its great plenty, and
being capable of being provided without expcnce. See
Sand.

SzA-Sccrfion. See ScORPIO.

S£A.-Serpcnt. See Sea-SsAm.

SBA-She/ls, in Agriculture, fuch as arc formed and dug
from the creeks and bays on the fea-coad. They are con-
Itantly very beneficial in improving land in all fituations
where they are met with in fufHcient quantity. But the
great ufe of marine Ihells is more Ihewn in the following
paffage in the datidical account of the parifh of Kirkma-
breck, in Galloway. The principal manure ufed there
for improving land is fea-fhells, of which there is an almoll
inexhaudible quantity, not only within the high- water mark
on this fide of^ Wigtnn bay, but alfo in the dry land, feveral
hundred yards from the fhore. Thefe fliells are fold at five-
pence per ton, twenty-five of which are fufficicnt for an acre ;
and prove a cheap and excellent manure, preferable to cither
lime or marie. Many thoufand tons of thefe diells are an-
nually carried (by veifcls condantly employed in the bufinefs)
all round the coad, and fometimes even to the Ifle of Man.
Thefe (hells have been ufed with great advantage for the im-
provement of barren heathy land, infomuch, that many hun-
dreds of acres in this parifh, originally not worth more than
is. per acre, have been made worth from lor. to i^s.fer acre.
Yet this, like every other advantage that is eafily attained,
is not duly prized ; for upwards of one thoufand acres in
this parifli, though capable of cultivation, lie in a date of
nature, covered with heath, and alniolt good for nothing.
A little calculation might fcrvc to fhew landlords, that oa
nothing could they lay out their money to fo much advantage.
As for a tenant, where he has only a leafe for nineteen years,
and perhaps his encouragement not great othcrwife, it cannot
be cxpeftcd he (honld do much in the cultivation of barren
land. The tenant, however, might well lay thefe fea-fhclls
on land already cultivated. This hint fliould be duly at-
tended to by the cultivators of Inch lands, iu fituations where
fuch manvires can be readily provided. It is obfcrvcd, that
in Loch Tarbet there is an immcnfe number of oydcr-fhcUs,
almod unmixed with any fand, when the thin flratum above
them is removed : the extent of this adonifhing mafs of (hells
is unknown, iiut it is probable it can never be cxli.iud«d.
A vad traft of improvcablc moorifii land in the neighbour-
hood, may, ton\c time or other, (hew that I'rovidonee did not
place this fund of in:iiune m v.iin fo mar it. Tor fuch
mooridi hoathy ground, thefe fra-fhcll» arc the fitted ma.
S uure,

SEA

SEA

Dure, but their nfe ought not to be confined to it. In order
to make the carriage lighter, and the efFeft the quicker,
perhaps it would be worth while to burn them firll, as is
fometimes done to marie. The kiln might be made with
one or two eyes, running into it about half way at the bot-
tom, with fome flags or Hones rudely arched over them, the
kiln then filled with fhells, and fed with fire for a day or two,
at might be found neceflary. Lime is burned in this way
in the fpace of two or three days, and fhells already in a
mouldering Rate, would take much lefs both of time and
fuel. The operation would not be hindered by the tides, as
thefe (hells are found alfo under the furface beyond the fea-
mark. Stratums of thefe oyiter-fhells are alfo to be found
at the head of Loch Caoles port ; but there (fo flow is the
progrefs uf the improvement ! ) they have not yet begun to
ufe them as manure : probably the time is not diftant when
thefe fea-ftiells will become an article of commerce, and be
carried at lead along all the fliores of Kintyre.

And it is Hated by the author of the Agricultural Report
of Norfolk, that in Eaft Winch and Weft Bilney, and Icat-
tered for ten miles to Wallington, there is a remarkable bed
of oyfter-fhells in fea-mud ; the farmers ufe them at the rate
of ten loads an acre for turnips, which are a very good
drefCng ; they are of particular efficacy on land worn out
by corn. Mr. Forfter feveral years ago laid twenty loads
an acre on fome worn-out land, and they had an amazing
efFeft in producing grafs, when laid down in feeds, giving a
deep luxuriant hue like good dung : the benefit very great
at the prefent time. They are found withui two feet of the
furface, and as deep as they have dug, water having ftopped
them at fixteen or eighteen feet deep. They are uled again
and again on the fame land, and with the fame effeft. At
Eaft Winch, Mr. Crowe has acres together of this moft va-
luable manure. They fall to powder on being ftirred. All fea
materials of this nature fhould conftantly be well attended
to, and collefted when wanted to be employed as manure by
the farmer. Where they are in a folid ftate, they only re-
quire to be in fome meafure broken down into a fort of coarfe
powder. Sec Sand and Shells.

It may be noticed, that in the firft mentioned diftritk, the
price of the fhells is now higher than it was formerly.

SEA-Siciru/s is faid to be prevented by drinking fea-water
mixed with wine.

SEA-SiJe-Grape, in Botany. See Coccoloba.

SEA-Spkenivort, or Polypody, a name given by EUis to
the Sertularla lichenajlrum.

SEA-Sun-Cro'wn, American. See American, &c.

SEA-S'wallo'w, in Ornitholo^-, the name of the Jierna hi-
rundo, common on our coafts. See Sterna.

Se A-Tamart/i, a name given by Ellis to the Sertularia ta-
marijia.

SEA-Tangle, in Agriculture. This is another name by which
the fea-weed which is ufually made ufe of as a manure is known
in fome diftrifts, efpecially thofe of the north, where it is
fometimes collefted, and applied, either in its fimple ftate, or
when made up into compoft with fome fort of earthy fub-
ftance. See SzA-lVeed.

SEA-Turtle Dove. See Sea-Turtle Dove.

SiEA-Wall, in Rural Economy, that fort of wall or defence
which is thrown up and provided againft the fea on the dif-
ferent coafts of the kingdom. It is formed of various
kinds of materials, according to the nature of the fituation
and circumftances, fuch as thofe of earth, ftones, fliells,
ftrong gravel, and many other matters, fo as to conftitute a
fort of embankment. See Embankment and Embanking.

Walls or banks of this nature fhould conftantly have a
good degree of flope backwards, whatever the nature of the

9

materials may be which are employed in their conftruftionf
as this form always affords great fafety and proteftion to
them. The bafes or foundations of them fhould likewife be
fecurely laid, and well guarded and protected by everj- pofE-
ble convenient means which their Ctuations and circumftances
will admit of ; and the internal parts have a fufficient weight
of earthy or other matter thrown up and laid againlt them,
in order to counteraft the weight of the water during the
time of the tides. In Effex, Mr. B. Dudley is faid to have
endeavoured to give a new direction to a fhifting bank of
(hells, as a guard to a fea-wall, which had been newly re-
paired and was much expofed, and by that means to convert
it into this fort of defence and fecurity, which he accom-
plifhed in the following manner ; a faggot-hedge was made
in the ouze, in order to retain the fhell-fand, which being
found to have taken effcft, a fecond was formed. The
fhelly bank, it is faid, fhifted, though flowly, according te
his intention, and that he had the rational expe<ftation of
fully avaihng himfelf of it to ftrengthen his wall, at little
more expence than that of thinkuig. It is fuggefted, that
opportunities of this nature frequently prefent themfelves,
but are wholly neglefted and turned to no account.

It might not be an objeft unworthy of attention, it is fup-
pofed, to have a general coramillion of fewers, &c. for the
repairs and prefervation of fea-walls along the coaft, which
proteft lands the moft capable of improvement from the de-
ftruftive inundations of the fea-water, which leave fuch fatal
well-known effefts behind, that the ground is not worth the
tillage for fome years after being overflown, and, befides, the
expence and trouble that may have been laid out upon it are
molf ly for ever lofl. As the matter now ftands, it is com-
mon for the owners of the land to manage their own walls
according to their own difcrction,by which means the negleft
or inattention of an individual may caufe, not only ruin to
himfelf, but many of his more careful neighbours, and fpread
a general diftrefs around him. This is the ftate of the cafe
in the above county, and in others it is probably much the
fame, where they border on the fea.

Sea- IVare, in Agriculture, a term frequently applied to the
weed thrown up by the fea in many fituations, and which is
coUefted and made ufe of as a manure, and for other pur-
pofes. It is the quercus marina, and has often tlie names of
fea-wreck, fea-tangle, &c. See &EA-Weed.

SEA-iVater, that briny bitterifh fluid which conftitutes the
fea. See Water.

SEA-lVater, in Agriculture, that which is brought by the
fea, and much impregnated by faline matters. It is fug-
gefted in the Argylefhire Agricultural Survey, that as it is
known that fait is beneficial as a manure, fea-water, which
is found to contain it in the proportion of about a bufhel to
a ton, may alfo be recommended in the fame view. And
that, from its promoting putrefaftion, it may be applied to
peat-earth, dung-heaps, and compofts, with much advantage
in many fituations. This fort of water, where it ftagnates
for any length of time on land, is, however, found to be
very injurious. See SALT-lVater.

SiEA-lVeeds, in Botany, the Submerfed Algs of fome
fcientific writers, are fuch cryptogamic plants as grow under
water, in the fea, fixed by their bafe, originally, to fome
rock, flone, or fhell, but often found floating without any
attachment. Their feeds are, in many inilances, known,
but the economy of their fructification has not yet been fa-
tisfaftorily explained, notwithftanding the labours of Reau-
mur, Gmelin, Gaertner, Correa de Serra, Velley, Turner,
and others. See Conferva, Fucus, Ulva, &c.

&EA-Weed, in Agriculture, the wreck or weed thrown up
by the water on the fea-coaits, and fometimes cut from their

fides.

I

SEA

fides. It IS the plant known by the name of quercns marina.
And it is a material much ufed as a manure ui lomc diltrift-;,
as thofe of Kent, and the northern counties, as well as in
the idands of Jerfey and Guernfey. It is found to become
tender and eafily reduced by remaininjr fome time in heaps,
and taki;ig on the procefs of fermentation. It is Itronply
impregnated with falinc matters, and of courfe proves a be-
neficial application lor laud.

It is faid to have been found, in the praftice of Mr. Rudd
in Yorklhire, to anfwer well in compofirion with kelp, afhes,
flam from the alum-works, and lime, tne whole being mixed
up with earth. But in many places it is made ufe of in its
fimple (tate, after havuiir undergone a degree of fermenta-
tion, or after being incorporated with yard-dung. In the
Agricultural Survey of Argylefhire it is Itated, that along
all the coafts it is much ufed as a manure, though not always
valued as much as it ought. Its effcfts are not fo lafting as
that of dung, nor is it fo great when laid on in winter as in
April or May, when it is riper, and more impregnated with
falts. What comes alhore during fummer after the ground
is fcwn, the more careful farmers gather into heaps, or
fpread on lay-grounds. In either way it turns to little ac-
count. Much of the heaps melt away, and much of what
is fpread dries and (hrivels to nothing. If mixed with
earth, mofs, fern, weeds, &c. in a comport, it would pro-
duce a quick and ftrong fermentation, and all its juices would
be preferved. This is the way to make the moil of this great
gift of Providence, and the farmer and cottager both fhould
thus increafe their ftore of manure wherever it can be
done.

It is likewife noticed, that in the above iflands, a-here this
weed has been long employed, it is cut twice in the year, the
fird cutting in February or March being applied as a manure
on the pafture grounds, nurfery lands, and thofe fown with
barley. It is ufed in the proportion of two cart-loads,
weighing two thoufand pounds each, with fix carts of (fable
dung to a looo feet fquare. The fecond cutting, which is
performed in July, is laid to dry on the fea-(hore, and after-
wards made ufe of as fuel ; the afhea of which are found an
admirable manure, efpecially on (liff land. It is fpread over
the furface of the land in the winter feafon, or early in the
fprinj;, in the proportion of about half a bufhel to the perch.
It is laid to have a great effeft in giving a full ear to the grain,
and to prevent its being laid.

But it has not yet been afcertained upon what forts of
land the weed in its fimple ftate has the mort effeft. It is
found to afford great vigour of growth to plants in all kinds.
It has generally been fuppofed to have little effeft beyond
the immediate crop ; but when duly blended and incorpo-
rated with other proper earthy or other materials, it has
been found to be more lalfing in its eftefts, and to be more
proper in this application. See Manuke.

The plants of this fort, however, wliich are made ufe
of as manure on the fea-coafte of this country and Ireland,
confill of many dillinft fpecies oi fuci, al^a, and conprvx,
according as they prevail in different parts. Sir Humphrey
Davy found by different proceifes, in the common fucus,
which is commonly the molt abundant of any on our fea-
coalls, in one mode one-eighth of gelatinous fubllance fimilar
to mucilage, and in treating it another way, nearly four-tifths
of Its weight of water, but no ammonia ; the aflics contained
fea fait, carbonate of loda, and carbonaceous matter. The
galeous matter was fmall, and chiefly carbonic acid, gafeous
oxyd of carbon, and a little hydro-carbonate.

This manure is faid to be tranfient in its cfTefls on land,
not lading more than a fingle crop, which may be readily ac-
counted for from the large proportion of water, or the ele-

SEA

menu of water, which it contains. It decays, on expofurr
to the atmofphere, without any heat being produced, feeming
to melt down as it were, and dillolve away. A large lieap
has been known to be wholly reduced to a little black fibroui
matter in lels than two years. The firmelk part of a fiicus
being let remain in ajar with atmofpheric air tor a fortnight,
became much Ihrivellcd, and the fides of the jar covered with
dew, the air being found to have loll oxygen, and to con-
tain carbonic acid gas.

The fufferinjr this fort of weed to ferment before it is
ufed, is thought wholly unneceflary, si there is no fibrous
matter rendered foluble in the procefs, and a portion of the
manure is loll. The practice of the bell farmers in the
wcflern parts of this country, is faid to be that of ufing it
as trelh as it can be had, and that the refults of this method
are exadlly in conformity to the theory of its operation.
" The carbonic acid formed by its incipient fermentation mult
be partly diffolved by the water fet free in the fame procefs ;
and thusbecome capable of abforption by the rootsof plants."
That the effefts of this weed as a manure mud chiefly depend
upon this carbonic acid, and the loluble mucilage it contains ;
and it has been found that " fome fucus which had fermented
fo as to have loll about half its weight, afforded lefs than
one-twelfth of mucilaginous matter, from which it may be
fairly concluded that lome of this fubflance is deftroyed in
fermentation."

There is unqueftionably a great lofs fuftained in this and
perhaps other ways, where earthy matters are not ufed
with it.

Sea-IVHIow, a name given by Ellis to the Gorgonla
anceps.

SEA-lVorms. See Worms.

SEA-fVorlhy, in Marine Infurance, a term applied to a
(hip, denoting that fhe is " tight, ftaunch, and llrong, pro-
perly manned, and provided with all llorcs," fo as to be in
all rcfpefts fit for the intended voyage. In e»i>ry infurance,
either on fhip or goods, there is an implied warranty that
fuch is the ftate of the fliip, fo that the infurer may gain
the premium for indemnifying the infurcd againll certain
contingencies ; for if the fliip is incapable of performing the
voyage, there is no poifibility that the infurer (hould gain
the premium ; and in that cafe, the contract, on his part,
would be without confideration, and confequently void.
The infurer undertakes to indemnify the inlured againll
" the extraordinary and unforefecri perils" of the fea ; and
it would be abfurd to fuppofe that any man would infure
againll thofe perils, but in the confidence that the fhip is in
a condititm to encounter the "ordinary perils," to which
every fhip mull be expofcd in the iifual courie of the voyage
propofcd. In France every fliip is liirveyed, before the
commencement of her voyage, by officers appointed for that
purpole, who make their report ; but the report upon fuch
furvey was not fufficient proof of lea-worthincfs, and it ilill
relied with the inlurers to (hew the contrary. A fhip
fliould be prefumcd not to have been fea-worthy, unlcfi it
be made to appear that her difability arofe from fea-damage,
or other misfortune. It is a wholefome rule, all circum-
ftances coniidered, fays ferjeant Marfliall, that the infured
(hall be held to pretty ftrift and cogent proof of the (hip'«
being fea-wortliy, fit for performing the voyage inliirod,
with the propoled cargo on board, and in all rcfpetls fit
for the trade m which Ihe is intended to be emph'yrd. It
IS alfo a wholefome rule, that this proof fhall not only be
cogent and ftrong to (liew the fliip'» fufficicncy at the time
when (lie failed, but alfo that the iiilurtd Ihall bring forward
all the evidence which he has upon tins fuhjed ; particiil.irly
what relates to the llalc flie was in when the lofi happened,
la 1 or

SEA

S E A

or when flie was condemned as unfit to proceed on the
voyage. If any thing (hould be withheld, which the in-
fured might have produced, it will always throw great fuf-
picion on his cafe. If, on the other hand, it appears from
the fafts of the cafe, that the lofs may be fairly attributed
to fea-damage, or any other unforefeen misfortune, but yet
the infurers mean to allege that the ftiip at her departure was
not fea-worthy, the onus prolandi will lie on them. This
feems to be the fimplell rule ; and the fimpleft rules are
always the beft, particularly in matters of commerce. If it
be clearly afcertained that the Ihip, at the time of her de-
parture, was not in a condition to perform the voyage in-
iured, neither the innocence nor ignorance of the infured,
nor any precautions he may have taken to make her fea-
vyorthy, will avail him againft the breach of his implied
warranty. If the ftiip be not fea-worthy, the policy will
be void, though both the infured and the captain believed
her to be fea-worthy ; and though the infurers knew the
ftate ftie was in as well as the owners. Where the goods
infured have fuftained a damage in the voyage, from the in-
fufficiency of the (hip, the queflion, whether the owner or
mailer of the (hip be liable to make good the lofs, depends
on the queftion whether the (hip was in a condition to per-
form her voyage at the time of her departure, or became
defective from (Irefs of weather and the perils of the fea.
But it is fufficient if the (hip be fea-worthy at the time of
her failing. She may ceafe to be fo in twenty-four hours
after her departure, and yet the underwriters will con-
tinue liable. The queftion, however, in fuch cafes, will
always be, whether her difability arofe from any defeft
exifting before her departure, or from a caufe which occa-
fioned it afterivards. But if a (hip, within a day or two
after her departure, become leaky and founder at fea, or be
obliged to put back, without any vifible or adequate caufe
to produce fuch an effeft, the natural prefumption is, that
flie was not fea-worthy when (he failed ; and it will then
be incumbent on the infured to (hew the ftate (he was in at
that time.

It is unnecelFary to make any reprefentatton of the condi-
tion of the (hip to the infurer, previous to the effefting of
the policy ; for it is a rule that no reprefentation need be
made of matters relating to the ri(k which are covered by a
warranty.

But a (hip, to be fea-worthy, muft not only be tight,
ftaunch, and ftrong, and provided with all necelTary (lores
for the voyage propofed ; it is, as has been already obferved,
a condition or warranty, implied in the contraft, that the
(hip (hall be properly manned, by perfons of competent (kill
and ability to navigate her. And therefore, if (he be fuf-
fered to fail in a river, or other place of difEcult navigation,
without a pilot properly quahfied, the underwriters will be
difcharged ; for this is a breach of the above condition.
Marlhall's Treatife on Infurance, vol. ii. See Ship and
Warranty.

SEA-JVraci, the name by which the fea- weed, collefled
and prepared for manure, is known in fome places. See
SsA-lVeed and Wreck.

It is faid to be fed upon by (heep and black cattle, in
fome places ; eating it from the rocks on which it grows,
in its falteft Itate, during the ebbing of the tides. As a
manure, it is often ufed fre(h with earth and fand in a fort
of compoft, without any lofs.

SsA-Teie. See Yoke.

Sea, Head. Sea Head Sea.

Sea, High. See High.

Sea, Lie under the. See Lying.

Sea, Pacific. See Pacific.

Sea, Rejlux of the. See RefluX.

Sea, Trough of the. See Trough.

Ska, Under the. See Under.

Sea, in Geography. See Cea.

Sea of Kubbeer, Deria Kubbeer, a fait lake, or rather
mar(h, of the Perfian empire, in the province of Irak ;
which runs from eaft to weft about 150 miles, being in
fome places upwards of 35 miles in breadth. The roads
through this morafs are not eafily diftinguilhed ; and the
unfortunate wanderer runs the ri(k of either perifhing in the
fwamps, or dying of thirft and heat.

SEABANKORI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Natolia ; 8 miles S.W. of Kiangari.

SEABASTICOCK, a river of the province of Maine,
which runs into the Kennebeck, N. lat. 44" 36'. W. long.
69° 45'-

SEABROOK. See Saybrook.

Seabrook, a town(hip of New Hamplhire, in Rocking,
ham county ; 6 miles N. of Newbury Port ; incorporated
in 1768, and containing 776 inhabitants.

SEADEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; if miles
S.W. of AiTah.

SEAFORD, a borough and market-town in the hun-
dred of Flexborough, rape of Pevenfey, and county of
SulTex, is fituated at the diftance of 46 miles E. by S. from
Chichefter, and 59 miles S.S.E. from London. It was
formerly a large town, and had four churches and chapels ;
but is now only a fmall filhing place, defended by a weak
fort, " eretled rather for political than military purpofes."
Seaford fent members to parliament as a borough from the
reign of Edward I. to that of Edward IV., when it ceafed
to exercife that privilege, till reftored and made a member
of the town and port of Haftings by Charles I. The cor-
poration conCfts of a bailiff, twelve jurats, and an indefinite
number of freemen. The bailiff is the returning officer at
eleftions, fome of which have been contefted with great
virulence, and have been the fubjefts of parliamentary invefti-
gation. By the laft decifion (19th March 1792 ), the right
of eleAion was declared to be " in the inhabitants houfe-
keepers of the faid town and port, paying fcot and lot, and
in them only." The market-day here is Saturday, and
there are two annual fairs on the 13th March and the 2yth
July. Accordmg to the population cenfus of 181 1, Sea-
ford contained 162 houfes, and looi inhabitants. Hiftory
of the Boroughs of Great Britain, 3 vols. 8vo. 1793.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv. by N. Shoberb,
1813.

SEAFORTHIA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. Brown,
in honour of Francis lord Seaforth, F.R.S., F.L.S., and
F. R.S. Ed., late governor of Barbadoes, a liberal and very
intelligent cultivator and patron of botany, who has en-
riched the gardens of Britain with numerous Weft Indian
rarities, and whofe recent death is juftly deplored by all
who have a due refpeft for talents or virtue. — Brown Prodr.
Nov. Holl. V. I. 267. — Clafs and order. Polygamic Mono-
ecia. Nat. Ord. Palmd ptnnatifolia.

EfT. Ch. Calyx deeply three-cleft. Corolla deeply three-
cleft. Stamens numerous. Germen with one feed. Stig-
mas three. Berry oval. Seed ftriated. Albumen (inuous.
Embryo at the bafe.

Some flowers have an abortive piilil ; other intermediate
folitary ones are entirely female.

1. S. elegans. Elegant Seaforthia. — Obferved by Mr.
Brown in the tropical part of New Holland. A large and
handforae palm, with pinnate leaves ; the leaflets plaited and
folded, jagged at the extremity. The genus is allied to
Caryota (fee that article), but efTentially different in
6 the

SEA

the ftrufture of the gormen, and fituation of the em-
bryo.

SEAGAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, is the pro-
vince of Irak J 30 miles E.N.E of Hirabad.

SEAGRIM, the common name fometimes given to a
troublefome field weed. See Ragwort.

SEAH, in Jeiu'ifh Antiquity, a meafure of capacity con-
taining fix cabs. See Cab and Measures.

SEA-HORSE Island, in Geography, an ifland in Hud-
fon's bay. N. lat. 62°. W. long. 92° 50'.

Sea-horse Point, a cape on the eaft of a peninfula in
Hudfon's bay. N. lat. 64°. W. long. 82° lo'.

SEAKONNET Rocks, rocks on the coall of Rhode
ifland, in the entrance of Naraganfett bay.

SEAL, SiGiLLUM, a puncheon, or piece of metal, or
other matter, ufually either round or oval, on which are en-
graven the arms, device, &c. of fome prince, Hate, com-
munity, magiftrate, or private perfon, often with a legend
or infcriplion ; the impreflion of which in wax lerves to
joiake afts, inftruments, &c. authentic.

The king's great feal is that by which all patents, com-
mifiions, warrants, Sec. coming from the king are fealed :
this confifts of two imprefiions, one being the feal itfelf,
with the effigies of the king (lamped upon it ; the other has
an impreflion of the king's arms in the figure of a target, for
matters of fmaller moment, as certificates, &c. that are
ufually pleaded fui pede Jigilli.

The keeping of this feal is in the hands of the lord high
chancellor, who is hence alfo denominated lord keeper.

The office of lord chancellor, or lord keeper, whofe
authority by 5 Eliz. c. 18. is declared to be exaftly the
fame, is with us at this day created by the mere delivery
of the king's great feal into his cuftody, without writ or
patent.

The king's privy-feal is a feal ufually firft fet to grants
that are to pafs the great feal. See Patents.

The ufe of feals is very ancient, an inltance of which
occurs in Daniel, chap. vi. 17. But feals are ftill older
than this ; for Jezebel, in I Kings, chap. xxi. feals the
orders {he fent for Naboth's death with the king's ring.
See alfo Jerem. xxxii. 10, &c.

In effedt, as the ancient feals were all engraven on the
collets, ftones, &c. of rings, and as the original ufe of
rings, it is aflerted, was only to be in readinefs for the fcal-
ing of a£ls, inltrumcnts, &c. feals Ihould feem to be as
ancient as rings themfclvee.

Thefe fealing rings, called annuli fignatorii, Jigillaret, ciro-
graphi or cerographi, it is faid by ancient authors, were firft
invented by the Lacedaemonians, who, not content to (hut
their chcfts, armories, &c. with keys, added feals to them ;
and to this end, at firft they made ufe of worm-eaten wood,
the imprelTions of which they took on wax, or foft earth ;
but they at length found the art of engraving figures, or
rings, the imprcffions of which they took in the fame man-
ner. This, however, muft be granted, that even in Mofes's
time, the art of engraving, not only on metals, but alfo on
precious ftones, was known.

Indeed, it does not appear that the ring had any other
lie among the primitive Jews btfides ornament: but at
length it was ufcd to feal inftruments, contraAs, diplomas,
letters, &c. inltances of which we have in the firft book of
Kings, xxi. 8. Efther, viii. 10. Xcnophon, Helltn. lib. i.
Quint. Curt. lib. vi. Juft. lib. xliii. cap. iii. where we learn,
the keeping of the emperor's feal was become a particular
office. Lucian adds, that Alexander gave his feal to Pcr-
diccas, thereby appointing him his fucce(ror.

Pliny obfcrves, that in his time there were no feal» ufcd

SEA

any where but in the Roman empire. At Rome, he itlls
us, they were become of abfolute rccefhty, infomuch that
a teftament was null without the tcftator'« feal, and the feals
of feven witnefl'es ; but it docs not appear that the Romans
had any fuch things as public feals ; nor that their edicts
and contrafts were fealed, not even in the times of the em-
perors.

In France the cuftom anciently was, inftead of figning
their inftruments, &c. only to feal them ; as appears from
an infinity of ancient charters, which are not figiicd at all ;
the reafon of which was, that in thofe days very few people
were able to write ; fcarccly any body, indeed, could read
and write but clerks ; and the cuftom continued when learn-
ing made its way among them, though the reafon for doing
it had ceafed.

In England, the firft fealed charter we find extant is that
of Edward the Confe(ror, upon his founding of Weftminfter
Abbey ; yet we read of feals in the MS. hiltory of kmg
Offa.

And fir Edward Coke relies on an inftance of king Ed-
wyn's making ufe of a feal about an hundred years before
the Conqueft ; though fome have doubted the authenticity
of this charter, becaufe it is certain that fealing was not
then in common ufe.

Before the time of William the Conqueror, the Englifti
did not feal with wax, but only made a golden crofs on the
parchment, and fometimes an impreflion on a piece of lead,
which hung to the grant with a filken ftring, av.d was deemed
an abundant authorizing of the grant itfelf, without either
figning or witnelfes.

This praflice of afiBxing the fign of the crofs proceeded
from their inability to write ; which is honcftlv avowed by
Caedwalla, a Saxon king, at the end of one of his charters :
" propria manu pro igr.orantia literarum fignum fanfti
crucis cxprefTi et fubfcnpfi."

The fame circumftance is related concerning the emperor
Juftin in the Eaft, and Theodoric, king of the Goths, in
Italy.

The colour of the wax with which William's grants were
fealed, was ufually green, to fignify tiiat the ad continued
for ever fre(h, and of force. The ufual impreflion on all
laymen's feals, till the year 1218, was a man on horfcback,
with a fword in his hand ; afterwards, they began to engrave
their coats of arms on their feals ; only the arclibiftiops
and bifliops, by a decree of cardinal Otto, who was legate
herein 1237, were to bear in their ieals their title, office,
dignity, and even their proper names.

Du Chefne obferves, that none below the dignity of a
knight had any right to a pendant feal, called aulhen-
ticum.

The emperors long fealed all their afts of importance
with a golden feal ; and the golden bull of Charles IV. for
the eleftion of an emperor, takes its name from the gold feal
hanging to it, wliich is called lull.

The pope has two kinds of feals, the firft ufcd in apofto-
lical briefs, and private letters, &c. called \.\\c fjlerman i ring.
This is a very large ring, on which is rcprcfcntcd St. Peter
drawing his net full of fifties.

The other is ufed in bulls, reprefcnting St. Peter's head
on the right, that of St. Paul on the left, with a crofs be
tween the two ; on the revcrfe arc lonietimes the pope's name
and arms.

The imprcflions of the firft feal are taken in red wax ; but
thofe of the fecond, always in lead.

Thcod. Hopink, a German lawyer, ii.is furnifticd the

world with a learned and curious work on the fubica of

feals, printed in [642, at Nuremberg, in quarto, under the

* title,

SEA

SEA

title, " de Sigillorum prifco & novo Jure, Traftatus Prac-
ticus," &c. We have another work of the like kind by
Heineccius, in folio, printed at Frankfort and LeipQc in
1709, under the title, " de Veteribus Germanorum alia-
rumqiie Nationum iiigillis, eorumque Ufu & Prsllantia,
Syntagma Hiltoricum."

Seal is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the impreffion
thereon, fixed to the thing fealed.

The manufaclurers' feal, frequently applied to their (luffs,
&c. is to be of lead. That of knights, by the French law,
is to be of hard wax ; that of agents, of foft wax.

Some feals are (lamped on the paper or parchment itfelf,
others hung by filken llrings.

The French fcal their edidls with green wax ; arrets with
yellow wax ; expedients for Dauphine with red wax. And
the letters of the French academy are fealed with blue wax.
See Wax.

Seal, Hermetical. See HermeticaL.

Seal, Lady's, m Botany, a fpecies of Bryony.

Seal, Solomon's, or lily of the valley. See CoNVALLA-

KIA.

Seal, m Zoology. See Phoca, and alfo SsA-Bear, and
Se\- CaJf.

Seal, ffair of the, in Agriculture, is a fubdance made ufe
of as a manure, in the way of top-dreffing, in combination
with rabbits' dung and lime, but which can feldom be pro-
vided in any fufficiently large quantity, nor is it found very
beneficial for the purpofe. See Manure.

Seal, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coad of
Donegal, Ireland, called in Arrowfmith's map Glafhedi ;
it is near the entrance of Strabagy bay, and about four miles
fouth of Malin Head.

Seal IJland, an idand near the S.W. coaft of Nova Scotia.
N. ht. 43° 25'. W. long. 66°. — Alfo, an ifland in the At-
lantic, near the coad of Maine. N. lat. 43° 50'. W. long.
68^ 40'. — Alfo, a fmall ifland W. of King George the
Third's Sound, on the S. coad of New Holland ; 3 miles
N.W. of Baldhead.

Seal IJlands, a duller of fmall iflands in the Atlantic,
near the coall of Maine. N. lat. 44° 45'. W. long 67°
46'. — Alfo, a cinder of fmall iflands near the ea(l coad of
Labrador. N. lat. 53° 15'. W. long. 55° 10'.

Seal Key, a fmall ifland in the Spani(h Main, near the
Mofquito diore. N. lat. 12° 54'. W. long. 82° 40'. — See
alfo LoBOs.

Seal River, a river of North America, which runs into
Hudfon's bay.

SEALCOTE, a town of Hindoodan, in the country
of Lahore ; 50 miles N.N.E. of Lahore. N. lat. 31° 44'.
E. long. 73^ 50'.

SEALER, an officer in chancery, appointed by the lord
chancellor, or keeper of the great feal, to feal the writs and
indruments there made m his prefence.

SEALING, in ArchiteSure, the fixing of a piece of wood
or iron in a wall, with plader, mortar, cement, lead, or
other folid binding.

For daples, hinges, and joints, plader is very proper.

SEALiNG-/^rt*. See Wax.

SEAM, or Same, in Rural Economy, a term applied to
tallow, greafe, hog's lard, before it is rendered and formed
into lard, &c. in fome places.

Seam, a term applied co a horfe-load of three hundred
weight. I(j Cornwall, a feam of fand weighs two hundred
weight. The feam alfo differs very much in the weight of
different articles of other kinds. It likewife varies in different
didrids ef the kingdom.

Seam of Corn, in Agriculture, the meafure of a quartCT>l
or eight budiels.

Seam of Gtafs, is the quantity of one hundred andtwentfJ
pounds, or twenty-tour done, each five pounds weight.

Seam of IVood, in Rural Econtmy, a horte-load ot wood
or as much as can be carried by a Urong animal of that kindj
It differs, however, in different dillritts.

SEAMS, or Seyms, in Horfes, certain clefts in theill
quarters, occaiioned by the dryncls of the foot, or by riding
upon hard ground.

Seams, in Ship- Building, the openings or joints between
the edges o& the planks when wrought.

Seams, in Sail-Making. Sails have a double flat feam,^
that IS, the edges or felvages of the canvas are lapped one
over the other an incii or more, and both edges firmly fewed
down.

Seams o/" a 5a/7 are of two forts, monk't-ftam, viA round'
feam.

Seam, Aloni's. See Monk.

Seam, Round, of a fail, is l"o called, becaufe rouad like
the common learn.

SEAMEN. See Mariners and Navy.

SEAMER, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of York, which runs into the Ure.

Seamer's Lake, a lake in America, in the date of Ver-
mont. N. lat. 44^^52'. W. long. 71° 55'.

SEAMLEE, a town of Hindoodan, in the circar of
Schaurunpour ; 36 miles S. of ^chaurunpour.

SEA-OTTER Sound, a bay on the W. coad of North
America. N. lat. 55° 40'. W. long. 133° 45'.

SEA-PYES' Keys, a cluder of fmall iflands in the gulf
of Mexico. N. lat. 2(f 56'. W. long. 89^ 5'.

SEAR, in Rural Economy, a term applied to dry or
rotten wood, in oppofition to that which is green.

SEARA, in Geography, a town of Brazil, in the govern-
ment of Maranhao. S. lat. 3° 30'. W. long. 39° 30'. —
Alfo, a river of Brazil, which runs into the Atlantic, S,
lat. 3^ 30'. W. long. 39° 30*.

SEARCE. See Sieve.

SEARCH-/Karra«/, in Law, a kind of general vjar-
rant ifl'ued by judices of peace, for fearching all fufpeAed
places for dolen goods ; and there is a precedent in Dal-
ton, requiring the condable to fearch all fuch fufpefted
places, as he and the party complaining (hall think conve-
nient ; but fuch practice is condemned by lord Hale, Mr.
Hawkins, and the bed authorities. However, in cafe of
a complaint, and oath made of goods dolen, and that the
party fufpefts that the goods are in fuch houfe, and (hews
the caufe of fuch fufpicion, the judice may grant a warrant
to fearch in thofe fufpetled places mentioned in his warrant,
and to attach the goods, and the party in whofe cudody they
are found, and bring them before him or fome other judice,
to give an account how he came by them, and to abide (uch
order as to law (hall appertain ; which warrant (bould be
diredled to the condable, or other public officer, wlio may
enter a fufpetled houle and make fearch.

SEARCHER, an officer in the cudoms, whofe bufinefs
it is to fearch and examine (hips outward bound, if they
have any prohibited or uncudomed goods on board, &c.
12 Car. II. There are alfo fearchersof leather, &c. See
Alnager.

Searcher, in Artillery, is an iron focket with branches,
from four to eight in number, a little bent outwards with
fmall points at their ends ; lo this focket is fixed a wooden
handle, from eight to twelve feet long, of abost an inch
and a quarter diameter. This fearcher is introduced into the
gun after it has been fired and turned round, in crder to dif-

cov«r

SEA

cover the cavities within ; and after their diftances are marked
on the outfide with chalk, they make ufe of another fearcher
that has only one point, about which a mixture of wax
and tallow is put, to take the imprcflion of the holes ; and
if there are any a quarter of an inch deep, or of any
confiderable length, the gun is rejected as unferviceable to
the government. The gun is thus proved and fearched
twice.

Searcher, in Rural Economy, an implement ufed for
boring in fearching for coals, &c. See Borer.

SEARCHING, the operation of boring or finking
into the bowels of the earth, for the difcovery of the
different materials which it may contain. For the deteftion
of marles, coals, or other fimilar fubftances, the ufe of the
borer may be fufficient. But where difficulties arife in per-
forming it in this way, from the obltruftion of ftones, &c.
a narrow (haft, fuch as a well, may, Mr. Marfhall thinks,
be carried down, without much expence, to the depths at
which it can be wrought with advantage. See Borer and
Marle.

Searching of Neutral Ships, in Political Econsmy, a prac-
tice authorized by the law of nations, in order to prevent the
commerce of contraband goods, or fuch commodities as are
particularly ufed m war, and the importition of which to an
enemy is prohibited. Accordingly Vattel, and other writers
of the famedefcriptior, maintain that there is a right of fearch-
iiig. Some powerful nations have indeed at different times
refufed to fubmit to this. But at prefent a neutral (hip re-
tuling to be fearched, would from that proceeding alone be
condemned as lawful prize. But to avoid inconveniencies,
violence, and every other irregularity, the manner of the
fearch is fettled in the treaties of navigation and commerce.
According to the prefent cuflom, credit is to be given in
certificates and bills of lading, produced by the mafter of
the fhip, unlefs any fraud appear m them, or there be very
good reafons for fufpecting their validity.

SEARCHiNG_/br the Stone, called Afo founding, denotes, in
Surgery, the operation of introducing a metallic initrument,
named a found, through the urctlu'a into the bladder, with
a view of afcertaining whether a ftone is really lodged there
or not. In this manner, the iurgeon aftually makes the initru-
ment ftrike againft any calculus which may be prefent ; and
the coUifion produces fucli an impreffion on the fingers of
the furgeon, and on the ears of every byltander, as leaves no
doubt refpefting the matter of the cafe. Sounding is in
faft the only infallible way of learning that the bladder con-
tains a (tone. The fymptoms of the complaint refemble
thofe of fcveral other difeafes, and may deceive us (fee
Lithotomy) ; but when we both hear and feel the collifion
of the inlfrument againd the calculus, we obtain that kind
of information which does not admit of error.

The mod advantageous podure for founding is that, in
which the patient reclines back upon a fofa, or couch. A
chair of large fize, with a back that can be made to fall
backwards to a convenient didance, is fometimes ufed, and
may be feen in mod of our hofpitals.

As the done is generally fituated at the lowed part of the
bladder, the extremity of a found is ufually not fo curved as
that of a catheter, in order that it may more eafily touch any
thing fituated immediately behind and below the neck of the
bladder. The found is only a particular kind of probe, and
as its chief ufe is to convey information through the medium
of the organ of touch, its handle (hould be fmooth and
highly poiiOied, fo that as many points of its furface as pof-
fible may come into contaft with the lingers.

The found is introduced t-xattly in the fame manner as
the Alvcr catheter, cither with the concavity or convexity

SEA

of the inftrument towards the abdomen. When the laft
method is preferred, as foon as the point has arrived in the
perinacum, it is to be kept dationary, whflc the handle i*
made to defcribe a femicireular movement downward, fo as
to turn the concavity of the indrumcnt towards the pubes,
previous to its padage through the membranous and prof,
tatic portion of the urethra. This is the plan which the
French furgeons have called " Ic tourdemaitre."

When the extremity of the found is in the bladder, it ii
to be pu(hed downward for the purpofe of afcertaining
whether the ftone lies beneath its convexity, as is mod com-
monly the cafe where one is prefent. If the extraneou«
body fhould not be felt in this manner, the beak of the in-
drument may be turned fird to one fide of the cavity of the
bladder, then to the other. Should the calculus not be
touched by thefe movements of the found, the indrument
may be drawn forward, for the purpofe of learning whether
the done is more anteriorly fituated. Frequently the
ftone cannot be felt till the whole of the urine has been
expelled, and the bladder has become contrafled. Some-
times, the found may be made to hit the done, by inlro>
ducing the finger into the rcftum, and thus bringing the
extraneous body upward. In this way, the calculus may
often be plainly felt by the finger.

We fhall conclude this (hort article, with earneftly cau-
tioning furgeons never to perform lithotomy, unlefs they
can didinftly feel the ftone with the found, or ftaff, imme-
diately before the operation.

SEAR-CLOTH, or Cere-cxoth. The word fear-
cloth is fuppofed to be a corruption of cere-cloth, and to be
derived originally from the Greek xr^®-, <wax.

In Surgery, it denotes a form of external remedy, fome-
what harder than an unguent, yet fofter than an emplafter,
though it is frequently ufed both for the one and the other.
The fear-cloth is always fuppofed to have wax in its com-
pofition, which diftinguifhes, and even denominates it. In
effcft, when a liniment or unguent has enough wax in it, it
does not differ from a fear-cloth.

Sear-cloths are a kind of fubftitutes to friftion, and arc
fometimes ufed for other purpofes ; the bed are compounded
of refolvent drugs, as fuftrou, myrrh, and aloes, incorporated
with wax and gums, as galbaiiiim, gum ammoniac, and faga-
pemim ; the whole tempered with wine.

SEARSBURG, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
in Bennington county, Vermont ; 1 2 miles E. of Benning-
ton.

SEASE, Seasin, or Sea/ng, in a Ship. See Seize.
SEASONING, in Ship-Building, a term api)lied to a
fhip kept danding a certain time after (lie is completely tim-
bered and dubbed out for planking, which Ihould never be
lefs than fix months.

Seafoned timber or plank is fuch as lias been cut down
and converted, or fawn out one feafon at leail, particularly
when thoroughly dry, and not liable to ihrink.
Seasoning of Timber. See Timber.
SEASONINGS, in the Weft Indies, a kind of aguifli
didemper, which foreigners are much fubjed to at their firft
coming.

SEASONS, in Cofmography, certain portions or quarter*
of the year, didinguiflied by the figns which the fun then
enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the (un ; conhqucnt
on which, are different temperatures of the air, diftrrcnt
works in tillage, &c.

The word is formed from the Frencli/ij/on, which Mcn.igc
derives from the Latin7?,j//'o, whence the Italians have formed
Jlngione ; Nicod derives it Ixom fatio, tcmput faiitnii, Jo'^'"'g

SEA

SEA

The year is divided into four feafons, fpring, fummer,
autumn, and winter ; the beginnings and endings of each
of which, fee under its proper article.

It is to be obferved, the feafons anciently began differently
from what they now do ; witnefs the old verfes :

" Dat Clemens hyemem ; dat Petrus vcr cathedratus ;
.ffiftuat Urbanus ; autumnat Bartholomaeus."

SEAT, in AJlrommy. See Scheat.

Seat, in the Manege, is the pofture or fituation of a
horfeman upon the faddle.

To feat a horfe upon his branches or hip, fee Pht.

Seat, '\n Ship-Budding, the fcarf or part trimmed out for
a chock, &c. to fay to.

SzAT -Tran/om, that tranfom which is fayed and bolted to
the ftern-timbers, next above the deck-tranfom, at the height
of the port-fills.

SEATING, that part of a floor which fays on the Jiad-
tuood; and of a tranfom which fays againll the poft.

SEATNESS, in Geography, a cape on the S.W. coaft
of Shetland. N. lat. 59° 46'. W. long. 1° 36'.

SEATON, a fmall fea-port town in the hundred of Co-
lyton, county of Devon, England, is lituated at the diftance
of three miles S. from Colyton, and 156 S.W. from London.
This place is called Suetetone in Domefday book, and was
undoubtedly the Moridunurj of the Iter of Antoninus.
Rifdon fays it is " memorable for the Danifli princes land-
ing there in the year 937, as alfo for the attempt of the in-
habitants of Colyton to make a haven there, which they had
folemnly named CoUyton Jiaven, and procured a coUeftion
under the great feal of England for the levying of money to
efFeft the fame, of which work there remaineth no monu-
ment, only a remembrance of fuch a place among ftrangers
that know not where it ftands." At preCent Seaton is
chiefly noted as a well frequented fea-bathing village. The
church is an ancient building of free-llone, dedicated to St.
■ Gregory, and contains a very elegant monument in memory
of W. Walroud, efq. and his lady. According to the
parliamentary returns of 18 1 1, the parifli of Seaton com-
prifed 323 houfes, and 1524. inhabitants. The Hillory of
Devonfliire, by the Rev. Richard Polwhele, three vols,
folio, 1797. The Chorographical Defcription or Survey
of the County of Devon, by Triltam Rifdon, 8vo. 17 14,
2d edit, with additions, 8vo. 181 1.

Seaton, or Port Seaton, a fmall fea-port of Scotland,
in the county of Haddington, in the Frith of Forth ; 5 miles
W.N.W. of Haddington. N. lat. 55° 58'. W. long. 3^

59'-

Seaton Nook, a cape of England, on the E. coaft of
the county of Durham, at the mouth of the Tees ; 5 miles
S.S.E. of Hartlepool.

Seaton Sluice, a (luice which opens into the German fea,
on the coaft of the county of Northumberland. — Alfo, a
town of England, called " Seaton Delaval," in Northum-
berland, deriving its name from an artificial harbour con-
Urufted by fir Ralph Delaval, in the 17th centurv ; 10 miles
N.E. of Newcaftle., N. lat. s^° &.

Seaton, a river of England, which rifes near Lefkeard,
and runs into the Englifh Channel, three miles E. of Looe,
in Cornwall.

SEAVES, in Rural Economy, a term ufed to fignify
rufnes, efpecially the foft rufh.

SEAVY Ground, fuch ground as is covered or over-
run with rufhes.

SEAUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in La-
hore ; 18 miles W. of Rahoon.

SEA-WOLVES Island, an illand in the gulf of St.

Laurence, near the W. coaft of Cape Breton. N. lat.
21'. W. long. 61°.

SEBA, Albert, in Biography, a native of Eaft Friz^
land, was by profeflion a druggift at Amfterdam, and
member of the Academy Natura: Curioforum. He pub
lifhed a defcriptive catalogue, in Latin and French, of th
▼aft coUeftion of objefts in natural hiftory which he ha
brought together, in four vols, folio, iliuftrated with a grejj
number of engravings. He likewife cornmunicated feverj
papers to the Ephem. Nat. Curiof.

SEBACA, in Geography. See Mariout.

SEBACEOUS Glands, in Anatomy, fmall glandulj
bodies in the (kin, lecreting the unftuous matter which coven
the furface of the body. They are particularly m.anifeJ
about the alae of the nofe, and in the folds of the externa
ear. See Integuments, Ear, and Nose.

SEBACIC Acid, in Chemi/lry, is an acid produced fro
the decompofition of animal fat, particularly hog's-lard
The acrid fumes which are evolved during the burning 1
fat at a heat fhort of inflammation, was formerly confidereJ
as a peculiar acid, which was called the acid of fat, and after
wards the febacic acid. From the experiments of Therard
it has fince been proved not to be a peculiar acid, but the
acetic acid difguifed with fome other produft of the decom-
pofition. During thefe refearches, however, he found that
by the diftillation of tallow, he obtained an acid having pe-
culiar properties, which he ftill called the febacic acid. The
following is the procefs he recommends. Diltil hog's-lard
from a retort, by a heat which will decompofe the fat ; car-
bonic acid and carburcttcd hydrogen firft come over, and a
yellowith fluid containing acetic acid, but ftill no febacic
acid. This receiver muft now be removed, and a new one
adapted : the heat being continued, an oily matter comes
over of the confiftcnce of butter. It is in this fubftance
that the febacic acid is found. It is feparated by firft boil-
ing it io water, and evaporating the liquid till the febacic
acid falls down in cr)-ftals. This depofition is increafed as
the liquid cools.

He alfo recommends, inftead of getting the cryftils by
evaporation, to add acetate of lead to the water in which the
oily matter has been boiled ; a flaky precipitate is formed,
which is the febat of lead, and which is to be well walhed
and dried. When to this fubftance fulphuric acid is added,
and heat applied, a fatty liquid floats on the top, which is
to be collefted ; this being diflblved in hot water, forms
cryllais of pure febacic acid, which are depofited on cool-
ing.

The lard affords but a very fmall proportion of the acid.
Rofe informs us that it requires a pound of lard to produce
forty grains of acid.

Sebacic acid, thus obtained, is in the form of a cryftalline
mafs, of a white colour. It has no fmell, but its tafte is
agreeably four, and flightly bitter ; like moft other acids it
changes fome vegetable blues to a red colour.

When heated, it melts like fat into a tranfparent fluid,
but on cooling it re-aflumes its whitenefs and its cryftalline
form. It is faid to be volatile by heat, ftill retaining its
properties, but a ftrong heat decompofes it.

It is fparingly foluble in cold water, and boihng water
diflblves about oue-fourth its weight ; it affords cryftals on
cooling, which are in the form of prifms. Alcohol diffolves
it in confiderable quantity. It is alfo foluble in oils. From
the laft, and fome other properties, it bears a ftrong refem-
blance to the benzoic acid. This laft analogy has been
pointed out by Berzelius. He found alfo that the falts
formed by this acid have a ftrong refemblance to the ienzoatr.
Thefe fafts go far to fhew fo ftrong an analogy between the

two

S E B

two acids, as almoft to eftablilh their identity. See Ben-
zoic Acid.

SEBACOOK, or Sebaco, in Geography, a pond or
lake of America, in the ftate of Maine, equal in extent to
two large townthips, and connefted with Long Pond on
the N., W. by Sungo or Songo river; thefe waters reach
nearly 30 miles from N.W. to S.E. ; i8 miles N.W. of
Portland.

SEBjEA, in Botany, a name adopted by Mr. Brown,
from Dr. Solander's manufcripts, in memory of Albert
Seba, an apothecary of Amilerdam, who prepared a fplcndid
defcription, with plates, of his own mufeum, in four large
folio volumes, which came out between the years 1734 and
1765. The author indeed died in 1736, fo that his three
latter volumes were pofthumous publications. Many Cape
plants are here engraved, and amongll them one of the prefent
genus. Yet Seba does not deferve to rank as a fcientific
iDOtanift, nor did LinnEUS, who knew him, and by whofe
recommendation he employed Artedi to arrange his filhes,
ever think him worthy to be commemorated in a genus.
If, however, we compare him with numbers who have been
fo commemorated, he will not appear to fo much difad-
vantage ; for as a cuUeftor he ftands rather high. Brown
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 451. — Clafs and order, Tetrandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rotacet, Linn. Gentians, .lull.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
divided into four ovate, acute, keeled, (lightly fpreading,
permanent fegments, folding over each other at the bafe.
Car. of one petal, withering, falver-fhaped ; tube fwelling,
the length of the calyx, contraftcd at the upper part ; limb
in four deep, elliptical, fpreading fegments. Stam. Fila-
ments four, thread-lhaped, inferted into the tube, projefting
out of its mouth; anthers crett, (horter than the limb, ob-
long, burftiiig longitudinally, fubfequently recurved and
callous at the tip. Pijl. Gcrmen fuperior, roundifh, filling
the tube ; ityle thread-rtiaped, ercft, the length of the
(lamens; ftigmas two, oblong. Perk. Capfule roundifli,
with a furrow at each fide, compredcd, of two cells and two
valve=;, the length of the calyx ; partitions from the inflexcd
margins of the valves, inferted into the edges of the large
central receptacle, from whicli they finally feparate. Seeds
numerous, minute.

Obf. The flowers in fomc fpecies are five-cleft.
EIT. Ch. Calyx deeply four-cleft, keeled. Corolla falvcr-
fllaped, with an inflated tube. Anthers burfting longitu-
dinally ; finally recurved and callous at the point. Cap-
fule with two furrows, two cells and many (eeds ; the par-
tition from the inflexed margins of the valves. Stigmas two.
Mr. Brown has feparatcd the prefent genus from Exacum,
whofe genuine fpecies, accnrdmg to him, are E./e^/eznd
pedunculntiim ef Linn. Sp. PI. with which the albens and
tordatum of tlie Supplementum are, in tlie laft-mcntioned
■work, confounded. (See Exacum.) Perhaps alfo, as
Mr. Brown conceives, E. pundntum of the faid work may
make a third, and a nondelcnpt Eatt Indian one in his pof-
feffion a fourth, fpecies. He confidcrs as eliential to Exacum
a lefs-deeply divided calvx ; anthers without a callous tip,
burfting by a pore, or (hort flit, and continuing ftraight
after the flowers fade ; llyle declining ; an undivided IHgma ;
and receptacle of the feeds conncftcd with a partition origi-
nating from the middle of each valve.

1. 5. albens. Whitifh Seb<ca. ( Exacum albens ; Linn.
Suppl. 123. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 634. but not E. fedun-
culatum, Sp. PI. 163. Centaurium fubrotundis foliis, flo-
rlbus comofis ; Burm. Afr. 207. t. 74, f. 4 ; excluding
the reference to Piukcnct.) — Flowers in the upper forks of
the ftem feflile. — Gatliered by Thunberg, Sparrraann, and
Voz.. XXXII.

S K B

others at the Cape of Good Hope. The root n annual,
hbrous. Stem ercCt, four or five inches high, much branched,
repeatedly forked, leafy, fmooth, with four ftiarp angles,
level-topped, many-flowered. Leaves feflile, fcarcely at all
decurreiit, ovate, entire, fmooth, flefliy, fomewhat glau-
cous. Flowers four-cleft, though Burmann defcribes them
otherwife ; the loweft more or lefs ftalked, as well as thofe
which crown the ultimate lateral branches ; but thofe Ctuatcd
in the upper forks of the ilem are quite feflile. Segments
of the calyx flightly keeled, their points a little recurved.
Corolla apparently whitifti, or pale pink. Thunberg's fpc-
cim.en agrees belt with Burmann's figure ; that of Sparr-
mann has broader leaves and larger flowers ; yet we cannot
trace out a falisfaftory difliuftion. One of them may pof.
fibly be the unpublifhed Cape fpecies, amiounccd by Mr.
Brown, without any definition or defcription, but we can-
not guefs which, and, all things corifidcred, we do not feel
authorized in feparating them.

2. S. aurea. Yellow Sebxa. (Exacum aureum ; Linn.
Suppl. 123. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 1.63J. Centaurium minus
aureum, flofculis numerofis, asthiopicum ; Pluk. Almag. 94.
t. 275. f. 3.)— All the flowers ihlked.— Gathered by Sparr-
mann, at the Cape of Good Hope. About half the fizc
of the laft in every part. Flowers yellow, four-cleft, each
on a (lender quadrangular ftalk, even from the uppermoft, as
well as the lower, forks of the ilem. Linniiis juftly com-
mends Plukenet's figure, though he had originally, in Sp.
PI. cited that fynonym doubtfully under his Exacum fejjile,
a widely different plant. It is remarkable that he defcribes
the calyx in the Supplement as of five leaves, whereas it has
only four, as it ought, the corolla being five-cleft.

3. S. cordata. Heart-fhaped Sebaea. (Exacum cor-
datum ; Linn. Suppl. 124. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 636.
^utnol E./cjlJile, Sp. PI. 163. Gentianacxacoides ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 332. Centaurium perfoliatum, florum calyce mcm-
branaceum ventricofum ; Burm. Afr. 2o3. t. 74. f. 5,
C. perfoliatum :Ethiopicum, flofculis exiguis flavelcentibus,
ex calyculis magnis quadripinnatis erumpentibus ; Pluk.
Almag. 94. t. 275. f. 4. " C. capenfc minus, czpfulA
quatuor alis donata ; Seb. Muf. v. i. t. 22. f. 7.") —
Flowers five-cleft. Segments of the calyx with a dilated,
half-heart-fhapcd, veiny keel. Leaves heart-fhaped. — Na-
tive of the Cape of Good Hope. The fize and habit agree
with the firft fpecicf, but xhcjlowers are larger, apparently
yellow, with a longer tube, and five-cleft limb. Calyx A\l-
tinguiilied by the dilated veiny keels of its fegments, which
are five, not (as Plukenet and Seba fay,) four only. All
xhejloivcrs have ^zrUsXJlalLs, though fliorter in the upper
ones than the lower. The whole hillory of thefe three
fpecies, in the Supplement, was written by Linnius him-
ielf, not by his fon, who only defcribed the fourth, Exacum
puntlatum.

4. S. oi'nia. Ovate Sebia. Brown n. I. (Exacum
ovatum; Labill. Nov. Holl. v. i. 38. t. 52.) — Flowera
five-cleft. Segments of the calyx fimply keeled. Le»vei
ovate. — Gathered by M. Labdiardicre at Cape Van Diemen,
ar.d by Mr. Biown at Port Jackfim, New South Wales.
Taller and more (lender than the foregoing, beiiig about a
fpan high. Such of the upper /focixTx, as grow from the
forks of the yAm, are nearly leliile, like thofe of S. alliens.
Segmer.ts of the ra/y-r lanceolate, with a fimplc, not dilated,
keel. Corc/Ai witha Imall, fhort, five-cleft limb; nothing
IR recorded of its colour.

SEBAGENA, in Ancient Geography, a towu of Cjppa-
docia, in the prefe(5\ure of Cilicia. Ptolemy-

SEBA I A, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in tlic pro-
vincf of Hcdsiat ; 5< miles S. of Medina.

" T SEDAKET

S E 1}

S E B

SEBAKET Bahooil, /. c. thi.- lake of kiiip Baldwin,
a narrow lake of Egypt, near the Mediterranean, about
fifteen miles long ; 2 miles E. of Catieli.

SEBALA, a town of Arabia, in the provinct; of Heds-
jas ; 27 miles S. of Medina.

SEBAMA, or Sabama, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Paleftine, on the other fide of the Jordan, in the tribe of
Reuben, accordincr to the book of Jolhua.

SEBANZARRO, in Geography, a town of AbyfTuiia ;
80 miles E.N.E. of Axum.

SEBAR, or Ckbak, in the Materia Meilica, a name by
which the Arabians call the lignum ii/ois, or /iloe-iuoad, a per-
fumed aromatic drug.

SEBARIMA, in Geography, one of the mouths of the
river Oroonoko.

SEBASTACOOK, a river of America, in the (late of
Maine, which rifes in lakes nearly N. from its mouth, and
after receiving, in the windings, many tributary ftreams, joins
the Kennebeck at Taconnet Fall, where Fort Halifax was
erefted, in 1754; the fall is 18 miles from Fort Wefteni,
which was conllrmrted in 1752. Its numerous llreams
abound with imall fi(h.

SEBASTE', a miferable defertcd village of Syria, the de-
populated remains of Samaria, which acquired its new name
in honour of Augultus Casfar ; 34 miles N.N.E. of Jeru-
falem. Sec Samaria.

Sebaste, in Ancient Geography, an ifland and town of
Cilicia Propria, on the other fide of tlie promontory of Cory-
cus. Strabo fays that this town was called Eleufa, and that
Archelaus made it the place of his refidence, when Anguftus
gave him Cihcia Trachea. — Alio, a town of Afia Minor, in
Phrygia. — Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Galatia.

SEBASTIAN, in Biography, king of Portugal, was the
pollhumous fon of the mfant John, by Joanna, daughter of
the emperor Charles V. He lucceeded to the crown at three
years of age, on the death of his grandfather, John III., in
the year 1557. By his education he acquired an extravagant
admiration for valourous exploits, and an cnthufiallic zeal
againll all the foes of the Chriitian religion. Under the
influence of this paffion, he, at the age of twenty, undertook
a fudden expedition to Africa, in which, however, lie per-
formed nothing of any importance ; hut availing himfelt of
the application for aid of Mnlcy Hamct, king of Fez and
Morocco, who had been dilpoiieffed of his crown by his uncle
Muley Moloch, he refolved to renew the attempt aganill
the Moorifh monarch with all the force he could bring
together.

In vain was he diduaded from tlie enterprize : he was in-
acceffible to all admonitions. Having llripped his country
of its military (Irength, and the flower of the nobility, he
fet fail in the fummer of 15 78, and proceeded to Arzilla.
There he was met by a much more numerous army, witli
Muley Moloch in perfon, who was fo debihtated by ficknefs
that he was carried in a litter. In tlie battle that enfued,
the onfet of the Portuguele army was fo furious that nothing
could withftand them, and Muley, in rallying his men, was
fo much exhauded that he died in the attempt. Sebailian,
who was not lefs dexterous in the ufe of arms than brave,
fought till two horfes were killed under him, and moll of his
attendants were flain by his fide. At length, however, he
difappearcd, nor was it ever known, with any degree «f cer-
tainty, what became of him, though a body, fuppofed to be
his, was received as fuch Irom the Moors, and interred at
Belem. But in a flaughter fo dreadful, that not more tlian
fifty of the Portuguefe army are faid to have efcaped, it is
rio wonder that a fingle body, and probably dripped, Ihould
not be recogniaed. Such, however, was the attachment of

the nation to a prince, whofe romantic valour had reviyed
in their minds the heroic times of Portugal, that they
refufed to give credit to his death, and long entertained the
full expeftation of feeing him return from his fuppofed con-
cealment. Of this opinion many impoftors availed them-
felves, who aflumed his character, and obtained a portion of
relpeft due to their favourite iovcrcign : for more than a
century it was believed that he would be again feated on hit
throne.

Sebastian, St., in Geography, a town of Spain, and the
moll important of the diilrift of Guipufcoa, fituated on the
coall of ancient Canlabria, now Bafque, between two arms of
the fea, which form a per.infula of it, and at the mouth of the
little river Urumea, or Gurumera, which was the Menafcum of
the ancients. On the fea-fide there is an eminence which ferves
as a dike. This town, flanked with ballions and half-moons,
appears defended by a calUe or citadel of little importance,
placed upon an almoil circular and tolerably high mountain,
which is bare, without trc"s, almoil fmooth, and afcended by
a Ipiral road. St. Sebaltian has a fmall harbour inclofed by
two moles, that leave a very confined fpace for the paffage of
(hips, which are afterwards protected from the winds, on
arriving at the bottom of an eminence of rocks which covers
this harbour, where there is a large fquare tower ; it holds
at mod five and twenty or thirty veffels. The town is very
airy ; it contains twenty ilrects, leveral of which are Itraight,
long, and broad, and all paved with large fmooth ilones.
There are from fix hundred and fifty to feven hundred houfes
in it, and many of them are pleafant enough. It is the refi-
dence of the governor of the province, who had the title of
captain-general until the beginning of the prefent century.
It has a governor, a king's lieutenant, a major, an aide-major,
a fmall garrilon, and a naval academy ; two pariihes, and a
third in the fuburbs, which are very populous ; two con-
vents of monks, three convents of nuns, and an hofpital.
There are in this town and its fuburbs five manufatlories of
hides and leatlier, fome tanning-yards eitablilhed in the
faubourg St. Martin, a manufadory of anchors for the royal
navy in the faubourg of Sta. Catalina, and rope-walks,
where cables are made.

Saint Sebadian has aKvays carried on a confiderable trade.
In 1728, the Philippine company was formed by Philip V.,
with which that of the Caraccas was afterwards united. This
company was very lerviceable, as it procured for Spain
a lucrative branch of trade, which was in the hands of the
Dutch. In confequence, however, of mal-adminidration,
and the lofs of 1,500,000 piadres, which it fudained at the
commencement of the war between England and America,
this company funk and was fupprefled. However, a trade
with the province of Caraccas was continued by private mer-
chants from this port, and the cocoa, tobacco, and leather
which are from thence imported, form no inconfiderable
branch of trade with the interior and the other parts of
Spam, and a dill more important one with foreign countries.
Hence its harbour is very much frequented by Englifli,
Dtttch, French, and other diips. It receives the produce of
foreign indudry, and returns, in exchange, iron anchors,
cables, leather, wool, and fometimes cotton. This trade
attrafts a confiderable population to the town, which is eili-
mated at 13,000 inhabitants.

The port of St. Sebailian, though free, is not what is
called abilitjdo. This word means a privilege to fend mer-
chandize direftly to America.

The environs of St. Sebailian are pleafant, though the
foil is fandy ; we enjoy at the fame time a view of the fea
and of the Pyrenees. Thofe who love the country, take
pleafure in vifiting the pleafant valley of Layola. We go

to

S E B

S E B

to it through the gate of France, following a kind of pro-
menade, which leads to a wooden bridge, where pcrfons who
are fond of it amufe themfelves in fifliing for fahnon, in a
river which bathes the fortifications of the town ; this fi(h is
found there in fuch abundance, that it is fold for three far-
things a pound. As we proceed, we perceive on the left a
convent of Franctfcans, the whole appearance of which in-
fpires veneration, feeming defirous of concealing itfelf under
mafles of foHage, formed by groups of trees. On that fide,
however, they have begun to form a public promenade pa-
rallel to the little road which leads to Paflage Port. We
travel along a loofe foil, which is covered by the high tides ;
we afterwards afcend and defcend, proceeding along a ileep
coall ; ll;e path k fhadod by a high wood, and embelliflied
with frag! .mt jefl'amines ; after crolling another wooden
bridge, we miter the valley of Layola. B~>unded on one of
its fides by hills covered with trees, it here has a gloomy
afpeft ; but on the oppofite fide we behold the richell pro-
duftions, difplaying a fcene of various colours/ highly em-
bellifiied by the rays of the fetting-fun. A I'iver bounds
this valley in a femicircular form, and waters a great number
of fruit-trees planted on its banks.

The fliy at St. Sebailian is not very ferene, but it is often
cloudy ; the air is generally damp, and fometimes loaded with
fogs. The provifions are cheaper than in moft of the other
parts of Spain ; and here are two tolerably good inns. In
1719 the French made themfelves mailers of this town ; and
in 1794, Auguft 3d, it was invelled by the republican troops
of France, and capitulated the next morning ; the garrifon,
confifting of 2000 men, furrendering themfelves prifoners of
war, and more than 180 pieces of brals cannon were taken,
with confiderable magazines and llores. On Auguil the
13th, 1813, it was taken by itorm by the Britifh troops;
22 miles W.S.W. of Bayonne. N. lat. 43° 10'. W. long.
2° 4'. — Alfo, a fort of Africa, in tlie kingdom of Anta,
on the Gold Coaft, belonging to the Dutch.

Sebastian, Si-, or St. Selinjl'mo, a town of the illand of
Tcrcera, fitnated between mountains, about half a mile dif-
tant from the fea.

Sebastian, St. See K.\o de Janeiro.

Sebastian del Oro, See La Plat,\.

Sebastiam, St., de Salir, a town of Portugal, in Al-
garva ; 6 miles N.W. of Louie.

Sebastian, St., a town of Mexico, in the province of
Chiametlan, on the Mazatlan ; 45 miles N.N.W. of
Chiametlan. N. lat. 2 3"^ 35'. W. long. 106' 30'. — Alfo,
a fmall iOand in the Atlantic ocean, near thecoail of Brazil.
S. lat. 23^ 45' Alfo, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of St. Martha ; 10 miles W. of Los Reyes. — Alfo, a
bay of tlie Indian lea, on the coafl of Africa. S. lat. 32° 22'.
— Alfo, an itland of Mexico, in Nicaragua lake, with a town
near the E. coaft. N. lat. 11^48'. W. long. 85^^ 6'.—
Alfo, a river of Mexico, which runs into the Pacific ocean,
N. lat. 25° 20'. — Alff), a town on the E. coall of Gomera,
one of the Canary illandi. N. lat. 28'' 5'. E. long. I 7° 12'.
— Alfo, a town of Terra Firma, on the E. fide of tiie gulf
of Darien.

Skbasti.W, Cape St., the eallern point of the gulf of
Darien, on the coaft of the Spanilh Main, 10 leagues from
the weftern point of Cape Tiburon. The city which for-
merly cxilled here has been abandoned, on account of its
unwholefome fituation. — Alfo, a cape on the coaft of Cali-
fornia. N. lat. 43°. W. long. 126^. — Alfo, a cape on
the N. coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 1 1° 20'. E. long. 54° 44'.
— Alfo, a cape on the E. coaft of Africa. S. lat. 22'^. E.
long. 33' 20'. — Alio, a cape of Spain, on the E. coalt of
Catalonia. N. lat. 51° 52'. E. long. 3" o'.

Sebastian's Bay, St., a bay on the S. coaft of Africa.
S. lat. 34° 40'. E. long. 21°. It is alfo called St. Catha-
rine's bay.

Skbastian River, St., or Spani/h /lilmiraPs creek, a river
on the E. coall of Eaft Florida, which communicates with
Indian river. The admiral of the Plate Heet perilhed in 1 7 1 5,
oppofite to this river , and the reft of the fleet, fourteen in
number, were loft between this and the Beach yard.

Sebastian's Sound, St., an inlet in the ftraits of Ma-
gellan, on the coaft of Terra del Fuego ; 48 miles S. of
Sweepftakes foreland.

Si:i!Asti.\n de Buenav'ifla, St., a town of South America,
in the province of Carthagena, at the entrance of the gulf of
Darien ; 140 miles S.S.W. of Carthagcna. N. lat. 8^ 19'.
W. long. 76"' 40'.

Sebasti.an de los Reyes, St., a town of South America,
in the government of Caraccas ; 60 miles S. of Leon de Ca-
racc.is. N. lat. 9^35'. W. long. 66^56'.

SEBASTIAO, St. Ste Si: Sebajliao.

SEBASTIEN, St. See St. Selaftien.

SEBASTOCRATOR, m Jniiqufty, a title of honour
given to fome diftinguilhed perfon of the imperial family.
It was introduced by Alexius Comnenus, in order to reward
the piety of his brother Ifaac, without giving himfclf an
equal. The happy flexibility of the Greek tongue allowed
him to compound the names of Auguftus and emperor (Se-
baftos and Autocrator), and the union produced the- fo-
norous title of Scbaltocrator. He was exalted above the
Cxfar on the firft Itep of the throne ; the public acclama-
tions repeated liis name ; and he was only dillingnilhed from
the fovereign by fome peculiar ornaments of tiie head and
feet. The emperor alone could affume the purple or red
buflcins, and th.e clofo diadem, or tiara, which imitated the
fafliion of the Perfian kings ; inllead of red, the bulkins of
the Seballocrator and Cxiar were green, and on their open
coronets or crowns the precious gems were more Iparingly
diftributed. The five titles of Defpot, SebaUocrator, Cr-
far, Panlivperfchallos, and Protofebaltos, were uhially con-
fined to the princes of tlie emperor's blood ; they were the
emanations of his majefty ; but as they exercifed no regular
funftions, their exitlcnce was ufelcfs, and their authority
precarious.

SEBASTOPOLIS, or Dioscuuias, in yfneieni Geo-
graphy, the name of one of the prhicipal towns of that part
of the Colchide which was to the right of the Pliafis. — Alio,
a town of Alia Minor, in the Cappadocian Pontus, on the
road from Tavia to Seballia.

Sebastoi'OLIs, in Geography. Sec Sevastoi'OL.

SEBAT, in Chronology, the fifth monlii of the civil year
of the Hebrews, and the eleventh of the ecclefiaftical year,
anfwering to part of our .January and part of Febniary.

SEBATS, in Chemi//ry, a genus of falls, formed by tlie
union of the febucic acid with the different faliiic bafcs.
For an account of thefe, fee the dilVerent bales : for inftancc,
for febat of lime, fee Lime ; and fo on for any other.

SEBBA Rons, or Seven Capes, in Geography, a cape or
headhiiid on the coall of Algiers, the vicinity of which is
occupied by perlbns of a brutal and ferocious defcription,
who live in cave, fcooped out of the rocks. Thefe people,
called " KabyK-:," rufli in crowd; to the coall wluii any
veflel in diftrefs, or in the courfe of failing, approaches it, and
vociferate their horrid wiflies, that God would deliver it into
their hands ; and probably the name of " Boujarone," or
" Catamites," was firft given by the Itali.in geographem to
thefe capes, on account of the favagc difpofition of their
inhabitants. N. hit. 37" 8'. E. lopff. (i ' Jj'.

SEBB AH, a town of Africa, in the country of Fczzar.
T 2 60 miles

S E B

60 miles N. of Mourzouk. Here the large remains of an
ancient caftlc, built upon a hill, and of other venerable ruins,
that, in point of extent, are compared to thofe of Lebida,
imprefs on the mind of the traveller the melancholy idea of
departed greatnefs ; while, on the other hand, the humble
dwellings of the modern inhabitants, and the rich vegetation
of their neighbouring fields, prefent to his eye an ample
ftore of all that is requilite for the fuften^ince of man. Dates,
barley, Indian corn, pumpions, cucumbers, fig-trees, pome-
granates, and apricots, and for meaner pnrpofes, the white
thorn and Spanifh bean, are defcribed as but a part of the
numerous vegetables that reward the induftrj' of the people.
The animals in which they moft abound are the common
fowl, and the brown long-haired aiid broad-taileJ (hcep. At
the diilance of two days' journey from Sebbah is " God-
doua," a town of fimilar produce ; and in two days more
the traveller arrives at Mourzouk.

SEBEDA, in Ancisnt Geography, a port of Lycia, ac-
cording to the Periplus of Arrian.

SEBEL, an Arabian name for the diforder of the eye
ufually called a pannus.

SEBEN, in Geography, a town of the bilhopric of
Brixen, on the fcite of an ancient town named " Sabiona,"
deftroyed by Attila ; eight miles S.W. of Brixen.

SEBENDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, in the Tarragonenfis, the country of the Caftellani.
Ptolemy.

SEBENICO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Dalma-
tia, fituated on the Kerka, near the Adriatic ; one of the
ftrongeft towns on the coaft, with a large harbour, defended
by four citadels ; erefted into a bilhopric in 1298. It is
faid to have been founded by a number of banditti, who
lived on the rock which is the prefent fcite of the cattle, and
who plundered any vefl'els that approached the coaft. In
procefs of time they built fome colleges, and inclofcd them
with a kind of palifades called " fibue," whence was formed
Sebenico. The city was enlarged by an increafe of robbers ;
and afterwards, when the ancient city of Scardona was de-
ftroyed, its inhabitants reforted to Sebenico. The inha-
bitants, opprefled by the king of Hungary, who was then
fovereign of Dalmatia, furrendered themfelves in 141 2 to the
republic of Venice. This city, whatever may hive been its
origin, is the moft pleafantly fituated of any in Dalmatia,
and alfo the beft built, containing the greateft number of
noble famihes, next to Zara. On one fide it is defended by
a cattle on a hill ; and towards the fea, upon a narrow chan-
nel at the mouth of the harbour by another fort, a noble
work of Sammicheli, whofe gate refembles that of Verona, by
the fame celebrated architeft. Among the buildings of Se-
benico, the dome or cathedral deferves particular notice, on
account of its general fabric, and more efpccially of its
roof, which is compofed of large pieces of marble, con-
nefted together. In the fixteenth century the arts and
fciences flouriftied here more than in any other city of Dal-
matia. It has feveral buildings in good ftyle of architecture,
and it has produced many eminent men ; 25 miles N.W. of
Spalatro. N. lat. 44° 30'. E. long. i6» i;'.

SEBENNYTES Nomus, in Ancient Geography, a nome
of Eeypt, between the branches of the Nile, called the
PhariTuthiac'and Athribitic, and near their mouth. Ptolemy
divides this nome into the Upper and Lower.

SEBENNYTICUM Osxiim, the name of one of the
feven mouths of the Nile, E. of that called the Bollitic.
Ptolemy.

SEBENNYTUS, a town of Egypt, in the Delta, and
capital of the Sebennytic nome.

S E B

SEBENSTAIN, in Geography, a town of Auftria, 10
miles S. of Ebenfurth.

SEBER, WoLFFANG, in Biography, a German philofo-
pher and divine, was born at Sula, in the dittriA of Hennc-
burgh, in 1573. He loft his father in early life, and had
to ftruggle with all the difficulties incident to poverty. He
completed his ttudies at Leipfic, and became reAor of the
fchool of Schlcnfingen, afterwards luperintendant and paf-
tor at Wafungen, and finally infpedtor of thegymnafium,
and aflenor of the confiftory at the former place. In old
age he was afRifted with blindnefs, and died in .Tanuary
1634. He bequeathed his library to the gymnafiiim of the
place of which he had been the reftor, and left a fund for
the yearly maintenance of fix ftudents in theology. His
" Index omnium in Homcro Verborum," has frequently
been reprinted. An edition of it was publiihed at Oxford
in 1780. He edited feveral learned works, and was author
of various poems, epiftles, and orations.

SEBERE, in Geography, a river of Naples, which rifes
about fix miles from Mount Veluvius, and runs into the fea
rear Naples, fupplying the fountains and aquedudls of that

SEBESE, or Pulo Bicie, a fmall illand in the itraits of
Sunda. N. lat. 5°5o'. E. long. 105° 27'.

SEBESTEN, Sebkstexa, Myxa, in Pharmacy, &c.
the fruit of a fpecies of cordia, refembling a little plum or
prune, which, when ripe, is of a deep red colour, bordering
on black ; very fweet, and the flelh, or pulp, glutinous or
tticky.

The Syrians make a kind of glue, or birdlime, of the
febeltens, called bircllime of Alexandria. The fruit has
been efteemed pectoral, cooling, and emollient ; though it
is now difcarded by the colleges both of London and
Edinburgh.

The ilone within it is triangular : it brought its name
from Arabia, whence Phny obferves it came in his time into
It:ily.

SEBESTENA, in Botany, a (light alteration of its
Arabic name Sebejlen, is retained by Gaertner, inttead of the
Linnsan appellation of the genus, Cordia; which latter,
preferving the memory of one, if not two, highly merito-
rious botanitts, furely ought not to be let afide. See Cor-
dia, fp. I.

SEBESVAR, in Geography, a town of Tranfilvania ;
22 miles W.S.W. of Colofvar.

SEBETUS, or Sebethis, m Ancient Geography, a river
of Italy, in Campania, which watered the town of Nea-
polis.

SEBIEZ, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Polotfk ; 40 miles N. of Polotft. N. lat.
56° 10'. E. long. 28= 14'.

SEBIFERA, m Botany, a genus of Loureiro's, named
from febum, tallow, becaule it produces a limiiar fubftance,
ufcd for making candlet. — Loureir. Cochinch. 637. — Clafs
and order, Dioccia Polyadehhia. Nat. Ord. Tiiiaccx, Ju'l". ?
Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of four roundifh, concave,
hairy, fpreading leaves. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments about
one hundred, capillary, longer than the calyx, diftributed
into ten fets ; anthers ovate, of two cells.

Female on a feparate plant. Cal. as in the male. Cor.
none. Pijl. Germens about ten, fuperior, ftalkcd, roundifli ;
ftyle fcarcely any ; ttigmas foHtary, obtufe, undivided.
Peric. Berries about ten, globofe, of one cell. Seeds foli-
tary, globofe.

EfT. Ch. Male, Calyx of four leaves. Corolla none,
Stasiens an hundred, in ten ietf .

Fem.ale,

S E B

Female, C.ilyx of four leaves. Corolla none. Piftils
ten, italked. Berries as many. Seeds folitary.

I. S. ^lulir.ofa. Bay loi nhot of the inhabitants of Co-
chinchina. C'len k^m xii of the Chinefe. Native of the
■woods of China and CocUinchina. A large tree, with
fpreading branches. Leaves alternate, italked, ovate-oblonjr,
entire, fmooth. Male as well as female j?o-yifrj- lateral, or
fomewhat terminal ; their Jlalks two or three together.
Berries fmall, Imooth, blackifh.

The wood is light, pale, cafily wrought, ufed for pofts
and beams in hou'.es. The branches and leaves exude a glu-
tinous fluid ; and being bruifed and macerated in water, they
make a fort of gum, uled for mixing with plader or llucco,
in oi-der to render it more tenacious and durable. A great
quantity of thick, white, fatty oil is extratled from the
berries, of which the vulgar make candles, rcfembling thofe
of tallow or wax, but of a difagreeable fmell.

Wc cannot fatisfaftorily refer thi:i account to any plant
defcribed in botanical works ; and yet the tree fhould feem
to be well known in its native country.

SEBINIKVAR, in Geography, a town of Tranfdvania ;
6 miles S. of Weifl'enberg.

SEBIZIUS, or Sebiscii, in Biography, the name of a
family which was dilUnguiflied at Strafburg by the celebrity
of the phyficians whom it produced, and who fucccffively
adorned the profelTorial chair in that city for the ipace of
1 34 years, without interruption, in the perfons of four indi-
viduals only. The lirll, fecond, and fourth of thefe pro-
filTors were named Melch'wr ; the third, John Albert ; and
kll, with the exception of the firft, fucceeded their fathers
in the chair. The firft Melchior Sebizius, was the fon of
George Sebiziur, a doftor of laws, and counfellor of the
duke of Olnitz. Melchior vi'as born in 1539, at Falken-
borg, in Silefia, and was at firft intended for the profeflion
of the law; but in 1563 he changed his plans, and began
the Itudy of medicine. For this purpofe, as was the cuf-
lom of the times, he began his travels to different univer-
fities : he was at Montpellier in 1566, and three years after-
wards he went to Italy ; and fubfeqnently vifiied France,
where he took the degree of dodlor at Valence, in Dau-
phiny, in Auguft 1571. On his return to Germany, he
praftifed his profeffion firft at Hagenau : but having gone
to Strafburg in 1574, he determined to fettle there. His
talents foon raifed him to the rank of profelTor, and he prac-
tifcd with great celebrity until his death, which took place
in June 1625, in the eighty-fixth year of his age.

Sebiztus, Mkixhior, the fon of the preceding, was
born at Straft)urg in 157S. He began his education under
his father, and is faid to have ftudied in twenty-fcvcn univer-
fitics, among which he chofe that of Cafle as the place of
his graduation in 1610. So early as the year 1612, his re-
putation raifed liini to the profe'lorial chair, which his father
refigned, or rath'-r, perhaps, he became his father's colleague
at that time. ?Iis increafing reputation obtained him the fa-
vour of the emperor Ferdinand \l., who created him a
count palatine in 1 630. But no dignities could leduce him
from the praftice of his profelFion, or the duties of his
chair ; and during the fpace ol Jlxty-t-wo years, while he
taught, and was ailedor of tlie faculty at Stralburg, he exa-
mined one hundred and fixty-three candidates, and impofed
the doO;torial cap on fifty-five phyficians. Enjoying uninter-
rupted health until his laft illnefs, never ufing fpcilacles, and
fuffering no infirmity except a very flight deafnefs, he lived
to the age of ninety-five, and di«d in January 1674. He
was the author of numenuis works, cfpeci^lly academical
difl'ertations, in which there is more learning tlian originality
or difcovery ; whence Haller pronounced him " erudkus
2

S E B

vir, parum ufus propriis experimentis." Eloy occupies a
page in the detail of the titks of his workn.

Sebizius, John Albert, fucceeded the former, his fa-
ther, in the profi Ifonal chair. He was born at Sirafturg
m 1615, and graduated in 1639, after having Ihidied in the
univerlities of Bafle, Montpellier, and Pans. In 1652 he-
was appointed to the profillorlhip of aiiatomy. He fuc-
ceeded his father as phyfician to the city, and was eh-iftcd
above twenty times dean of the faculty. He died in Fe-
bruary 1685, in the feventieth year of his age. He was
the author of fome academical ellays, and ot a volume of
" Exercitationes pathologicje," relating to the difeafes of the
head and cheft.

Sebiziu.s, Mklchior, the fon of John Albert, wa»
born in 1664. Alter lludyin;; medicine at Paris, he returned
to Slraftjurg, and took the degree of doftor ):i 16S8 ;
and in 1701 was elected prpfeilor of medicine. He held
tliis oificc, however, but tiiiee years, and died in i 704, being
at that time redor of the univerfity. See Eloy Diet. Hift.
de la Mcdecine.

SEBNITZ, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
marggraviate of Meifl'en ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Drefden.
N. lat. 50° 59'. E. long. 14° 25'.— Alfo, a river of
Saxony, which runs into the PoUenitz ; two miles N. of
Schandau.

SEBOIM, in Ancient Geography, the name of one of the
four towns of tiie Pentapolis, winch were corfumcd by fire
from heaven, with Sodom, Gomonha, and Adama. Eu-
febius and Jerome fpeak of a town of this name wh.icli
fubfitted in their time, and which was fituated on the wclleru
coall of the Dead fea. Tiie town muil therefore have been
rebuilt.

SEBOLA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in th,-
province of Beira ; 21 iv.des N.N.W. ot Caltcl Brarco.

SEBOO, or SuBU, a river of Africa, which paHes by
the city of Fez, and runs into the Atlantic a little below
Marmora.

SEBORZ, a town of Bohemia, i:i the circle of Boledau j
3 miles S.E. of Melnik.

SEBOU, a fmall iihnd mar the N.E. coaft of Cape
Breton.

SEBRAJEPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 13 miles
W.NVV. of Doef.!. — Alfo, a town of Bengal j ij inilsj
S.E. of Koonda.

SEBRIAPA, in Jnc'ieiit Geography, a t( wn of the
African Sarmatia, (^n the b.anks of the river Vardanus.
Ptokmy.

SEBRITHITES, a nomc of Egypt, from which king
Vaphres fent to Solomon lOOO men for building the lem-
pie, according to Eufebius. .

SEBRUD, in Geography, a river of Porfia, in the pro-
vinceof Khorafan, which runs into the Thus, 6 milcj S.E.
of Zaweh.

SEBU. See Sibu.

SEBU^I, a fed among the ancient Samaritand, whom
St. Epiphanius accufes of changing tiie time exprelied in
the law, for the celebration of the great annual fcalU of
the Jews.

Serrarius conjefturcs, that they were thus called frum
their celebrating the fcaft of the paHover on tlie fovcnth
month, called by the Hebrews /■/-,.•, /fTcn/A. Drufius r.itlier
takes them to have been denominated from Seiniii, the leader
of a fed .-.mong the Samaritans. Scaliger derives the nimc
from the Hebrew, /i^urt, nveei, bccaufc of their celebratni|C
every fecond day of the fevcn weeks between Eaitcr and

^'''""""^'^^•- SEBUE.

SEC

SEC

SEBUE, in Geography, a town of AbyfTinia ; 90 miltJ
S. of Mina.

SEBUNTA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the interior of Arabia Petrasa. Ptolemy.

SEBURAI, Sebur.ei, a name which the Jews give to
fuch of their rabbins or doftors, as lived and taught fome
time after the finiihing of the Talmud.

The word is derived from "l^Qjyaifr, I think : whence
a^^'i^t fibura, opinion, fentiment : and thence '{^"120'
feburi, or feiurai, opinionati-ve.

The reafon of this appellation, fay the rabbins, is, that
the Talmud being finifhed, publifiied and received in all
the fchools and fynagogues, thefe doftors had nothing to
do but to difpute for, and againit, the Talmud, and its de-
cifion?. Others fay, it was bccaufe their fentiments were
not received aa laws or decifions, as thofe of the Mifchnic
and Gemaric doctors were ; but were held as mere opinions.
Others, as the author of Schalfclieleth Ilakkabala, or chain
of tradition, tell us, that the perfecution the Jews under-
went in thofe times, not allowing them to teach quietly in
their academies, they only propofed their opinion in the com-
pofition of the Mifchna. The firil and chief of the Seburai
was R. Jofi, who began to teach in the year 787 of the era of
contrafts ; which, according to R. David Gautz, falls on
the year of the world 4236, and who, according to R.
Abraham, was thirty-eight years prefident of the Jewifli
academy.

The era of contradls is the fame with that of the Seleii-
cida, the 787th year of which falls on the year of Chrilt 476,
which, of confequence, is the era of the origin of the
Seburai, whofe reigns did not hold long : Buxtorf fays,
not above Cxty years ; R. Abraham, and others, fay not
fifty. The lall of them was R. Simona. They were fuc-
ceeded by the Gaons or Geonim.

SEBURG, in Geogmphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the North ; ^ miles E. of Valenciennes.
SEBZ. See Kesh.

SEBZVAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
rafan ; it was taken, in 1381, by Timur Bee, but upon its
revolting and being again reduced, he caufed 2000 of the in-
habitants to be piled in a heap, with mortar and bricks, and
thus buried alive ; 180 miles N.W. of Herat. N. lat. 36"
11'. E. long. 56' 12'.

SECA, La, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ;
24 miles S.W. of Valladolid.

SECACUL, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a
name given by Avicenna, Serapion, and others, to a root
which was hke ginger, and was brought from the Eall In-
dies, and ufed as a provocative to venery.

The interpreters of their w^orks have rendered this word
iringa, and hence fome have fuppofed that our eryngium, or
eryngo, was the root meant by it : but this does not appear
to be the cafe on a Itrift enquiry, and there is fome reafon
to believe that the famous root, at this time called ^vB/J'n^,
was wh.it they meant.

SECALE, in Botany, a name in Pliny, which fome ety-
mologies, among whom is De I'heis, derive from the Celtic
fegal. This, he fays, comes from fega, a fickle in the fame
language, and thence feges, the Latin appellation of all grain
that is cut with a fimilar implement. Thofe who have looked
no further for an etymology than the Latin feco, to cut or
mow, have come to the fame conclufion. Rye. — Linn.
Gen. 39. Sclireb. 53. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 471. Mart.
Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 178. Juff. 32.
Lamarck Illuilr. t. 49. G«rtn. t. 81. — Ciafs and order,
Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Common receptacle toothed, elongated
4

into a fpike. Glume containing two flowers, and confiding
of two oppofite, dillant, erett, oblong, pointed valves,
Imaller than the corolla. Florets fcflile. Cor. of two valves ;
the outermoft hardell, tumid, pointed, comprelled, fringed
at the keel, and ending in a long awn ; the inner flat, lan-
ceola,te. Neftary of two lanceolate, fharpiPa, fringed fcales,
tumid on one fide at the bafe. Stam. Fih-nents three,
capillary, hanging out of the ftower ; anthers oblong, forked.
Pifl. Germen fuperior, turbinate ; liyles two, reflcxed ; ftig-
mas cylindrical, feathery. Peric. none, except the perma-
nent coroUa, which finally opens, and lets the feed efcape.
Seed fohtary, oblong, fomcwhat cylindrical, naked, pointed.
Obf. There is fomelimes a third floret, fcarcely perfeft,
italkcd, between the other two. It is very difficult to dii-
tiiiguifh this genus from Trilicum.

Efl". Ch. Calyx of two valves, folitary, two-flowered,
on a toothed elongated receptacle.

I. S. cereab. Cultivated Rye. Linn. Sp. PI. 124.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Purlh v. i. 90. Holt Gram.
Auilr. V. 2. 35. t. 48. (.becalc; Matth. Valgr. v. i. 364.
Camer. Epit. 190. Ger. Em. 6^.) — Glumes of the calyx
bordered with minute parallel teeth. — The native country of
this, fo generally cultivated, grain, is hardly to be guelied.
Mr. Purfli fays it frequently occurs, apparently wild, in
North America, flowering in June. For its agricultural
hillory, and mode of cultivation, fee Rve. The root is
fibrous and annual. Herbage lomewhat glaucous. Stem .
jointed, flightly branched at the bottom, fmooth. Leaves
linear, rough towards the point. Spite terminal, fohtary,
erecf, three or four inches long. Awns eredt, llraight,
rough, four or five times the length of the glumes.

2. S. •vil/ofum. Tufted Rye. Linn. Sp. PI. 124. WiUd.
n. 2. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. v. i. 77. t. 97. (Gramen fpi-
catum fccalinum, glumis villofis 111 arillas longifTimas definen-
tibns ; Toiirn. Intl. 518. G. fscahnum maximum; Park.
Theatr. 1144. G. creticum fpicatum fccalinum, glumis
ciliaribus ; 'I'ourn. Cor. 39. Buxb. Cent. 5. 21. t. 41.) —
Glumes of the calyx wedge-fliaped, abrupt, fringed with
tufts of hairs. — Native of the fouth of Europe, and the
Levant. Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in the fields of Crete
and Zante. The root is fibrous and anntial. Stems numerous,
eredt, twelve or eighteen inches high, leafy, fmooth ; their
lower joints bent. Leaves fpreading, flat, hairy on both
fides, with tumid fmooth fheaths. Stipula very fhort, blunt,
crenate. Spike about as long as the former, but twice as
thick. Calyx bordered with remarkable tufts of fine hairs.
This fhould leem to be cultivated in the above-mentioned
iflands, but we know nothing of its agricultural merits.

^. S. orienta/e. Dwarf Oriental Rye. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 24.
Willd. n. 3. (Gramen orienlale fecahnum, fpica brevi et
lata ; Tourn. Cor. 39.) — Glumes of the calyx ovato-lancco-
late, (trongly ribbed, taper-pointed, hairy all over. — Native
of the Archipelago, in a landy foil. Root annual, with
white downy fibres. S/^'nis about fix inches high, (lender,
fmooth, often zigzag. Leaves linear, narrow ; the upper
one (hort, with a long, fmooth, inflated flieath. Spiie
hardly an inch long, thick and broad, compoled of clolely
imbricated, two-ranked fpikelets, whofe glumes are rigid,
deeply furrowed, uniformly hairy, each tapering into a fhort,
llraight, rough point or awn, not fo long as the glume
itfelf.

4. S. crrf/fum. Tall Cretan Rye. Linn. Sp. PI. 125.
Willd. n. 4 ; excluding the fynop.ym of Tournefort, which
belongs to Hordeum bulbofum. (See Hordeum.) — " Glumes
of the calyx externally fringed." — Native of Crete. We
have never feen a fpecimen. Desfontaines aflerts that this
is dillinft from Hordeum bullofum of Linnaeus, hisJlriSum,

which

SEC

.vhich is Grainen creticum fpicatum fecalinum altiflimum,
luberofn radice ; Tourn. Cor. 39; and that he himlclf was
pofibfled of fpecimens of both. Both were aUo coUetled
in the Levant by Tournefort. Desf. Atlant. v. I. 113.

SECAMONE, an Egyptian name, apparently corrupted
by the modern inliabitants of Egypt from tire Greek, crna^-
^ii'.iK ; for Profper Alpinus tells us the plant which bears
this name, Periploca Secamone of Linnasus, is elleenied, by
that people, a iort of Scammony, and its yellow burning
juice is, when dry, reckoned by them a powerful purge, for
expelling thin humours. Yet he adds that he knew nothing
of their making ufe of the plant in medicine. Such being
the origin of this name, we are obhged to protell againll it,
as unclaffical. — Brown Tranf. of the Wcrnerian Society,
V. I. 55. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 464. Ait. Hot. Kew.
V. 2. 75. — Clafs and order, Pinitandria Digynia. Nat. Ord.
Contortic, Liim. Apocine,!., JuU'. Aj'clepiades , Brown.

Eil. Ch. Corolla wheel-fhapcd. Crown of the Itamens
of five leaves. Filaments combined, with external append-
ages. Maffes of pollen ereft, attached in four rows to the
unfurrowed fummit of the iligma. Follicles with comofe
feeds.

A genus of upright or twining, nearly fmooth (lirubs.
Leaves oppofite. Cymes forked, between the footltalks.
Floiuers minute. — Mr. Brown declares this genus to be pei'-
feftly natural and diftinft, though, from the extreme minutc-
nefs of the parts, very difficult to determine. It is the con-
nefting link between the true Afckpiadeic and his Periplncea.
Five fpecies have been afcertained by the learned author of
the genus.

1. S. egyptiaca. Egyptian Secamone. Ait. n. i. (Seca-
mone; Alpin. ./Egypt. 133. t. 134. Periploca Secamone;
Linn. Mant. 216. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1249. Thunb.
Prodr. 47.) — Stem twining. Leaves eUiptic-oblong, fmooth.
Corolla hairy. — Native of Egypt, and the Cape of Good
Hope. A green-houfe fhrub, cultivated by Miller before
the year 1752, and flowering in July. A Cape fpecimen
from Thunberg is in the Linnaan herbarium. The Jlem is
woody, twining, with fmooth, round, leafy branches. Leaves
about an inch and a half long, on fhortifli (talks, bluntifh,
entire, coriaceous, fmooth, with one rib and many parallel
tranfverfe veins ; pale, and fomewhat glaucous, beneath.
Cymes fliorter than the leaves, repeatedly forked, many-
flowered ; their llalks clothed with filky hairs, of a rulty
hue ill the dried plant. Flnivers hardly a line in diameter,
white. Corolla fmooth at tlie back, its upper furfacc co-
vered with (hort denfe hairs.

2. S. emetica. Emetic Secamone. (Periploca emetica ;
Retz. Obf. fafc. 2. 14. Willd. Phytog. fafc. 1.6. t. J.
f. 2. Sp. PI. V. I. 1250.) — Stem diffufc. Leaves lanceo-
late, fmooth. Corolla fmooth. — Native cf the Ead Indies.
Tlie Rev. Dr. Rottler fcnt it from Madras. The roofs arc
faid to be ufed inftead of Ipecacuanha. This is a fpreading,
fcarecly twining, _/ZirH^, of a more (lender habit than the
former, with much narrower leaves. Corymbs axillary, (mall,
not a quarter fo long as the leaves, of few Jlotvers, with
downy riilly llalks. Our fpecimen is in too early a ftate to
difplay the corolla, but Rctzius and Willdonow fay it is
fmooth.

3. S. canefccns. Ploary Secamone. — Stem twining, with
downy branches. Leaves ovato-lanccolatc ; downy beneath.

Corolla downy at the back Sent from the Eall Indies, by

the late Dr. Roxburgh, in 1789. We prcfume this is what
Mr. Brown mentions as his third fpecic?. Our plant has
long, twining, round, pale-green branches, finely downy and
hoary, in a young (late, like all the Jlalis, the calyx, outfidc
of the corolla, and backs of the letrvcs ; which lalt are two

.S E C

or three inches long, rounded at the bafe, tapcnng gradu-
ally to a bluntilh point. Fleivers numerous, fomewhat
umbellate; their common (lalks about equal to the fool-
Jlalks. ^ ^

4. S. elliptica. Elliptical Upright Secamone. Br. Prodr.

n. I " Stem ereft. Leaves elliptical, pointed, fmooth.

General and partial (lower-llalks downy. Corolla naked."
— Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New
Holland.

5. S. ovata. Ovate Spreading Secamone. Br. Prodr.
n. 2.—" Stem divaricated. Leaves ovate, acute, fmooth.
General and partial dower-ftalks nearly fmooth. Corolla
naked." — Found by Mr. Brown, in the fame countr>- aii
the lalt.

SECANT, in Geometry, a line that cuts another, or di-
vides it into two parts. See Link, &c.

Thus the hue A M {Plate XIII. Geometry, fg. 4.) is a
fecant of the circle A E D, &c. as it cuts the circle in B.
It is demonftrated by geometers : i. That if fevcral fecants,
MA, M N, M E, &c. be drawn from the fame point M,
that pairing througli the centre, MA, is the greatelt ; and
the reft are all fo much the lets, as they are more remote
from the centre. On the contrary, the portions of them
without the circle M D, M O, M B, are fo much the
greater, as they are farther from the centre. The lead is
that of M A, which pades through the centre.

2. That if two fecants, M A and M E, be drawn from
the fame point M, the fecant M A will be to M E as M D
to MB: or ME X MD = MA x MB = the fquare
of a tangent to the circle drawn from the point of con-
currence M.

Secant, in Trigonometry, denotes a right line drawn from
the centre of a circle, which, cutting tlie circumference,
proceeds till it meets with the tangent to the fame circle.
Thus the line F C {Plate Trigonometry, Jig. 4.) drawn from
the centre C, till it meets the tangent E F, is called a fe-
cant ; and particularly, the fecant of the arc A E, to which
E F is tangent.

The fecant of the arc A H, which is the complement of
the former arc to a quadrant, is called the co-fecani, or fetctnl
of the complement.

The fine of an arc, A D, being given, to find the fecant
of It, F C, the rule is, as the co-fine D C is to the ivholi-
fine, fo is the whole fine, or radius, A C, to the fecant C F:
or the fecant is a third i)roportional to the co-fine and radius.
See Sine.

To find the logarithm of the fecant of any arc, the fine
of the complement of the arc being given, multiply the lo-
garithm of the whole fine by two, and from the product lub-
traft the logarithm of the fine complement ; the rem.iinder
is the logarithm of the fecant. The rcafon of whicli opera-
tion is obvious ; bccaufc ----- = to C F ; and, therefore,

from the nature of logarithms, twice the log. of E C —
the log. of D C = the log. of C F.

Secants, Line of. See Skctoii.

SECAS, in Geography, a chiller of fmall iflands in the
Pacific ocean, near' the coad of Veragu.i. N. lat. 8'^ 20'.
W. long. 83° 16'.

SECATABBAS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Diarbekir ; 75 miles S.W. of M^fnl.

SECCA, a fmall id.nid near the coad of Idria. N. hit.

N.

44" 52'. E. long. 14' j'.

SECCHE, a fmall idand near the cond of Idna.
lat. 45" 14'. E. long. 1 V'40'.

SECCHIA, a river of Italy, which runs into the Po,
3 miles N. of Quidelli', in the duchy of M.mtua.
^ ^ SECEDERS,

S E C

SEC

SECEDERS, formed from the Latin word fecedo, to
feparate or withdraw, in Ecclefiajttcal H'ljlory, an appella-
tion comprehending thofe who are diiienters from the efta-
blifhed church of Scotland. This kind of i'eceffion took
place in the year 1727, when John Glas, difapproving
every eltabllihment of a national church, maintained that all
churches ought to be congregational ; or, in other words,
that no general church ihould be formed for a nation, but
that each religious fociety in a kingdom or i^ate fliould be
felf-conilituted, and controuled only by itfelf. For this
and foine other opinions he was fufpended from his mini-
i^erial funftions ; and, for continued contumacy, depofcd
from the rank of miniller, tiril by a provincial fynod, and
afterwards, •vt%. in 1730, by the general aflembly of the
Scots cliurch. Perfiiting, however, in the propagation of
his fentinients, both by preaching and writing, he formed
feveral congregations, of which the mod numerous was that
of Dundee. The feceffion of Mr. Glas and of his imme-
diate difciplep was followed by that of feveral other divines,
who, on different grounds, determined upon withdrawing
from the eltablifliment. The two brothers, Ralph and
Ebenezer Erikine, enhilcd, about the year 1730, in this
number, and contributed very much to give reputation and
influence to their caufe. The fcceding miniftry alleged va-
rious infringements in the cor.ftitution of the kirk ; but as
thev defpancd ot redrefs, they refolved to eftablirn new con-
gregations. They complained of the laws of patronage,
and wifned for a popular cleftion of minifters ; they pleaded
that the right of protcll againll the proceedings of the af-
fembly had been invaded, and that the rulers of the kirk not
only aClcd arbitrarily, but luffered its dodlrincs to be cor-
rupted. For the freedom of their animadverfions on thefe
points, four miniltcrs were fufpended from their parochial
functions in 1733 ; and though they were remllated by the
alTembly in the following year, the ground of complaint re-
mained, and they refufed to rejoin the eftablifhment. From
the clergy and laily they gained an acceffion of llrength,
more particidarly after they had publifhed a lecond " Tefli-
mony of the Reafons of their SecefTion." Upon a citation
to appear before the affembly, the jurifdiclion of which
they refufed to acknowledge, they were debarred, in 1740,
from the exercife oi all clerical functions in the church, and
excluded from all it-i emoluments. The Seceders are rigid
Calvinilts, llritt ai'.d fcrvcre in their diicipline, and fomewhat
lultere in their manners.

When the lecefTion had formed three prelbvteries, a divi-
fion took place among them, in 1747, in confequence of an
oath, which fome of them deemed inconfillent with the fen-
timents avowed in their " Teltimony." This was the ordi-
nary oath of a burgefs, in fupport of the true rcligicn
eftablilhed by law. We cannot, faid one party, called
" Antiburghers," confcientioully honour with that appella-
tion the eitablifhment from which we have feceded ; while
the other members of the fynod, denominated " Burghers,"
contended that the oath might lafely be taken, as the re-
ligion of the ilate was ilill the true faith, though many of
its oflenfible votaries had departed from its principles, or
Icofely proftiltd it. The Antiburghers prevailed in the
contelt, and obtained a vote, that the oath was incompatible
with the teflimony ; and they even excommunicated the
members by whom it was vindicated. This difpute long
continued to maintam the feparation of the Seceders in dif-
tindl fynods. Of thefe two claffes, the Antiburghers are
faid to be the moll confined in their fentiments, and leafl
diipofed to afl'ociate with any other body of Chrillians.

Under this article we may mention another party in Scot-
land, who quitted the eftablilhment, and alTumed the title

of the " Reformed Prefbytcry." Lamenting the defedlioii
of the national rulers, and the majority of the people, from
the true principles of the reformation, a party of religious
malecontents renounced all conncftion with the " revolution
kirk," and under the guidance of Mac-Millan and Nairn,
formed a feceding prelbytery. By thefe miniller?, others
were felefted for the fame funftions ; and the feceffion has
been continufd to the prefent time. B'- fides the congrega-
tions of this complexion in North Britain, there are feveral
in Ireland, and fome in North America. The members
profefs to fellow the fcripture as their principal guide, and
the ordinances of the Weftminfter aliembly in the next
place. They difapprove the high authority adumed by the
ilate over the church of Chrill, as the rcfult of worldly po-
licy, rather than a claim juftified by the genuine Ipirit of
religion. Yet they fubmit peaceably to the higher powers,
and do not indulge in the clamours of fedition, or the mur-
murs of difaffeftion. Their public worfliip is conducted
much in the fame manner with that of the diiienters in South
Britain.

Another confiderablc feft departed, in the year 1 7^2, from
the Scots eftablilhment. A miniller named GiUelpic, who
oppofed the reception of a new miniller, whofe appointment
was not agreeable to the majority of the inhabitants of In-
verkeithing, was expelled from the church in which he offi-
ciated ; and he was foon joined by others, who, like him-
felf, wifhed paftors to be elefted by the people; and they
formed a congregation in Dunfermline. The " Prefbytery
of Relief," in allufion to the dcfired relief from the arbi-
trary rigour of the laws of patronage, was the denomination
adumed by this body of fccedcrs. More liberal than the
generality of Prefbytcrians, they were willing to admit into
their communion all thofe who feemed worthy of being
called Chrillians, however they might differ with regard to
particular points. Their congregations multiplied ; and
about the clofe of the laft century, the adociation poffefled
above dxty places of wordiip. Both claffes of the " Se-
ceders" and " Relief" include about 300 minifters, who are
ftrift Prefbyterians, though they fecede or dident from the
eftablidied church of Scotland. Adams's Religious World
difplayed, vol. iii. Cooke's edition of Mofheim's Ecc.
Hift. vol. vi.

SECERRiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragonnenfis, upon the route from the Pyrenees to
Cailulo, between Aquse Voconix, or Voconia; and Prie-
torium, according to the Itinerary of Aiitoniue.

SECESPITA, among the Romans, a knife with a round
ivory handle, adorned with gold and filvcr, which the fia-
mcns and priefts ufed at facriiices.

SECHELLES, in Geography', a cluder of rocky ifles
in the Indian fea, compofed of a reddifh granite, and gene-
rally low. On thefe are found fome marine animals and
vegetables, with different fpecies of palm-trees. S. lat. 4°

SECHES. See Secas.

SECHI, , m Biography, an excellent performer on.

the hautbois, in the fervlce of the eleftor of Bavaria, in 1772,
who, if we had never heard Fifciier, would have delighted
us much more than the fpirit of parallel would allow.
However, in a duet with Rheiner, a performer of great
merit on tiie badoon, we were reminded of the two Bez-
zozzis at Tiirin ; for as their inftruments, fo their genius
and abilities feemed made for each other, there being a like
correfpondence in both.

SECHIEN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Kerman, on the north coall of tlie Perfian gulf;
J 41 miles S. of Sirgian.

SECHIUM,

SEC

SEC

SECHIUM, in Botany, a name given by Dr. Patrick
Browne to this genus, and molt probably derived from
o-iinou or o-i«i^j/, to fatten, the fruit being ufed in Jamaica to
fatten hogs. In this cafe, however, favs profeflor Martyn,
it (hould have been called Secium. — Brown. Jam. 355.
Sclireb. 664. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 627. Mart. Mill.
Didl. v. 4. JufT. 391. Lamarck D'd. v. 7. 50. — Oafs
and order, Monoecia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Euphorbiie,
JuH.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tu-
bular, cloven half way down ; tube bell-fhapcd, fpreading ;
fegments of the limb lanceolate, flat, pointed, widely
fpreading. Cor. of one petal ; tube the fize and figure of
the calyx, and adhering to it ; limb cloven into five, ovate,
flat, acute fegments, nearly twice as long as the caly.N, and
much fpreading. Neftary confiding of ten cavities in the
upper part of the tube of the corolla. Stam. Filaments five,
formed into an ereft cybnder, five-cleft at the top, fpread-
ing ; anther one on the top of each filament, all the five
together forming a continued, undulating, polliniferous
line. Female on the fame plant. Cal. as in the male, but
placed on the germen, deciduous. Cor. a? in the male, but
with larger cavities in the neftary. Pjjl. Germen fuperior,
obovate, downy, five-furrowed ; ftyle cylindrical, crecl,
the length of the calyx ; ftigma very large, peltate, reflexed,
five-cleft at the margin. Perk. Apple very large, ovate,
turbinate, five-furrowed, flefliy, unequally gibbous at the
top, furniflied with harmlefs prickles, one-celled above.
Seed folitary, nearly ovate, flat or comprefied, flefhy, obtufe
at each end.

Efl". Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-cleft.
Neftary ten cavities. Filaments five, forming a cylinder.

Female, Calyx and Corolla as in the male. Style five-
cleft. Fruit muricated, fingle-feeded.

I. &. edule. Chocho Vine. Willd. n. i. Swartz. Ind.
Occ. 1150. (Sicyos edulis ; Jacq. Amer. 258. t. 163.) — ■
Native of the Weft Indies, where it flowers and fruits in
September. Root annual. Stem herbaceous, climbing or
procumbent, greatly divaricated, roundifh, ilriated, fmooth,
thick. Leaves alternate, italked, angularly heart-fhaped,
eight or ten-lobed, toothed at the margin, rough on the
upper fide, rugofe beneath, often a fpan long. Tendrils
oppofite to the leaves, horizontal, very long. Flowers mo-
noecious, axillary, yellow, fccntlefs.

Jacquin informs us that the Chocho Vine is ufed by the
inhabitants of Cuba in their foups and puddings ; and th?t
it is ferved up as a vegetable with boiled meats.

SECHURA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the
bifliopric of Truxillo, and jurifdidiou of Piura, fituated on
the banks of the river Piura, about a league froin the Pacific
ocean. The town contains about 200 houfes, conltnifted
of cane, and a handfome brick church. The inhabitants,
who are all Indians, con-ipofe nearly 400 families, and arc
employed chiefly either in filhing or driving of mules. The
deicrt of Sechura is a wafte of fand, extending 30 leagues,
of difiiciilt and dangerous paffage ; 180 miles N.N.W. of
Truxillo.

SECIUM, among the Romans, a term ufed to fignify
ever thing the priefts cut with the knife feeefpi/a, as the
ilium, placenta, &c.

SECK, Rent. Sec Rent Sec.

Seck, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Naflau-Dillenburg ; 4 miles W. of Mengers-
Kirchcn.

SECKACII, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Jaxt, at Meckmulil.

SECKAU, a town of Stiria, the fee of a bifliop, fuffrn-
VoL. XXXII.

gan of Salzburg ; 6 miles N.W. of Knilterfeldt AUo,

a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 16 miles S. of Gratz.

SECKBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Hanau-Munzeiibcrg ; 7 miles W. of Hanau.

SECKENDORF, Titu.s Louis de, in Biography, a
celebrated German writer, was born at a fmall village near
Nuremberg, in the year 1626. His father having aUaincd
to higii rank in the army, he was left chiefly to the care of
his mother, who obtained for him excellent mailers ; and
by the time that be was ten years old, he had acquired a
confiderable facility in the Latin language. At this period
he began the ftudyof the Greek, the French, and Hebrew
languages ; and after a fhort time, he added to t'.e lill of his
iludies that of the mathematics. He was at an early period
introduced to the court of Erneft, duke of Saxony, where
he remained about a year, and then entered himfelf as a
ftudent at the academy of Gotha. After this he was, by
the afliltance of a friend, enabled to go to Stralburg, which
was at that period celebrated for the ability of its profeflors ;
and here he made fucli a rapid progrefs, that he furpall'ed
in knowledge almoll all his contemporaries.

In 1645 he returned to Erfurt, and afterwards went to
Gotha, wliere he met with a very kind reception from duke
Erneft. At this period he was faid to be completely maf-
ter of eight languages, viz.. the Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
French, Itahan, Spanifb, Danifli, and Swedifli. He had,
moreover, acquired a very deep infight into hillory, geo-
graphy, theology, philofbphy, and feveral branches of the
mathematical fciences. By thefc means, and by an afCduity
rarely furpafled, he became not only a great ilatefman, but
one of the brighteft ornaments of the republic of letters.
At the end of two years the prince made him a gentleman
of his bed-chamber, and he was employed in various im-
portant miflions. In 1656 duke Erneft gave him the ma-
nagement of a part of his revenues ; and in the fame year he
accepted the place of aulic judge in tlie tribunal of Jena,
which was conferred on him by the duke of Altenburg.
In 1663 he was nominated chancellor, a member of the
council of ftate, and director of the confiftury, and of the
chamber of juftice. The labours attached to thefe offices
were more than his ftrength was equal to, and in the fol-
lowing year he refigned the greater part of them. After
this he was appointed by Maurice, duke of Saxe-Zeitz, to
be his chancellor, and prefident of the ecclefiallical fcnatc.
John George II., cledtor of Saxony, nominated him, in
16^19, to be one of his counfellors ; and that he might de-
vote himfelf with more attention to this new office, he re-
figned that which he held at Jena ; for he was fo ftri6\ly
confcientious, that he was ever cautious of undertaking
any thing that he did not believe he fliould be able to per-
form.

On the death of duke Erneft, he was held in no lefs efti.
mation by his fon Frederic, who gave him an import.«nt
office; and in 1680 the duke of Altenburg entriiUed him
with the msnagemcnt of a large part of his revenues. He
now finmd the infirmities of age prefTing upon iiini, refigned
his employments, and in 1682 retired from public life.
After a refidencc of feven years on his coinitry eft.ite, Fre-
deric III., eleftor of Brandenburg, invited liim to be cccle-
fiaftical counfellor ; and loon after chancellor of the univer-
fity of Halle, which he had founded. He accepted the
ofler, and removed to Halle in November 1692 ; but lie did
not long enjoy his new offices, as death ii: a few months put
an end to his labours, having attained to his fifilli year.
One of the moft ftriking fe.itures in the charader of Scckcn-
dorf was a r.itional and fincerc piety, which wa-; manifcd
not only in his writings, but in the whole ttnor of his life ;
\J and

SEC

SEC

and to this muft be afcribed his fidelity to his employers,
and the uncommon probity which he difplayed in the ma-
nagement of public affairs. He poffefTed great acutenefs
and difcernment, which enabled him to extricate himfelf
from many embarraflments ; and by his indefatigable appli-
cation, he found means to arrange and go through labours,
which would have overwhelmed almoll any other perfon.
His works are very numerous, but the raoit important and
confiderable is his " Commentary on Lutheranifm," which
was undertaken with the view of confuting Maimbourg.
Duke Erneft had folicited him to write the Hiftory of the
Reformation, or at leaft that part of it which related to
Saxony; which, in 1682, he agreed to undertake. So
highly were his talents eltimated, that as foon as his inten-
tion was known, mod of the German princes opened to him
their libraries and archives, and furnilhed him with fuch
documents as might be ufeful to his projeft. A part of
the work came out in i688 ; but it was not till 1692 that
the whole of it was given to the public, under the following
title, " Commentarius Hiitoricus et Apologeticus de Lu-
theranifmo, five de Reformatione Religionis ductu D. M.
Lutheri in magna Germanica, aliifque Regionibus et fpe-
ciatim in Saxonia recepta et ftabihta," &c. 3 vols. fol.
This work was received with great applaufe by tlie learned
of all parties. Bayle, in fpeaking of it, fays, " Whoever
is defirous of being thoroughly acquainted with the hiilory
of that great man (Luther), needs only to read the extenfive
work of Seckendorf. It is, of its kind, one of the befl
books that have appeared for a long time."

Among the other works of Seckendorf, thofe moil de-
ferving of notice are, " The State of the Princes of Ger-
many ;" " A Defence of the Relation concerning Anto-
niettadeBourignoii, or a Refutation of that female Fanatic ;"
•' Hiftorical and Apologetic DiiTertations on the Dodlrine
of Luther in regard to Mafs, publifhed by Cafpar Sa-
gittarius ;" " The State of the Chriftians, in which Chrif-
tianity is examined in itfelf, and defended againft Atheills."
Gen. Biog.

SECKENHEIM, or Sohernheim, in Geography, a town
of the duchy of Baden ; 4 miles E. of Manheim.

SECKER, Thomas, in Biography, a celebrated arch-
bifhop of the church of England, was born in 1693, at
Sibthorp, in Nottinghamfhire. His father was a Protef-
tant diffenter, who lived upon a fmall paternal eftate, and
who was enabled to give his fon an excellent education. He
was firlt placed at a fchool at Chederneld, whence he was
removed to an academy at Atterchffe, near Sheffield, in-
tended for the education of young men defigned for the
miniltry among difii^nters : after this, he was fent to a
fimilar inftitution in the neighbourhood of Tewkfbury.
When he was about the age of 19, he had attained to a
good knowledge of the dailies, the Hebrew language, and
of thofe branches of the mathematical fciences which were
taught young men as preparatory to their Itudies in theology.
From tins time, till he was about 23 years of age, he pur-
fucd his theological courle with great vigour; when, for
fome reafons with which we are unacquainted, he determined
to abandon his plan and ftudy phyfic, and after attending
leftures two years in London, he went to Paris for farther
improvement, and carried his attention to all the branches
of medicine, including furgery and midwifery. During
this period he kept up a clofe correfpondence with Mr.
(afterwards bilhop) Butler, who had been a fellow-ftudent at
Tewkfbury. His friend had already conformed, and per-
fuaded Seeker to follow his example, affuring him of the
patronage of bilhop Talbot. Seeker now began to think
fcrioufly of thofe profpeits which were held out to hira in

6

the eftabliftied church. He was already amply provided
with theological knowledge, and he had exprelled a difla-
tisfaftiou with the divifions exifting among the diflenters,
and with the authority too frequently affumcd by the
heads of their congregations ; he therefore clofed with the
invitation held out to him. It was thought right by his
friends that he fhould have a degree from Oxford, with
this view ; and in order to expedite the procefs, he took the
degree of M. D. at Leyden, in the year 1721, oh which
occafion he did himfelf great credit by a theCs which he
delivered on the occafion, " De Medicina Statica." He
then entered himfelf a gentleman-commoner of Exeter
college, Oxford, and in a few months obtained the degree
of B. A. in that univerfity. He was ordained by Dr. Tal-
bot, at that time bilhop of Durham, and preached his firfl
fermon in March, 1 723. The prelate now took him into
his family as chaplain, in which office he had Dr. Rundle
for an affociate. In 1724 he was prefented to the valuable
reftory of Houghton-le-Spring, in Durham ; and being in
a fituation to maintain a family, he married the filler of
Mr. Benfon, afterwards bilhop of Gloucefter ; and Mrs.
Talbot, the widow of the prelate, by whole advice Seeker
had conformed, came to live with Mr. and Mrs. Seeker,
from whom flie received, to the end of life, the mofl affiduous
attentions, in return for the lervices he had received from
her late hufband.

Seeker now fet himfelf down ferioufly to the duties of
a country reftor ; but the place in which he lived did not
agree with the health of Mrs. Seeker, and he exchanged
Houghton for a prebend of Durham, with the reftory of
Ryton. He continued to refide in the north till 1732,
when, being nominated one of the chaplains of the king, he
came to the metropolis, and in the following year he was
prefented with the reftory of St. James. Upon this oc-
cafion he went to Oxford, to take the degree of doftor of
laws, not being of fufficient Handing for that of divinity,
when he preached what was denominated an aft fermon,
" On the Advantages and Duties of Academical Education,"
which was regarded as a mafler-piece of found reafoning
and good compofition. It was printed at the defire of the
heads of the houfes, and pafTed through feveral editions ;
and the reputation derived from it was thought to be the
principal means of his advancement to the epifcopal bench,
which took place in January, 1734 — 5, when he was con-
fecrated bifliop of Briltol, Dr. Benfon, his brother-in-law,
being at the; fame timeconfecrated to the fee of Gloucefler.
In his high office as prelate he exhibited the moll Itriking
proofs of a confcientious attention to all parts of his duty.
He now delivered, twice a-week, in his parilh church, a
courfe of leftures on the church catechifm, which were
afterwards publifhed, and which were generally regarded as
admirably adapted to give a compendious view of the
principles of the Chriitiap. religion as profefTed by the
church of England, and as ellablilhed by law.

In 1737, Dr. Seeker was tranflated to the fee of Oxford,
which he held more than twenty years, and no one could
perform with greater affiduity and earnellnefs the effential
duties of his funftion ; his exterior deportment likevvile was
grave, dignified, and perfeftly adapted to the importance
of the charafter which he maintained. In 1748, Mrs. Seeker
died, leaving no iffue, and the bifliop did not marry again.
In 1750 he exchanged his prebend of Durham and reftory
of St. James for the deanery of St. Paul's ; and in 1758 he
was raifed to the archbilhopric of Canterbury. His ori-
ginal education among the diffenters did not render him lefs
zealous in the intereils of the church to which he had con-
formed : he even went farther than inofl of his contem-
poraries

SEC

poraries in endeavouring to extend the authority of the
church of England, and advocated the meafure of eiUblifli-
ing bifhops in the American colonies. On this fubjcA he
was attacked by Dr. Mayhevv of Bofton, to whom he re-
plied with much temper. The argument in favour of
American biihops turned upon the incompletenefs of an
epifcopal church without them, and the great inconveniences
experienced by the clergy of that remote country in the
neceffary communication with the mother eftablifhmcnt.
The archbi(hop fhewed that he was quite fincere in his
wifhes for the eftablifhment of epifcopacy in America, by
bequeathing looo/. towards effetling the purpofe. The
fubfequent fcparation of the colonies from the Britirti
government, however, put an end to this projeft further
than concerned Canada.

During the time that archbifliop Seeker held his high pre-
ferment, the Methodills made very rapid Itrides in the pro-
pagation of their principles : fome of the biftiops had de-
clared againft them ; but Dr. Seeker afted with his ufual
prudence, and recommended to his clergy moderation and
kindnefs in their beliaviour towards thofe whom he wiftied
to confider as his future friends, but whom others were
difpofed to treat as enemies.

The archbifhop had for many years been a great fufferer
from the gout, which latterly brought on fevere local pains.
Thefe were at lall confined to the thigh, and terminated in
an extenlive caries of the thigh-bone ; one of the fatal
confequences of which was a fudden frafture of that bone
upon the mere raifing him up on his couch. Shortly after
this he died, Aug. 3, 1768, in the 75th year of his age.

To the many benefaftions for ufeful and charitable pur-
pofes which he bellowed in his life- time, he made large addi-
tions by his will. Befides his " Leftures on the Church
Catechifm," he was author of " Eight Charges delivered
to the Clergy of the Diocefes of Oxford and Canterbury ;
with Inllrudlions to Candidates for Orders, and a Latin
Speech, intended to have been made at the opening of the
Convocation in 1761 ;" " Fourteen Sermons, preached on
feveral Occafions ;" and " Sermons on feveral Subjects,"
in four volumes, publifhed after his death by his chaplains,
Drs. Porteus and Stinton. The various works of this able
prelate have ellablilhed his charafter as one of the moft ufe-
ful and rational preachers among the Englifh divines.
Their ftyle is fimple and without ornament : they have no
pretence to oratory and fine writing ; but they difplay
more knowledge of the human heart, and the real motives
of aftion, than is ufnally found in thofekinds of compofitions.
They are truly didaftic, and " come home to men's bufinefs
and bofoms" in a remarkable degree.

He was attached to thofe political principles which placed
the houfe of Hanover on the throne ; and on the breaking
out of the rebfllion in 1745, he exerted himfelf moil con-
fpicuonfly in fupport of government. He enlifted himfelf
under the banners of no ftate party ; but his chief parlia-
mentary connexions were with the dnke of Newcallle and
lord Hardwicke. Life of Seeker, prefixed to his Sermons.

SECKINGEN, in Geography, a town of Baden, on the
Rhine, the waters of which lurround it ; 4 miles W. of
Laufenburg. N. lat. 47'-' 34'. E. long. 8°.

SECKVELT, i town of the ftate of Utrecht ; 13 miles
W. of Utrecht.

SECLIA, a name by which fome authors have called
wormwood.

SECLIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the North, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriifl of Lille ; 4 miles S. of Lille. The place contains

SEC

2500, and the canton 13,679 inhabitants, on a territory of
i02ikiliometros, in 16 communes.

SECO, a town of Africa, in Kaarta ; 65 miles E. of
Kemmoo. — Alfo, a river of Peru, which runs into the
Pacific ocean, S. lat. 7° 6'.

SECOANL in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Syria, fituated in the mountains, E. of the Mediterranean
fea, and W. of the river Orontes, in the territory of
Apaina;a.

SECOMI^, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a genus of
foflils, of the clafs of the feptaria ; the charafters of which
are, that they are bodies of a dufky hue, divided by fepta,
or partitions of a fparry matter, into feveral more or lefs
regular portions, of a moderately firm texture, not giving
fire with fteel, but fermenting with acid menitrua, and eafily
calcining.

The ieptarix of this genus are, cf all others, the moll
common, and are what have been known by the little ex-
preffive, or miftaken names of the waxen vein, or /uJui
Helmontii. We have many fpecies of thefe bodies common
among us. Of the vvliitifli or brownilh kinds we have thir-
teen ; of the yeliowilh, five ; and of the ferruginous ones,
four.

SECOND, in Anatomy. See SeCUNDI generis.

Second, in Geometry, AJironomy, isfc. the fixticth part of
a prime, or minute ; eitlier in the divifion of circles, or in
the meafure of time.

A degree, and an hour, are each divided into fixty
minutes, marked thus ' ; a minute is fubdivided into fixty
feconds, marked thus " ; a fecond into fixty thirds, marked
thus '", &c.

We fometimcs fay, a fecond minute, a third minute, Sec.
but more ufually, fim ply, ytcon^/, third, l^c.

A pendulum, three feet three inches and two-tenths of
an inch long, vibrates feconds, according to fir Jonas Moor'j
reduftion of Huygens, three feet eight lines and a half of
Paris meafure to Eiighfh meafure. Sec Pendulum.

Second, in Mufic, denotes one of the mufical intervals \
being only the dillance between any found, and the next
found, whether higher or lower.

As in the compafs of a tone there are reckoned nine fen-
fibly different founds, which form thofe little interval!
called commas, one might in llriclncfs fay there arc eight
kinds of founds.

There are three kinds of feconds occurring in praAicc,
thcleller, the greater, and the fuperfluous fecond ; to which,
if the enharmonic genus were rellored, we might add the
diminiflied fecond. The lell'er fecond is the femitonc ni,-i)or,
and is nearly equal to 5^; commas. The greater fecond it
the tone, whicli being either nuijor or minor, there mull
alfo be two great feconds ; one nearly equal to 8A commas,
and the other to 9.^ commas : but praAitioners ulually con-
found thefe two. The fuperiluous fecond is a tone major,
and femitone major ; the other fupcrfluous iccond, arilinjj
from the tone minor, and femitonc minor, is not in ufe.
L:;lUy, the diminifhed fecond is a femitone minor lefs than
the lefl'er fecond ; that is, equal to the diefis enharmonic*.
Thus, between E and F, or between A and B, would be a
diminiflied fecond, as alio between G fliarp and A. This laft
ha.s been practilcd by Mr. Handel, in the oratorio of Samp-
fon, in the fecond part of tiie fong, " Return, return, O
God of Hofls." Sec L\rEH\AL.

Some authors, as O/.anam, call the femitone minor by

the name of diminl/hed fecond ; but this is contrary to the

analogy in like caies, where diminifhed is ufually apphrd to

intervals a femitone minor lefs than a true diatonic iiitrrvaU

U 3 'rhui

SEC

SEC

Thus the diminiftied fevcnth is a femitone minor lefs than
tlie flat feventh, or feventh minor.

Second, Dim'miflied. See Diminished Second.

Second di I'Oreille, in Anatomy, a name given by Vieuf-
fens and others to a mufcle of the ear, called by Cowper and
others Jlapidaceus, and Jlapedis mufculus ; and by Albiniis
Jlapedmm. Winflow calls it le mufcle de I'etrier.

Second Captain. Se^- Captain.

Second Caufe. See Cause asd Efficient.

SkcohV) Deliverance, Secundadeliberalione, in Law, a judicial
writ that lies after nonfuit of the plaintiff in replevin, and a re-
iurno habendo of the cattle replevied, adjudged to him that
diftrained them ; commanding the ftieriff to replevy the fame
cattle again, upon fecurity given by the plaintiff in the re-
plevin for the re-delivery of them, if the diilrcfs be juilificd.
It is a fecond writ of replevin, &c. F. N. B. 68.

Second F/ivwy^-, Notion, Order of Curves, Rate. Seethe
fubilantives.

Second Sight, an odd qualification, vphich many of the
inhabitants of the WeiSern iflands of Scotland are fa'd to be
pnHefFcd of. The thing is attelled by many credible authors
(among whom is Mr. Martin, author of the natural hiltory
of thefe iflands, and a member of the Royal society) ; and,
notwithllanding the flrangenefs of it, many have Itedfaftly
believed it.

The fecond fight is faid to be a faculty of feeing things to
come, or things done at a gre.it diflance, reprefented to the
imagination as if actually vilible and prefent.

Thus, if a man be dying, or about to die, his image, it
is pretended, fhall appear diflinftly in its natural fhape, in a
fhroud, with other funeral apparatus, to a fecond-fighted
perfon, who, perhaps, never faw his face before ; imme-
diately after which, the perfon fo feen certainly dies.

The quality of fecond-iightednefs, they fay, is not here-
ditary ; the perfon who has it cannot exert it at pleafure ;
nor can he prevent it, or communicate it to another ; but it
comes on him involuntarily, and exercifcs itfelf on him arbi-
trarily ; and often, efpecially in the younger fecond feers, to
their great trouble and terror.

There is a great number of circumftances faid to attend
thefe vifions ; by obfervation of which, the particular cir-
cumftances, as to time, place, &c.' of the death of the
perfon, &c. are learnt. The method of judging of them,
or interpreting them, grows into a kind of art; which is
very ditlereut ni different perfons. Second-fightednefs is
held a difcredit in the country ; fo that none, they fay, will
counterfeit it ; but that many conceal and difl'emble it.
Sec Johnfon's Journey to the Weilern Iflands of Scotland,
p. 248, &c.

Second Surcharge, Writ of, in Latu. See Surcharge.

Second Terms, in Algebra, thofe where the unknown
quantity has a degree of power lefs than it has in the term
where it is raifcd to the highelt.

The art of throwirig thefe fecond terms out of an equation ;
that is, of forming a new equation, where they have no
place, is one of the mofl ingcnions and ufeful inventions in
all algebra.

Second Tithe. Sec Tithe.

SECONDARY, or Secundary, an officer who afts as
fecond, or next to the chief officer.

Such are the feconJaries of the courts of king's bench
and com.mon pleas ; the fecondaries of the compters, who
are next the fheriffs of London in each of the two compters ;
two fecondaries of the pipe ; fecondaries to the remem-
brancers, &c.

Secondary is more frequently ufed in an adjeAive fenfe,
by way of oppofition to primary, or principal.

Secondary A8ors. See Actou.

Secondary Affedions. See Affection.

Secondary Circles of the Ecliptic, are circles of longi-
tude of the flars ; or circles which, palTing through the
poles of the ecliptic, are at right angles to the ecliptic. See
CiR( LES of Latitude.

By the help of thefe, all points in the heavens are referred
to the ecliptic ; that is, any ftar, planet, or other pheno-
menon, is underllood to be in that point of the ecliptic,
whicfi is cut by the iecondary femicircle, which pafTes
through fuch ftar, or phenomenon.

If two itars be thus referred to the fame point of the
ecliptic, they are faid to be in conjunftion ; if in oppofite
points, they are faid to be in oppofition ; if they be referred
to two points at a quadrant's diflance, they are faid to be in
a quartile afpedl ; if the points differ a lixth part of the
ecliptic, they are faid to be in fextile afpeft.

In the general, all circles which interfett one of the fix
greater circles of the fphere at right angles, may be called
fecondary circles. As the azimuth or vertical circles in
refpetl of the horizon, &c. the meridian in refped of the
equator, &c.

Secondary Callatcral Points. See Collateral.

Secondary Conveyances, in Law. See Derivative.

Secondary Dials. See Dial.

Secondary I- ever is tl-.at which arifcs after a crifis, or
the difcharge of fome morbid matter ; as after the declenfion
of the fma!l-pox, or meafles. See Fever, Small-Pox, Sec.

Secondary Motion. See Motion.

SeconT)AKY Place. See Pl.\ce.

Secondary Planets, thofe moving round other planets as
the centres of their motion, and along with them round
the fun. See Planet.

Secondary Qualities, Rainbow. Sec the fubilantives.

Secondary Ufe, in Law. See Use.

SECONDIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrift of Parthenay ; 6 miles W.S.W. of
Parthenay. The place contains 1405, and the canton 6140
inhabitants, on a territory of 172^ kiliometres, in feven
communes.

SECONDINE. See Secundine.

SECORA, m Geography, one of the branches of the
river Darah, which joins the main flream at Timefkit.

SECOTAN, a town of Candahar ; 150 miles S.E. of
Candahar.

SECOURSSE, Denys-Fkan^ois, in Biography, was
born at Paris in 169 1. He was one of the earlicil pupils of
the celebrated RoUin, and being brought up to the bar, he
was for fome time a pleader. This profefTion, however, he
quitted in order that he might devote himfelf entirely to
literature, in which the lludy of French hiflory was his
principal objeft. In 1723 he was admitted into the Aca-
demy of Inlcriptions and Belles Lettres. The office of
cenfor-royal was conferred upon him, and he was appointed,
in 1746, to examine the public documents preferved in the
newly conquered towns of the Low Countries. He died
at Paris in 1754. His publications were, the Collcttion of
Royal Ordonnanccs, from the fecond to the ninth volume in-
clufive ; " Mcmoires pour fervir a I'Hifloire de Charles le
Mauvais," two vols. 410. ; an edition of the " Memoires
de Conde," fix vols. 410., in conjunction with the abbe
Lenglet ; and fevcral diflertations in the " Memoires de
I'Acad. des Infcriptions."

SECOZANO, in Geography, a town of the county of
Tyrol ; 13 miles N.N.E. of Trent.

SECRETARIUM, among the Romans, arecluferoom,

where

SEC

where the judges confidcred the caufes that had been liti-
gated before them, and came to a refolution what feiitence
they were to pafs from the tribunal. It was moft ufually
feparated from the tribunal by a veil.

SECRETARY, an officer, who, by order of his mafter,
writes letters, difpatches, and other inilruments, which he
renders authentic by his fignature.

Of thefe there are feveral kinds, as fecretary of ftate,
fecretary of war, fecretary of the trealury, fecretary of the
admiralty, fecretary of the lord chancellor, &c.

Secretaries of State, are officers attending the king,
for the receipt and difpatch of letters, grants, petitions,
and many of the moft important affairs of the kingdom,
both foreign and domellic.

The king's fecretaries were anciently called the ling's
thrks and notaries, regi a commentariis. As for the name fe-
cretary, it was at firit applied to fuch a?, being always near
the king's perfon, received his commands, and were called
ckrks of the Jecret ; whence was afterwards formed the word
fecretary, regi a fecretis ; and as the great lords began to give
their clerks alfo the quality of fecretary, thofe who attended
the king were called, by way of diftinftion, fecretaries of the
commands, regi a mandatis. This continued till the reign of
our Henry VIII. 1559 ; when, at a treaty of peace between
the French and Spaniards, the former obferved, that the
Spanifli minilUrs, who treated for Philip II. called them-
ieUei fecretaries of flat e ; upon which, the Yritnc^ fecreiaires
de commandemcnts, out of emulation, aflumed the fame title ;
which thence palfed alfo into England.

Till the reign of king Henry VIII. there was only one
fecretary of ftate ; but then, bufincfs increafing, that prince
appointed a iecond fecretary ; both were of equal power
and authority, and both ftyled principal fecretaries of flate.
Before queen Elizabeth's time, the fecretaries did not fit at
the council board ; but that princefs admitted them to the
place of privy counfellors, which honour they have held
ever fince ; and a council is never, or at leaft very feldom,
held without one of them. On the union of England and
Scotland, queen Anne added a third fecretary, on account
of the great increafe of bufincfs, which, as to Britain, was
equally and diftinctly managed by all the three, although
the lalt was frequently ftyled fecretary of flate for North
Britain. We have had alfo a fecretary of ftate for the Ame-
rican department. But both thefe offices arc now abolilhed,
and there ftill remdn three principal fecretaries, w'z. one of
the home department, another of foreign affairs, and the
third of the colony and war department, who have under
their management and direAion the moll coiifiderable af-
fairs of the nation, and are obliged to a conftant attendance
on the king ; they receive and difpatch whatever comes to
their hands, be it for the crown, the church, the army, pri-
vate grants, pardons, difpenfations, &c. as likewife petitions
to the fovercien ; which, when read, are returned to the
fecretaries for aiifwer ; all which they difpatch according to
the king's command and direction.

Ireland is under the direftion of the chief fecretary to the
• lord lieutenant, who has under him a refident under fecre-
tary.

Each of the three principal fecretaries has two under fe-
cretaries and one or more chief clerks, befides a number of
other clerks and officers, wholly dependmg upon them.

Our fecretaries of ftate are allowed power to commit per-
fons for treifon, and other offences againft the flate, in order
to bring tliem to their trial. Some have faid that this power
is incident to their office ; and others, that tiiey derive it in
virtue of their being named in the commifTions of the peace
for every county in England and Wales.

SEC

The fecretaries of ftate have the cuftody of that feal, pro-
perly called the Jignet, and the direction of the fignet office ;
in which t.here are four chief clerks and three deputies em-
ployed, who prepare fuch things as are to pafs the fignet,
in order to the privy or great feal. All grants, figned by
the king, are returned hither, which, tranfcribed, are carried
to one of the principal fecretaries of ftate, and fcaled, and
then called fignets ; which, being direfted to the lord priry-
feal, are his warrant.

On the fecretaries of ftate is hkewife dependent another
office, called the paper-ojice ; in which all public writings,
papers, matters of Hate, &c. are preferved.

All the under fecretaries and clerks are in the choice of
the fecretary of ftate, without referve to any perfon ; the
under fecretaries receive orders and direftions from tiiem, for
writing difpatches, foreigner domeftic, which they give to
the chief clerk, who diltributes them to the under clerks.

The fecretary at war belongs to the war ofHce, and has
under him a deputy fecretary, with his private iecretar)', and
a number of clerks and other officers.

Secretary of an Emhaffy, is a perfon attending an ain-
baffador, for the writing ol difpatches relating to tiie Ecgo-
ciation.

There is a great difference between the fecretary of the
embalTy, and the ambalTador's fecretary ; the bft is a do-
meftic, or menial of the ambaffador's ; the firft a fervant, or
minifler of the prince.

SECRETION, in Phyfwlogy, is that vital procefs, in
which fome fubftance, cither defigned to anfwer a purpofe
in the animal economy, or to be thrown out of the body as
ufelefs or injurious, is feparated from the blood by an organ
of glandular ftruftuie. It agrees with nutrition, with the
exhalations from the fl^in, membranes, adipous and lymphatic
cells, in being the feparation of fomething from tlie blood,
but it is dittinguifhed from thefe proceffes by the ciicum-
ftance of its being performed by glands. Tlic word fccrelion
however is often ufed more loolely by medical writers, in
application to any living procefs, by which matters arc fepa-
rated from the blood. The organic llrudlures, in whicii fe-
cretions are carried on, tiie material agents of theie pro-
ceffes, and the powers by which they are executed, are con-
fidcred under the article Gi.and.

SECT, Secta, a collective term, comprehending all
fuch as follow the dodlrines, or opinions, of fome famous
divine, philofopher, &c. For tlie fcriptural meaning of the
term fedl, fee HEiiEsy.

The fefts of philofophers among the ancients, particularly
in Greece, were numerous : as tlie Pyrrhonians, Platonifts,
Epicureans, Stoics, Peripatetics, Academics, &c. See
each under its proper article.

In later times, the fefts of philofophy have been chiefly
reducible to three ; viz. the Cartefians, Peripatetics, and
Newtonians. See Caiite.sian, Sec.

In theology, the fcdts are much more numerous ; yet the
ancients had many legions, now extindt ; as Machinecs,
Gnoftics, Montanifts, &c.

The principal now on foot are the Liitlierans, Calvinifts,
Anabaptifts, Arians, Socinians, Arminians, and Unitarians.
The rife, progreis, and fate, with the dillinguilliing charac-
ters and opinions of each, fee under Luthehan, Cai-VI-
nist, &c.

Skot, Ionic. Sec Ionic.
Sect, Italic. Sec Italic.

Sects of Hindoos. It has been long known that the
Hindoos arc divided and fubdivided into a number of feds,
tribes, or cafts. Under our .irticles Bhachmans, Cast,
and Gestoos, wchavc given the fublUiice of wh.it has been

communicated

SECTS OF HINDOOS.

communicated by early and later travellers to eaftern retjions
on the fubjeft of thefe diftinftions. In common with thefe
writers, we have alfo ufed the term cajl, or cajh, though
we are not aware of any claffical authority for the word.
We are difpofed to think it introduced by the Portuguefe ;
and it is now, and has been for many years, as common in the
mouths of natives as of Europeans, efpecially on the coaft
of Coromandel. We do not afBrm that the word is not of
Sanfcrit origin, and in truth it founds very like it : but we
have never met with the word in eaftern writings, nor heard
it ufed by natives beyond the reach of European colloquial
influence.

In confidering the divifion and fubdivii'ion of the numerous
race of Hindoos, we are difpofed to feparate them into
theological, civil, and philofophical claflcs or tribes. Theologi-
cally we find two grand divifions, the Saivas, who worftlip
Siva, and the Vailhnavas, who worfliio Vifhnu : thefe are
numeroufly fubdivided, as we (hall notice prefently, as are
the many fchifmatics who efientially or trivially diflent from
both, and are probably numerically equal to both, under
the generic denomination of Budhas or Baudhifts, and its
various fpecific varieties. Tiie cfuil grand dis-ifions are four,
I'is. Brahman, KJlietriya, Vaifya, and Siiilra. As the two
former theological grand diviiions compriie the whole race
of Hindoos (leaving for the prefent the fchilmatics out of
the quellion), fo do likewife thefe four civil tribes or grand
divifions : either of the four may be theologicallv a Saiva or
a Vaifhnava, as his parents may have taught, or his feelings
led him. Thefe four civil grand divifions ai'e fubdivided
into almoft innumerable dillintlions and varieties. Here
follows a brief outline of the diflinclions of thefe four great
civil tribes. I. Brahman. This is a fmall tribe in point of
number ; but in power paramount. Intelleft is power ;
and, with a few exceptions, the intelleftual wealth of India
is confined to the Brahmanical treafury. As among the
Jews all prieils were taken from the tribe of Levi, fo with
the Hindoos the tribe of Brahman exclufively furniflies the
prielthood. All Hindoo prieils are therefore Brahmans,
but all Brahmans are not priefts. Minifters and public
officers of ftate are very commonly Brahmans, even in
Mahoir.medan governments ; and they are occafionally mer-
chants, and even foldiers. In both the Briti(h and native
armies of India, are many Brahmans. The two Mahratta
generals whofe names are beft known in England, Purferam
Bhon and Hurry Punt, were both Brahmans. A Brahman
is pointedly prohibited from becoming a king : royalty ap-
pertains to the fecond tribe. (See Peshwa.) In the Gita,
a work profoundly venerated by numerous fefts, the duties
of the four tribes are verj- concifely and plainly Hated. «' The
natural duty of the Brahman is peace, fclf-rcilraint, zeal, pu-
rity, patience, reftitude, wifdom, learning, and theology."
Gita, p. 130. (See Mahabarat. ) The word Brahman
means a theologill or divine: derived from Brahm, the divi-
nity. Pandit, corruptly Punt, means a learned Brahman, or
philofopher ; hence panditya, philofophy. Among the Mah-
rattas, where Brahmans are very numerous, the title of
Punt is affumed by many individuals : feldom, if ever, by
thofe in low ftations. In very low or bafe occupations Brah-
mans are, indeed, never feen. The names of individuals
often indicate their feft. Purferam Bhon, above-mentioned,
we fhould infer to have been of the grand divifion Vaiilinava,
and of the fed of Ramanuj. (See Par asu Rama, which
is the claffical mode of writing and pronouncing his name,
and Ramanuj.) Hurry Punt, is from his name known
to have been a Brahman (Pandit) of the grand divifion
Saiva : Hari (corruptly Hurry) being a name of Siva.
See Siva.

2. KJhetriya, ufually prononnced Ketri, or Kflietri, is the
fecond civil grand divifion. It is the warrior tribe ; comprif-
ing all foldiers, who alone can lawfully become kings. (See
Peshwa.) All the other tribes, however, furnifti foldiers ;
and, indeed, princes too, if the ambitious individual can
efFe(ft it. " The natural duties of the Kfhetri are bravery,
glory, fortitude, reiSitude, not to flee from the field, genero-
fity, and princely condud." (Gita, ib.) This grand divifion
is very numerous. Some hundreds of different feels might
be enumerated as belonging to it, and many hundreds would
ftill be omitted. The Ayin Akbery ttates, (vol. iii. p. 87.
Calcutta cd.) that of the tribe of Kftietri, there are up-
wards of five hundred fubdivifions, fifty-two of whom are
in eileem, and twelve particularly fo. Of one of thefe
fubdivifions, that of Rajput, the fame authority fays there
are upwards of a thoufand different feds. The term Rajput,
or rather Rajaputra, means offspring of kings ; a tiile af-
fumed by various warrior tribes in the north of India ; in-
dividuals of which are pretty numeroufly fpread in the
fouthern and other provinces, wherever good pay invites their
fervices.

3. Vaifya, vulgarly called Vais, or Bhyfe, is the tribe
next in rank to the military. This is a very numerous tribe,
comprifing merchants, traders, and cultivators. In this,
that is, praftifing its avocations, are found many individuals
of the three others. " The natural duty of the Vaifya is,"
according to the Gita, " to cultivate the land, tend the cattle,
and buy and fell." (Ibid.) This tribe is numeroufly fub-
divided like the others. It contains a great proportion of
wealthy individuals. The fubdivifion of Vania, or Bania,
called by the Englifli Banyan, belongs to this clafs, and is
laid to comprehend eighty-four different fedls : it being
only itfelf a tribe of this third grand divifion, or of
Vaifya.

It is underftood, that all the individuals of the three firft
tribes or feCls above named, are tulceptible of regeneration,
by a mylterioui initiation in the gayatri, and the inveiliture
of a holy thread called zennaar. Such individuals are called
tnvice-horn. See our articles O'm and Zennaar for farther
notice of thefe particulars.

4. Sudra. In this is comprifed mechanics, artifans, and
labourers of every defcription. In the profecution of the
Sudras' avocations, individuals of the fecond and third tribes
or claffes will be found ; and occafionally, though compa-
ratively but rarely, of the firft. Many mechanics and artifans
are of the third clafs. " The natural duty of the Sudra is
fervitude." Gita.

This arrangement into cafts or fefts, tribes or grand
divifions, is, as before noticed, of very early origin. In
the Inltitutes of Menu, (fee Menu,) we find it laid down as
of theremotell antiquity; and, as is ufual with every thing
relating to the Hindoos, traced to a mythological fource.
" That the human race might be multiplied, he (the fu-
preme lord, or Brahma) caufed the Brahman, the Klhetriya,
the Vaifya, and the Sudra, (fo named from the fcripture,
protedion, wealth, and labour,) to proceed from his mouth,
his arm, his thigh, and his foot." Ch. i. v. 31.

In early times it is probable that thele diftinftions or
feparations were kept up and obferved with conliderable
Itridnefs, both in refped to intermarriages and avocations.
Thofe times were, however, anterior to the Inltitutes of
Menu, who gives names to the fpurious offspring of feda-
rial intermarriage ; wifely endeavouring to corred, what his
authority would prove unequal to prevent, or materially
reilrain. Denunciations, however, againft thefe illicit prac-
tices, fcxuai and handicraft, abound in the books of law ;
and abfolution from the fin thus incurred is doubtlefs one,

and

SECTS OF HINDOOS.

and no trifling, fource of the revenue and power of the
pricfthood.

We fhall notice a few of the chief religious fefts into
which the race of Hindoos comprifed in the above four
grand civil clafTes are fubdivided. To enumerate them all
would be fcarcely poffible, even with the affiitance of learned
natives ; and to place them in their relative rank, altogether
imprafticable : for it is a point involving great differences of
opinion ; as may be imagined when the religious feelings and
pride of many individuals clafli, and where great fcope is
afforded for their difplay in a field bounded by no precife
authority.

Five principal fefts are recognized who worfhip exclu-
fively a (ingle deity. Thefe are i . The Sahas, who worfhip
Siva. 2. The Va'ijhnavas, who worfhip Vifhnu. 3. The
Sauras or Suras, who worfhip Surya, or the fun. 4. The
Ganapatyas, who worfhip Ganefa. 5. The Sottas, who
worfliip Parvati. But if we examine clofely the relation
which they refpetlively bear to each other, we fhall find the
fourth and fifth to be ramifications of the firft, or left of
Saiva ; of which may be traced thefe diitinftions. i. Sniva
itfelf, generally fuppofed to include both the worfliippers of
Siva 'ingly, or of him and Parvati conjointly. ( See Saiva. )
2. Lingi, the adorers of Siva under his phalhc emblem
called Linga. (See Linga and Lixci.) 3. Sakta, the
adorers of Parvati, under her fymbol the Yoni. (See Sak-
ta and Yoni.) 4. The Ganapatyas, worfhippers of Ganefa,
fon of Parvati and Siva. (See Pollear.) Thefe four fefts,
and many diftindlions and divifions of them, may be deemed
as comprehended in the firll named, Saiva, or Saivabakt.
The worfliippers of Baghefa, or Siva, are fometunes called
Soma Siddhanta.
, The fecond great feft of Vaifhnava is alfo varioufly di-

vided and fubdivided. Two principal divifions or branches
are the Golalajlha and Ramanuj, or worfliippers of Vifhnu,
in two of his grand incarnations of Krifliria (one of whofe
names is Gokal), and of Rama. Thefe two principal fedts
of Vaifhnava are each divifiblc into tlirec. Tiie Gohalajlhas
are i. Thofe who exclufively worfhip Kriflma as Viflinu him-
felf ; and this feci is extenfively confidered as the true and
orthodox Vaifhnava. (See Krishna and Vaisiinava.)
2. Thofe who exclufively worfhip Radlia, as the fakti of
Krifhna. (See Radha, Sakta, and Sakti.) This feft
is fometimes called Radha-hallahbi. 3. The worfhippers of
Krifhna and Radha conjointly. Tlie three diflindtions of
Ramanuj are, i. Thofe wlio worfliip Rama only. (See
Rama and Ramanuj.) 2. Tliofe who worfhip Sita only.
And 3. Thofe who worfliip both Rama and Sita conjointly.
See Sita.

The feft of Ganapatyas we have confidered as a divifion
of that of Saiva ; and the feci of Saura, worfhippers of
Surya, or the fun, we are difpofed to clafs under tiiat of
Vaifhnava ; for although Siva be the fun as well as Vifhnu,
yet the latter, and more particularly in his incarnation of
Krifhna, is more generally reckoned the archetype of the
folar deity ; or, what amounts to the fame thing, the (un,
a fymbol or type of Viflinu. Individuals of fevcral fedts
of Saivas do no doubt mix their adorations with the folar
worfhip ; as do alfo many fcdls of tiic Vaifhnavas. See
Saura.

Under our article Sakti we have obferved tiiat the Hin-
doo mythology has pcrfonified the abilradt and attradtivc
powers of the divinity, and afcribed fcxcs to thefe mytho-
logical perfonagcs. The Sakti, or energy of an attribute
of God, is female, and is fabled as the confort of tliat pcr-
fonified attribute. Hence lias ariien fuch a feries of lidtioiis,
comprehending all natural and moral phenomena, obfcurcd

by mythological and fexual allegories, as it is fcarcely pofTi-
ble to explain. (See Lakshmi, Parvati, and Saras-
wati.) Refpecting the ^ai/aj, that is, thofe who worfhip
exclufively or chiefly the Sakti or female power, this dikinc-
tion has been noticed ; fome of them, adopting what is
called a left-handed path, accompany their devotions by
divers obfcene and indecent adls : others do not. The fcft
of Radha-hallahhi, wlio are fuppofed to worfhip the female
energy in Lakflimi, under her form of Radha, are accufcd
of thefe indecencies. (See Radha.) Among the Saktas
of the Saiva tribes tiiere is alfo a left-handed or indecent, as
well as a right-handed or decent mode of worfliip ; and
thofe who adopt the former are faid to go the length of ex-
treme profligacy. (See Sakta.) We fhould be difpofed
to clafs all the individuals who thus, either in the right or
left-handed path, adore the female power, under the deno-
mination of Tonijas, or worfliippers of the Yoni ; the fym-
bol more efpecially of Parvati : but for this, though a rea-
fonable clafTification, wc cannot quote any immediate autho-
rity. (See Yoni.) None of the fedt of Ramanuj are accufed
of the left-handed enormities. Ii; mod parts of India they arc,
when known, held in defervcd detcllation ; and the decent
Saktas forbear making any ollentatious profcfTion of their
tenets, or wearing on their foreheads the mark of their feci,
left they fliould be fufpedled of belonging to the other
branch of it.

There is another very numerous feet of Vaifhnavas,
called Bhagavatas, of more modern origin than the others.
Their tenets and practices are grounded on the eighteenth
Purana, which is chiefly a liiftory of the life, adventures,
and dodfrines of Kriflina, and is entitled Sri Bliagavata,
which fee. The work is afcribed to Vapadeva, who endea-
voured to reconcile and unite all fedls, by recognizing the
deities of each, but as fubordinate to the Supreme Being,
or as attributes or manifedations of God. This is, in fact,
the dodlrine of the Gita ; but that work, as well as the Sri
Bhagavata, while profefTrng to uphold a unity in the deity,
claims tiiat pre-cminency for Krilbna ; and although the fcdt
of Bhagavata is very numerous, and included individuals of
or from many other iedls, iUU a purity of dodtrinc is far dif-
tant from all, while a mythological pcrfonage continues
clotlied in tlie attributes of the Amiighly. For all the
otlier fedls, or at leal! a portion cf the moll enligiitened and
hberal individuals among them, are fufficieiitly ready to
profefs a belief in the unity of the deity, if llieir claim
of tiiat awful defignation for liie objedl of their own
adoration be conceded. See Kkisiina, Saraswati, and
Siva.

The Bhagavatas, while recognizing the five divinities
worfliipped by the other fedls rcfpedlively, and even paying
them in turn their daily adoration, and on particular occa-
fious extending it to other deities, ilill deny the cliarge of
polytlieifm, and repel the imputation of idolatry. It may
be eafily imagined that but few, we may almoll fay none, of
the numerous followers of this fedl can fully comprehend
the dodlrincs they profefs. They incline much to real poly-
tlieifm, but do at lead rejcdl the derogatory notions of the
deity wiiich the other fedls feein to liave adopted. The
pradlice of adoring images of celeHial fjiirit!, they Jullify
by arguments finiilar to thofe wliicii have been cllewhcrc
employed in defence of image wor(hip. ( See Gentoos and
Idolatry.) If tlie dodlrincs of llic Veda, and even thofe
of the Puranas, be clofely examined, the Hindoo iheology
will be found confident moiiotheifm, llioug 1 it contains the
feeds of polytheifm and idolatry. See Piuana and Vi;da.

Modern Hindoos feeni to have niifunderdoudtlie mimerou*
texts in their facred books, which declare llie unity of the

gudlicad,

SECTS OF HINDOOS.

godhead, and the identity of Vifhnu, Siva, the Sun, &c.
Their theologifts have entered into vain difputes on the quef-
tion of which, among the attributes of God, (hall be deemed
charartenllicand pre-eminent ?

Sankaracharya (fee the article under his name) the
celebrated commentator on the Veda, contended for the at-
tributes of Siva, and founded or confirmed the feft of Saiva,
who worfliip Siva as' the fupreme being, and deny the co-
equal or independent exiftence of Vifliiiu and other deities.
Madhava and Vallabha, both alfo furnamed Achnrya, de-
noting literary dignity, have in like manner eltabliihed by
their comments the feet of Vaifhnava, who adore Vilhnu as
God.

Under the article Saraswati we have noticed, that
there is now no feft, who exclufively or principally worfiiip
Brahma : no one hath hitherto been dilcovercd named after
him, denoting the creative power to be the objeft of ex-
clufive adoration. Still by fome legends he is defcribed as
the Almighty ; leading us to infer, that he was once fec-
tarially addrefled as the other two members of the triad
now are. His fakti, Saraf'.vati, is defcribed in fome paf-
fages as all-produftive, all-powerful, and all-wife. It may
be reafonably inferred, that there are many more fefts
among the Hindoos than have hitherto been aicertained.
Moll of the feCts, however, approach or melt into each
other on dole infpeclion ; as may in all fiich cales be fup-
pofed, when they muft all have originated in one common
fource. This reunion is with the Hindoos marked with
their ufual extravagant lexual mythology. Siva and Par-
vati, they fay, had a contell on the quelUon of the com-
parative potency or eminence of their feveral worfhip : in
other words, the worfhippers of their fymbols, the Linga
and Yoni, contefted the point. To appeale this phyfio-
logical difference between the god and his coiifort, Vilhnu
interpofed, and his navel, or rather os tinazi came at length
to be confidered as the fame with the Yoni ; confounding
the Vailhnavas with the Yonijas : but we muft refer to our
article Yoni, and the other articles and the works therein
mentioned, for farther particulars on this point.

In the early part of this article, we have adverted to
the numerous fchifmatics, under the generic term of
Baudhas, followers of the doftrines of Budha or Boodh.
(SeeBooDH.) Thefe, under various delignations, v.e are
diipofed to clafs as heretical Vaiihnavas, worfhipping Vifhnu
under one of his avataras or incarnations, that of Budha ;
as the Gokalafthas and Ramanujas do under others ; thofe
of Gokal, or Krifhna and Rama. " In refpecl to the num-
bers of followers," the author of the Hindoo Pantheon
obferves, " and the extent over which they have fprcad,
the doftrines of Budha have probably obtained greater do-
minion than thofe of any otlier religious perfuafion. Al-
though now comparatively triflmg on the continent of
Hither India, his doctrines and followers are Hill found, dif-
fering in externals, and divided into feels, throughout China
and its tributary nations ; in the great empires and ftates
of Cochinchina, Cambodia, Siam, Pegu, Ava, Afam,
Tibet, Budtan or Bootan, (fee thofe feveral articles,) many
of the Tartar tribes, and generally all parts eall of the
Ganges ; including thofe vail and numerous iflands in the
feas eallward and I'outhward of the farther [ndian promon-
tory, whofe inhabitants have not been converted to Iflamifm.
In thefe great and dillant parts of the globe the tenets of
Budha, diflinguifhed by various appellations, may be re-
cognized as forming the religion of the people ; an extent
exceeding that either of the Mahomedan or Brahmanical
fuperttition, and outnumbering, perhaps, the followers of
the religion of Jefus Chrift." P. 240.

Budhifm, like other diflinftions of faith among Hindoos,
is divided into fetts. If it be leckoned the grand generic
fchifm, we may deem the fefts of Jaina and Mahiman
fpecific varieties ; and there appears no good reafon why
they (hould not all be clafled with the other fcfts, who
adore exclufively one of the avataras or incarnations of
Vifhnu, under the comprehenfive denomination of Vaifh-
navas. Of thefe avataras fee under the article Vishnu ;
and for fome account of the herefy of Budha and its fub-
divifions, fee Boodh, Jaina, Sakya, and the other articles
thence referred to.

Moll oriental people feem to have prided themfclves on
diftinguifhing their deities by a great many names. Thefe
names are, however, moltly, perhaps all, fignificant and
characleriflic ; of which early enquirers were of courfe
ignorant. The prevalence of this pride will be fecn in our
articles Parvati, Siva, and other?. In the inllance of
Budha, another proof might be exhibited of the fame feeling.
He is dillingulfhed by different nanies in the fame and in dif-
tant parts. Boodh, Budha, Butta, and others of nearly
fimilar found, are mere varieties, in different parts of India,
in orthography and pronunciation ; and fo perhaps is the
Bud, or Wud, of the ancient Pagan Arabs. Pout in Siam ;
Pott, or Poti, in Tibet ; and But in Cochinchina, are the
fame ; the Chinefe having, it is faid, no B or D in their
alphabet, and their language being mpnofyllabic, foftened
his name into Fo, or Fo-e. (See Fo.) Tliey call him alfo
Xa-ka ; a variation, perhaps, of the Sanfcrit Sakya. (See
Sakya.) That the Toth of the Egyptians, and the
Woden of the Scandinavians, and other northern nations,
is the fame name and deity, is upheld by fome ; but the
fuppofition is derided by others : fome, indeed, will not re-
cognize him in the Fo of China. A Buddha, whether the
ninth incarnation of Vifhnu or not may be difputed, has
been deemed to anfwer in charadler with Mercury ; fo has
the Gothic Woden. Each refpectively gives his name to
the fame planet, and to the fame day of the week. Budh-
v?.r is, very extenilvely in India, whether among Baudhas,
Saivas, Vaifhnavas, or Mahomedans, the fame with Dies
Mercurii, or Woden's day ; whence fome have derived our
Wednefday.

The common reproach of the Brahmans is that the
Baudhas uphold the dangerous dogma of the eternity ot
mafter and the perifhability of the foul. But we ought
to receive accounts of the tenets of a hoftile feft with cau-
tion ; and of the Baudhas and Jainas we have yet but little
elfe. Like the Jainas, their worfhip is confined to deified
faints ; and the name for the chief of them is, as ftated in
another place, derived from the Sanfcrit word budb, to
tiioiu ; hence Budha is philofophy : and hence has been
derived the Saxon and Englifh verbs bodian, to bode, fore-
bode, &c.

The Jaina, or votaries of Jaina, are probably the mofl
ancient of Hindoo feftaries. They rejeft, like the Baudhas
in general, the authority of the Vedas ; and are the mofl
fcrupulous of any feft in their cautions againlt the even
accidental extinftiun of animal life. (See of this under
our article Jaina.) In the Vedas the flaughter of animals
is not only allowed, but on fome occafions enjoined. (See
Veda.) The adoration of the Jainas is exclufively offered
to deified mortals, or rather, as they afTirm, through them
to the deity : and in the clafs of deified mortals may be in-
cluded many of the gods of the Hindoos, although they
profefs to reje£l the polytheifm and incarnations of the
latter. The dodlrine of tranfmigration is found among the
.lainas ; how extenfively is not afcertained : the belief of a
future ftate of rewards and punifhment, and an extenfive
9 portion

«ECTS OF HINDOOS.

portion of the Puranic Iiillory, is common to them with
the orthodox Hindoos. Formerly powerful and widely
difleminated, this feft is fuppofed to have fufFered great
diminution from the extenfion of the modern herefy of
Buddha. And at prefent its more opulent members are
faid to find it convenient to refume the orthodox perfuafioii,
which may be done without much difficulty, and mult
greatly tend to a diminution of its members and refpec-
tabihty.

Several of the fefts noticed in the articles of this work
named after them, are defcribed as diftinguilhed by marks
on their foreheads, arms, and brealts. The forehead mark
is the chief diftinftion, and when horizontal or parallel with
the eye-brows, it is underllood to defignate a Saiva, while
a Vailhnava is recognized by its perpendicularity. One,
two, or three of thefe lines, red, white, or yellow, accom-
panied by circlets and dots, differing in pofition and colour,
together with many other fymbols and hieroglyphics, afford
an infinite variety of indications of the feftarial bias of the
individual fo decorated. M''hen convenient, and no efpecial
objeftioB exills, it is faid to be held neceli'ary, that thefe
marks be daily renewed ; and, of courfe, by the hand of a
Brahman. One of that tribe cannot perform his daily
facrifices, ablutions, &c. without the completion or con-
templation of this dillinftion ; and it is held irreverent in
one of an inferior tribe to approach a holy man, or to aflc
his blefling, without, or in view to, this feftarial decora-
tion. The fecond plate of the Hindoo Pantheon contains
fome fcores of thele myfterious fymbols. To that work,
page 400, &c. we refer fuch of our readers as defire far-
ther information on this point, for a curious variety of the
diftinguifhing marks, and a full explanation of their fedlarial
application.

Another feft, who worfliip fire, or its perfonification in
Agni its regent, is noticed under the article Sagnika,
(which fee). This is referrible to the grand divifion
Saiva, Agni being of that line of parentage. See Pa-

VAKA.

Having, under the article Philosophy of the Hindoos,
given the names of the principal fefts, or fchools ; and re-
ferred for a brief explanation of the feveral doftrines to the
articles of this work, under which they are refpeftively no-
ticed, we (hall not, in this place, ofter any thing farther
thereon. For fome of the particulars of this article wc are
indebted to Mr. Colebrooke's Eflay on the Reliirious Cere-
monies of the Hindoos, in the ninth volume of the Afiatic
Refearches, and to the Hindoo Pantheon.

From what precedes it will appear, that an individual of
cither of the four civil tribes may fcleft his own theological
feft : a Brahman, or a Sudra, is at liberty to choofc what
form of worfhip he may think proper, and to what deity he
will offer it ; obferving, of courfe, due confillency and con-
formity with the ritual. He may thus, without offence, be-
yond incurring fome difpleafure, perhaps, from his (launcher
family, and Guru, or paltor, change from a Lingi to a
Yonija, or allociate one with the other ; or from a Saura to
a Ganapatya ; or he may combine all, and more ; and, feeing
all in Krifhna, become a Bhagavata ; he may, without incur-
ring fin, or, as the idea is better underilood in Europe, witli-
out lofing C(iJ]e, turn from a Saiva to a Vaifhnava. All llieie
arc vei.ial, and admit of cafy expiation. He is llill under
tlie fpiritual dominion of the fame prielthood, and while he
obivrves the ordained feafts and fads, performs pilgrimages,
i« liberal in alms, and conforms to the externals that ferve
to rivet the mental chains forged for him by the Brahmans,
all is well. He may alfo ftudy, and, under certain limita-
tions, believe and profefs, whichever philofophical doftrines
lie prefers. It would not, perhaps, be thought decorous in a

Vol. XXXn.

Brahman, efpecially if he were a prielt, to make an oilcn-
tatious difplay of the doftrines of a free-thinking founder,
whofe tenets border on a denial of the exiftence of the my-
thological beings, reverence to whom ia the bafe on which
refts the fpiritual fanftity of his own tribe. But there arc
ftill many individuals among the Brahmans who think deep-
ly; and who, in reafoning on tlie grolTucfs and abfurdity of
their mythological legends, cannot but rejeft them. See
Vedanta.

It is in the civil diftinftions that the Hindoo law is fo
guarded againil innovation. Here every poflible care has
been taken to keep the tribes apart ; and fexual intercourfe,
the principal apprehended caufe of confufion, is regulated
and legitimated with great precifion. Thefe regulations vary
in minute particulars in different uibes and countries, but
agree pretty nearly in the main point of degrading the off-
fpriug of forbidden intercourfe. Such degradation does not,
however, nccefiarily refult. Rich delinquents can arert im-
mediate ecclefiaftical cenfure ; and the lapfe is foon forgot-
ten. With the poor fuch things are of lefs moment ; ex-
citing perhaps httle elfe than the pafiing fcandal of the
neighbourhood ; unlefs in cafes where the Brahmanical
dignity or purity may be implicated in a manner too grofs
or notorious to be overlooked. Fornication or adultery be-
tween a male Sudra and a Brahmani would be deemed of this
nature. So would eating or drinking together of individual*
of remote or different tribes. But the latter, if not fre-
quent or wilful, admit of expiation ; expenfive and vexatioui
in proportion to the wealth of the offenders, and the degree
of enormity in the offence.

Some writers have told us of the eafe with which the Hin-
doos, and even the Brahmans, feem to change their religion :
<• with as much facility," fay they, " as their garments."
The theological change of fed-, as above noticed, is not at-
tended with much difficulty : they are ftill Hindoos, and
can find priells of their new perfuafion, who will afford them
the confolations and benefits of rehgion, fuch as they are.
But the work of converfion altogether from that religion, and
liberation from the trammels of prieftcratt, have ever bee»,
and ever will be found, a talk of much greater difficulty : to
be accomplilhed only by the potency of continued perfuafion,
fuperadded to the aid of example in the preceptors.

In concluding this article on the leftarial divifion> of the
Hindoos, we may obferve that there is (Irong realon to be-
lieve many of them to be of modern origin. The Veda, the
fcripture of the Hindoos, affords no authority for fuch ex-
travagancies as worfhipping deified heroes, female powers or
indecent fymbols, or avataras. See Vkda.

We fhall here fubjoin a brief account of Saniaify, omitted
in its proper place. Saniaffy denotes an order of Hindoo
mendicants, who arrive at this diftinftion by divers arts of
perfevering penance and fuppofed piety. Wc are not aware
of any material diltinftion between this defcription of fainU,
and thofe called Yogi and Yati by different fefts. IntheGita,
as tranflated by Mr. Wilkins, Krifhna declares him to be both
a Yogi and a Saniaffy, who performeth that which he hath
to do independent of the fruit thereof. Saniaffy, or a for.
faking of the world, is declared to be the fame with Yogi,
or the pradtice of devotion. He who can bear up againil
the violence produced from lull and anger in this mort.il life,
is properly employed, and a happy m.in. The nun who u
happy in his heart, at rell in his mind, and enlighlemd with-
in, ia a Yogi, or one devoted to God, .and of a godly fpirit.
The loul of the placid, conquered Ipirit, is the lame in heal
and cold, in pain and pleafure, in honour and difgracc. To
the Yogi, gold, iron, .ind (tones are the fame. The man it
diftinguilhed wlwfe refolution, whethir amon^ll hit com-
panions and friends, or in the midll of hit eDcmiei ; with ihofe

X *H0

S E C

SEC

who loTC and with thofe who hate ; in the company ot faints
or finners, is the fame. The Yogi coiillantly exercifeth the
fpirit in private. He is a rechile of a fiibdned mind, free
from hope, and free from perception. He planteth his own
feat firmly on a fpot that is undefiled, and fittetli upon the
facreU grafs, hifa, covered with a (k:n and a cloth. (Sec
KusA.) There he, whofe bul'inefs is the retraining of his
paflion, (hould fit, with his mind fixed on one objeft alone,
in the exercife of his devotion for the purification of his foul,
keeping his head, his neck, and body (toady, without mo-
tion, his eyes fixed on the point of his nofe, looking at no
other place around. To be a Saniafly, or reclnfe, without
application, is to obtain pain .ind troul)le.

This divine difcipline is not to be attained by him who
eateth more than enough, or lefd than enough ; neither by
him who fleepeth too much, nor by him who Ikepeth not at
all. A man is called devout, when his mind remaincth thus
regulated within himfelf, and he is exempted from every luil
and inordinate dcfire. The Yogi of a fubducd mii'.d, thus
employed in the exercife of devotion, is compared to a lamp
ftandmg in a place without wind, whicli waveth not. He
becometh acquainted with that boundlels pleafure, which
is far more worthy of the underllanding than that which
arifes from the fenfes ; depending upon which, the mind
moveth not from its principles ; which having obtained, he
tefpefteth no other acquifition fo great as it ; on which de-
pending, he is not m'>ved by the fcvcrell pain. Supreme
happinefs attendeth the man whofe mind is thus at peace ;
whofe carnal affections and pafiions are thus iubdued ; who
is thus in God, and free from fin. The Yogi is more ex-
alted than the Tapafwi (fee Tapas) ; the zealot who ha-
raffes hinifelf in performing penances, he is refpecled above
the learned in fcience, and fuperior to thofe attached to
moral works.

The above paflages from different pages of the Gita, may
ferve as a fpecimen of that extraordinary work ; fuppofed to
have been compofed by Vyafa, many centuries before the
Chridian era. See Vyasa, Jaina, Yati, and Yogi, for
feme farther notice of Hindoo penance and devotion ; and
Tapas, for inftances of their auilerity.

Individuals calling themfelves SaniafTys and Yogis, are
ftill ff en wandering about India ; fometimes ftark-naked ;
rubbed over perhaps with afhes, efpecially if of the feft
of Saiva (which fee) ; the god Siva being reprefented fo
powdered. Sometimes they have, like him, a tiger's dun to
lit on : and at others, carry one of Viflinu's emblems, the
chakra, of which fee under Vishnu and Vajha. In the
latter cafe, the individuals are probably of the feftof Fat/h-
nava, which fee. .

SECTA, in Law. See Suit.

Secta Hundred. See Hundred Suit.

Secta ad curiam, a writ which lieth againft him who
refufeth to perform his fuit to the county court, or court
baron.

Secta curia. See Suit of Court.

Secta faclcnda per lllam qua hahet tcnulam partem, a writ
to compel the heir that hath the elder's part among co-heirs,
to perform fervice for all the coparceners.

S>Y.cT A. falda. See Faldage.

Secta ad jujlltlam faclendam, is a fervice which a man is
bound to perform by his fee.

Secta molendlnl, a writ lying where a man by ufage, time
out of mind, &c. has ground his corn at the mill of a cer-
tain perfon, and afterwards goes to another mill with his
corn, thereby withdrawing his fuit to tiie former. And
this writ lies efpecially for the lord againlt his tenants, who
hold of him to do fuit at his mill. This is now generally
turned into an adion of the cafe.

Secta regalu, a fuit by which all perfont were bound
twice in a year to attend the (herifF's tourn, and was called
regalls, becaufe the flierifF's tourn was the king's leet ;
wherein the people were to be obliged by oath to bear true
allegiance to the king, &c.

Secta unlca tantum faclenda pro plurlbui hxredltatllus, a
writ that lies for an heir who is dillrained by the lord to do
more fuits than one, in refpeft of the land of divers heirs
dcfcended to him.

SECTILIA, among the Romans, pavements laid with
(lones cut into various forms. Suetonius diltinguifhes them
from thofe that were tefiellated.

SECTINEUS, in Anatomy, a fmall, flat, and pretty long
mufcle, broad at the upper part, and narrow at the lower ;
fituated obliquely between the os pubis, and the upper part
of the OS femoris.

It is commonly a fingle mufcle, but is fometimes found
double. It is fixed above by fie(hy fibres to all the (harp
ridges, or crifta, of tiie o; pubi?, and to a fmall part of the
oblong notch, or deprillion, on the f )refide of the crilta, in
vrhich the upper extremity of this muicle is lodged ; and
thence it runs down obliquely towards the little trochanter,
under, and a little behind which it is inferted obliquely by a
flat tendon, between the fuperior infertion of the vaftus in- la
terniis, and inferior infertion of the triceps fecundus, with I
which it is united. Winflow.

SECTIO C.f:s.\itEA. See C^sarian SeBlon.

SECTION, Sectio, formed iromfeco, I cut, a part of a j
thing divided : or the divifion itfelf.

Such, particularly, are the fuhdivifions of chapters, by
others called paragraphs, and fometimes articles. The mark
of a feftion is §.

The ancients negleiSed to divide their books into chapters
and fctlions : that was a ta(k left for future editors and critics.

Section, in Geometry, denotes a fide or furface appearing
of a body, or figure, cut by another ; or the place wherein
lines, planes, &c. cut each other.

The common (etlion of two planes is always a right line ;
being the line fuppofed to be drawn by the one plane in its
cutting or entering the other.

If a fphere be cut in any manner, the plane of the feftion
will be a circle, whofe centre is in the diameter of the fphere.

The feftions of the cone are five, ws. a circle, triangle,
parabola, hyperbida, and ellipfis. See each under its proper
article. See alfo Cone.

Sections, Conic. See Conic Se3lons.

Section, Axis of n Conic. See Axis.

Section, Centre of a Cmk. See Center.

Section, Diameter of a Conic. See Diameter.

Section, Tangent of a C'jnlc. See Tan«ent.

Sections, Follcwlng, SeHlones Sequentes, in Conies, may
be tlius conceived : fuppole two right lines, as A B, C D,
(Plate XIII. Analyfis, fig. 5.) mutually interfering one
another in E, which point E is fuppofed to be the common
centre of the oppofite hyperbolic fections F, G, H, I, and
whofe common afymptoles, the propofed hncs A B, C Di
alfo are. In this cafe, the fections G, F, and H, I, are
called fedlones fequentes ; becaufe they are placed following
one another in tiie contiguous angles of two interfering
right lines.

If the determinate diameter, H G, of one of the fedlones
fequentes (which is coincident with the fuppofed indeter-
minate diameter of its oppofite) be equal to the vertical
tangent K L, apphed between the afymptotes in the point
G, of the diameter G F ; then Apollonius calls fuch fec-
tions, conjugate feSlons. See Genejis of the Hyperbola, under
Conic Sedlons.

Sectwns, Oppofite. See Opposite.

1 Sections*

SEC

.SEC

Sections, Similar. See Similar.

Section of a Building denotes its profile, or a delinea-
tion of its heights and depths raifed on the plan ; as if the
fabric was cut afinidcr, to difcovcr the infide.

Section, Hoi-i-^onial. Sec Ichnoguaphy.

SECTIS non Facicndisi in Law, a writ brought by a
woman, who for her dower, &c. ought not to perform fuit
of court.

SECTOR, in AJlrnnomy, the name of two different aftro-
nomical inftriiments, for mcafuring fmall angular diftancea in
the heavenly regions ; one of which has a motion in or pa-
rallel to the equator, and the other is direfted to the zenith.
The conftruftion and ufe of each of thcfe inftruments may
be feen under the refpeftive titles of Equatorial SeBor,
and Zenith Scilor.

Sector, in Geometry, a part of a circle comprehended
between the radii and the arc.

Thus the mixed triangle A C D (.Plate XIII. Geometry,
fg. 5.) comprehended between the radii A C and C D, and
the arc AD, is a feBor of the circle.

It is demon llrated ijy geometricians, that the feftor of a
circle, as A C D, is equal to a triangle, whofe bafe is the
arc A D, and its altitude the radius A C.

If from the common centre of two concentric circles be
drawn two radii to the periphery of the outer, the two arcs
included between the radii will have the fame ratio to their
peripheries ; and the two feftors, the fame ratio to the areas
of their circles.

To find the area of a feftor D C E ; the radius of the
circle C D, and the arc D E, being given. To 100,314,
and the radius D C, find a fourth proportional number ;
this will be the femiperiphery : then to 180 degrees, the
given arc D E, and the femiperiphery jiilt found, find
another fourth proportional ; this will give the arc D E in
the fame meafure in which the radius D C is given : lailly,
multiply the arc D E into the femiradius, and the produA
is the area of the feftor.

In order to find the area of any feclor of a circle. Dr.
Hutton, in his " Menfuration," has given the two fol-
lowing rules.

Rule I. — Multiply the radius by half the arc of the feftor,
and the produft will be the area, as in the whole circle.
For the demonftration of this, fee the article Circm:.
Putting r = the radius of a circle, (/=^ the diameter, A =
the area of a feftor of it, a = the length of the arc of the
feftor, b = the degrees in ~ a, s :^ half the chord of the
arc a, or the fine of - a, and v — the verfod fine of i a :
then, by multiplying the radius by half the arc, by a va-
riety of rules which Dr. Hutton has dated, wc (hall have,

I. A ~ ^ a r = . 1745329 brr, 2. A = r \^ J-y X

2 . 3 rf 2 .4. 5 rf' 2 .4. 6. 7/i

A:

/ 3 ■"
\ / — ", ) nearly. 6. A

V 3 rf — Tl '

X isd

"I 4 \/ -- , nearly. It appears thxt the area of the

feftor might be exprctled in feveral other ways ; fuch as bj
the tangent, cofine, &c. of its femi-arc ; but the formt
above given arc thofe that are the mod ufeful.

Rule 1 1. — As 360 is to the degrees in the arc of the feAor,
fo is the whole area of the circle to the area of the feftor.

Sector alfo denotes a mathematical inllrument, of grest
ufe in finding the proportion between quantities of the fame
kind ; as between lines and lines, furfaces and furfaces, &c. :
whence the French call it the compafs of proportion.

Tlie great advantage of the lector above the common
fcalcs, &c. is, that it is made fo as to fit all radiufcs, and
all fcales. By the lines of chords, fines, &c. on the feftor,
we have lines ol chords, fines, &c. to any radiu« betwixt
the length and breadth of the feftor when open.

The feftor is founded on the fourth propofition of the
fixth book of Euclid ; where it is demonltrated, that fimilar
triangles have their homoloprous fides proportional. An
idea of the theory of its conftrnftion may be conceived tims.
Let the lines A B, AC (PlaleXWl. Geometry, fg. b.)
reprcfcnt the legs of the feftor ; and AD, A E, two equal
feftions from the centre : if, now, the points C B and D E
be conncfted, the lines C B and D E will be parallel :
therefore the triangles A D E, A C B, will be fimilar;
and, confequently, the fides A D, D E, A B, and B C,
proportional; tliat is, as AD : DE :: AB : BC;
whence, if A D be the half, third, or fourth part of A B,
D E will be a half, third, or fourth part of C B ; and the
fame holds of all the rcll.

If, therefore, A D be the cliord, fine, or tangent, of
any number of degrees to the radius A B ; D E will be the
fame to the radius B C.

Sector, Defcription of the. The inllrument confifti of
two rulers, or legs, of hrafs or ivory, or any other matter,
reprefenting the radii, moveable round .in axis or joint, the
middle of which expredcs the centre ; whence feveral fcalcs
arc drawn on the faces of the rulers. See P/a/cXIII. Geo-
vtetry. Jig. 7.

The icalcs generally put on fcftors may be diftinguifticd
into finglc and double. The fingle fcales arc fuch as arc
commonly put upon plain fcales ; the double (eales arc thofc
which proceed from the centre : each fcale is laid twice on
the fame face of the iiidrmnent, i-iz. once on each leg : from
thefe fcales, dimenfiuns or dillances are to be taken, when
the legs of the inllrument are in an angular pofition.

The fcales commonly put upon the bed fcftors are

" i") (Tnches, each inch divided into 8 and 10 parti-
2 Decimals, containing 100 parts.

'1

.1

4

5
6

7
8

9
10
1 1
12

'3

L14J

o

^ 5''-3'" g

1 '^

2

w-

3

0

4

'> s <

5

6

L 7J

I

chords.

Sines,

Tangents,

Khumbi,
^ J Latitude,
;= "j Hours,

I^ongitudc,

liiclin. Merid.

Numbers,
Siuci,

Vcrfed fines.
Tangents,

' Linen, or of equal parts.

Chords,

Sines,

Tangents to 45°,

Secants,

Tangents to above 45°,
i. Polygon;.,

fCho.

Sin.

Tang.

Rum.

Lat.

Hou.

Lon.

111. Mer.

Num.

Sill.

V. Sin.
(.Tan.

■» Lin.
Cho.
Sim.
Tan.
Sec.
Tan.
Pol.

The

SECTOR.

The manner m which thefe fcales are difpofed of on the
I'eAor, is bell feen in the figure.

The fcales of lines, chords, fines, tangents, rhumbs, la-
titudes, hours, longitude, incl. merid. may be ufed, whether
the inllrument is (hut or open, eacli of thefe fcales being
contained on one of the legs only. The fcales of inches,
decimals, log. numbers, log. fines, log. verfed fines, and
log. tangents, are to be ufed with the feftor quite opened,
part of each fcale lying oh both legs.

The double fcales of lines, chords, fines, and lower tan-
gents, or tangents under 45 degrees, are all of the fame
radius or length : they begin at the centre of the inilrument,
and are terminated near the other extremity of each leg ;
viz. the lines at the divifion ic, the chords at 60, tlie fines
at 90, and the tangents at 45 ; the remainder of the tan-
gents, or thofe above 45 degrees, are on other fcales be-
ginning at one-fourth of the length of the former, counted
from the centre, where they are marked with 45, and run
to about 76 degrees.

The fecants alfo begin at the fame diftance from the
centre, where they are marked with 10, and are from
thence continued to as many degrees as the length of the
feftor will allow, which is about 75 degrees.

The angles made by the double icales of lines, of chords,
of fines, and of tangents, to 45 degrees, are always equal.
And the angles made by the fcales of upper tangents, and
of fecants, are alfo equal ; and fometimes thefe angles are
made equal to thofe made by the other double fcales. The
fcales of polygons are put near the inner edge of the legs,
their beginning is not fo far removed from the centre, as the
60 on the chords is. Where thefe fcales begin, they are
marked with 4, and from thence are figured backwards, or
towards the centre, to 12.

From this difpofition of the double fcales, it is plain,
that thofe angles which were equal to each other, while
the legs of the feAor were clofe, will Itill continue to be
equal, although the feftor be opened to any dillance it will
admit of.

The fcale of inches is laid clofe to the edge of the feclor,
and fometimes on the edge ; and contains as many inches as
the intlniment will receive when opened : each inch being
ufually divided into eight, and alfo into ten equal parts.
The decimal fcale lies next to this : it is of the length of
the fedlor, when opened, and is divided into ten equal parts,
or primary divifions, and each of thefe into ten other equal
pa. ts ; fo that the whole is divided into a hundred equal
parts : and if the fetlor admits of it, each of the fubdivitions
is divided into two, four, or five parts ; and by this decimal
fcale, all the other fcales, that are t'lken from tables, may
be laid do .v;i. The length of a feftor is ufually underftood
when it is (liut ; and, therefore, a feftor of fix inches makes
a ruler of twelve inches when opened ; and a foot feftor is
two feet long, when quite opened. The fcales of chords,
rhumbs, fines, tangents, hours, latitudes, longitudes, and
inclina: ms of meridians, are fuch as are defcribed under
Plane Scale.

The fca),' of logarithmic or artificial numbers, called
Gunter's fcale, or Gunter's line, is a fcale exprelTing the
logarithms of common numbers, taken in their natural
order.

For the conftruftion of thif fcale, and alfo of thofe of
logarithmic fines, logarithmic tangents, and logarithmic
verlt'd fines, fee Gunter's Line, and Gun'Teu's Scale.

We (hall here obfcrvc, that all thefe fcales (hould have
one common termination to one end of each fcale, i. e. the
10 on the numbers, the 90 on the fines, the o on the verfed
fines, and the 45 on the tangents, fliould be oppofite to

each other : the other end of each of the fcales ef finei,
verfed fines, and tangents, will run out beyond the beginning
(marked i) of the numbers; nearly oppofite to which will
be the divifions reprefenting 35 minutes on the fines and
tangents, and 168^ degrees on the verfed fines.

The double fcales are conftruftcd in the following manner.
The line of lines is only a fcale of equal parts, whofe
length is adapted to that of the legs of the feftor : thus,
in the fix-inch feftor, the length is about 5|- inches.
The length of this fcale is divided into primary divifions;
each of thefe into ten equal fecondary parts ; and each
fecondary divifion into four equal parts. The accuracy of
the divifion may be determined by taking between the com-
paffes any number of equal parts from this line, and apply-
ing that diitance to all the parts of the line ; and if the
fame number of divifions be contained between the points
of the compatTes in every application, the fcale may be re-
ceived as perfeft. The line of fines is conltruftcd by making
the whole length of this fcale equal to that of the line of m
lines ; and from this line, taking off leverally the parts (1
exprefTed by the numbers in the tables of the natural fines,
correfponding to the degrees, or to the degrees and minutes,
intended to be laid upon the fcale : and then by laying down
thefe feveral dillances on the fcale, beginning from the centre.
In fcales of this length, it is cuftomary to lay down divifions,
exprefling every 15 minutes, from o degree to 60 degrees ;
between 60 and 80 degrees, every half degree is exprefled ;
then every degree to 85 ; and the next is 90 degrees.
The length of the fcale of tangents is equal to that of the
line of lines, and the feveral divifions upon it (to 45 degrees)
are laid down from the tables and line of lines, in the fame
manner as the former ; obferving to ufe the natural tangents
in the tables. The fcale of upper tangents is laid down, by
taking 5 of fuch of the natural tabular tangents above 45
degrees, as are intended to be put upon the fcale. The
beginning of this fcale, at 45 degrees, though the pofition
of it on the feftor refpefts the centre of the inftrument, is
dillant from the centre 5 of the length or radius of the lower
tangents.

The diftance of the beginning of the fcale of fecants from
the centre, and the manner of laying it down, are the fame
as thofe of the upper tangents : except that in this the
tabular fecants are to be ufed.

For the fcale of chords ; its length is to be made equal
to that of the fines ; aad the divifions, which are twice the
length of the fines of half the degrees and minutes counted
from the centre, cxprefs every 15 minutes from o degrees
to 60 degrees, to be laid down as in the fcale of fines.

The fcale of polygons ufually comprehends the fides of the
polygons from fix to twelve fides mclufive. The divifions
are laid down by taking the lengths of the chords of the
angles at the centre of each polygon, and laying them down
from the centre of the initrument. When the polygons of
four and five fides are alfo introduced, this line is conllrufted
from a fcale of chords, where the length of 90 degrees is
equal to that of 60 degrees of the double fcale of chords
on the feftor. Inftead of fome of the double fcales above
defcribed, there are found other fcales on the old feftors,
and alfo on fome of the French ones, fuch as fcales of fuper-
ficies, of folids, of infcribed bodies, of metals, &c. ; but
thefe are left out to make room for others of more general
ufe. See Caliber.

In defcribing the ufe of the feftor, the terms lateral
dyiance, and tranfuerfe diftance, often occur. By the for-
mer is meant the diitance taken with the compaftes on one
of the fcales only, beginning at the centre of the feftor ;
and by the latter, the dillance taken between any two cor-
refponding

SECTOR.

refponding divifions of the fcales of the fame name, the legs
of the feflor being in an angular pofition : but in taking
thefe tranfverfe dillances, it is to be obferved, that each of
the feveral fcales hath three parallel lines, acrofs which the
divifions of the fcale are marked, and that the points of the
compafles mult be always fet on the infide hne, or that hne
next the inner edge of the leg, which is the only line, in
each fcale, which runs to the centre.

For the ufe of the logarithmic fcale of numbers, fee
Gunter's Line.

Sector, Ufe of the Line of Lines on the. I. To divide a
given line into any number of equal parts ; e. g. 9. Make
the length of the given line, or feme known part of it, a
tranfverfe diftance to 9 and 9 : then will the tranfverfe
diftance of i and i be the ^th part of it ; or fwch a fub-
multiple of the ^th part, as was taken of the given line :
or the 4th part will be the difference between the given line
and the tranfverfe diftance of 8 and 8.

Hence, 2. To make a fcale of a given length, to contain
a given number of equal parts ; e. g. let the fcale to the map
of a furvey be 6 inches long, and contain 140 poles, and let
it be required to open the fedfor, fo that a correfponding
fcale may be taken from the line of lines. Make the tranf-
verfe diftance 7 and 7 (or 70 and 70, viz.. ^i") equal to 3
inches (=i -j) ; and this pofition of the line of lines will
produce the given fcale.

3. To divide a given line {e.g. of 5 inches) into any
affigned proportion, as of 4 to 5. Make j inches, the
length of the given line, a traiilverle diftance to 9 and 9, the
fum of the propofcd parts ; and the tranfverfe diftances of
the afligned numbers, 4 and 5, will be the parts required.

4. To two given lines, viz. 2 and 6, to find a third pro-
portional. Take between the compafles the lateral diftance
of the fccond term, -viz. 6 ; let one point on the divifion
expreffing the firft term, w'z. 2 on one leg, and open the
legs of the feftor till the other point will fall on the cor-
refponding divifion on the other leg : keeping the legs of
the feftor in this pofition, take the tranfverfe diftance of
the fecond term, viz. 6, and this diftance is the third term
required, which diftance, meafured laterally from the centre,
will give 18, the number required : for 2 : 6 :: 6:18.
Otherwife, take the diftance 2 laterally, and apply it tranf-
verfely to 6 and 6, the fedlor being properly opened : then
the tranfverfe diftance at 2 and 2, being taken with the
compafles, and applied laterally from the centre of the
feftor on the fcale of lines, will give tlie third term, when
the proportion is decreafing ; for 6 : 2 :; 2 : -?• If the legs
of the fctlor will not open (o far as to let the lateral diftance
of the fccond term fall between the divifions expreffing the
firft term; then take ~, ', 4, or any aliquot part of the
fecond term, th.it will conveniently fall within the opening
of the feftor, and make fuch part the tranfverfe diftance of
the firft term : then, if the tranfverfe diftance of the fecond
term be multiplied by the denominator of the part taken
of the fecond term, the product will give the third term.

5. To tliree given lines, w'z. 3, 7, and 10, to find a fourth
proportional. Open the legs of the feftor, till the tranf-
verfe diftance of the firft term, 3, be equal to the lateral
diftance of the fecond term, 7, or to fome part of it ; then
will the tranfverfe diftance of the third term, 10, give the
fourth term, 234, required ; or fuch a fubmultiple of it, as
was taken of the fecond term ; for 3:7:: 10 : 23;.
Otherwife, fct the lateral diftance, 7, tranfverfely from
10 to 10, opening the feftor accordingly ; and the tranfverfe
diftance, at 3 and 3, applied laterally, will give 2-r'o ; fer
10 : 7 :: 3 : 2^,.

6. To dimmifti a line of four inches, in the proportion of

10

8 to 7. Open the feftor till the tranlverfe diltancc of
8 and 8 be equal to the lateral diftance of 7 : mark tl»e
point, where four inches, as a lateral diftance, taken from the
centre, reaches ; and the tranfverfe diftance taken at that
point will be the hne required. If the line fhould be too
long for the legs of the feftor, take ^, ,, or J, &c. part of
the given line for the lateral diftance, and the correfponding
tranfverfe diftance, taken twice, thrice, or four times, &c.
will be the hne required.

7. To open the feftor, fo that the two fcales of lines (hall
make a right angle. Take the lateral diftance from the
centre to the divifion marked 5, between the points of the
compaffes, and fet one foot in the divifion marked 4, on
one of the fcales of fines ; and open the legs of the feftor
till the other foot falls on the divifion marked 3, on the
other fcale of fines, and then will thofe fcales ftand at right
angles to one another ; for the fines 3, 4, 5, or any of their
multiples, conftitute a right-angled triangle.

8. To two right lines given, e.g. 40 and 90, to find a mean
proportional. Set the two fcales of lines at right angles; find
the half fum of the given lines, <u(z. 65, and the half dif-
ference, wz. 25, and take with the compaft^es the lateral
diftance of the half fum, 65, and apply one foot to the halt
difference, 25, the other foot tranfverfely will reach to 60,
the mean proportional required ; for 40 : 60 :: 60 : 90.

Sector, Lffe of the Scale of ChorJs on the. I. To open
the feftor fo that the two fcales of chords may make aa
angle of any number of degrees, e. g. 40. Take the diftance
from the joint to 40, the number of degrees propoled on
the fcale of chords ; open the feftor till the tranfverfe
diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, be equal to the afore-
faid lateral diftance of 40 : then do the fcales of chords
make the angle required.

2. The feftor being opened, to find the degrees of its
aperture. Take the extent from 60 to 60, and lay it off
on the fcale of chords from the centre : the number, where
it terminates, ftiews the degrees of its opening. By apply-
ing lights on the fcales of chords, the feftor may be ufcd to
take angles, as a (urveying inftrument.

3. To protraft or lay down an angle of any given number
of degrees, i. Let the number of degrees be lefs than 60,
vi%. 46. At any opening of the feftor, take tlie tranfvcrlc
diftance of 60 and 60 on tlie chords ; and with this open-
ing defcribe an arc : take the tranfvirle diftance of the
given number of degrees, 46, and !.iy this diftance on
the arc defcribed, marking its extremitii-s : from the
centre of the arc, through thefe extremities, .draw two
lines, and they will contain the angle required. 2. Whoi
the degrees given are more than 60, I'iz. 14S ; defcribe
the arc as before ; take the tranlverfe diftance of .; or ; of
the given degrees, 148, e.g. -! = 49; degrees: lay this
diftance on the arc thrice : and from the centre draw two
lines to the extremities of the arc thus diterniined, and they
will contain the required angle. N. B. If tlie radius of
the arc or circle is to be of a given length, then make the
tranfverfe diftance of 60 and 60, equal to that aftigiied
length.

4. To find the degrees which a given angle contains.
About the vertex defcribe an arc, and open tiie feclor till
the diftance from 60 to fio, on each leg, be equal to the
radius of the circle ; then taking the chord of the arc be-
tween the compalles, and carrying it on the legs of the
feftor, fee what equal number, on each leg, the points of
the compaftes fall on : this is the quantity of degrees the
given angle contains.

5. To take an arc, of any quantity, from off the cir-
cumference of a circle. Open the feCtor till the diftance

from

SECTOR.

from 60 to 60 b? equal to the radius of the given circle ;
then take the extent of the chord of the number of degrees,
on each leg of the feAor, and lay it off on the circumference
of the given circle. By this ufe, may any regular polygon
be infcribed in a given circle, as well as by the line of poly-
gons : e. g. in a circle whofe diameter is given to defcribe a
regular polygon of 24 fides. Make the given diameter a
tranfverfe dillance from 60 to 60 on the fcales of chords ;
divide 360 by 24, and take the tranfverfe diftance of 15 and
15, the quotient, and this will be the chord of the twenty-
fourth part of the circumference. In order to prevent errors,
where the diftance is to be repeated feveral times, it will be
beft to proceed thus : with the chord of 60 degrees divide
the circumference into fix equal parts ; in every divifion of 60
degrees lay down, firft, the chord of 15 degrees, and next
the chord of 30 degrees, and then the chord of 45 degrees,
beginning always at the fame point. Thus the error in
taking diftances will not be multiplied into any of the divi-
fions following the firft.

Sector, Ufe of the Line of Polygons on the. I. In a given
circle to infcribe a regular polygon, e. g. an oftagon. Open
the legs of the feftor, till the tranfverfe diftance of 6 and 6
be equal to the given diameter, then will the tranfverfe dif-
tance of 8 and 8 be the fide of an oftagon, which may be
infcribed in the given circle. In like manner may any other
polygon, the number of whofe fides does not exceed 12, be
infcribed in a given circle.

2. On a given line to defcribe a regular polygon, e. g. a
pentagon. Make the given line a tranfverfe diftance to 5
and 5 : at that opening of the feftor, take the tranfverfe
diftance of 6 and 6 ; and with this radius, on the extremi-
ties of the line, as centres, defcribe arcs interfering each
other ; and on the point of interfcftion, as a centre, with
the fame radius, defcribe a circumference palling through
the extremities of the given line ; and in this circle may the
pentagon, whofe fide is given, be infcribed. By a like pro-
cefs may any other polygon, of not more than 12 fides, be
defcribed on a given line.

3. On a right line, to defcribe an ifofceles triangle, hav-
ing the angles at the bafe double that at the vertex. Open
the feftor till the ends of the given line fall on 10 and 10 on
each leg : then take the di'lance from 6 to 6 ; this will be
the length of the two equal fides of the triangle.

Sector, Ufe of the Scales of Sines, Tangents, and Secants
on the. By the feveral lines difpofed on the feftor, we have
fcales to feveral radiufes : fo that, i, having a length, or
radius, given, not exceeding the length of the feftor when
opened, we find the chord, fine, &c. thereto: e.g. fuppofe
the chord, fine, or tangent, of 10 degrees to a radius of three
inches required. Make three inches the aperture, or tranf-
verfe diftance, between 60 and 60 on the fcales of chords
of the two legs ; then will the fame extent reach from 45
to 45 on the fcale of tangents, and from 90 to 90 on the
fcale of fines on the other fide : fo that to whatever radius
the line of chords is fet, to the fame are all the others fet.
In this difpofition, therefore, if the aperture, or tranfverfe
diftance, between 10 and ic, on the fcales of chords, be
taken with the compafies, it will give the chord of 10 de-
grees; if the tranfverfe diftance of 10 and 10 be in like
manner taken, on the fcales of fine?, it will be the fine of
10 degrees: laltly, if the tranfverfe diftance of 10 and 10
be in like manner taken on the fcales of tangents, it gives
the tangent of 10 degrees to the fame radius.

2. If the chord, or tangent, of 70 degrees were required,
for the chord, the tranfverfe diftance of half the arc, viz.
35, muft be taken, as before ; which diftance, being re-
peated twice, gives the chord of 70 degrees. To find the

tangent of 70 degrees, to the fame radius, {he fcale of
upper tangents muft be ufcd, the other only reaching to 45 :
making, therefore, three inchc'; the tranfverfe diftance between
45 and 4) at tlie beginning of that fcale ; the extent between
70 and 70 degrees, on the fame, will be the tangent of 70
degrees to tlirec inches radius.

3. To find the fecant of an arc, make the given radiu*
the tranfverfe diftnnce between o and o on the line of fe-
cants ; then will the tranfverfe diftance of 10 and 10, or 70
and 70, on tlie faid lines, give the fecant of 10 degrees, or
70 degrees.

The fcales of upper tangents and fecants do not run
quite to 76 degrees ; but tiiofe of a greater number of de-
grees may be found by tlie feftor in the following manner.
Thus, the tangent of any number of degrees may be taken
from the feftor at once ; if the radius of the circle can be
made a tranfverfe diftance to the complement of thofe de-
grees on the lower tangent. H.g. To find the tangent of 78
degrees to a radius of two inches. Make two inclies a tranf-
verfe diftance of 12 degrees on the lower tangents ; then the
tranfverfe diftance of 45 degrees will be the tangent of 78 de-
grees. In like manner the fecant of any number of degrees
may be taken from the fines, if the radius of the circle can
be made a tranfverfe diftance to the cofine of thofe degrees.
Thus, making two inches a tranfverfe diftance to the fine of
12 degrees, then the tranfverfe diftance of 90 and 90 will be
the fecant of 78 degrees. Hence it will be eafy to find tlie
degrees anfwering to a given line, cxprefling the length of
a tangent or fecant, which is too long to be meafured on
thofe fcales, when the feftor is fet to the given radius.
Thus, for a tangent, make the given line a tranfverfe dif-
tance to 45 and 45 on the lower tangents ; then take the
given radius, and apply it to the lower tangents : and the
degrees, where it becomes a tranfverfe diftance, give the co-
tangent of the degrees anfwering to the given line. And for
a fecant, make the given line a tranfverfe diftance to 90 and
90 on the fines : then the degrees anfwering to the given
radius, applied as a tranfverfe diftance on the fines, will
be the cofine of the degrees anfwering to the given fecant
line.

4. If the converfe of any of thefe things were required,
that is, if the radius be required, to which a given line is
the fine, tangent, or fecant ; it is but making the given line,
if a chord, the tranfverfe diftance on the line of chords,
between 10 and 10, and then the feftor will ftand at the
radius required ; that is, the aperture between 60 and 60, on
the faid line, is the radius.

If the given line were a fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but
making it the tranfverfe diftance of the given number of
degrees ; then will the diftance of 90 and 90 on the fines, of
45 and 45 on the lower tangents near the end of the feftor,
and of 45 and 45 on the upper tangents towards the centre
of the feftor, and of o and o on the fecants, be the radius.

J. If the radius, and any line reprefenting a fine, tangent,
or fecant, be given, the degrees c.^rrefponding to that line
may be found by fetting the feftor to the given radius, ac-
cording as a fine, tangent, or fecant, is concerned ; taking
the given line betvrccn the compafies, applying the two feet
tranfverfely to the fcale concerned, and fliding the feet along
till they both reft on like divifions on both leg? ; and the
divifions will fhew the degrees and parts correfponding to
the given line.

For the method of determining the degrees anfwering to
any tangent, or fecant, that cannot be thus meafured, fee
above.

6. To find the length of a verfed fine to a given number
of degrees, and a given radius. Make the tranfverfe dif-
tance

SECTOR.

tance of 90 and 90 in tlie fines equal to the given radius ;
take the tranfverfe diflance of the fine complement of the
given degrees ; if the given degrees are lefs than 90, the dif-
ference, but if greater, the fum of the fine complement and
radius gives the verfed line.

7. To open tile legs of the feftor fo that the correfponding
double fcales of lines, chords, fines, tangents, may make,
each of them, a right angle. On the lities, make the lateral
diftance 10, a diftance between 8 on one leg, and 6 on the
other leg ; on the fines, make the lateral dillance 90 a tranf-
verfe dillance from 45 to 45, or from 40 to 50, or from 30
to 60, or from the fine of any degrees to their complement ;
or, on the fines, make the lateral diftance of 45 a tranfverfe
diftance between 30 and 30.

Sector, in Trigonometry, Ufc of the. I. The bafe and
perpendicular of a right-angled triangle being given, to find
the hypothenufe. Suppofe the bafe AC [Plate Trigo-
nometry, Jig. 5.) 40 miles, and the perpendicular A B 30 ;
open the fedlor till the two fcales of lines make a right angle ;
then, ior the bafe, take 40 parts on the fcale of lines on one
leg ; and, for the perpendicular, take 30 on the fame fcale on
the other leg ; then the extent from 40 on the one to 30 on
the other, taken in the compafles, will be the length of the
hypothenufe ; which line, applied to the fcale of lines, will
be found ^o miles.

2. The perpendicular A B of a right-angled triangle
ABC being given, 30, and the angle B C A 37 degrees ;
to find the hypothenufe B C. Take the given fide A B,
and fet it over, on each fide, on the fine of the given angle
A C B ; then the parallel diftance of 90 and 90 or radius,
will be the hypothenufe B C ; which will mealure 50 on the
fcale of lines.

3. The hypothenufe and bafe being given, to find the per-
pendicular. Open the feftor till the two fcales of lines be
at right angles ; then lay off the given bafe on one of thofe
fcales from the centre ; take the hypothenufe in your com-
pafTes, and fetting one foot in the term of the given bafe, let
the other fall on the fcale of lines on the other leg ; the dif-
tance from the centre to the point where the compafles fall
will be the length of the perpendicular.

4. The hypothenufe being given, and the angle A C B ;
to find the perpendicular. Make the given hypothenufe a
parallel radius, i. e. make it the extent from 90 to 90 on tiie
fcales of fines ; then will the parallel fine of the angle A C B
be the length of the fide A B.

J. The bafe and perpendicular A B given, to find the
angle B C A. Lay off the bafe A C, on both fides the
fe£tor, from the centre, and note its extent ; then take the
given perpendicular, and to it open the feftor in the terms of
the bafe ; the parallel radius will be the tangent of B C A.

6. In any right-lined triangle, two fides being given, witli
the included angle ; to find the third fide. Suppofe the fide
A C (Jig. 6. ) 20, the fide B C 30, and the included angle
ACB I 10 degrees; open the feftor till the two fciles of lines
make an angle equal to the given angle, viz. 110 degrees;
lay off the given fides of the triangle, from the centre of the
feftor, on each of the fcales of lines ; the extent between tiieir
extremes is the leni;th of the fide A B fought.

7. The ai'gles CAB and ACB given, and the fide C B ;
to find the bafe A B. Take the given fide C B, and turn
it into the parallel fme of its opjiofi'.e angle CAB; and tiien
the parallel fine of the ancle ACB will be the length of the
bafe A B.

8. The three angles of a triangle being given ; to find the
proportion of the fides. T:ike the lateral fines of the
feveral angle?, and meafure tiiem in the fciile of lines ; the
numbers anfwcring to which give the proportion of the fides.

9. The three fides being given, to find the angle ACB.
Lay the fides AC, C B, along the fcales of lines, from
the centre, and fet over the fide A B in their terms ; fo i.
the feftor opened, in thefe lines, to the quantity of the
angle ACB. 1 J

10. The hypothenufe AC {fg. 7.) of a right-angled
fphencal triangle ABC, given, r. g. 43 degrees, and the
angle CAB 20 degrees ; to find the fide C B. The rule
is, as radius is to the fine of the given hypothenufe 43 de-
grees, fo ii the fine of the given angle 20 degrees to the fine
of the perpendicular C B. Take then 20 degrees from the
centre, along the fcale of fines, in your compaffcs, and fet
the extent from 90 to 90 on the two legs ; and the parallel
fine of 43 degrees, the given hypothenufe, will, when mea-
fured from the centre on the fcale of fines, give 13° 30', the
fide required.

11. The perpendicular B C, and the hypothenufe AC,
given, to find the bafe A B. As the fine complement of
the perpendicular B C is to radius, fo is the fine comple-
ment of the hypothenufe to the fine complement of the
bafe. Therefore make the radius a parallel fine of the
complement of the given perpendicular, e.gr. 76° 30' ; then
the parallel fine of the complement of the hypothenufe, e. gr.
47°, meafured along the fcale of fines, will be found 49'
25', the complement of the bafe required ; confequently the
bafe itfelf will be 40'' 35'.

Sector, in Geometry, y<r. particular u/et of the. I. To
make a regular polygon, whole area (liall be of any given
magnitude. Let the fii^'ure required be a pentagon, whofo
fuperficial area is 125 feet ; extraft the fquare root of .^ of
125, it will be found 5. Make a fquare, whofe fide is
5 feet ; and, by the line of polygons, as already direfted,
make the ifofceles triangle C G 1) [Plate Yl.W\. Geometry,
Jig. 8.) fo as that C G being the femi-diameter of a circle,
C D may be the fide of a regular pentagon infcribed in it ;
then let fall the perpendicular G E. Then continuing the
lines E G and E C, make E F equal to the fide of the fquare
before made ; and from the point F, draw the right hne
F H parallel to G C ; then a mean proportional between
G E and E F will be equal to half the fide of the polygon
fought, which, doubled, will give the whole fide. The
fide of the pentagon thus had, the pentagon itfelf may be
defcribed, as above direfted.

2. A circle being given, to find a fquare equal to it.
Divide the diameter into fourteen equal parts, by the fcale
of lines, as above direfted; then will 12.4 of tiiofe parts,
found by the fame line, be the fide of the fquare fought.

3. A fquare being given, to find the diameter of a circle
ecHial to it. Divide tlie fide of the Iquare into eleven equal
parts, by means of the fcale of lines ; and continue that
fide to 1 2.4 parts; this will be the diameter of the circle re-
quired.

4. To find the fide of a fquare equal to an ellipfis, whofr
tranfverfe and conjugate diameters ;irc given. Find a mean
proportional between the tranlverfe and conjugate diameters;
which being divided into fourteen equal parts, I2,*j of it
will be the fide of the fquare required.

5. To dcfcribe an ellipfis in any given ratio of its dia-
meter, the area of which fliall be equal to a given (qiiare.
Suppofe the proportion of the tranlverfe and conjugate dia-
meters be required, as 2 to i ; divide the lide of the given
fquare into eleven equal parts ; then, as 2 is to I, fo is 1 1
X 14 =: 154 to a fourth numl)er ; the fquare root of which
is the conjugate diameter fought. Then, .is 1 is to 2, fo is
the conjugate diameter to the trurfvrrfc. Now,

6. To dclcrlbe an ellipfis, by having the tranlverfe and
conjugate diameters given. Let the two diameters A D,

SEC

SEC

CD, bifett each other at right angles in E (Plate XIU.
Geometry, Jig. 9.) Make A E a tranfverfe diameter to 90
and 90 on the fines ; and take the tranfverfe diftances of 10°,
20°, 30°, 40°, jo^, 60°, 70°, 80°, fucceflively, and apply
thofe diftances to A E from E towards A, as at the points
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ; and through thofe points draw lines
parallel to E C ; make E C a tranfverfe diftance to 90 and
90 on the fines ; take the tranfverfe diftances of 80°, 70°,
60°, 50°, 40°, 30°, 20°, 10°, fucceffively, and apply thofe
diftances to the parallel lines from I to i, 2 to 2, 3 to 3,
4 to 4, 5 to 5, 6 to 6, 7 to 7, 8 to 8, and fo many points
will be obtained, through which the curve of the ellipfis is to
pafs. The fame work being done in all the four quadrants,
the eUiptical curve may be completed. In the conftruftion
of folar eclipfes, inftead of ufing the fines to every ten de-
grees, the fines belonging to the degrees and minutes cor-
refponding to the hours and quarter hours, are to be ufed.

7. To defcribe a parabola whofe parameter (hall be equal
to a given fine. Draw a line to reprefent the axis, in which
make AB (_/^. 10.) equal to half the given parameter;
divide A B, like a line of fines, into every ten degrees, as at
the points 10, 20, 30,40, 50, &c. and through thefe points
draw lines at right angles to the axis A B. Make the lines
A a, lob, 20c, ^od, 40f, &c. refpeftively equal to the
chords of 90°, 80°, 70°, 60°, 50°, &c. to the radius A B,
and the points a, b, c, d, e, &c. will be in the curve of a para-
bola ; and a fmooth curve line drawn through thofe points,
and the vertex B, will reprefent the parabolic curve re-
quired.

N. B. As the chords on the feftor run no farther than 60,
thofe of 70, 80, and 90, may be found by taking the tranf-
verfe diltance of the fines of 35°, 40°, 45°, to the radius
A B, and applying thofe diftances twice along the lines 20 c,
10 b, See.

8. To defcribe an hyperbola, the vertex A, and afymp-
totes B H, B I, being given (Jig. 11.) The afymptotes
B H, B I, being drawn, the line B A bifefting the angle
I B H, and the vertex A taken, draw A I, AC, parallel
to B H, B I. Make A C a tranfverfe diftance to 45 and 4J,
on the upper tangents, and apply to the afymptotes from B
fo many of the upper tangents taken tranfverfely as may be
thought convenient, as BD 50°, BE 55°, B F 6o^ BG
65^ B H 70°, &c. and draw D d, E e, &c. parallel to
A C. Make A C a tranfverfe diftance to 45 and 45, on
the lower tangents ; take the tranfverfe diftances of the co-
tangents before ufed, and lay them on thofe parallel lines :
thus, make T) d - 40°, E e = 35% F/ = 30°, G^ = 25°,
ah ^ 20°, &c. and through the points A, d, e,f, g, h, &c.
draw a curve line, which will be the hyperbola required.

Sector, in Surveying, U/e of the. The bearings of
three places, as A, B, C {Plate VII. Surveying, Jig. i.)
to each other, i. e. the angles A B C, B C A, and C A B,
being given ; and the diftance of each, from a fourth ftand-
ing among them, as D, i. e. B D, D C, and A D, being
given ; to find the diftances of the feveral places A, B, C,
from each other, i. e. to find the lengths of the fides A B,
BC, AC. Having drawn the triangle EFG ijg. 2 )
fimilar to ABC, divide the fide E G in H, fo that E H
may be to H G, as A D to D C, after the manner already
direfted ; and after the hke manner muft E F be divided
in I, fo that E I may be to I F as A D to D B. Then
continuing the fides EG, E F, fay, as E H — H G is to
H G, fo is E H + H G to G K ; and as E I - I F is to
IF, fo let EI + I F be to F M ; which proportions are
eafily wrought by the fcales of lines on the feftor. This
done, bifeft H K and I M in the points L, N ; and about
the faid points as centres, with the diftances L H and I N,

defcribe two circles, interfefting each other in the point O ;
to which, from the angles E, F, G, draw the right lines
E O, F O, and O G, which will have the fame proportion
to each other, as the lines AD, B D, DC. Now, if the
lines E O, F O, and G O, be equal to the given lines
AD, B D, DC, the diftances E F, F G, and E G, wiU
be the diftances of the places required. But if E O, O F,
O G, be lefs than AD, D B, DC, continue them till
P O, OR, and O Q, be equal to them ; then the pointt
P, Q, R, being joined, the diftances PR, R Q, and P Q,
will be the diftances of the places fought. Laftly, if the
lines E O, OF, O G, be greater than AD, D B, DC,
cut off from them lines equal to A D, B D, D C, and join
the points of feAion by three right lines ; the lengths of
the faid three right lines will be the diftances of the three
places fought.

Note, if E H be equal to H G, or E I to I F, the
centres L and N will be infinitely diftant from H and I ;
that is, in the points H and I there muft be perpendiculars
raifed to the fides E F, EG, inftead of circles, till they in-
terfeft each other ; but if E H be lefs than H G, the centre
L will fall on the other fide of the bafe continued ; and the
fame is to be underftood of E I, IF.

The feftor is of efpecial ufe for facilitating the projeAion
of the fphere, both orthographic and ftereographic.

See on the conftruAion and ufe of the feftor, Bion's
Conilruftion, &c. of Mathematical Inttruments, by Stone,
p. 54, &c. edit. I. and Robcrtfon's Treatife of Mathe-
matical Inftruments, &c. p. 30, &c. edit. 2.

Sector 0/ a Sphere, is compofed of a fegment lefs than
a hemifphere, and of a cone having the fame bafe with the
fegment, and its vertex in the centre of the fphere. The
feftor of a fphere, generated by the revolution of the feftor
of a circle CAE {Plate III. Geometry, Jig. 12.) about
the radius A C, is equal to a cone, whofe bafe is equal to
the portion of the fpherical furface generated by the arc
A E, or to the circle defcribed with the radius A E, and
whofe height is equal to C A the radius of the fphere.
Arch, de Sphaer. et Cyl. Maclaurin's Fluxions, Introd,
p. 15. See Sphere.

SECUL, m Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Moldavia ; 5 miles S.W. of Niemecz.

SECULAR, fomething that is temporal; in which fenfe
the word ftandsoppofite to ecclefmjlical.

Thus we fay, fecular power, fecular arm, fecular jurif.
diftion, &c.

Secular is more peculiarly ufed for a perfon who lives at
liberty in the world ; not fhut up in a monaftery, nor bound
by vows, nor fubjefted to the particular rules of any reli«
gious community.

In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to regular.

The Romifh clergy is divided into regular znd fecular.

The regulars pretend, that their itate is much more perfeA
than that of the feculars. Secular priells may hold abbeys
and priories both fimple and conventual, though not re-
gularly, but only in commendam.

It is a maxim, in their canon \-ayi, fecularia fecularibus, i.e.
fecular benefices are only to be given to fecular perfons ; re-
gular only to regular.

Secular Corporation. See Corporation.

Secular Games, Ludi Seculares, in Antiquity, were
folemn games held among the Romans, once in an age ; or,
in a period deemed the extent of the longoft life of man, called
by the Greeks ziiv, a id by the l^aXiu^, fculum.

The fecular games were alfo called Terentine games, ludi
Terentini, either becaufe Maiiius Valerius Tcrentinus pave
occafion to their inftitution ; for having been warned, in a

dream, yti

I

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SEC

dream, to dig in the ground in a place near the Campus
Martius, Called Terentiim, he there found an altar infcribed
to Dis, or Pluto and Proferpine ; upon which, as had been
foretold hii.i in his dream, three of his children, born blind,
obtained their fight ; and he, in gratitude, performed facri-
fices on the fame altar, for three days and three nights fuc-
celliTely. ' Or, finally, by reafon here was an altar of Pluto
buried deep under ground, becaufe the water of the Tyber,
terram tereret, eat into the ground in this place.

The fecular games lafted three days, and as many nights ;
during which time facrifices were performed, theatrical fhows
exhibited, with combats, fports, &c. in the Circus.

Their origin and inftitution are delivered at length by
Val. Maximus ; the occafion of which, according to this
■writer, was to ftop the progrefs of a plague. The firlt
who had them celebrated at Rome, was Valerius Publicola,
the firlt conful created after the expulfion of the kings, in
the year of Rome 245. The ceremonies to be obferved in
them were found prefcribed in one of the books of the
Sibyls ; in which was contained a prophecy to this effedl ;
tiiz. that if the Romans at the beginning of every age fhould
hold folemn games in the Campus Martius to the honour of
Pluto, Proferpine, Juno, Apollo, Diana, Ceres, and the
Parcx, their city (hould ever flourifh, and all nations be
fubjefted to their dominions. Accordingly, they were very
ready to obey the oracle, and in all the ceremonies ufed on
this occafion conformed to its diredions.

At the time of the celebration of the fecular games, he-
ralds were fent to invke all the world to a folemnity which
nobody had ever yet feen, nor was ever to fee again.

They were introduced with extraordinary preparation,
under the diredlion of the quindecemviri ; who dillributed
to the people flambeaux and fulphur, and wheat and other
grain, for an offering. On the firft day after they had
offered facrifices to the above named deities at the Capitol,
they returned to the Campus Martius, where they had
aflembled, and held fports to the honour of Apollo and
Diana. On the fecond day, at the hour appointed by the
oracle, the noble matrons went to the Capitol to fing hymns
to Jupiter ; and on the third day of the fealt, twenty-feven
boys, and as many girls, fung in the temple of Palatine
Apollo hymns and verfes in Greek and Latin, to recom-
mend the city to the proteAion of thofe deities, whom they
particularly honoured by their facrifices.

Authors are not agreed as to the number of years in
which thefe games returned ; partly becaufe the quality of
an age or feculum, among the ancients, is not known ; and
partly on other accounts ; fome will have it, that they were
held once every hundred years ; and that i\\i: feculum, or age,
was our century. Tliis Varro and Livy fecm to exprefs in
very plain terms ; yet others will have it, that feculum com-
prehended a hundred and ten years ; and that the fecular
games only retnrm-d in that period, that is, at the beginning
of every iiith year; which opinion is countenanced by
Horace, in his Secular Poem, ver. 21.

Be this as it will, it is certain they fometimes did not ftay
for the nith, nor even for the 1 00th year, for the cele-
bration of thefe games. The firft were held A. U. C. 245,
or 298 ; the fecond, A. 305, or 408 ; the third, A. 518 ;
the fourth, either A. 605, or 608, or 628. Auguftus held
them in the year of Rome 736, and Claudius again in the
year of Rome 800, and of Chrift 38, r;s. lixty-four years
after the former ; and Domitian, again, in ftill lefs time ;
•viz. in the year of Rome 841, or of Clirill 79, at which
Tacitus afiiHed in quality of quindccimvir, as he himfelf tells
us, Annal. lib. xi. cap. 11. and tliis was the feventh time
4hat Rome had feen them from their firlt inftitution. The

Vol. XXXII.

emperor Severus exhibited them the eighth time, that is, a
hundred and ten years after thofe of Domitian. Zofimus
fays, thefe were the laft ; but he is miftaken, for in the
year of Rome 1000, that is, fifty years after thofe of Se-
verus, the emperor Philip had them celebrated with greater
magnificence than had ever been known. Thofe that were
celebrated by permillion of the emperor Honorius, after
Iiaviiig received the news of the viftory of Stilicon over
Alaric, were the laft recorded in hiftory. Zofimus afcribes
the decline of the empire to the negleft of thefe games
among the Romans. We find them reprefcnted on many
medals.

Secular Poem. See Seculare carmen.

Secular Tear, the fame with jubilee.

SECULARE Carmen, Secular poem, a poem fung, or
rehearfed, at the fecular games.

Of this kind we have a very fine piece among the works
of Horace ; it is a fapphic ode, wliich ufually conies at the
end of his epodes. In fome editions, the twenty-firft ode of
the firft book is alfo called " Carmen Seculare."

SECULARIZATION, the adion of fecularizing, or
of converting a regular perfon, place, or benefice, into a
fecular one.

Almoft all the cathedral churches were anciently regular,
/. e. the canons were to be religious, but they have been fince
fecularized.

For the fecularization of a regular church there is re-
quired the authority of the pope, that of the prince, the
bifhop of the place, the patron, and even the confent of
the people. And in France all this mull be confirmed by
parliament.

Religious that Want to be releafed from their vows, obtain
briefs of fecularization from the pope.

SECULUM, in Antiquity. See Age and Secular
Games,

SECUNDA Aqua, among Chemifls, Sec. See Aqua
Secunda.

SECVKTtA/uper onerat'ioiie pajlurie. See Surcharge.

SECUNDANl, in ^Indent Geography, a people of Gaul,
who inhabited the town of Araufio, fituated in the interior
of the country.

SECUNDANS, in Mathematics, an infinite feries of
numbers, beginning from nothing, and proceeding as the
fquares of numbers in arithmetical progreflion, as o, I, 4,
9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, &c.

SECUNDARAH, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in the fubah of Dcliii ; 28 nules S.E. of Delhi. N. lat.
28° 22'. E. long. 78° 7'.

SECUNDARY, or Secondary. See Secondary.

SECUNDERPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Benares, on the Dewah ; 35 miles E.N.E. of
Gazypour. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Jyenagur; 15 miles S.E. of Parafaoli.

SECUNDI Generls, in Anatowy, a diftinftion among
the lafteal vcftels. There are two kinds of laifteals ; "u/'s.
primary, or thofe of the firft kind, ^n'mi generis; and _/r-
cundi generis, fecondary, or of the lecoud kind.

The firft carry the chyle from the iutellincs into glandt
difperfed in great numbers throughout the mefentery.

The fecond carry it from thefe glands, after its being di-
luted there with lympha, into the common receptacle. See
Lacteals.

Secundi internodii poUicis extenfor. See E.xtensor.

SECUNDIANS, in Ec cleft ajlical Hijhry, a fed of Va-
Icntinians in the fecond century, whofc chief, Sccundus, one
of the principal followers of Valentine, maintained tiie doc-
trine of two eternal principles, aiia. light and darknefs, from

Y whence

SEC

SEC

whence arofe the good and the evil that are obfervable in the
univerfe.

SECUNDINES, in Anatomy and Midivifery, the pla-
centa, umbilical cord, and membranes including the foetus,
which, being expelled from the uterus after the foetus, con-
ftitute the after-birth. They are defcribed under the article
Embryo.

Dr. Grew, in his Anatomy of Plants, applies the term
fecundine to the fourth and laft coat or cover of feeds ; be-
caufe this performs nearly the fame office in plants, that the
membranes, itiveding the fcetus, do in animals. And mdeed
Pliny, Columella, Apuleius, &c. have ufed fecundine in the
fame fenfe.

SECUNDO. Propofitio de Secoxdo adjacente. See Pro-
position.

SECUNDRA, ia Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sirhind ; 90 miles E. of Sirhind. — Alfo, a
town of Huidooftaii, in Dooab ; 15 miles W. of Canoge.

SECUNDUS, Johannes, m Biography, is the literary
name of John Everard, a celebrated Latin poet, the fon of
Nicholas Everard, an eminent jurift, and prcfident of the
council of Meckhn under Charles V. He was born at the
Hague in 15 11, and at an early age fludied the law at
Bourges. He, however, fhewed a decided attachment to
polite literature in preference to jurifprudence, and con-
trafted intimacies with fonie of the moil diftinguidied Latin
poets of his time. He travelled into Italy and Spain, and
was made fecretary to cardinal Tavera, archbifhop of To-
ledo. He followed Charles V. in his expedition againft
Tunis, but the delicacy of his conftitution not permitting
him to undergo the fatigues of war, he returned to the Low
Countries, where he died at the early age of twerity-iive.
Few modern Latin poets have pofleffed more facihty and
fweetnefs than Secundus. A volume of his elegies, epi-
grams, odes, and mifcellaneous pieces, together with a narra-
tive in profeof his different journies, was publilhed. Of all
his poetical works, the " Bafia" have been the moll popular,
on account of their diftion, and the delicate voluptuoufnefs
of their painting. They are itill read, and new edition? are
frequently printed. Johannes had two brothers, who were
alfo elegant Latin poets, known by the names of Nicolas
Grudius, and Adrian Marius. They have united in an
aflFeftionate commemoration of their deceafed brother, an-
nexed to his poems. Secundus himfelf pradlifed the art of
engraving, and to his volume is prefixed a portrait of a fe-
male, with the following infcription : " Vatis amatoris Julia
fculpta manii."

Secundus, in Botany, a term not very eafy, in the techni-
cal fenfe of Linnasus, to tranflate. One-ranked may gene-
rally exprefs its meaning. This term is applied to a racemus,
or duller, whofe flowers are all turned to one fide, as in
Pyrola fecunda, Engl. Bot. t. 517.

Secundus MaUei, in Anatomy, a name given by Duver-
ney, and fome others, to one of the mufcles of the ear.
It is the internus auris of Cowper and others, and is mod
properly named by Albinus tenfor tympani.

Secundus Oculum Movens, a name given by Vefalius to
thut mufcle of the eye, called by Rinlanus and others fu-
perbus, and elevator oculi, and by Albinus the fubduftor,
one of his four mufculi refti of the eye.
Secundus Peromcus. See PERONiEus.
Secundus Scalenus. See Scalenus.
SECURIDACA, in Botany, lo named by Jacquin from
the fhape of tlie pod, which greatly refembles a bill-hook,
or hatchet, Securis. — Jacq. Amer. igy. Brown. Jam. 287.
Linn. Gen. 365. Schreb. 482. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3^. 898.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 247. Juii'. 366. Lamarck Did.

V. 7. 51. lUuftr. t. 599, and t. 629. — Clafs and order,
Diadelphia Oaandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacea, Linn. Le-
guminofi, JiiiF.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, fmall, deciduous, of
three, ovate, coloured leaves, the uppermoft of which is
oppofite to the (landard, the others accompany the keel.
Cor. papilionaceous, of five petals : wings much fpreading,
very obtufe ; ftandard of two leaves, oblong, llraight,
united to the keel at the bale, reflexed at the tip ; keel as
long as the wings, nearly cylindrical, its border dilated,
bearing a little, obtufe, plaited appendage. Slam. Fila-
ments eight, combined at the bottom ; anthers oblong, ereft.
Pifl. Germen fuperior, ovate, terminating in an awl-(haped
ilyle ; lligma flat, dilated, toothed at the tip. Peric. Le-
gume ovate, of one cell, ending in a ligulate wing. Seed
folitary, oblong.

Obf. In habit this genus is very nearly allied to Polygala,
but it is polypetalous, and the fruit has only a fingle cell,
refembling the capfules of Banifleria.

Efl. Ch. Calyx of three leaves. Corolla papilionaceous :
the ftandard of two leaves within the wings. Legume ovate,
of one cell and one feed, ending in a tongue-lhaped wing.

1. S. erecla. Upright Shrubby Securidaca. Linn. Sp.
PI. 992. Willd. n. I. Swartz Obf. 274. Jacq. Amer.
t. 183. f. 39. — Stem ercA. Leaves oblong. — Native of
ftony places in Martinico and St. Domingo, flowering in
April. — An upright tree, rifing to the height of twelve feet,
furnifhed with a few, long, flender, ereA branches. Leaves
oblong. Flowers in long, purple clullers.

2. S. -volubilis. Climbing S"curidaca. Willd. n. 2.
(8. fcandcns ; Jacq. Amer. t. 183. f. 83. Spartium fcan-
dens, fruAu criftato et alato, flore rubro ; Plum. let. 247.
f. I.)— Stem twining. Leaves oblong, acute. — Native of
South America, and the Weft Indies. Found in Jamaica
by Browne, and at Carthagena by Jacquin. — A twining

Jlorub, whofe younger, leafy branches are changed into very
ftrong tendrils. Leaves alternate, oblong, pointed, fcarcely
ftalked. Flowers in loofe, lateral clufters, red, fcentlefs.

3. S. -virgata. Wand-like Securidaca. Willd. n. 3.
Swartz Prodr. 104. (Spartium alterum fcandens, frudu
alato, flore variegato ; Plum. Ic. t. 144. f. 1.) — Stem
twining. Leaves roundifh, very obtufe Native of Ja-
maica and Hifpaniola. Swartz is of opinion, that Browne's
firfl fpecies in his Hiftory of Jamaica, . mull be this, and
not S. ereBa, as Linnaeus fuppofed. We know of no fur-
ther defcription of this fpecies than what is quoted above.

For Securidaca of Tournefort, Miller, and Gxrtner, fee

CORONILLA.

SECURINEGA, fo denominated by Commerfon, from
fecuris, a hatchet, and nego, to deny, or refufe to yield ; in
allufion to the extreme hardnefs of the wood, called Bois dur
by the French, in the Ifle de Bourbon. Some alfo call it,
according to Commerfon's nianufcripts, Bois de Teze, and
others Quin-quin. The Eni^lifh, who met with this tree in
Otaheite, named it, from the appearance of the leaves, Ota-
heite Myrtle.— Juil. 388. Willd. Sp. PI v. 4. 761. Poiret
in Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 631. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 383.
— Clafs and order, Dioecia Pentandria; (or rather yj/enj-
delphia.) Nat. Ord. Euphorbia, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Periar.tii of one leaf, in five deep
fegments. Cor. Petals none. Nedtary an annular notched
gland, furrounding the bafe of the llamens. Stam, Fila-
ments five, awl-fliaped, fliort, combined at the bafe ; anthers
oval, lobed, obtufe. Piji. imperfeil.

Female, on a different tree, Cal. Periantli as in the male,
inferior, permanent. Cor. NeAary as in the male, perma-
nent. PiJl. Germen fuperior, nearly globular, three-Cded ;

ftvies

SEC

S E D

Uyles three, (hort, permanent ; ftigmas obtufe. Peric.
Capfule thrVc-lobed, three-celled. Seeds folitary ?

Ed. Cii. Male, Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals
none. ' Neftary a glandular ring on the outfide of the
ilamens.

Female, Calyx and nedtary as in the male, permanent.
Capfule fuperior, three-lobed, three-celled.

I. S. nUlda. Otaheite Myrtle. Willd. n. i. " Perf.
Syn. V. 2. 617." Ait. n. i. (S. duriifima ; Grael. Syll.
Nat. V. 2. 1008. Poiretiii Lam. Dift. v. 7. 632.) — Native
of the ifles of Mauritius and Bouibon, as well as of Ota-
heite, where it was obferved by the late Mr. Chriftopher
Smith. Living plants were brought to Kew by admiral
Bligh, in 1793. This is treated as a (love plant, flowering
in fpring and fummer. In the Mauritius it is a tall tree, with
alternate, round, minutely warty branches, and very hard
yellowilh wood. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate, various
in fizc and bluntnefs, from one to three inches long, and
about one broad, entire, fmooth, with one rib, and many
fine iaterbranching veins. Flowers numerous, in deufe,
fefiile, globular, axillary tufts. Commerfon defcribes fix
Jlamens, but we find only five, according to the general ob-
fervation of the authors above quoted.

SECURIS, JoH>f, in Biography, an Englifli phyfician
of confiderable charafter in his day, was born in Wiltfiiire,
and itudied with great reputation in New college, Oxford,
in the reign of Edward VL From thence he went to Paris,
where lie diligently purfuedthe Rudy of altronomy and me-
dicine, the latter under the celebrated profedor Silvius. On
his return, he fettled at Salifbury, and was much reforted
to on account of his (kill in the praiflice of phyfic. He
publiihed annual trafts, which he called " Prognolticons ;"
and which appear to have been a kind of almanacs, accom-
panied with agronomical prediftions and medical precepts.
Anthony Wood had feen two of them, for the years 1579
and 1580. To the latter was added, " A Compendium, or
brief Inttruftions how to keep a moderate Diet." Securis
was likewife the author of " A Deteftion and Querimony
of the daily Enormities and Abufes committed in Phyfic,
concerning the Three Parts thereof." Lond. 1566. This
is a little treatife, written with learning and plaufibility, on
the often repeated complaint of the intrufion of irregularly
educated perfons into the pradHce of phyfic, and the pre-
fumption of furgeons and apothecaries in taking upon them
to aft the phyfician. A peroration in verfe, addrefled to the
two univerfities, is fubjoined. This work was thought to
have fo much merit, that it was reprinted in 1662, and pub-
lilhcd along with Recorde's " Judicial of Urines." The
autlior is not named in the title-page, but is called " A Doc-
tor of Phyfick in Queen Elizabeth's Days." In this traft
there is a reference to one which Securis had publi(hed about
the year 1554, with this odd title ; " A great Galley lately
come into England out of Terra Nova, laden with Phyfi-
cians. Surgeons, and Pothecaries." See Aikin's Biograph.
Memoirs of Med.

SECURITATE Pacis, in Law, a writ which lies for
one who is threatened with death or danger, againit the per-
fon who fo threatens him. It is taken out of chancery, di-
rcfted to the fheriflF. See Peace and Surety.

SECURITATEM inveniendi quod fe non divertat ad
partes exterasfme licentia regis, an ancient writ lying for the
king againft any of his fubjefts, to (lay them from going
out of this kingdom into foreign parts ; the ground whereof
is, that every man is bound to ferve and defend the common-
wealth, as the king (hall think fit.

SECURUM, Si te/utril. See Si tefutrit.

SECUTOR, among the Romans, tnott commonly figni-
fied an attendant upon great men.

SECUTORES, in Antiquity, a kind of gladiators
among the Romans, who fought againft the retiarii.

The word is formed from the verb fequi, tofol/om ; be-
caufe the fecutores ufed to purfue the retiarii, when they
failed to caft the net, and fled to put in order.

The fecutores were armed with a fword and a buckler, to
keep off the net, or noofe, of their antagonids ; and they
wore a ca(l-c on their head. Some confounded the fecu-
tores with myrmillones, becaufe both had nearly the fame
weapons.

Secutores was alfo the name given to fuch gladiators as
took the place of thofe killed in the combat ; or who
fought the conqueror. The pod was ufually taken by lot.
In ancient infcriptions we alfo meet with fecutor tr'ibun'i, fe-
cutor ducis, fecutor Ctfar'is, Sec. who were officers attending
the tribunes and generals ; perhaps like our aids-de-camp.

SECZENIAGA, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Dobruz Tartary, on the Danube ; 20 miles N.
of Kirfova.

SEDA, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 6 miles W.
of Alter do Chao.

SEDAB, in Botany, a name given by the Arabian phy-
ficians to the wild, or mountain rue, a plant common in
Syria, Greece, and other places. Avicenna fuppofcs the
gum, which he calls ^fn/am, or jentum, to be produced from
this plant, but very erroneoufly, that gum being obtained
from the roots of the thapfia, or deadly carrot.

SEDAINE, Michel Jean, in Biography, a French
dramatic writer, was born at Paris in 1719. His father, an
architeft, having left his family entirely deftitute, the fub-
jeft of this article was obliged to work as a common mafon,
to maintain his mother and two younger brothers. By his
laudable induftry he became a mafter mafon, but his fond-
nefs for the theatre having led him to make fome attempts at
dramatic compofition, which were attended with a coafi-
derable portion of fuccefs, he was, in 1754, engaged by
Monet, direftor of the comic-opera, to devote himfelf to
the fervice of the ftage. His talents were fo well exerted,
that he brought full audiences to that theatre, which had,
before his time, been nearly deferted, and he paflTed many
years in this employment, generally beloved and efteemed by
the literary charafters of the time. He died in the year
1797, in the 78th year of his age. Sedaine was the author
of a great number of pieces, chiefly of the light kind, and
accompanied by mufic. Some of them were eminently fuc-
cefsful : the " Le Deferteur" was reprefented one hundred
times. He had a perfeft knowledge of flagc cfFeft : hij
dialogue was eafy and natural, though extremely incorreft ;
hence his works were more adapted to the itage than to the
clofet.

SEDAKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon ; 40 miles N.W. of Nambu.

SEDAN, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift, in the department of the Ardennes, fituated on the
Meufe ; fl;rongly fortified, and reckoned one of the keys of
France. It is divided into the north and fouth parts : the
former contains 5984, and its canton 1 1,471 inhabitants, in
14 communes: the latter has 4560, and its canton 13,124
inhabitants, in 22 communes. Both comprehend 320 Itilio-
metres. This town has a manufaAure of cloth : and before
the revocation of the edift of Nantes, it had a flourifhing
Protellant univerfity ; 13-I potts S.S.W. of Liege. N. lat.
49° 42'. E. long. 5° o'.

Sedan Chair, See Chair.

Y i SEDANG,

S E D

S E D

SEDANG, in Geography, a town on the N.W. coall of
theiflandof Borneo. N. lat. 2° 15'. E. long. 1 10° 48'.

SEDAREE, a town of Perfian Armenia; 30 miles
S.E. of Erivan.

SEDASHYGUR, a town of Hindoottan, in Canara,
on the coaft ; 6 rniles N.W. of Carwar.

SEDASIER, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Coorga, where a battle was fought in 1799, between the
troops of Tippoo Sultan, and the Britifh under general
Stuart, in which the former were defeated ; 7 miles from
Periapatam.

SEDATIVE, in Medicine, iTomfedare, toJUU, ox allay,
a term which was ufed by the older writers, nearly in the
fame acceptation with anodyne ; namely, to denote fuch me-
dicines as were calculated to alTuage pain. But among the
moderns it has been employed in another fenfe, and Hands in
oppofition to Jlitnulant. In the modern pathology, all the
aftions of the animal frame areafcribed to the agency of the
nervous power ; and whatever increafes or excites that power,
or its aftions, is thence called -nftimulant ; and thofe agents,
on the contrary, which diminifh or reft rain that power, or its
aftions, are therefore denominated yJ^^/j/rocj. Of the former
clafs, wine, alcohol, camphor, xther, aromatic fubftances,
&c. may be enumerated as examples ; of the latter, tobacco,
digitalis, fugar of lead, opium, &c. In the fchool of
Brown, however, where the word flimulant is in conilant
ufe, the exiftence of a direft fedative is abfolutely denied ;
for the Brunonian hypothefis maintains, " that life is the re-
fult of the aftion of ftimulants on the principle of excita-
bility, and, confequently, that every thing which afts mull
be ftimulant." (See Excitability.) It farther mamtains,
that a fedative aftion is not real, but apparent ; or rather,
is not direft, but indireft ; that is, it is the refult of the
previous itimulation ; and therefore, that an aftual fedative
\i a non-entity. But this argument, like many others of the
Brunonian fchool, is an obvious petitio principii in logic : it is
founded upon two unproved propofitions ; tirlt, that life is
folely the refult of excitement ; and, fecondly, that a pre-
vious excitement occurs, where it is not cognizable, as in
the cafe of digitalis, andthe fuperacctate of lead, and fome
other narcotics, which appear to influence direftly the aftion
of the heart and arteries, and to deprefs the whole nervous
povrer. The ufe offedntives for medicinal purpofes, is prin-
cipally confined to the regulation of the arterial fyllem, as
III cafes of hemorrhage, efpccially from the lungs, in dif-
eafes of the heart, Sec.

SEDATIVUM Sal. See Sedative Salt.
SEDAU, in Geography. See Sevda.
SEDBERGH, a market-town in the well divifion
of the wapentake of Staincliffe and Ewcrofs, Well
Riding and county of York, England, is lituated in
the parirti of Sedbergh, at the diftance of 27 miles N.W.
by N. from Settle, and 27 miles N.W. by N. from London.
This place, which, according to the late population re-
turns, contained 344 houfes and 1805 inhabitants, is chiefly
indebted for its fupport to the manufafture of iron articles.
The market is held on Wednefday, weekly ; and there
are fairs annually on the 20th of March, and the 29th of
Oftober. Here is a free fchool, but neither it nor the
church is in any way remarkable. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland, 8vo. 1813.

SEDE, a lake of Egypt, feparated from the Mediter-
ranean by a neck of land, which extends from Aboukir to
within a mile or two of Alexandria. It communicates with
the fea by a narrow opening, and wefterly the Britifli army
epened a channel to form a communication with lake

Mareotis : it is alfo called the " lake of Aboukir." — Alfo,
a lake of Egypt, producing natron ; 55 miles N.W. of
Cairo.

SEDE ANA, a town of Italy, in Friuli ; 10 miles
W.S.W. of Udina.

SEDEFE', a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; 7 miles S. of Abutige.

SE DEFENDENDO, in Law, a plea for him who
is charged with the death of another ; alleging, that he
was forced to do what he did in his own defence, the
other fo aflaulting him, that had he not done as he did, he
mull have been in danger of his own life. See SEht-defence,
Homicide, and Manslaughter.

SEDELLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
provmcc of Grenada; 12 miles N. of Velez Malaga.

SEDEM Attolleks, in Anatomy, a name given by
Vefalius and others to the mufcle, now more generally
known by the name of levator ani.

SEDENTARIUM Os, a name given by fome ana-
tomical writers to the protuberance of the os coxendicis,
on which the whole weight of the body refts in fitting.

SEDER OLAM, in Philology, a Hebrew term, literally
fignifying, order nf the world ; being the title of two chro-
nicles in that language.

They are both very Ihort, though the one more fo than
the other ; for which reafon the one is called feder ohm
rabba, that is, the great feder olam ; and the other, feder
olam zuta, i. e. little feder olam.

SnDER Olam, the Great, commences at the creation of
the world, and comes down as low as the war of the
pfeudo-meffiah Barchochebas, under Adrian, fifty -two years
after the dellruftion of the temple of Jerulalem ; and of
confequence to the hundred and twenty-fecond year of
Chrift. It is almoft all taken from the Scripture, except-
ing the end. It is tlie work of R. Jofa, fon of Hhelpeta
of Tfippora, who lived in the fecond century, about the
year 130, and was mailer of the famous R. Juda Hakka-
dofch, the compiler of the Mifchna.

Seder Olam, the Leffer, is an abridgment of the former,
brought down as far as Mar Sutra, who lived 450 years
after the dellruftion of the temple, or 522 years after Chrift.
F. Morin, continually bent upon diminifliing the antiquity
of the principal books of the Jews, endeavours to prove
this to have been written about the year of Chrill 1124,
as indeed it is expreifed in the beginning ; but R. Dav.
Gantz has overthrown this opinion in his Tfemahh David,
and fliewn that the date in the beginning is an interpo-
lation.

Thefe two chronicles were firll printed at Mantua in
1514, 4to. ; again at Bafil, by Frobcnius, in 1580, 8vo.;
at Venice, in 1545, 410. ; and at Paris, with a Latin ver-
fion of Genebrard, in i2mo. They have been Cnce re- m
printed at Amllerdam, in 17 11. I

SEDE RON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Drome, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Nyons. The place contains 614, and the
canton 7334 inhabitants, on a territory of 375 kiliometres,
in 18 communes.

SEDFE', a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; 3 miles S. of Bata.

SEDGE Grasses, in Agriculture, a title given to vari-
ous forts of grafles of the poor hard carnation kind, which II
are very hardy in their nature, and prevail much in raoft ^
crude heavy land. They are fcarcely ever touched by live-
ftock, being what may be called the fag end of herbage.
See Carex and Weeds.

9 SEDGE-

S E D

S E D

SEDGEFIELD, in Geography, a market-town in the
north-ealt divifion of Stockton ward, county palatine of Dur-
ham, England, is fituatsd at the dillance of II miles S.E.
by E. from Durham, and 255 N. by ^V. from London. The
pofition of this town is one of the fineft that can be ima-
gined, being that of the fummit of a gentle fwell, fur-
rounded on all fides by a country in the highelt Itate of
cultivation. On the fouth and fouth-eaft; is a dehghtful
profpeft of Cleveland, Rofcberry-Topping, and a long
range of lotty hills, with the borders of the river Tees,
down to the German ocean ; on the fouth-weft is a beauti-
ful country decked with a variety of fine feats ; and on
the north and north-eaft appear the towns of Bifliop Mid-
dleham, and Fiihburn and Trimdon. The celebrated Dr.
Afliew called Sedgefield the Montpelier of the north of
England, and very frequently recommended his patients to
it for the benefit of the air. In the centre of the town is a
fpacious market-place ornanientcd with a handiome crofs.
On one fide of it ftands the church, which confills of a
nave, tranfept, chancel, and three aifles, with a lofty tower
rifing from the interfeftion of the nave and tranfept. The
pillars of the interior are cluttered, and fupport light
pointed arches. Between the nave and the chancel is a rich
fcreen of tabernacle work in oak, having three Italls on each
fide, divided by beautiful liglit columns, and covered with
canopies. The whole chancel is wainfcotted with oak,
pannelled, and ornamented with cherubs. In this church
were formerly two chantries, one dedicated to St. Ca-
tharine, and the other to St. Thomas ; alfo a guild, de-
dicated to St. Mary. Here are numerous monuments ;
and among others two curious brades, reprefenting llceleton
figures in winding (heets.

Sedgefield became a market and fair-town in 13 12, by
grant from bifhop Kellawe. The market-day is Friday,
weekly ; and the fair is held on the eve of St. Edmund.
Here is an hofpital, founded by the trullees of Thomas
Cooper, furgeon of this place, who died in 1703 ; alfo a
free grammar-fchool, fituated near the church. According
to the parliamentary returns of 181 1, this town contained
291 houles, and a population of 1 307 inhabitants. The
Hiilory and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham,
by William Hntchiiifon, F.A.S. vol. iii. 4to. 1794.

SEDGE R River, a river of Patagonia, which runs
into the Straits of Magellan. Its water is excellent,
and on each fide are very fine trees, which commodore
Byron fays, would fupply tlie Britilh navy with the bed
mails in the world : fome of them being of a great height,
and more than eight feet in diameter. Among thefe woods
arc many parrots, and other birds of moll beautiful plumage.
Geefe, ducks, and fifli, and frefh provifions are abundant.
The traces of wild beads were perceived in the fand, but
none were fecn. Many huts and wigwams were feen, but
no Indian was obferved. The mouth of this river is in
the W. part of Port Famine.

SEDGMOOR, a large traft of Englifh land, in the
county of Somerfet, memorable for the defeat of the duke
of Monmouth in the year 1685 ; fituated betv/een Somerton
and Bridijewater.

SEDGWARA, a town of Hiiidoollan, in Guzcrat ;
20 miles E. of Surat.

SEDGWICK, a town of America, in tlie Hate of
Maine and county of Hancock, on Nafkcag Point, which
bounds Penobfcot on the N.E., extending to the town of
Penobfcot, and diftant 31^ miles E. from Bolton. It con-
tains 1352 inhabitants.

SEDHOUT, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cuddapa ; 6 miles N.E. of Cuddapa.

SEDILO, a town of the ifland of Sardinia j 30 miles
N.E. of Oriltagni.

SEDIMENT, formed from the LaUn /edimenttm, which
Matthias Sylvaticus derives a diutruna fede, the fettlement
or dregs of any thing ; or that grofs, heavy part of a
fluid body which, upon refilling, finks to the bottom of the
veflel.

Some phyficians have found means to difcover much of
the nature of the difeafe, from the fediment of the urine.
Dr. Woodward maintains, that, at the deluge, the whole
terreltrial globe was diilolved into one uniform mafs ; and
that the new world, arifing thence, was perfeftly fpherical,
and without any inequalities, confiding of feveral drata,
which the earthy fediment gradually produced, as it
drained.

SEDINA, in the Malcria Medica, a word ufed by fome
writers to exprefs dragon's blood.

SEDINI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sar-
dinia ; 10 miles S.E. of Cartel Aragonefe.

SEDITION, among Civilians, is ufed for an irregular
commotion of the people, or an affembly of a number of
citizens without lawful authority, tending to didurb the
peace and order of fociety. See Rebellion.

This offence is of different kinds : fome feditions more
immediately threatening the fupreme power, and the fub-
verfion of the prefent conditution of the date ; others
tending only towards the redrefs of private grievances.
Among the Romans, therefore, it was varioufly punifhed,
according as its end and tendency threatened greater mif-
chief. (See lib. i. Cod. de Seditiofis, and Matth. de
Crimin. lib. ii. n. 5. de Lasfa Majedate. ) In the punifii-
ment, the authors and ringleaders were judly didinguifhed
from thofe, who, with lefs wicked intention, joined and
made part of the multitude.

The fame didinftion holds in the law of England, and
in that of Scotland. Some kinds of fcdition in England
amount to high treafon, and come within the dat. 2C Ed-
ward III. as levying war againft the king. And feveral
feditions are mentioned in the Scottifh afts of parliament
as treafonable. (Bayne's Crim. Law of Scotland, p. 33, 34.)
The law of Scotland makes riotous and tumultuous af-
femblies a fpecies of fedition. But the law there, as well
as in England, is now chiefly regulated by the riot aft
made i Geo. I. ; only it is to be obferved, that the proper
officers in Scotland to make the proclamation thereby enafted,
are fheriffs, dewards, and baihes of regalities, or their de-
puties ; magidrates of royal boroughs, and all other in-
ferior judges and magidrates ; high and petty condablcs,
or other officers of the peace, in any county, llewartry,
city, or town. And in that part of the ifland the punifli-
ment of the offence is death, and confifcation of moveables:
in England it is felony. See Riot.

SEDLEY, Sir CilAliI.ES, in Biography, a dramatic
writer, born in 1639, was fon of fir .Tolni Sedley of Aylef-
ford, in Kent. He was educated at Wadham college,
Oxford, and after leaving the univerfity, he palled his time
in retirement till the redoration. On that event he came
to court, and was one of the licentious circle round
Charles H. His fird cfT^iys in writing were fome amatory
poems, chiefly didinguifhed by their vohiptuons cad. At
tliis period of his lite he was guilty of fome public in-
decency, on account of which he was fined joo/. Sir
Charles's fortune being impaired by this courfe of life, he
got into the houfe of commons, and he fat in three par-
liaments during that reign, in which he was frequently
fpeaker. In the following reign he took a patriotic part,
which would have been highly to his credit, if private pique

had

S E D

S E D

had not been the principal motive of his conduft. It ap-
pears, notwithftandinjT the laxity of his own morals, that
he was much offended with James II. for taking his
daughter for a miilrefs, ii; which quality (lie was railed to
the title of countefs of Dorchefter, an elevation that, as
her father indignantly faid, only rendered her infamy the
more conlpicuous. Sir Charles joined the earl of Dorfet
in a (leady oppofition to the defign of keeping up a land-
ing army after Monmouth's rebellion, and he concurred in
all the meafures which produced the revolution. For the
latter he gave the humourous realo:i, that as the king iiad
made his daughter a countefs, he would in return do all in
his power to make his majefty's daughter a queen.

Sedley long continued to be regarded as a fine gentle-
man, a lively companion, and a judge and patron of poetry,
in which lail capacity he was inftrumental in bringing
Charles Montague, afterwards earl of Halifax, into notice.
He is fuppofed to have lived to beyond his eightieth year.
His works, in two vols. 8vo., confift of poems, fpeeches in
parliament, and a number of dramatic pieces, none of which
are retained on the Itage. Biog. Brit.

SEDLEZANY, in Geography. See Seltschax.

SEDLITZ, or Great Sedlitz, a town of Saxony,
in the margraviate of Meid'en ; 2 miles S.W. of Pirna. —
Alfo, a village of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz, where
Hoffmann, in the year 1724, difcovered a medicinal fpring,
from which is prepared a purgative fait, near Mcft.

SEDMA, a word ufed by fome as a name for the lapis
httmatites.

SEDNEVO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tchcrnigov ; 24 miles N.E. of Tchernigov.

SEDORP, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 8 miles
N.E. of Segeborg.

SEDOSA, a town of the ifland of Corfica ; 12 miles
N.W. of Cnrte.

SEDOSCHEROI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Pontus, in the vicinity of the river Cohibus, according to
Tacitus.

SEDR, or Seduk, the high priell of the feft of Ali,
among the Perfians.

The fedr is appointed by the emperor of Perfia, who
ufually confers the dignity on his neareft relation.

The jurifdiftion of the fedr extends over all effeils de-
llined for pious purpofes, over all molques, hofpitals, col-
leges, fepulchres, and monaileries. He dilpofes of all eccle-
fiaftic.al employments, and nominates all the fuperiors of
religious houles. His decifions, in matters of religion, are
received as fo many infallible oracles ; he judges of all
criminal matters, in his own houfe, without appeal ; and is,
without contradiftion, the lecond perfon m the empire.

The fedr, however, has not any indelible charadler, but
frequently quits his pod for another purely fecular one.
His authority is balanced by that of the mudfitchid, or
firlt theologue of the empire.

SEDRE Passage, in Geography, a narrow channel of
the Eall Indian lea, on the N. coail of Sumatra, between
Pulo Nancy and King's Point.

SEDULIUS, Caius C-^^lius, or CjEciliur, in Bio-
graphy, a priell and poet, who flourilhed about the year
1^50. He is known only by his writings, of which the
principal is a Latin poem in heroic verfe, entitled " Pafchale
Carmen," in five books, the firft of which relates to the
hiftories recorded in the Old Teilament, and the laft four
to the life and miracles of Chriil. This work is chiefly
efteemed for its fubjeft, though the Ityle is flowing, and,
for the age in which it was written, is tolerably pure. It
has been printed feveral times, and is contained in Mattaire's

" Corpus Poetarum." An edition of it was printed in
1704. A profe work of the fame writer is extant, entitled
" Pafchale Opus."

SEDUM, in Botany, an ancient generic name ufed by
Pliny, derived from Jedere, to fit ; on account of its fit-
ting or grov^-ing in the clefts, or on the furface of rocks.
The application of the name, however, is fomewhat oh-
fcure. — Linn. XJen. 230. Schrob. 309. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 2. 760. Mart. Mill. Dift. V. 4. Sm. Fi. Brit. 455.
Prodr. Fl. Grsc. Sibth. v. i. 308. Ait. Hort. Ktw.
V. 3. III. Purfli V. I. 282. Tournef. t. 140. Jufl. 307.
Lamarck Illullr. t. 390. Gasrtn. t. 65. — Clafs and order,
Decandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Succuhntd, Linn. Sem-
perviva, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, five-cleft, acute, ereA,
permanent. Cer. Petals five, lanceolate, pointed, flat,
fprcading. Neftary compolcd of five, very fmall, emar-
ginate fcales, inferted at the bafe of the germens. Stam.
Filaments ten, awl-fhaped, the length of the corolla ; an-
thers roundifli. Pifl. Germens five, fiiperior, oblong, each
terminating in a flender ilyle ; Itigmas obtufe. Ptric. Cap-
fules five, fpreading, pointed, comprefled, emarginate to-
wards the bafe, opening inwardly by a longitudinal future.
Seeds numerous, very fmall.

Ed. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five, with five nedla-
riferous fcales at the bale of the germen. Capfules five,
fuperior.

The herbage of this genus is fucculent, and moftly,
though not invariably, Imooth. The flowers are either of
a yellow, white, or reddirti colour. — Willdenow enumerates
twenty-nine Ipecies, which are divided, after Linn^us, into
two fettions, Planifolia and Terelifolia ; the former includ-
ing fuch as have flat leaves, the latter fuch as have round,
or cylindrical ones. To thcfo however we have feveral to
add, fome of which are Bntilh. As a feleftiou from the
whole genus, the following are the moll remarkable.

Sedl. I. Planifolia. — Leaves flattifli.

S. Telephium. Orpine or Live-long. Linn. Sp. PI. 616.
Engl. Bot. t. 13 19. Curt. Loud. fafc. 3. t. 25. — Leaves
flattilh, ferrated. Corymb leafy. Stem ertdl. Found in dry
fields, about hedges, and on bnlhy hills in Britain and
mod parts of Europe, on a gravelly or calcareous foil,
flowering in Augutt. — Root perennial, tuberous, flefliy,
white. Stems two feet high, ereft, fimple, leafy, round,
fmooth, purphfii. Leaves fcattered, fcflile, ovate, flefliy,
flat, toothed in a ferrate manner, rather glaucous, fmooth.
Flowers purple, occafionally white, forming terminal, many-
flowered, crowded, leafy tufts. This fpecies is found to
vary in the colour of its flowers and the ferrature of its
leaves, as well as in the fize of all its parts.

S. Anacampferos. Evergreen Orpine. Linn. Sp. PI. 616.
Curt. Mag. t. 118. (Anacampferos minor, rotundiore
folio, fempervirens ; Tourn. Inll. 264.) — Leaves wedge-
fliaped, attenuated at the bafe, nearly fefiile. Stems de-
cumbent. Flowers corymbofe. — Native of the fouth of
France, moiUy in the crevices of rocks. It flowers in
July and Augnft. — Root perennial, fibrous. Stems reddirti,
trailing at their bafe, more upright and glaucous towards
the top. Leaves numerous, alternate, or fcattered, ovate,
flefliy, dotted at the tip, of a blueilh-green colour. Floiotrs
deep lilac or purple, rarely white, in compatl, leafy, ter-
minal tufts.

S. populifolium. Poplar-leaved Stone-crop. Linn. Suppl.
242. Willd. n. 7. Curt. Mag. t. 21 1. — Leaves flat,
heart-fliaped, toothed, on ilalks. Corymbs terminal. Stem
ereft, flender. — Difcovered by Pallas in Siberia, whence it
was introduced at Kew, in 1780. It flowers in July and

Auguft.

SEDUM.

Auguft Root flightly fibrous. Stems herbaceous, ereft,

a little wavy, fpreading, about a foot in height, frequently
of a bright red colour. Leaves alternate, remote, on
longifh ftalks, flightly lobed, turning of a browni(h-rcd
colour, flefhy.

In habit and appearance, this plant greatly refembles
Saxifraga rotundifolia.

Si. Jiellatum. Starry Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. PI. 617.
" Fl. Gra:c. t. 446." — Leaves flattilh, angulated. Flowers
lateral, folitary, feffile. — Native of France, Italy, and the
mountains of Crete, flowering in June and July. Root
annual, with fpreading fibres. Stem upright, thick, wavy,
pink-coloured at the bafe, brownifh at the top. Leaves
icattered, wedge-fhaped, angulated with about feven teeth,
very flefhy, with pellucid dots, finely ftriated. Flowers
folitary, terminal, of a delicate white colour ; each petal
marked longitudinally with a pink line.

S. Cepiea. Purflane-leavcd Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. PI.

617. " Fl. Graec. t.'447." — Leaves flat, lanceolate. Stem
branched. Flowers panicled. Petals acute, tipped with an
awn. — Native of moit parts of the fouth of Europe, in
fields and uncultivated ground, flowering in July and
Augull. Root annual, fibrous. Stems procumbent, woody
at the bafe, yellowifli-green, much branched, thickly befet
with hairs and red dots. Leaves alternate, remote, tongue-
fhaped, dotted like the Items. Flowers numerous, fcattered
over all the branches, in fpreading panicles, of a white

.colour, ftriped with a pink rib.

S. tetraphyllum. Four-leaved Stone-crop. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grsc. Sibth. n. 1048. " Fl. Grasc. t. 448." — Leaves
in fours, fpatulate, entire, obtufe. — Found by Dr. Sib-
thorp in Peloponnefus, and alfo in Sicily. — Root annual,
fibrous, white. Stem upright, hairy, branched at the bafe ;
the branches rather decumbent. Leaves four together,
numerous, feffile, club-fliaped, flefliy, fringed with hairs.
Flowers in longr, terminal, leafy fpikes, white, llriped with
a pink rib. The whole plant is of a yellowilh -brown hue,
dotted with red, and tliickly befet with hairs.

S. eriocarpum. Hairy-fruited Stone-crop. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grxc. Sibth. n. 1049. " Fl. Gra:c. t. 449." — Leaves
oblong, obtufe, fmooth. Stem cymofe. Calyx fmooth.
Germens hairy. — Found in dry fituations, in Peloponnefus.
Root annual, hbrons. Stem prollrate, branched, wavy, and
twiggy, yellowifh-green, dotted with red, fmooth. Leaves
alternate, fomevvhat remote, coloured and dotted like the
ftems. Flowers folitary, of a beautiful pink colour, form-
ing a fort of fpikc which terminates each of the branches.

Seft. 2. Teretifolin. — Leaves fomewhat cylindrical.

S. dnfyphyllum. Thick-leaved Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. PI.

618. Engl. Bot. t. 65C1. Curt. Lond. f.ifc. 3. t. 26. — Leaves
oppofite,ovate,obtufe, flelhy. Stem weak. Panicleglutinous.
— Found on walls or rocks in many parts of Britain, and if
introduced into a irarden, it propagates itfelf freely upon
artificial rocks and garden pots ; flowering copioufly in
June. Root apparently biennial, white and fibrous. Stems
decumbent, creeping, branched, tufted, thread-fhapcd, a
little vifcid, leafy ; flowering branches crcft. Zfaivj nioftly
oppofite, imbricated, gibbous, very fucculent, entire, glau-
cous, tipped with red. Flowers tliree or four together,
white with a purple llreak, forming fmall, fpreading pa-
nicles.

S. anglicum. Englifli Stone-crop. Sm. Fl Brit. 486.
Engl. B')t. t. 171. — Leaves thick, ovate, gibbous, and
loole at tiie bafe, alternate. Cyme of two branches. — Na-
tive of Great Britain, but not a common plant. It has
been feathered near Dumbarton caftle, on the fandy downs
near Yarmouth, and other maritime and mountainous fitua-

tions, flowering in July. Root annual, fibrous. Stems
tufted, decumbent at the bafe, fmooth, ruby-coloured,
leafy. Leaves frequently alternate, or inclining to oppofite,
very thick, flefliy, obtufe, flightly glaucous, with a pro-
tuberance at their bafe. Flowers at firit thickly cluilered,
afterwards more remote ; the petals white, with a reddiftl
rib, and generally dotted with red at the tip. Capfules
membranous, fmooth.

S. acre. Biting Stone-crop. Wall Pepper. Linn. Sp.
PI. 619. Engl. Bot. t. 839. Curt. Lond. fafc. i. t. 32.
Woodv. Suppl. t. 231. — Leaves alternate, fomewhat ovate,
flefliy, gibbous, fixed to the flem by their inner fide above
the bafe. Cyme three-cleft, leafy. — " This brilliant httle
flower is confpicuous enough about midfummer, and for
fome time afterwards, on walls, roofs, and dry barren or
fandy ground, which it clothes as it were with a cloth of
gold, in defiance of the drought and moft fcorching fun."
— Root perennial, fibrous. Stems tufted, branched, decum-
bent, fmooth, round, leafy. Leaves alternate, imbricated,
ereft-fpreading, grafs-green coloured, peotuberant at the
back. Flowers eredt, golden-coloured, in terminal, foli-
tary, three-cleft, leafy panicles " The whole herb is acrid,

hot and biting to the taile, whence its common name Wall
Pepper. Dr. Woodville quotes feveral authorities to prove
its ule in fcorbutic and fcrophulous diforders."

S. fexangulare. Infipid Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. PI. 620.
Engl. Bot. t. 1946. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. t. 33. — Leaves
in fix or feven rows, fomewhat cylindrical, obtufe, flefliy,
fpreading, fixed to the item by their inner fide above the
bafe. Cyme three-cleft, leafy. — Occafionally to be met
with in dry, fandy places, about walls, flowering in June

and July In Jiabit this perennial greatly refembles the

laft fpecies, but it is generally rather larger. The leaves
are more cylindrical, not ovate, about three together in
alternate whorls, producing in the whole leafy item or
branch fix or feven angles or rows. Cvmes terminal, of two
larger branches, and a finall one. Flowers palifh yellow.
The foliage frequently turns red. The whole herb,
though unpleafantly auftere, is deltitute of all acrid pun-
gency of flavour.

S. faxatile. Mountain Stone-crop. Willd. n. 16. Wig-
gers i-iolfat. 35. " Fl. Grrec. t. 450." Fl. Dan. t. 59 ?
— Leaves fcattered, convex on one fide, flat on the other,
obtufe, loofe at the bafe. Stem branched, decumbent. —
Native of rocky mountains in Norway' and Switzerland,
alfo in Greece, flowering about June. — Root annual. Stems
woody, fix inches high, branched, diffufe. Leaves flightly
alternate, feffile, bright green, the lower ones fometimes
turning red. Flowers feifile, folitary, flanding on one fide
of the branches, yellow.

S. v'lllo/iim. Hairy Stone-crop. I>inn. Sp. PI. 620.
Engl. Bot. t. 394. Fl. Dan. t. 24.— Stem ereft. Leaves
flattifli, flightly hairy, as well as tiie flowcr-ftalks. — Native
of mountainous damp palturcs, and the moill fiffurcs of
rocks, flowering in July. — Root perennial, fibrous. Stem
ereift, leafy, downy towards the upper part, branched at
the bale. Leaves alternate, linear, flL-fliy, often pink-
coloured, rough at the back with vilcid hairs. Flowers
cymofe or panielcd, 0:1 viicid ilalks ; their petals white or
rofe-coloured, with a red rib. Capfules pointed, rough,
purplifli.

S. all'um. Wl;-:te Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. PI. 619.
Engl. Bnt. t. 1578. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. t. 31. Fl.
Dan. t. 66. — Leaves oblong, cylindrical, obtule, fpreading,
fmooth. Panicle much branched. — Found on rocks, walls,
and loof.-i in many parts of England, but not a common
plant. It flowers in July. — i?oii/ perennial, fibrous. Slemt

a Ipan

SEDUM.

a fpan high, round, leafy, branched, fmooth, decumbent
at the bafe. Leaves fcattered, fpreading horizontally,
rather glaucous, flefliy, and extremely juicy. Panick ter-
minal, rather cymofe, many-flowered, fmooth. Flanvers
white or reddiih.

S. ochroleuciim. Pale Stone-crop. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grsec. Sibth. n. 1058. Sm. in Tranf. of Linn. Soc.
V. 10. 6. (-Sempervivum fediforme ; Jacq. Hart. Vind.
t. 81.) — Leaves glaucous, fcattered, acute ; the lower
ones round ; upper elliptical, deprefled. Segments of the
calyx rather acute. — Found on walls, ftones, and banks, as
well as about fliady enclofurcs, in the fouth of Europe.
It flowers in July- An iiitercfting account of this fpecies
is given by fir. I. E. Smith, in the volume of the Einnsan
Tranfaftions above quoted, where it is fhewn to be the
Asijioj TO Mixeoy of Diofcorides, who defcribes it thus :
" Several (lender Jlems fpring from one root, thickly en-
compafTed with Httlc, round, fucculent, fharp-pointed haves.
It throws out, moreover, a Jinn towards the middle, about
a fpan high, with an umbel of flender (greenifli or) pale
yeilowifhj(?owifr.f."

This plant, when pounded, is ufed at Athens as a cool-
ing cataplafm to bruifes or to gouty limbs.

S. reflcxum. Yellow Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. PL 618.
Engl. Bot. t. 695. — Leaves awl-fhaped, fcattered, loofened
at the bafe ; the lowermoll recurved. Flo'wers fomewhat
cymofe — Common on walls and thatched roofs, flowering
in July. The roots are perennial, confiding of fimple fibres.
Stems round, leafy, fpreading, entangled or pendant. Leaves
fcattered, extremely fucculent, fmooth, rather glaucous,
often reddilh, falling off when old. Flowers in a terminal
cyme, bright yellow, numerous.

S. glaiicum. Glaucous Stone-crop. Engl. Bot. t. 2477.
(S. reflexum/3 ; Sm. Fl. Brit. 490. S. minus hzmatoides;
Ger. Em. 512.) — Leaves glaucous, awl-(haped, fcattered,
loofened at the bafe ; thofe of the branches tliread-diaped.
Flowers in a cyme. Segments of the calyx lanceolate.
— Native of this country, flowering in July and Auguft.
It differs from the lalt (.of which it has till lately been con-
fidered but as a variety) in its more glaucous hue, and
more flender leaves, efpecially thofe of the branches.

S. rupejlre. Rock Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. PI. 618.
Engl. Bot. t. 170. — Leaves thick, awl-fhaped, glaucous,
ereft, cliiltered together in a five-fold order, loofe at the
bafe. Flowers in a cyme. — Found occafionally on rocks
and walls, but is ratlier a fcarce plant. It flowers in July.
— Root perennial, branched. Stems round, red, and naked
at the lower part, branched, terminating in thick, club-
Ihaped, tufts of clofely imbricated, thick, and fucculent
leaves. Flotuermg Jlems upright, a foot high, clothed with
more fcattered leaves, and terminated by a large, handfome
cyme of yeWow Jloiuers.

S. Forjlerianum. Forflerian Stone-crop. Engl. Bot.
t. 1802. — Leaves thick, avvl-fliapcd, cluflered together in
many rows, fpreading, loofe .it the bafe. Flowers in a
cyme. Segments of the calyx fhort and rounded. Gathered
by E. Forller, jun. efq. near the Devil's bridge, Cardigan-
fliire, in 1806. It flowers in July. This fpecies has
hitherto been confounded with rupe/lre, from which how-
ever (fays the author of Englifli Botany) it differs " in
having the leaves of the barren branches fpreading in a
rofaceous form, not clofe-prefi'ed or ereft, and efpecially
in the want of a glaucous hue in the leaves, Jlem, and calyx.
"The petals alfo are more elliptical and blunt."

Sedum, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy
herbaceous fucculent kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
are ; the orpine llone-crop (S. telephium) ; the evergreen

orpine (S. anacampfcros) ; the yellow flone-crop (S. aizo on) ;
the poplar-leaved ftone-crop (S. popuhfolium) ; the ilarry
flone-crop (S. ftellatum) ; the purflane-leaved ftone-crop
(S. cepxa) ; the thick-leaved ftone-crop (S. dafyphyllum) ;
the rock flone-crop (S. rupeftre) ; the Spanifti flone-crop
(S. hifpanicum) ; the white ftone-crop (S. album) ; the
biting ftone-crop, or wall pepper (S. acre); the infipid
ftone-crop (S. fexangulare) ; the Englifh or mild white
ftone-crop (S. anglicuni) ; and the annual ftone-crop (S.
annuum).

In the firfl fort there are fevcral varieties, as with purple
flowers, with white flowers, with broad leaves, and the
greater orpine.

In tlie fixth fort there is a variety which has the ftem
more eretl, and the lower leaves in threes or fours, the
next oppofite, and the uppermoft alternate.

The feventh fort, when introduced into a garden, pro-
pagates itfelf freely upon walls, in wafte places, and about
garden pots; and no plant is better adapted to the pur-
pofe of decorating rock-work, as it grows without any
trouble, in any afpecl, multiplying very much by young
fhoots, ar.d always looks beautiful.

The ninth, as well as the preceding fort, are cultivated
in Holland and Germany to mix with lettuces in fallads.

The eleventh fort is eaten by fome as a pickle.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are all raifed without
much difficulty, by proper care and attention to have the
foil dry, and of the poor fandy kind.

Culture in the Orpine Sorts Thefe may all be readily

increafed by planting cuttings, during the fummer months,
in light mould in a fhady lituation, or in pots placed in
fimilar fituations. The plants in the open ground, as well
as thofe in pots, fhould be kept clean from weeds, and be
watered frequently when the weather is dry. They may
likewife be raifed by parting the roots, and planting them
in a fimilar manner in the fpring or autumn. When the
plants are once well eflablifhed, they fprcad rapidly, and
require little or no care.

Thefe plants are fometimes cultivated for medicinal ufc.

Culture in the Stone-crop Kind. — Thefe are raifed with-
out much trouble, by planting out their trailing ftalks
in the fpring or fummer feafon, which readily take root.
Tliey thrive moft perfectly on old walls, buildings,
or rock-works. Where cuttings or roots of the peren-
nial kinds are planted in fome foft mud, placed upon
fuch fituations, they quickly take root and fpread into
the different joints and crevices, covering the whole in a
very fhort time.

The feeds of the annual forts alfo, when fown foon after
they become ripe in fuch fituations, foon come up and
fupport themfelves without further trouble.

Mofl of the perennial forts are kept in the nurferies in
full plants, fit for fetting out in the borders, pots, &c.
either in the fpring for flowering the fame year, or in the
autumn to flower in the following year. Thefe plants
may be planted out in any dryifli light foil, in borders,
beds, and other places, and in the fides of dry banks, or
in any elevated rubbifliy foil, as well as in pots to move to
different parts occafionally ; or alfo fome of the evergreen
kinds, to introduce in their pots among winter plants under
fhelter, to increafe the variety. In moil forts, they may
alfo be introduced as rock plants, to embellifti artificial
rock-works, ruins, and other fimilar places in plcafure-
grounds. The ftone-crops and other low trailing kinds
may alfo be made to occupy the tops of any low walls,
pent-houfes, fheds, or other low buildings.

And further, the twelfth and thirteenth forts may like-
wife

SEE

wife be difpofed in patches towards the fronts of bor-
ders, &c. as they fpread thick and tufty clofe to tlie
ground, and flower abundantly ; and being planted in pots,
are proper to place on the outfide of windows, copings of
low walls, and in balconies, and court-yards, in aliemblage
with other low fancy plants ; they will clofely overfpread
the furface, and flower profufely as far as they extend in
fuch fituations.

Sedum Acre, JVall-Jlone Crop, or Wall-pepper, in the
Materia Medica, a common Britifh plant, growing on
houfes, walls, and gravelly banks, is, in its recent Itate,
extremely acrid, like the hydropiper ; and, therefore, if
taken in large dofes, it afts powerfully on the primse' vix,
proving both emetic and cathartic ; and applied to the Hvin,
as a cataplafm, k frequently produces vefications and ero-
fions. Boerhaave, therefore, imagined that its internal em-
ployment mud be unfafe ; but experience has difcovcred,
that a decoftion of tliis plant is not only fafe, but of great
efficacy in fcorbutic com))laints : for which purpole, a
handful of the herb is direfted by Below, a Swcdifli phy-
fician, to be boiled in eight pints of beer till they are re-
duced to four ; of which three or four ounces are to be taken
every, or every other, morning. Milk has been found to
anfwer this purpofe better than beer. Not only ulcers,
fimply fcorbutic, but thofe of a fcrophulous and even can-
cerous tendency, have been cured by the ufe of this plant,
of which Marquet relates fevcral inftances. He likewife
found it ufeful as an external application in deflroying
fungous flefli, and in promoting a difcliargc in gangrenes
and carbuncles. Another effeft for which this plant has
been etteemed, is that of Hopping intermittent fevers.
Woodv. Med. Bot.

Sedum Majus. See Sempervivum.

SEDUNI, in /Indent Geography, a people of Gallia
Narbonnentis, in the vicinity of the Nantuates and Veragri,
who jointly occupied the country that lies between the Al-
lobroges and the higher Alps.

SEDUNOVA, in Geography, a town of Rufiia, in the
government of Irkutllc, on the Lena ; 1 2 miles N. of Or-
lenga.

SEDUSII, in /tnc'tent Geography, a people of Germany,
who foujj-ht under Arioviltus againll Csfar.

SEDZISZOW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Sandomirz ; 35 miles tS. of Sandomirz.

SEE-AMOL, a fmall illand in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the eaft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 5^ 27'. E. long.
118=48'.

SEEASSEE, a fmall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 5^ 25'. E. long. 120^ 50'.

SEEAXUR, a river of Hnidooftan, which runs into
the bay of Bengal, near Pondicherry.

SEEBACH, a town of Aullria ; i mile S.S.W. of St.
.Torgen. — Alfo, a river of Saxony, which runs into the
Muldau, 2 miles S. of Euknburg.

SEE-BANGOG, a fmall ifland in the Eall Indian fea,
near the eall coalt of Borneo. N. lav. 4° 18'. E. long.
ri8°24'.

SEEBERGEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Gotha, m which is a celebrated obfervatory, crefted by the
late <fukc ; 4 miles E.S.E. of Gotha.

SEEBGUNGE, a town of Hindooflan, in Bengal ;
12 miles S. of Goragot. — Alfo, a town of HindooHan, in
Bengal, on tlie left bank of the Ganges ; 5 mileti N. of
Boglipour — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 45 miles N.E. of
Purneah. — Alio, a town of Bengal ; 40 miles N.N.E. of
Nattorc. N. lat. 25°. E. long. 89° _^ 2'.

SEEBO, the largell river in Well Barbary : it riles in a
Vol.. XXXU-

SEE

piece of water fituated in the midft of a foreft, Hear the foot
of Atlas, ealhvard of the cities of Fez (Fas) and Me-
quinez (Mequinas), and winding through the plains, pafFe*
within fix miles of Fez. Another Itream, proceeding from
the fouth of Fez, pafles through the city, and difcharges
itfelf into this river. This ftream is fo valuable to the in-
habitants of Fez, as it fupplies the town with water, that
it is called " Wed El Juhor," the river of pearls, a term
indicating its value. Some auxiliary ftreams, proceeding
from the territory of Tezza, fall into the Seebo in Liali,
or the period between the 20th of December and 30th of
January inclufive. This river is impaliable, except in boats,
or on rafts. At Meheduma, or Mamora, where it enters
the ocean, it is a large, deep, and navigable river ; but the
port being evacuated, foreign commerce is annihilated, and
little fliipping has been admitted fince the Portuguefe quitted
the place. This river abounds more than any other in that
rich and delicate fifh called Ihebbel. If this country af-
forded any encouragement to indullry, corn might be con-
veyed up the Seebo river to Fez at a very low charge ;
whereas it is now tranfported to that populous city by
camels, the expcnce of the hire of which often exceeds the
original coll of the grain. Jackfon's Account of the Em-
pire of Morocco.

SEEBPOUR, a town of Bengal; 12 miles N. of
Hoogly.

SEEBURG, a town nf Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 55 miles S. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 53° 31'.
E. long. 20° 40'. — Alfo, a town of ' Weltphalia, in the
county of Mansfeld ; 5 miles E. of Eifzleben. N. lat.
51° 31'. E. long. 11° 51'.

SEED, .Jeremiah, in Biography, a learned divine of
the church of England, was born at Clifton, in Cumber-
land, and educated at Queen's college, Oxford, where he
took his degrees in the arts, and obtained a fellowfliip.
He was afterwards prefented to the redlory of Enham, in
Hampfhire, where he died in 1747. His fermons, which
are very highly efteemed, are publilhed in 4 vols. 8vo.

Seed, Semen, in the Animal Economy. See Semen and
Generation.

Seed, in Botany, is that mod important organ in the
fruftilication of vegetables, the perfefting of which is in-
deed the folc objcft of all the other parts : to this end they
are fubfervient either in forming, perfifting, or difperfing
it. A f"ed is compoied of many eflential parts. See Em-

KUYO, COTVI.KDONES, AlBUMEN, ViTELLUS, TeST.\,
HiLUM.

Betides thcfe, there are various acceflbry parts, or appen-
dages, to lecds, which come under the following denomi-
nations. See Pellicula, Auillus, Pai'its, Cauda,
RosTuuM. To thefe we mull add Ala, which our pre-
deceli'or has negleftcd to dcfcribe as a feminal appendage,
ill its proper article. (See that article.) The Ala, or
wing, IS a dilated membranous appendage to feeds, ferving
to waft them along in the air : it is commonly folitai-y, ex-
cept in fome umbelliferous plants. Seeds arc occafionally
furnifiicd with fpiiies, hooks, fcales, crelled appendages,
particularly a little gland-like part fomctimes called Slro-
phiotum, and fituated near the Hilum.

The various modes by which feeds are difperfed, in order
to accomplifli their germination, cannot fail to llrike an
obferving mind with admiration. Indeed this is a moll
amufing branch of the icience of vegetable economy. Sm.
Introd. to Bot. ed. 3. 21Q — 232.

Seeds, Echinate. Sec Eciiinate.

Seeds, Naked. See Naked.

Seeds, IVingcd. See Wingeu.

Z Seed*

SEED.

SKKD-Doiun. See Pappus.

SEED-FeJel. See Pericarp.

Seed, in ylgrkulturr, the grain or other produfi of a
plant, whereby the fpecies is propagated, upon its being
(own or put into the earth.

It may be obferved, that the choice of the feed intended
to be fown, is an objeft of greater importance than many
farmers feem to imagine. It is not fufficient that the fineft
grain be chofen for this purpofe, unlefs it be likewife clear
from weeds. In procuring feed, it fhould, therefore, be a
rule with the farmer to purchale or referve fuch as is the
mod full, plump, found, clean, and healthy, whatever the
fort may be ; as it is perhaps only in this way that crops
ef really good corn can be enfured. And this praAice is
ftill more obvious, from the circumftance of its being in
fome meafure the fame with plants as with animals, that the
produce is in a degree fimilar to that frcm which it ori-
ginated. It is not, however, merely on this principle that
fuch grain as is fmall, Ihrivellcd up, and imperfeftly fed,
fliould be rejefted as improper for feed, but as containing a
fmaller proportion of farinaceous matter, and being thereby
lefs proper for affording that degree of nourifhment which
is neceffary to the young plants, during the period of the
firft ftage of their growth. Where (hrivelled-up and im-
perfeftly ripened feed is fown, in general but a little of it
vegetates ; and that which does, moilly fends forth plants
of a weak and feeble kind, that afford only a lean and lleely
fort of crop. Befides, there are other circumflances wliich
ought to be taken into the accoimt, in providing of feed
corn ; fuch as that it be new, and recently threfhed from
the ftraw, and that the flcin be clear and thin ; for it is
found that grain which is frefh, and only juft threfhed out,
is in a much more proper flate for quick vegetation, than
fuch as has been long kept, confequently Icfs liable to perilh
in bad feafons ; and that where the rind or fkin is of a
bright colour, and thin, a much larger proportion of fine
farinaceous or mealy matter is yielded from the fame quan-
tity of grain, which renders it of courfe more valuable to
the cultivator. This is particularly the cafe in wheat, and
the fame thing probably takes place in other forts of corn.

And the writer of the Synopfis of Hufbandry has (hewn,
by fome experiments, that wheat, after being kept fix or
feven years, though there may not be any perceptible dif-
ference in its appearance from fuch as is new, is wholly unfit
for being made ufe of as feed, on account of only a fmall
portion of it being capable of vegetating ; a circumilance
that may probably, in many cafes, be owing to the grain
being more difpofed, under fuch condition?, to take on the
putrefaftive fermentation, or become rotten, than to the
abforption of oxygen, which is believed to be effential to the
procefs of vegetation in the early it age, as ftated by Mr.
Gough in the Klanchefler Traiifaftions ; and befides this
effeft, where the moifture and juice of the grain is much
taken away, as is the cafe in keeping it for a great length
of time, the plant? that are produced from it may even be
lefs vigorous and luxuriant, as happens in gardening to fome
kinds of feeds, as that of the melon, which is frequently
kept for feveral years, in order to effeft this purpofe in a
more perfeft manner.

On thefe accounts, therefore, it muft be evident that, on
fuch principles, grain, in order to fecure perfeft vegetation,
fhould not be placed too much out of tlie influence of the
atmofpheric air ; and that the bed of mould, or earth, in
which it is depofited, be in as fine a powdery ilate as pof-
fible ; as, under fuch circumftances, the air is more uni-
formly admitted, and the feed, from being in a more equal
temperature, and more equally fupplied with moifture, ii

expofed in the moft favourable circumftances to the com-
bined effefts of the caufes that have been found to promote
the fprouting, growth, and profperity of the young com
plant, as has been fully Ihewn by Mr. Gough, in iiis ex-
cellent paper on the vegetation of feeds. And there (hould
likewife be a conftant attention, that no fuch grain as is in
any way difeafed fhould ever be made ufe of as feed corn ^
as the fowing of this f irt of feed, though it may have been
advifed by fome cultivators, who have not been fufBciently
cautious, or who have placed too much confidence on the
efficacy ol Jlcepj, can only difappoint the views and hopes
of the farmer, by propagating more widely fuch maladies,
or producing fcanty crops of good grain.

A great many different methods have been purfued, in the
view of fecuring fuch gr.'.in as is healthy and proper for the
purpofe of fowing ; but that which is the moil readily exe-
cuted is probably that of felcfting from among the corn
plants, while they are growing in tlie fields ; as in this war
an opportunity is afforded of choofing fuch heads or ears of
the plants of different kinds as are the mofl perfeft, the
mofl forward, and mofl vigorous in their growth, and
which contain fuch feeds as are the mofl plump, and full,
and the bell ripened. Thefe benefits or advantages may
hkewife, in fome meafure, be attained in the mofl valaable
forts of grain, by having them picked over by hand, after
being threfhed out ; but this is a tedious praftice, and not
fo certain of having the feed from tlie moil healthy and beft
ripened plants, as the above and fome others : therefore, to
have the mofl perfeft forts of feed, and at the fame time the
mofl healthy and proper for vegetation, the mofl vigorous
plants fhould be felefted, as well as fuch as are the moft
forward and early in refpeft to the feafon ; and that thefe,
while they are growing, be fo preferved, that they may not
be injured by having weaker plants of the fame kinds near
them ; as the art of having good feeds does not, it is con-
tended by an experienced farmer, depend fo much upon
obtaining new feeds from places at a confiderable ditlance,
as upon coUefting and rcferving the befl feeds or roots of
our own produftion. Dr. Priellley, in a paper in the firft
volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture,
has remarked that this method of praftice has been had re-
courfe to, in confequence of its having been found that
though vegetables of all kinds are extremely liable to
changes, in refpeft to tlie times of their maturation, or
ripening, and other properties, the befl feeds never fail to
produce the befl plants. It is hkewife remarked, in addi-
tion, that in the preferving of feed grain, by coUefting it
in the ears from the flacks or fheaves, there may, however,
be difadvanlages in the way of leffening the produce, by
choofing the largcft ears, which have rarely more than one
upon a ilalk, and by taking fuch as become ripe at different
periods.

It is obferved that many different modes have been pro-
pofed for afcertaining the goodnefs of grain or feed-corn ; but J ;
the farmer generally depends upon the appearances that it " ■
exhibits, preferring fuch as :s full, plump, and well fed, and
that has a certain brightnefs and clearnefs, without any
fhrivelling or fhrinking in the hufli or external coverings ^ V
But it may perhaps be afccrtained with greater accuracy by "
other means, as the weighing of a certain meafure or quan-
tity : and from its being well known that grain or feeds, on
being immerfed in fluids, leave the more light and impcrfeft
floating on the furface, while the better and more perfeft
fink to the bottom ; folutions well faturated with faline
fubflances, from their gravity being much increafcd, be-
come ufeful in afcertaining the goodnefs of the corns, as
none but fuch as are perfeftly found fink in them. And

the

I

SEED.

t>ie autTior of the Philofophy of Gardening conceives, that
the weight of a given meafiire of grain may alfo be a tolera-
bly certain method of difcovcring the quantity of huflc or
bran contained in it, compared with a quantity of flour : as
that grain which is cut too early, or which is otherwife not
quite ripe, as happens in wet feafons, fhrinks in the barn or
granary, and becomes wrinkled, and has thus a greater pro-
portion of fkin or bran than that which has been more
perfectly ripened, and weighs lighter in proportion to its
bulk. And another method, which he fuppofes may be had
recourfe to in order to diftinguifh light from heavy grain, is
that of winnowing, as the furfaces of light grains, from their
being greater in proportion to their fohd contents, may be
carried further by the current of air afforded in the opera-
tion ; of courfe in paffing them through a fcreen, the heavy
grams may be liable to run further out on the floor from
their being more propelled by their greater gravity, without
the refiftance of the air on their furfaces being increafed,
and be confequently more proper for feed-corn in general.
See Change of Seed.

But lately, however, a very different notion from the above
has been entertained by fir Jofeph Banks, though we do not
find it fupported by the tell of experiment in the field.
The refult of a fmgle trial, made under the circumltance of
a hot-houfe, can never be fatisfaftory to the farmer. He
thinks, that although the feeds of wheat may be rendered by
the exhaulling power of a fungus fo lean and (hrivelled,
that fcarcely any flour fit for the manufacture of bread can be
•obtained by grinding them, thefe very feeds will, except in
the very worlt cafes, anlwer the purpofe of feed-corn as
well as the faireft and plumpeft: fample that can be obtained,
and in (ome refpefts better ; for as a bufliel of much blighted
corn will contain one-third at leaft more grains in number
than a bulhel of plump corn, three bufhels of fuch corn will
go as far in fouingiand as four bufhels of large grain. And
that the ufe of the flour of corn in furthering the procefs
of vegetation, is to nourifli the minute plant from the time
of its developement till its roots are able to attraft food from
the manured earth ; for this purpofe one-tenth of the con-
tents of a grain of good wheat is more than fufficient. The
quantity of flour in wheat has been increafed by culture and
management calculated to improve its qualities for the benefit
of mankind, in the fame proportion as the pulp of apples
and pears has been increafed by the fame means above what is
found on the wildings and crabs in the hedges. Further, that
though it is cuflomary to fet afide or to purchafe for feed-
corn the boldefl and plumpeft fampk-s that can be obtained,
that is, thofe that contain the molt flour, this is unneceflary
wafte of human fubfiftence : the fmalleft grains, fuch as are
fifted out before the wheat is carried to market, and either
confumed in the farmer's family or given to his poultry,
will be found by experience to anfwer the purpofe of propa-
gating the iort from whence they fprung as efieftuaily as
the largelt. Every ear of wheat is compofcd of a number
of cups placed alternately on each fide of the Itraw ; the
lower ones contain, according to circumllances, three or four
grains nearly equal in fize ; but towards the top of the car,
where the quantity of nutriment is diminifhed by the more
ample fupply of thofe cups that are nearer the root, the
third or fourth grain in a cup is frequently defrauded of its
proportion, and become fhrivelled and fmall. Thefe fmall
grains, which are rejefted by the miller becaufe they do not
contain flour enough for his purpofe, have ncverthelefs an
ample abundance for all the purpofes mf vegetation, and as
fully partake of the fap (or blood, as we rttould call it
in aninjals,) of the kind which produced them, as the faireft

and fullefl grain that can be obtained from the bottoms of
the lower cups by the wafteful procefs of beating the fheaves.
But, however further and more numerous experiments may
eftablifh this dotlrine, the beft practice of the farmer is
probably, at prefent, to take care to have good well-ripened
grain, clear from all adulteration of feeds of the weed kind ;
without any blacknefs about the extremities of the grains,
being free from that dark-brown colour that indicates its
having been heated too much in the Hack ; and that it have
no figns of mouldinefs from being badly fecured, or of
fhrinking from being cut in too green a Hate. It has alfo
been lately fuggefted by Mr. Leori, who has been engaged in
many interefting experiments on the fubjeft, not by any
means to procure feed grain from a foil north of that on
which it is to be fovvn, but from a diftrift fouth of it ; as he
confiders it a general rule, that the produA of feed improves
in going from the fouth to the north, but decreafes in virtue
in paffing from the north to the fouth.

And with refpedl to the proportion of feed that may be
proper to be fown pn different foils and fituations, attention
will not only be neceflary to their peculiar nature, and to
the periods of fowmg or putting the feed into the ground,
but alfo to the nature of the feaion, and the mode in which
the fowing is executed in it. For crops in general,'the ftrong,
wet, and ftiffer forts of land will demand a larger quantity
of feed than fuch as are more mellow, thin, and light ; for
coarfe ftrong wet loams, and fliff retentive clays, muft require
more feed than light mellow loams, and fandy gravelly or
even thin chalky lands. But where lands of the rich loamy
kinds have been well reduced and broken down by the ope-
rations of tillage, it is obferved, that if the feed be not
fown in too great a proportion, an opportunity is afforded
for the plants fpreading themfelves from the roots, many
ftems often iffuing from the fame root, in confequence of
which the crops frequently become, even when thinly
fown, extremely thick upon the ground ; and from the
great nutritive power of rich foils, or what is moftly
termed ftrength by the farmers, would be greatly too much
fo, if a large proportion of feed were at firfl put in. And
that in the cafe of root crops, whether fuch as are formed
upon or within the foil, where fuch lands are in a fufficiently
mellow and friable ftate for producing them, the feeds or fets
fliould not on the fame account be fown or put in in too
great a quantity, or too thickly. While in the ftrong, ftifF,
wet, retentive foils, from the plants feldom ftriking, or
branching off much from the roots, except in particularly fa-,
vourable circumftances of feafon, a much greater proportion
of feed will be neceflary, in order to fecure fuch full crops a$
lands of this kind are capable of fupporting and bringing to
maturity in moil cafes.

But where the foils are light and thin, a lefs quantity of
feed will be fufficient, according to Mr. Donaldfon and
others ; as, if a large proportion be put into fuch kinds of
ground, from their pofiefTing much lefs llrcngth the crops will
rarely, except in particular feafons, be well formed in the ear,
or have the grain plump and well fed. It is likewifea prac-
tice in the bell grain diftridts, on all forts of land to fow
fmaller proportions of feed on lands of the fame quality,
in the early periods of the feed time, than in thofe of the
latter. The rcalon of this, according to the above writer,
is, that grain fown early ia the feafon takes deeper root, and
has more time to branch out additional fhools, than that
which is later fown, which, when the foil is not very free a«
well as fertile, generally runs up into one finglo Italk, fo
that if a hbcral quantity of feed be not allowed, the crop,
however luxuriant in refpeft to the plants, muft be fcanty in
Z 2 the

SEED.

the article oi gram or produce. And tor this there may
alfo be other reafons, as where the feed is put in at a later
period, efpecially in the fpring, it will not have time fully
to eflablilh itfelf in the foil, before it becomes retarded by the
hot and dry fummer weather, unlefs a large quantity of feed
be employed io as to afford protection by the clofenefs of
the growth of the plants. And in the late autumnal fow-
ings, the grain may not become well fixed and rooted in the
loil before the frofts begin to affeA them ; and on that
account a larger proportion of feed be required than under
other circumltances would be necefTary. Something may
likewife depend on the ftatc of the weather in fowmg or
putting feed into the ground ; as where the feafon is
very dry, and there is but a fmall proportion of moiilure
in the foil, more of the feed may fail in vegetating, than
where the contrary is the cafe ; which alfo fliews the
propriety of iteeping and putting in the feed in fuch
dry feafons, immediately after the plough has performed
its work.

And it mud likewife vary according to the manner in which
it is depofited in the earth ; as where the grain is fcattered
over the whole of the land, in fome meafure at random, as
in the common broadcall method of fowing, a much larger
proportion of feed mufl be fown, than where the grains
are depofited with equality and e.\a(ftnefs, but only on
certain portions of the land, as in drilling and dibbling.
And as fome difadvantage may attend the tirit method, in
refpcft to the vegetation of the feed, a larger proportion may
alfo be requifite on that account. It is confcquently evident,
that the quantity of leed mull vary according to different cir-
cumltances, and that it is a matter of much difliculty to fix
upon a proportion that may be fuitable to all thecircumtlanccs
and forts of foil. It is, however, commonly fuppofed that
from two and a half, to three and a half bufhels to the acre,
may be the proportion that may be the moft proper both in
the fpring and autumn fowings. Mr. Mlddleton has fug-
gefted, that for fowing wheat broadcall about the latter
end of September, two bufhels and a half is the mod
advantageous quantity on foils of medinm quality ; but
that for every fortnight later, four quarts of feed fhould
be added to that proportion. But the tabular view given
below of the proportions that have been found to anfwer
well in praftice in an extenfive midland dlllnft, on foils
of different qualities, may afford a more fatisfaclory no-
tion of the nature of feeding foils of diff"erent kinds and
qualities.

It may be neceffary, before inferting this however, to
fhew the quantities in ufe in a great fouthern grain dillrift
with wheat. In Norfolk, in praftice of the beff: farmers,
the proportions of feed-wheat ufually made ufe of, accord-
ing to the late Agricultural Survey of that diftrid, are
about Walton, when dibbled, fix or feven pecks, in the
praftice of fome ; but with others, when foyin before
Michaelmas, two buftiels, afterwards two and a half. Alfo
near Dereham, the quantity is four bufhels broadcall, .and
when dibbled, from ten pecks to three bufhels. At Wlfsen
ten pecks dibbled, and three bufhels broadcaft ; and at Eall
Bilney, and the adjoining parllhes, only from two and a half
to three. But in the praftice of Mr. Henry Blythe of
Burnham, feven or eight pecks are drilled per acre ; but the
common quantity broadcaft, from ten to twelve. And in
the clays of Marlhland, from five to fix pecks are fown
broadcall. And about Wymondham they dibble in from
fix to eight pecks, but in the broadcall method fow three
bufhels. In fome fituations they however complain of lofs
Jrom too thin a plant in this fort of crop.

i

Table of Proportions of Seed on different Soils.

U'lleat. 1

liar

lev.

Oals.

Beans. |

Kinf(« l\\ Soil

IX1II<13 Ul "-"UM.

Seed.

Crop.

Seed.

Crop.

St-ed.

Crop.

Seed.

Crop.

Itufli.

Qrs.

Bum.

Qrs.

BuOi.

Qrs.

Butt).

Qrs.

Rich, newly

—

5

—

—

—

loi

broken up

—

—

—

9

common land.

4

4,

—

—

6

7

—

'

—

—

—

«

—

4^

3

3

5

5

6

4

3^

3

4

4

4^

3

4

7

5
4

Middling land.

3

—

4i

3

3

4

3^

5

4

3

H

3

4

2i

3

4

5

Newly inclofed

4

3

4

4

4

5

3^

4

land.

—

5

—

—

—

4

4

3

4

4

—

—

4

3

4

3^

4

4

4i

—

—

3

4i

4

•—

7

IO

4

5

3

3-

3

5

4

6

—

7

—

5

Wold laud.

3l

t.i

4

4

7

5

3,

3

—

—

4

5

—

—

^

3,

2|

3

4

3

n

4

10

4^

3l

Marlh land.

3

—

5

—

7

—

5

l\

3

5

4

8

5-i

Ih

4

4

Sh

5h

7h

• —

3l

—

—

—

—

—

3

Clay and marfh

—

H

land.

H

3l

—

—

5

li

4

3^

3i

4

4

3f

5

5

2

3

2

4^

4

8

3

3

4

3i

6

—

—

—

3^

—

4

4,

5

4

6

J,\

3

4

4i

6

5

H

3

4

4

6

5

Strong land.

3

3l

3l

4l

—

—

2

4l

'1

3?

3

'^f

6

6

3l

3

4^

6

5

2|

4

Average,

3

31

3l

4i

6

6i

3l

3l

i

The exact proportion of feed that may be required, how-
ever, under different flates and circumftances of lands, in
order to afford the molt full and productive crops, cannot
by any means be afcertained, much conftantly depending on
the judgment of the feedfman, who mufl always decide in
refpeft to the neceffary proportion for the particular cir-
cumflance, having a due regard to the nature and quality
of his feed, as well as the time and manner in which it is
put into the ground, as well as other circumltances. See
Sowing.

The moil ufual quantities and proportions of feed that are
made ufe of in all the different forts of field-crops, are men-
tioned under the particular heads to which they belong.
See the particular crops.

The writer of the work on " Agricultural Chemiftry,"

thinks

SEED.

thinks that, in the general feleftion of feeds, it would feem
that thofe arifing from the molt highly cultivated varieties
of plants, are fuch as give the moft vigorous produce ; but
that it is neceflary froin time, to time to change, and, as it
were, to crofs the breeds, which may eafily be done by
proper means. Mr. Knight has found great advantages to
arife from it in wheat, merely by fowing the different forts
together; and ftates, that " in the years 1795 and 1 796,
when almotl the whole crop of corn in the ifland was blight-
ed, the varieties obtained by crofling alone efcaped, though
fown in feveral forts, ar.i in very different fituations. By
crofling two varieties of peas, a large fine pea has alfo been
produced, which may probably be cultivated by the farmer
with great benefit."

The feeds which are the moft perfeft and healthy in their
nature, are always found to fprout and grow in the beft
manner as crops, as may be more fully feen under their
proper heads. See Germination and Vegetation.

It is concluded, from a great number of experiments
detailed in a paper in the thu-d volume of the Tranfac-
tions of the Highland Society, " On the Influence of Frolt,
&c. in ripening Corn," that barley and oats in every pe-
riod of their growth may be expofed to much variety of bad
weather, without being deltroyed, and that they even con-
tinue to acquire additional weight, although frequently ex-
pofed to fevere degrees of cold, and occafionally even to
frofl. Tliat when the laft is dry, they not only fuffer little
from it, but often continue to fill ; yet, where moifture pre-
vails with it, they are foou wholly deltroyed. But that
although this may be the cafe, cxpofure in this way renders
them very unfit for feed : as while every feed of good corn
will vegetate and thrive when properly placed in the foil,
where it is good, a great proportion of thofe which have
been thus expofed never appear above the furface, and the
plants of thofe that aftually grow are fo weak, that the
crop is not only fmall in quantity, but the corn of inferior
quality. That, though it feems in ufing well-ripened corn
for feed, the crop which it yields depends, in a confidcrable
degree, on the weight of it, yet this does not happen in any
evident degree with corn that has fufFered from frofl, as the
plants arifing from corn that has been expofed to much of
it are conltantly weak, and the produce fmall, even although
the feed be of the common weight. That frofl appears flill
more hurtful to pulfe crops as feed, and in other ways, than
to thofe of the grain kind, as well as to grades. That no
corn which has been tlius expofed to froil fhould ever be
ufed as feed ; but that which is for this purpofe, fhould
always be procared from fouthern fituations, where there
is no danger of this fort. That, on the fcore of economy,
the feed which has been fo expofed Ihould never be em-
ployed ; as nearly twice the quantity of it will be required ;
while the quantity as well as the quality of the produce will
be vallly inferior. That this fort of grain is eafily dilliii-
guifhed from good corn ; the latter being phimp, full, and
of a peculiar healthy appearance, and mollly free from chaff;
while the former is curled and pinched in, and never entirely
full, being bleached and chaffy. Where thefe marks are not
prefent, the mere vegetation of the feeds is, it is faid, by no
means fufficient, though often depended upon. That, when
light feed is made ufe of, the crops more readily fuffer with
blight and other difcafes, and it would feem that many
morbid affeftions of plants, efpecially fuch as give rife to
the generation of infeCts, are particularly apt to fpread and
communicate the contagion to others tliat are weak ;
which, like animals in a itate of debility, do not fo readily
refill it, or the formation of thofe vermin by which they
are moft liable to be dellroyed, as thofe plants which

are found and in a vigorous ftate. That this therefor*
fhould be confidered as a powerful motive for ufing only
the bell corn for feed, a maxim that cannot be too flrongly
inculcated ; as the opinion which has already been hinted at
prevails with many, of all feeds that vegetate being nearly
equally fit for the produftion of crops, they frequently make
ufe of the weak light part of their corn for feed, and convert
all the beft of it into flour or meal ; and thus, for a temporary
advantage, continue to perpetuate the produftion of crops
that are both fmall in quantity and of very inferior quality.
That, for the prevention of thefe hurtful confequences, none
but the beft feeds of every kind fliould be fown. That, with
this view, farmers fhould not only procure feed that has been
well ripened, but fuch as has been well kept, and never in-
jured by frofts, fnows, or rains. That it would alfo be
much for their intereft, to wafli the whole of their feed-corn
in ftrong brine ; not only their wheat but their barley and
oats, as well as their beans, peafe, and tares ; as nothing ren-
ders corn fo fit for feed as this operation, when properly
done : as it not only carries off' all the light feeds, but alfo
the feeds of a great many weeds which cannot in any other
way be fo completely feparated from it.

That it is thought, that the preference commonly given to
new corn for feed, is not well founded ; as it was found
that the produce of old corn was equal, both in quantity
and quality, to that of the beft corn newly reaped. This is
the cafe too with all the grafs-feeds that are commonly
fown. One of the beft crops of hay, which is recollefted
to have been feen, was produced from a mixture of red,
white, and yellow clover, rib-grafs, and hay-grafs, which,
by accident, had been negletled, and kept for fix years. An
acre, or thereabouts, was fown with this mixture, while the
reft of the field was fown with the feed of the preceding year,
and the crop was equally good over the whole. That it is
hence advifed, that in dry warm feafons, when all the grafs-
feeds are commonly goad, fuch farmers as have it in their
power fhould provide a large quantity of thofe that they
ufually fow, to make ufe of when they are fcarce and bad,
which conftantly happens after cold or wet feafons. That
it is on this principle, of the feeds of plants retaining their
power of vegetating for a long time, that we account for the
ludden appearance of many of the graffes, and other plants,
where they had not grown for a long period of time before.
After the great fire in London in 1666, broom and clover,
it is faid, appeared on the fcite of almofl every houfe in the
fpace of a few months, although the whole had been occu-
pied with ilreets for feveral centuries. We daily perceive,
it is faid, in Scotland and other parts, that white clover ap-
pears almoft as foon as the heath or other matters are dc-
flroyed, with which lands had been occupied before ; and
it is thought probable, that corn, pulfe, and grafs-feeds,
where they have been found and good at firft, and properly
kept afterwards, will be found quite fit for feed, even when
a good many years old. See the Paper.

Seed.s, in Gardening, the fmall grains or other differently
formed bodies, which are produced by plants, trees, or
(hrubs of almoft all kinds after flowering, and which con-
tain in them the little embryo, or eflences of the future
plants, of eacli particular fort, which confilt of feveral dif-
ferent parts, but tiie principal of which are thefe : the cor-
culum, the little heart, the point of life, or effential point or
part from which the future vegetable is to be produced, and
which is the fmall point or fpeck that is placed in the centre
of each feed, between wliat are called the cotyledons or the
lobes of it, and which is attached thereto, being diftin£lly
vifiblc in moft of tiie bean kind, as well as in almoft every
other fort of leguminous feeds. It confifts of two parts,

the

SEED.

the roftellum and the plumula ; the former of which confti-
tuting the radical or defcending part, which ilrikes dowii-
veards into the earth, or foil, and becomes the future root ;
the latter, which becomes the afcendmg part, or that which
fhoots upwards, and conftitutes tlie Hem, branches, and
other parts of the future plant. This point, or fpot in the
feed, is likewife fometimes termed punBum vila.

The cotyledons, or fide-lobes, are the perifhable fide-lobes,
or parts of the feed, which involve, contain, and for fome
time noorifh and fupport, the corculum, or embryo plant.
Thefe fide-lobes are for the molt part two in number, which
are very clearly feen in the bean kind of feeds, as well as in
moft others derived from the leguminous tribe of plants, efpe-
cially when they have been previoudy laid a Ihort time in
earth or water. When the feed has been committed to,
and depofited in the ground or foil, the corculum, or point
of life, if the feed be good, is leldom long before it begins
to fprout or germinate and exert itfelf in it, but the exaft
length of time which is neccilary, is fomewhat different in
different cafes, circumflances, and kinds of feeds ; the coty-
ledons expand, buribng open the outer coverings, and rife
in a gradual manner out of the earth or foil, in the form of
blades or leaves, which are commonly, in moll forts, termed
the feed-leaves, in which difplaying the tirft, or primary vi-
fible founddtioa and rudiments of the infant plant ; accom-
panying it for fome length of time after its eruption or firft
breaking from the ground, as until the firlt proper leaves
are formed in the centre of the vegetable, and advanced a
little in their growth, when the lobes or feminal leaves be-
coming ufelefs, they wither, decay, and are deltroyed. See
Germination.

In general, plants are furnifhed with two cotyledons, or
feed-leaves, efpecially almoll the whole of the tribe of fibrous,
rooted herbaceous plants, all trees and fhrubs ; but there
are fome which have only one cotyledon, as is the cafe iii
moft of the bulbous plants of the liliaceous tribe, which nfe
out of the ground in the manner of a (heatli ; and there are
fome feeds which have no cotyledons at all, for inflancc, fuch
as the ferns, moffes, flags, and fungufes.

The other parts of feeds are the ala:, or wings, and the
coronillx, or crowns ; in the former, many of which are
winged, or furnifhed with a thin membranous web or film, by
which means they fly and are alSited in being difperfed about,
as in the fir, birch, maple, a(h, elm, hops, and a great number
of other forts ; and in the latter kind many of the feeds are
crowned, and fome furrounded with a pappofe fubftance, or
a fort of feathery or hairy down, efpecially in many of the
compound and other defcriptions, which ferve for the pur-
pofe of their diflemination, they being thus framed for fly-
ing, in a fomewhat fimilar manner to the fhuttlecock, fo as
to be eafily carried and tranfported by the wind to very con-
fiderable diftances from their natural fituations, examples of
which are to be met with in hawk-weed, groundfel, dande-
lion, and many other plants : this, however, is not much
the cafe with garden-feeds of the common kinds. But
there are ftill numerous forts of feeds which are perfeftly
fimple, having neither any thing of the wing or pappofe
fubftance about them ; as in moil of thofe employed by the
gardener.

It may hkewife be obferved, that the number, form or
(hape, fize or dimenfions, and the fubftance or folidity of
different feeds, are extremely various, as produced by dif-
ferent kinds of garden plants. In refpeft to the particular
number, it may confilt of from one, to feveral hundreds, or
even thoufands, in a fingle feed-veffel, according to the par-
ticular plant from which it is taken : for though fome plants
do not afford more than one or two, others three or four,

4

there are many which have val numbers of feeds, and are of
amazing fertility ; as, for intaiice, in the tobacco-plant, one
fimple feed-veflel frequently coiitams not Icfstlian about one
thoufand feeds ; and in that of the white poppy phmt it is
often not lower than eight thoufand : the wimle pmduce of
one fingle tobacco-plant is certainly upwards of forty thou-
fand ; but fome have luppofed it to be mure than three
hundred thoufand ; and tliat of one fingle ftalk of fplecn-
wort is conceived from calculation to be above one million of
feeds. This is iriDllly the cafe in flower and other plants,
but rarely in the culinary forts.

In regard to what coiicerns the forms of garden feeds,
they are, in general, either round, oval, kidney fhaped,
heart-thaped, angular, flat, or fome other form approaching
to fome of thefe. And in relation to the fizes and dimen-
fions of fuch feeds, they are very different according to the
plants from which they are taken, varying from the mag-
nitude of the large nut kind, down to the very minute feeds
of creffes, and others, wliich are ftill much Imaller m their
fi7.es. With refpeft to the fubftance and fohdity of feeds
they vary greatly, fome feeds are foft, pulpy, flefhy, others
hard and firm without any flefhy matter, fome membra-
nous, others hard and long in thoir natures, which is the
cafe in all the different kinds of tlie nut tribe, as well
as in the ftones of many forts of berries and other ftone
fruit.

• Seeds of the garden fort are likewife either covered or
naked ; the covered feeds are all fuch as are contained and
concealed in fome vefiels either of the capfule, pod, berry,
apple, pear, cherry, or fome other fimilar kinds; the naked
feeds are all thofe which are not contained in any veffel, but
lodged ill their receptacles, or in the bottoms of the cups
belonging to the different plants or flowers.

There is an almoft endlefs variety in the modes which
nature has provided for the diffeminating and difperfing the
feeds of plants, which is truly wonderful, though of but
little confequence in garden culture ; in a very great many
plants, the fruit or veffels containing the feed, are raifed
above the ground, either by ereft firm ftems, or by climbing
ftalks, fo that the fruit being elevated from the ground, it
may be more readily and eafily fhaken by the wind which
blows the feeds not unfrequently to a great diftance ; for the
fame reafon alfo, that defcriptioii of feedveflels which is
called capfule, in fome inftaiices, opens at the lop, in order
that the feeds may be more fully and completely, as well as
more readily, difperfed or thrown about. And from a great
number of feeds being winged, as has been feen above, they
are in that way fpread far and near by the winds, and find
their paffage into different foils and territories. Bcfides,
fome feed-veflels are endued with a remarkable degree of
elafticity, by means of which they dart and throw their feed
with great force to a very confiderable diftance j of this kind
are the plants called touch-me-not, and the fpirting cu-
cumber, as well as fome others. Tliere are many feeds and
feed-veflels too, which are armed with a fort of hooks, hairs,
&c. by which they attach themfelves to different kinds of
animals, or other matters, and are thereby difperfed ; fuch
for inftance, as in the feed of the carrot, hemp, ag'imony,
burdock, &c. Further, the feeds of many lorts that are de.
voured by birds, being carried and voided by them in an en-
tire and perfeft ftate in different parts, often at a very great
diftance, not unfrequently take root and grow. In bernes,
as well as otiier pulpy fruits, whicli have been eaten a' food,
the feeds and kernels of many kinds of which pals through
the body unhurt, and falling to the ground, i'kewife Rot
feldom take on a growing llale. Seeds are ali>' very fre-
quently carried, dilfeminated, and difperfed by brooks,

rivers,

SEED.

rivers, torrents, and all forts of running waters and tides to
a great number of leagues diftance from their native foils
and expofures, where, after being left in fuch different grounds
and climates, they, however, not unfrequeiitly eftablifh and
render themfelves familiar and agreeable in fuch new fitua-
tions. Thefe circumftances are neceflary to be Icnown to
the gardener, in order that he may guard againll the intro-
duftion of weeds, &c. more perfeftly-

The duration or lading of feeds, in fo far as refpedls their
powers or properties of vegetating or producing new plants,
is very confiderable indeed ; as for inftance, thofe of the cu-
cumber, melon, and gourd, not feldom retain their powers
of vegetation for eight, ten, or twelve years ; and it has been
confidently afferted that thofe of the mimofa, or fenfitive
plant, will retain or preferve the principle of life or growth
for thirty or forty years or more ; while, on the other hand,
a far greater number of feeds will not keep good, or in a
germinating ftate, for more than one or two years ; and many,
or indeed the greatelt part of thefe, will not vegetate pro-
perly, if more than one year old, nor fome even when kept
this (hort length of time. There are fome indeed wiiich re-
quire to be fown or put into the ground foon after they be-
come ripe, or they will not grow until the fucceeding year ;
others, unlefs they are fown immediately after they have
been gathered, will not grow at all, as is not unfrequently
the cafe with the berries of the cofFee-plant. It has, how-
ever, been remarked, that almoft all forts of feeds which have
been fown the firft year after being collefted or gathered, in
general rife much fooner, and a great deal itronger, than fuch
as have been kept for a greater length of time ; for which
reafon it is principally advifed to have recourfe to new feeds,
or fuch as are not more than one year old, wherever it can
poflibly be done ; except in the particular cafes of cucum-
bers and melons, in which feeds of two or three years old, or
more, are often more to be preferred, as the plants of this
kind, when raifed from new feeds, are liable to run or grow
much too vigoroufly to Hems or ilalks, without becoming
either tolerably cxpeditioully fruitful, or producing fruit in
any fufFicient quantity.

In regard to the keeping of garden feeds, all fuch as are
produced in dry caplules, or other dry feed-veliels, are found
to keep much better and longer in fuch veflels than. if taken
out of them ; but it is probable that mod kinds of feeds will
keep and retain their germinative property the longeii and
moll perfeftly in the bowels of the earth, when they may have
been accidentally depofited and buried to a confiderable
depth, and out of the reach of the influence of the fun and
the .^ir or atmofphere. For it has been noticed rcfpefting
the feeds of corn fallad in particular, which have been buried
by accident to the depth of three feet or more in the ground
for thirty years or more, that on the foil being turned up
that depth to the top, they have began to vegetate and Iiave
grown freely. The fame thing has likewife been remarked
of many other iiinds of feeds, wliicli have by chance been
depofited in the earth to the depth of feveral feet ; and in the
bottoms of wells, vaults, ponds, ditches, and many other
fimilar fituations, and which have not been ilirred for many
years, as is evident frora the circumftances of the cafes; as
when occafion has required the foil or earth to be thrown to
the top of the furface, and to be expofed to the fun and air,
many feeds have vegetated and plants rifen, which had not
been remembered to have been feen in luch places any time
before, or at leail for a very great length of time. Mod
forts of garden feeds (liould therefore be kept condantly in
tlie capfules, hulks, and other parts in which they are m-
clofed.

It may alfo be remarked, that mod forts of feeds, if fown

too deep, remain inaiftive, and fome never exert their vege-
tative properties at all, while others, notwithftanding, pre-
ferve their power of vegetation and growth ; and whenever
the ground or foil is again frefh dirred, or newly turned up,
fuch of them as happen to approach towards the upper part,
will frequently (hew themfelves, and come up, which fully
demondrates the power and effeft which the fun and free air
have, in promoting and bringing forward the vegetation of
feeds as well as plants. On this account, therefore, it it
advifed that feeds of this fort (hould never be fown too deep
in the ground, but condantly, in lome meafure, in propor-
tion to their fize, or the quantity of matter which they con-
tain, as from about a quarter or half an inch deep, in the
fmaller forts, to about one, two, and fometimes three inche*
in the middling and large kinds. See Sowing of Seeds.

In relation to the vegetation, germination, or growth of
feeda, after they have been regularly fown or depofited in
the earth or foil to a proper depth, it is very quick in fome
forts, while in others it is flow, as for indance, the feeds of
crcdes, milliard, turnips, and many other lorts, vegetate and
come up in a few days, fome other forts in one, two, or three
weeks ; as in mod of the efculent kinds of the kitchen
garden, and a great many others of the herbaceous clafs ;
but the feeds of parfley and fome other kinds of plants often
remain in an iiiadlive itate for a month or fix weeks, and there
are ilill fome other forts which lie one or two years or more
in the ground before they germinate and rife in plants.
With refpedl to the feeds of flirubs and trees, there are fome
which will rife in the courfe of a month or fix weeks, or
even in a much (horter time, while others require two or
three months to vegetate and grow, and there are fome kinds
which lie a whole year or more, before they begin to vege-
tate and grow, as in the cafe of the hawthorn, the holly,
and mod others of the very hard long-feeded kinds.

On the whole, thefe feeds are the deciduous parts of the
vegetables to which they belong, each of which includes the
rudiment of a new plant, and is endowed with a vital or
living principle by means of the fprinkling of the pollen or
male dud, which they are capable of retaining for a very con-
fiderable length of time when properly kept and prelerved.

It is of great importance in the praftice of gardening, to
be careful in coUefting feeds from the bell lorts and varietie*
of the different kinds of plants, to preferve them in a proper
manner, and to put them into the ground with due attention
to their nature and qualities. Much advantage may like-
wife be gained in fome cafes, by deeping them in a fuitable
manner, and by producing a change in them, trom the mix-
ing or combining of different varieties of the fame plants, in
railing thole from which they are taken. Peale have been
very greatly improved in this way.

With proper precautions, and with a zeal in any degree
refembhng that of the late Dr. Solander, of Mr. Blake,
who had formed a plan of procuring tlie feeds ol all the
vegetables produced in China, which are ufed in medicine,
manufadluies, or food, or are in any way fervlceable to man-
kind, and to forward to Europe not only fuch feeds, but
the plants producing them (fee Kippis's edit, of Biog.
Brit. art. Blahe], and of fir Jofiph Banks; we might ob-
tain a great variety of curious and ufetnl plants now unculti-
vated in this country.

The feed of fruit-trees, it is f^id, fhonld not be cliofen
from thofe that are the mod fruitful, fo much as trom the
mod folid and fair ; nor arc we to covet the largcd .icorns,
but the mod weighty, clean, and bright. Porous, infipid,
mild forts of feeds, are to be fown as foon as ripe ; hot,
bitter feeds, ought to be kept a year before they are iown.
See Seminauy.

The

SEE

The (hape and weight of feeds direft how they are to be
fet ■ moft of them, when they fall, lie on one fide, with the
fmall end towards the earth ; which fhevvs that pofture to be
befl to fet any Itone or nut in ; if they be heavy, fow them
the deeper. Acorns, peaches, &c. are to be fown two or
three inches deep. See Semination.

There is a common method of trying the goodnefs of
many forts of feed, which is by putting them in water ; and
thofe which fink to the bottom are efteemed good, but thofe
that fwim on the furface are rejeded. This rule, Mr. Miller
obferves, is not univerfal ; for having faired the feeds of
melons which floated on the furface of water, they were
wadied from the pulp, and keeping them two years, they
grew very well ; but the melons they produced were not fo
thick-fleflied as thofe which he obtained from heavy feeds of
the fame melon. Tiie lightnefs of many forts of feeds he
afcribes to their not having been fufficiently impregnated
by the farina foccundans ; and, therefore, care (hould be
taken that this operation be properly performed, by not ex-
cluding plants that are in flower from the external air, or
even by afliiting natme in conveying the farina of the male
flowers to thofe of the female. Miller's Gard. Diftionary,
art. Seid.

Seed, Change of, a term ufed by the farmers to cxprefs
the common, and, as they fuppofe, neceC.ary cuilom, of
changing among one another the feed of their lands, as wheat,
and the like ; it being a received opinion, that the leed pro-
duced on one land will grow better on another than on that
which produced it, though the fame fpecies of plant be
fown.

Seeds, in their natural climate, do not degenerate, unlefs
culture has improved them ; they then indeed are liable, upon
omiffion of that culture, to return to their natural itate again.
Whatever benefit arifes to the farmer from the changing of
the feed of the fame fpecies, is from caufes which are them-
felves the effefts of different climates, fuch as heat and
moillure, which may vary very much in the fame neighbour-
hood.

Laurembergius has carried this notion of degeneracy and
change from the foil, fo far as to affirm that wheat will, in
fome places, degenerate into rye ; and in other places, rye
will be exalted into wheat by the foil ; but thofe who are
acquainted with botany know, that a horfe miglit a; foon be
changed into a bull by feeding in an improper pafture, as
one plant degenerate into another by fault of the loil.
TuU's Hufbandry, p. ii6. See Change o/" Sfc^.

Seeds, Steeping of, in prolific liquors, is a praftlce that
has occafionally prevailed, and it is not of modern invention.
The Romans, who were good hufbandmen, have left us
feveral receipts for fteeping of grain, in order to incrcafe
the powers of vegetation. In England, France, Italy, and
in all countries where agriculture has been attended to, a
variety of liquors has been recommended for this purpofe.
The praftice is founded on a prefumption, that, by filling
the veffels of the grain with nourifhmg liquors, the germ,
with its roots, would be invigorated. On this fubjett Dr.
Hunter obferves, that all his experiments demonftrate, that
fteeps have no inherent virtue ; having fown more than once
the fame feed, ileepcd and unfteeped, all other circumltances
being alike, he never found the leaft difference in the growth
of the crop. When, indeed, the light feeds arc flcimmed off,
as in the operation of brining, the crop will be improved,
and difeafes prevented ; but thefe advantages proceed from
the goodnefs of the grain fown, and not from any prolific
virtue of the ileep. In this opinion many rational farmers,
determined by their own experience, concur. Duhamel
fpcaks in the ftrongeft terms againit the practice of fteeping,

SEE

fo far as it fuppofes an impregnation of vegetative particles.
Dr. Hunter, having fprouted all kinds of grain in a variety
of lleeps, allures the farmer, that the radicle and germ never
appeared fo vigorous and healthy, as when fprouted by ele-
mentary water ; whence it appears, that the feed requires bo
alTiftance.

Upon the whole he concludes, that as no invigorating or
fruftifying liquor, however pompoufly introduced, has ever
flood the tefl of fair and correft experiment, it may be laid
down as an etlablifhed truth, that plump feeds, clear of
weeds, and land well prepared to receive it, will feldom
difappoint the expeftations of the farmer ; and upon thefe
he fhould rely for the goodnefs of his crop. Hunter's
Evelyn's Silva, p. 15, '&c.

Seeds, in Pharmacy, &c. The medicinal feeds, efpe-
cially thofe imported from the Indies, Levant, &c. are
feverally defcribed under their refpeclive articles ; which
fee. Among thofe ufed with us, the principal are, the four
greater hot, and the four greater cold feeds, as they are
called. The firll are thofe of anife, fennel, cumin, and
carraway ; the latter, thofe of gourd, citrul, melon, and
cucumber.

The chief ufe of the four cold feeds is for the making of
emulfions, cool refrefhing drinks, paftes for the hands, and
oils ufed by the ladies for the complexion.

Seeds, in Agriculture, a term applied to young grafl'es,
or to lands newly laid to grafs, in many cafes.

Sket>- Furrow, the furrow or ploughing on which the
feed is fown, or put in. It is ufual, in the lalt ploughing
before fowing, to have the furrow lefs turned than in other
cafts. See Ploughing.

SERV-Grafs, a term ufed to fignify cultivated herbage,
or grafs, railed in oppofition to natural grafs. See yirti-
Jicial Grasses.

Seed-Z.;/i, a fort of balket, in which the fowcr carries
his feed, in order to low it. It is fometimes written feed-
leap, or feed-lop.

A great improvement has lately been made on th,^ com-
mon fowir.g-bafket, by a farmer at Maiden, in the county
of Eflex. He has contrived it in fuch a manner, that the
bottom is a wire-fieve, which fifts out the feeds of needs
from the grain, in the motion of fowing ; a cloth bag being
attached beneath, for the purpofe of catching them.

SEFi)-Room, the room or place where garden feeds are
kept and preferved in, either for the purpofe of fale, or
future ufe in fowing and railing crops. Rooms for this
purpofe fhould have but little fun, be perfeftly free from
all forts of moifture, and be fitted up with every kind of
convenience for receiving, hanging, and keeping all defcrip-
tions of feeds.

In the arrangement with other garden buildings, the
feed-room Ihould have a place as near the hot-houfe and
fruit-room as poflible ; but where there are no other build-
ings, it may have any fituation which is ready and con-
venient for depofiting the feeds.

SEET>-Seam, the interftice between two plats, as left by
the plough ; alfb the channels made by floating, drill-
ing, &c.

Seed- IVeeds, fuch weeds as arife from the fowing or dif-
pcrfion of their feed?, and which do not propagate thera-
fclves by the roots. See Weeds.

Seed, Amber, Anife, Lac, Line, Miijlard, Worm. See
the refpeSivc articles.

Seed of Pearl. See PeARL.

SEEDLINGS, among Gardeners, denote fuch roots of
gilliflowcrs, &c. as come from iced fown. Alfo the young
tender flioots of any, plants that are newly fown.

SEEDLY,

SEE

SEEDI.Y, in Geography, a town of Morung ; 55 miles
N.W. of Amcrpour.

SEEDNESS, in Agriculture, provincially ufed for feed

time.

SEEDSMAN, a term applied to the labourer or perfon
who fcatters, difperfes, or puts the feed in or on the ground,
in fowing for different forts of crops, before it is covered.
Certain peculiarities of ilep and caft are requifite in good
feedfmen, which are only to be acquired by time, praftice,
or experience. Expert feedfmen are, of courfe, but rarely
to be met with among farm labourers, though they are of
very material importance, in fo far as the fuccefs, goodnefa,
and beauty of the crops are concerned, as well as in faviiig
much expence in the feed, and other ways : confequeiitly
the farmer who does not perform this fort of bufinefs hini-
felf, will find it to be greatly his interefl to have conltantly
the bell, moft able, and experienced men of this kind pro-
cured for executing the work of fowing ; as he will thereby
have not <nily confiderable immediate faving, but the ad-
vantages of a more certain and favourable appearance, and
much greater produce in his crops. It is hardly to be con-
ceived, except by thofe converfant in the matter, how great
the wafte and injuries are, which are committed by feedfmen
who are not well acquainted, experienced, and expert in the
bufinefs of fowing. They are, befides, in many initances,
incapable of getting on with the work with that expedition
which is neceftary ; which is a very great inconvenience and
lofs to the farmer at this very bufy feafon of the year, when
every thing of this fort ought to be in the greateit activity.
See Seed and Sowing.

It is alfo a term which is made ufe of to fignify the perfon
who keeps a (hop, or other place, for the fale of feeds,
either to the farmer, or the gardener, or any other perfons.
Thefe feed-dealers have fometimes the name of garden
feedfmen. The London feed-dealers are a very confiderable
clafs of men, wlio do much bufinefs in the difpofing of all
forts of feeds which are neceflary to be employed in the
praftice of farming and gardening, as well as in different
other ways.

The garden feedfman is commonly the gardener himfelf,
other perfons being never, or very rarely, employed in fow-
ing any fort of garden crop.

SEEDY, in the Brnndy Trade, a term ufed by the
dealers to exprefs a fault that is found in feveral parcels of
French brandy, and which renders them unfaleablc. T^e
French fnppofe that thefe brandies obtain the flavour,
which they exprefs by this name, from the weeds which
grew among tlie vines, from whence the wine, of which this
brandy was made, was preiled.

However it be, the thing is evident, and the tadc not of
any one kind ; but fome pieces of brandy fhall talte llrongly
of anifecd, fome of carraway feed, and fome of other of
the llrong flavoured feeds of plants, principally of the um-
belliferous kind ; fo that it (hall be rather taken for anifeed,
carraway, or fome other water, than for brandy.

The proprietor of fuch brandies is always at great trouble
to get tlieni ofi, and ufually is reduced to the ncceflity of
mixing them in fmall quantities with pieces of other brandies,
fo as to drown and conceal the talle ; and where he has not
opportunities of doing this, he is obliged to fell them on
very difadvantageenis terms.

The bufinefs of rectification of fpirits is very little under-
ftood abroad, though much praftifed with us ; and a man
in France or Holland, who could take off this tailc from
theie brandies, might get great advantages by it. There
is no doubt but that the fame means, which we ufe to rec-
tify malt fpirits, that is, to clear it of ita nanfcoui ard

Vol. XXXII.

SEE

(linking oil, which always arifes with it in the firft diflitlj.
tion, would alfo fcrve to purify thefe brandies, and by
leaving the extraneous oils behind, render them as well taded
as any others ; fince there is no qucftion, but that the oil of
malt, which is a principle of the fame ingredient with the
fpirit, is more firmly united to it than thefe flavouring oils
in the brandy, which are not the produce of the grape, but
of fome foreign matter enly accidentally mixed with it. Sec
Brandy and Spirits.

It is a miitake to imagine, that all brandies made in
France are fo fine as thofe which we meet with on the quays
of London ; on the contrary, there are many hundred pieces
made every year, which are as badly flavoured as our coarfeft
malt fpirit. But the cafe is this, they fend the bed brandies,
and tile befl wine, to England, where they can get the beft
prices for them. In Holland, on the contrary, the mart
of goods of all forts, it is fometimes difficult to feleft one
piece of good brandy out of fifty, the general run of them
being either feedy, or mully, oily, or otherwife infefted
with fome unnatural and difagieeable flavour : and thefe are
the forts which in France they defpair of curing by re-
diltiUation, or bringing to the (late of three-fifths, or troit
cinques, a- they exprefs their llronger brandies. Shaw's
Eday on Diftillery.

Seedy Abdel Ablus, in Geography, a town of Tunis, an-
ciently called " Mudi ;" 16 miles N.E. of Keft.

Seedy Abdelmoumen, a town ot Algiers, in the province
of Tremc(;eii, on the coail of the Mediterranean, having a
good road for (liips. It derives its name from a celebrated
prophet, whofe tomb the inhabitants hold in great venera^
tion ; 4 miles S.W. of Mejerda.

Skedv Abdullah, a town of Morocco, on thecoaft of the
Atlantic ; 30 miles N. of Mogador.

Seedy Abid, a town of Algiers, in the province of Tre-
megcn, at the conflux of the Arhew and the Shelliff, held
as a fanftuary ; 30 miles E. of Mullygannim.

Seedy Bofgannim, a town of Tunis ; 40 miles S.W. of
Keft.

Seedy Buforodon, a town of Morocco, on the coail of
the Atlantic ; 10 miles N. of Mogador.

Seedy Doude, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis, at the north extremity of the peninfula of Dakkul,
furrounded with the ruins of the ancient Mifna. Its pre-
fcnt name is derived from Doude, or David, a Moorifh
faint, whofe fepulchre, as they fliew it, is five yards long.
But, according to Dr. Sliaw (in his Travels), this is really
a fragment of fome Roman prxtorium, as he is led to con-
jefture from three tedellated or mofaic paveinenti, wrought
with the moft exaft fymmetry ; and executed with all the
artful wreathings and variety of colours imaginable, and with
an intermixture of figures of horfes, birds, filhes, and trees,
curioudy inlaid, fo that they appear more gay and lively
than many tolerably good paintings ; 10 miles S.W. of
Cape Bon.

Seedy Eefah, a town of Algiers, anciently called Sava ;
25 miles S. of Boujeiah.

Skkdy Meddub, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis ; 20 miles N. of Gabs.

Seedy Nedja, a town of Algiers ; 26 miles E. of Burg
Hamza.

Seedy Occuba, a town of Africa, in the province of
Zaab, famous for a tomb of an Arabian general of that
name, and for that of Seedy Lafcar, its tutelar faint ; 15
miles S.E. of Bifcara.

SEEFELDT, a town of Aullria; 6 miles W. of
Laab.

SEEHAUSEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Old
.\ a Mark.

SEE

SEE

Mark, on the river Aland, which almoft furrounds it ;
40 miles N.W. of Brandenburg. N. lat. 52° 53'. E. long.
11° 59'. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of Bremen ; 3 miles
W. of Bremen. — Alfo, a town of Weitphalia, called
" Sommerchenburg," in the duchy of Magdeburg ; 1 8 miles
W. of Macjdeburg.

SEEHAUSZ, a citadel of Germany, in the lordfhip of
Schwarzeuherg, on a lake ; 6 miles S. of Scheinfeld.

SEE-HOO, or 3l-H0U, a lake of China, on the borders
of which (lands the wealthy and extenfive city of Hang-
choo-foo, or Hang-tcheou-fou ; which fee. This lake, with
the furrounding fcenery, is accounted one of the grandeft,
as well as moft beautiful, fpots in all China. The Lui-
fang-ta, or tower of the thundering winds, (landing on the
point of a promontory, jutting into the lake, forms a bold
objedl. It is faid to have been built in the time of the phi-
lofopher Confueius, who lived centuries before the Chrif-
tian era. The vale of tombs has an almoll infinite variety
of ornaments. Naked coffins in great abundance lie fcat-
tered upon the ground, and the fides of the hills that rife
from the vale are thickly fet with groups of larcophagi,
in the fhape of fmall houfes, arranged in fuch a manner as
to have the appearance of fo many LiUiputian cottages. In
the plates annexed to Staunton's Voyage, we have an in-
tereding view of this lake.

SEEHURAH, a town of Hindooftan, in (Jurry-Mun-
della ; 25 miles N. of Gurrah.

SEEING, the aft of perceiving objefts by the organ of
fight ; or, it is the fenfe we have of external objefts, by
means of the eye.

For the apparatus, or difpofition of the parts necedary
to feeing, fee Eye. For the manner in which feeing is
performed, and the laws of it, fee Vision.

Our bed anatomids differ greatly as to the caufe why we
do not fee double with the two eyes. Galen, and others
after him, afcribe it to a coalition, or deculTation of the
optic nerve, behind the os fphenoides. But whether they
decuffate or coalefce, or only barely touch one another, is
not fo well agreed.

The Bartholines and Vefalius fay exprefsly, they are
united by a perfeft confufion of their fubllance ; Dr. Gib-
Ion allows them to be united by the clofell conjunftion, but
not by a confufion of their fibres.

Alhazen, an Arabian philofopher of the 12th century,
accounts for fingle vifion by two eyes, by fuppofing that
when two corrcfponding parts of the retina are affefted, the
mind perceives but one image.

Defcartes, and others, account for the elfeft another way ;
viz. by fuppofing that the fibrillae conftituting the medullary
part of thofe nerves, being fpread in the retina of each eye,
have each of them correfponding parts in the brain ; fo that
when any of thofe fibrillae are ilruck by any parts of any
image, the correfponding parts of the brain are affefted
thereby.

Somewhat like which is the opinion of Dr. Briggs, who
takes the optic nerves of each eye to confill of homologous
fibres havmg their rife in the thalamus nervorum opti-
corum, and being thence continued to both the retinas,
which are compofed of them ; and farther, that thofe
fibrillK have the fame parallehfm, tenfion, &c. in both eyes ;
confequently, when an image is painted on the fame cor-
refponding fympathizing parts of each retina, the fame
effefts are produced, the fame notice carried to the thalamus,
and fo imparted to the foul. Hence is that double vifion en-
fuing upon an interruption of the parallellifm of the eyes ;
as when one eye is deprefled by the finger, or their fym-
phony is interrupted by difeafe : but Dr. Briggs maintains,

that it is but in few fubjefts there is any dccullation ; and in
none any conjunftion more than merecontaft.

Dr. Briggs's notion is by no means confonant to fafts, and
is attended with many improbable circumltances.

It was the opinion of fir Ifaac Newton, and of many
others, that objefts appear fingle, becaufe the two optic
nerves unite before they reach the brain. But Dr. Porter-
field (hews, from the obfervation of feveral anatomifts, that
the optic nerves do not mix, or confound their fubftance,
being only united by a clofe cohefion ; and objefts have ap-
peared fingle, where the optic nerves were found to be dif-
joined. To account for this phenomenon, this ingenious
writer fuppofes, that, by an original law in our natures, we
imagine an objeft to be fitualed foraewhere in a riglit line
drawn from the pifture of it upon the retina, through tiic
centre of the pupil ; confequently the fame objeft appearing
to both eyes to be in the fame place, the mind cannot diltin-
gui(h it into two.

In anfwer to an objeftion to this hypotheCs, from objefts
appearing double when one eye i? diftorted, he fays, the
mind miilakes the pofition of the eye, imagining, that it
had moved in a manner correfpondmg to the other, in which
cafe the conclufion would have been jull : in this he fcems
to have recourfc to the power of habit, though he difclaims
that hypothefis. This principle, however, has b^en thought
fufficient to account for this appearance.

Originally, every objeft making two piftures, one in each
eye is imagined to be double ; but, by degrees, we find that
when two correfponding parts of the retina are imprcffed,
the objeft is but one ; but if thofe correfponding parts be
changed by the diftortion of one of the eyes, the objeft muft
again appear double, as at the firlt. This feems to be verified
by Mr. Chefclden, who informs us, that a gentleman, who.
from a blow on his head, had one eye dillorted, found every
objeft to appear double, but by degrees the mod familiar
ones came to appear fingle again, and in time all objefts did
fo without amendment of the dillortion. A fimilar cafe is
mentioned by Dr. Smith.

On the other hand Dr. Reid is of opinion, that the cor-
refpondence of the centres of two eyes, on which fingk
vifion depends, does not arife from cudom, but from fome
natural conditution of the eye and of the mind.

M. du Tour adopts an opinion, long before fuggedcd by
GafTendi, that the mind attends to no more than the image
made in one eye at a time ; in fupport of which he produces
feveral curious experiments; but as M. Buffon oblcrves, it
is a fufficient anfwer to this hypothefis, that we fee more dif-
tinftly with two eyes than with one ; and that when a round
objeft is near us, we plainly fee more ot the furface in one
cafe than in the other.

With relpeft to fingle vifion with two eyes. Dr. Hartley
obferves, that it deferves particular attention, that the optic
nerves of men, and fuch other animals as look the fame way
with both eyes, unite in the fella turcica in a ganglion, or
little brain, as it may be called, peculiar to themfelves, and
that the adociations between fynchronous impredions on the
two retinas mud be made fooner, and cemented dronger on
this account ; and that they ought to have a much greater
power over one another's images than in any other part of
the body. And thus an imprelfion made on the right eye
alone by a fingle objeft, may propagate itfelf into the left,
and there raiie up an image almoil equal in vividnefs to
itfelf; and, confequently, when v/n fee whh one eye only,
we may, however, have piftures in both eyes.

It is a common obfervation, fays Dr. Smith, that objefts
feen with both eyes appear more vivid and dronger than they
do to a fingle eye, efpecially when both of them are equally

good.

SEE

SEE

jrcod. Porterfield on the Eye, vol. ii. pp. 285. 315.
Smith's Optics, Remarks, p. 31. Reid's Inquiry, p. 267.
Mem. Prefentes, p. 514. Acad. Par. 1747. M. p. 334.
Hartley on Man, vol. i. p. 207. Prieltley's Hitl. of Light
and Colours, p. 663, &c.

Whence it is that we fee objeAs ereft, when it is certain
that the images of them are painted invertedly on the retina,
is another difficulty in the theory of feeing.

Defcarteu accounts for it hence, that the notice which tlie
foul takes of the objeft does not depend on any image, nor
on any aftion coming from the objeft, but merely on the
lltuation of the minute part of the brain whence the nerves
arife. E. gr. the fituatien of a capillament of the optic
nerve correlponds to a certain part of the brain, which oc-
cafions the foul to fee all thofe places lying in a right line
therewith.

But Mr. Molyneux gives us another account : the eye, lie
obfcrves, is only the organ or inllrument ; it is the foul that
fees. To enquire, then, how the foul perceives the objeft
eredl by an inverted image, is to inquire into the foul's facul-
ties. Again, imagine that the eye receives an impulfe on its
lower part, by a ray from the upper part of an objetl, mull
not the vifive faculty be herebv diredled to confider this
Itroke as coming from the top, rather than the bottom of the
objeft ; and, confequently, be determined to conclude it the
reprefentation of the top ?

Upon thefe principles, we are to confider, that inverted is
only a relative term, and that there is a very great difference
between the real objeft and the means or image whereby we
perceive it. When all the parts of a diilant profpeft are
painted upon the retina (fuppofing that to be the feat of vi-
fion), they are all right with refpeft to one another, as well as
the parts of the profpeft itfelf ; and we can only judge of an
objetl being inverted, when it is turned reverfe to its natural
pofition with refpeft to other objefts which we fee and com-
pare it with.

The eye, or vifive faculty, (fays Molyneux) takes no
notice of the internal furface of its own parts, but ufes them
as an inllrument only, contrived by nature for the cxercife
of fuch a faculty. If we lay hold of an upriglit itick in
the dark, we can tell which is the upper or lower part of it,
by moving our hand upwards or downwards ; and very well
know, that we cannot feel the upper end by moving our
hand downwards. Juft fo, we find by experience and habit,
that upon diredling our eyes towards a tall objeft, we can-
not fee its top by turning our eyes downward, nor its foot
by turning our eyes upward; but mull trace the object the
fame way by the eye to fee it from head to foot, as we do by
the hand to feel ; and as the judgment is informed by the
motion of the hand in one cafe, fo it is alfo by the motion
of the eye in the other. Molyneux's Dioptr. p. 105, &c.
Mufchenbroeck's Int. ad Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 762. Fer-
gufoii's Ltftures, p. 132. See on the fubjefts of this ar-
ticle, our account of the phyfiology of the eye, under
Eye.

Sekivo Faith. See Faith.

SEEKIRCHEN, in Geography, a town of the arcli-
bifliopric of Salzburg, on the Waller See ; 4 miles N. of
Salzburg.

SEEKPORUM, a townof Hindooftan, in Boggilcund ;
35 miles N.N.E. of Rewah.

SEEL, in jlgrkiilture, a term provincially applied to time
or feaf'.nin rcfped to c-ps, as hay feel, or hay time, bar-
Icy feel, or barley feed time, bark feel, or the barking feafon,
&c. It is fomctimes written y^/.

SEEL.AND, in Geography. See Zf.ALAND.

SEELANG, a fmaU ifland in tlie Eafl Indian fea, near

the S. coafl of the idand of Bachian, with which it forrris
a good inner and alfo outer harbour.

SEELBURG, or Sehnpills, a town of the duchy of
Courland, on the Dwina, where the bilhops of SemigaUia
formerly refided, and who, on that account, were called
bilhops of Seelburg ; 50 miles S.E. of Riga.

SEELING. A horfe is faid to feel \\\\en he begins to
have white eye-brows, that is, when there grows on that
part about the breadth of a farthing of white hairs, mixed
with thofe of his natural colour, which is a mark of old

It is faid a horfe never feels till he is fourteen years old,
and always does before he is fixteen. The light forrel and
black fooner feel than any other.

Horle-jockies ufually pull out thofe hairs with pincers :
but if there be fo many that it cannot be done without
making the horfe look bald and ugly, then they colour their
eye-brows, that they may not appear old.

Seelixg, in Falconry, is the running a thread through the
eye-lids of a hawk, when firll taken, to make her endure the
hood the better.

Seeling, at Sea, is ufed in the fame fenfe nearly with
heeling : when a fliip lies down conftantly, or lleadily, on
one fide, the feamen fay ftie heeh ; and they csiWt feeling,
when fhe tumbles on one fide violently and fuddenly, by rea-
fon of the fea forfaking her, as they call it, /. e. the waves
leaving her for a time in a bowling fea. When a (hip thus
tumbles to leeward, they call it lee feel ; and in this there is
not much danger, even in a ftorm, becaufe the fea will pre-
fently right her up again ; but if fhe rowls or feels to wind-
ward, there is fear of her coming over too fhort or fuddenly,
and fo by having the fea break right into her, be either
foundered, or elfe have fome of her upper works carried
away.

SEELINGAN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
Sooloo Archipelago. N. lat. 6° 4'. E. long. 118° 15'.

SEELKEN, a town of PrutTia, in the province of Na-
tangen ; 9 miles W.N.W. of Liel.

SEELOW, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middln-
Mark ; 10 miles W. of Cuilrin.

SEEM, or Seme. See Seam.

SEE-MA- KOANG, in Biography, a Chincfe . mandarin
and philofopher of the eleventh century, who enjoyed the
favour of the emperor, and had feveral important places,
which he refigned and retired to a folitary place, where he
wrote a hiftory of China, commencing at the 403d year be-
fore the Chriftian era. He was author likewifc of fome
moral treatifes.

SEEMO, in Geography,, a town of Africa, in KafTon.
N. lat. 14° 2,-'. E. long. 8° 45'.

SEENEENDOONG, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the N. coall of Borneo. N. lat. 7'' 48'. E. long.

^if as'-

8EENGH00, a large town ot the Birmaa empire,
fitnatcd on the Irawaddy, having in its neighbourliood,_ and
for a great dillance along the callern bank of the river,
fmall temples built clofe to the water ; 10 miles S. of Pa-
gahm.

SEEOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa ; 50 miler.
E.S.E. of Shajehanpour.

SEEPARliAN, a fmall ifland in the Eafl Indian fea,
near the eafl coall of Borneo. N. lat. 4° 8'. E. long.

SEER, Principality of, a petty fovcrcignty of Ar.ibia,

extending from Cape Mullendom along the Perli.ni guli.

The Perfians call it the country of Dsjiilfar, another cape

near MufTendora. rfThe Europeans alfo call the inhn.

A a 2 bitant-!

S E F

bitants the Arabs of D^julfar. The other Arabs call
it Seer, from the town of the fame name, which has a
good harbour, and is the feat of the fcheick. He formerly
poflefled and (till retains the ille of Scharedsje, with fome con-
fiderable places upon the oppofite fide of the gulf, among
which are Kunlc andLundsjc. This country not long fince
acknowledged the fovereign authority of the Imam ; but it
has withdrawn itfelf from this condition of dependence ; and
the fcheick often goes to war with his old mafter ; but with-
out afliftance, he is not able to defend himfelf. He takes
care, however, to hve upon good terms with the other inde-
pendent fcheickf, efpecially with the fcheick of Dsjau, wliofe
dominions he weftward from Oman. Tlie prince of Seer
makes fome figure among the maritime powers in thefe
parte. His navy is one of the moll cnnfiderable in the Pcr-
fian gulf. His fubjefts are much employed in navigation,
and carry on a pretty extenfive trade. N. lat. 25'. E.
long. 54° 38. Niebuhr's Travels into Arabia, vol. ii.
Eng. ed.

SEERD, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Diarbekir ; ^^ miles E. of Diarbek.

SEERKA, a town of Bengal; 25 miles E. of Pa-
lamow.

SEERPOUR, a town of Bengal; 18 miles W. of
Moorlhedabad. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles N.E.
of Nattore. — Alfo, a town of Hindoollan, in Allahabad,
on the Ganges ; 40 miles E. of Gazypour.^-Alfo, a town
of Hindoollan, in the circar of Sumbul ; 40 miles S. of
Nidjibabad.— Alfo, a town of Hindoollan, in Bahar ; 15
miles W. of Patna. — Alfo, a town of Hindoollan, in Bahar ;
9 miles N. of Arrah.

SEERSY, a town of Bengal ; 40 miles S.S.W. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 22° 39'. E. long 87° 35'.

SEERWAY, a town of Hindoollan, in My fore ; 10
miles N. of Chinna Balabaram.

SEES, a town of France, in the department of the
Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Alen-
^on, before the i-evolution the fee of a bifhop, fufTragan
of Rouen ; 2^ polls N. of Alen^on. The town, lituated
on the Orne, contains 547 1, and the canton 10,848 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 210 kiliometres, in 18 communes.
N. lat. 48^ 36'. E. long, o'-' 15'. — Alfo, a river of France,
which runs into the fea near Mount St. Michel.

SEESEEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the principdlity of
Wolfenbuttle ; 4 miles E. of Ganderlheim.

SEESKAR, aimallifland in the gulf of Finland. N.
lat. 60° 5'. E. long. 25° 11'.

SEESUCUNDA, a town of Africa, in Woolly. N.
lat. 13° 25'. W. long. 12° 54'.

SEETACOON, a town of Hindoollan, in Bengal; 18
miles N. of Iflamabad. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 15 miles
N. of Curruckpour.

SEETAPOON, a town of Bengal ; 20 miles N.N.W.
of Iflamabad. N. lat. 22° 37'. E. long. 91° 48'.

SEETRUNGE, a river of Hindoollan, which rifes in
Guzerat, and runs into the gulf of Canibay ; 4 miles E. of
Sultanpour.

SEETUL, a town of Bengal; 13 miles N. of Maul-
Jah.

SEEVE, a river which runs into the Elbe, near Haar-
burg.

SEEWAH. See Suva.

SEEWALD, a town of Prufiia, in the province of
Oberland, near Deutfch Eylau.

SEEWEE Bay. See Sf.wee.

SEFAKIN, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen ; 60 miles S.E. of Loheia.

S E F

SEFATIANS, a feft of Mahometans, who held the
oppofite opinion to the Moatazahte;, with refpeft to the
eternal attributes of God, which they affirmud, making rzo
dillindtion between the cffential attributes, and thofe of
operation ; and hence they were named Sefatians, or Attri-
butifts. See Moatazalitks.

The doftriiie of the Sefatians was that of the firft Maho-
metans, who were not yet acquainted with thefe nice dillinc-
tions ; but this fedl afterwards introduced another fpecies of
d'-clarativc attributes, or fuch as were nccellarily ufed in
liillorical narration, as hands, face, eyes, &c. which they
did not offer to explain, but contented themfclves with
faying they were in the law, and that they called them
" declarative attributes." At length, by introducing vari-
ous explications and interpretations of thefe attributes, they
divided into many different opinions; iome, by taking the
words in the literal fenfe, fell into the notion of a likenefs
or fimilitude between God and created beuigs, to which
it is faid the Karaites or Caraites among the Jews, who are
for the literal interpretation of Mofes's law, had (hewn
them the way : — others explained them in another manner,
faying that no creature was like God, but that they neither
underllood, nor thought it neccdary to explain the precife
lignification of the words which feem to affirm the fame of
both ; it being fufficicnt to believe that God hath no com-
panion or fimihtude.

The fefts of the Sefatians are, i. The " Afharians," or
followers of Abu'l Hafan al Alhari, who allowed the attri-
butes of God to be diftin£l from his eflence, yet fo as to
forbid any comparifon to be made between God and his
creatures j and who, as to predeftination, manitained that
God hath one eternal will, and that he willeth both the good
and evil, the profit and hurt of men, and who have even
faid, that God may even command man to do what he is not
able to perform ; and as to mortal fin they taught, that if a
believer guilty of fuch fin die without repentance, iiis
fcntence is to be left to God, whether he pardon him out of
his mercy, or whether the prophet intercede for him, or
whether he punifh him according to his demerit, and after,
wards, through his mercy, admit him into paradife ; but that
it is not to be fuppofed he will remain for ever in hcil with the
infidels : — fuch were the more rational Sefatians, who were
very different from — 2. The " Mofhabbehites," Or " AfTi-
milators." (See Moshabbeiutes. ) 3. The " Kerami-
ans," called alfo " Mojalfemians," or " Corporealifts,"
who declared God to be corporeal. (See Keramians. )
4. The " Jabarians." (See Jabaria.vs.) 5. The " Mor-
gians," faid to be derived from the Jabarians, who teach, that
the judgment of every true believer that hath been guilty of a
grievous fin, will be deferred till the rcfurrcftion, and that
difobedience with faith is not injurious, but, on the other
hand, that obedience with infidelity doth not profit. The
Morgians are dillributed into four fpecies ; three of which,
according as they happen to agree in particular dogmas with
the " Kharejites" the " Kadarians," or the "Jabarians,"
are diftinguilhed as Morgians of thofe fedls, and the fourth
is that of pure Morgians, and this fpecies is fubdivided into
five others. The opinions of Mokatel and Balhar, both be-
longing to a feft of Morgians, called " Thaubanians," are as
follow. The former allertcd that difobcdience hurts not him
who profefles the unity of God and is endowed with faith,
and that no true believer (hall be caft into hell ; he alfo
taught that God will certainly forgive all crimes befides infi-
delity ; and that a difobedient believer will be punilhed at
the refurreftion, on the bridge laid over the midft of hell,
v.here the flames of hell-fire fhall catch hold on him, and
torment him in proportion to his difobcdience, and that he

fhall

S E G

fiiall then be admitted into paradife. The latter held, that
if God do cait the believers guilty of grievous fins into hell,
yet they will be delivered thence after they fllall have been
iufficiently punifhed ; but that it is neither poffible nor con-
fiftent with jultice, that they (liould remain there for ever.
Sale's Koran— Prel. Difc.

SEFIDROU, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farliflan ; 114 miles S.W. of Schiras.

SEFROI, a town of Africa ; 20 miles S.E. of Fez.

SEFURA, a town of Africa, in Foota. N. lat. 10^
30'. W. long. 10^ 25'.

SEG, in Rural Economy, the name of a caftrated bull.

SEGAGHEE, in Geography, a town of the Bn-man
empire, on the Irawaddy ; 6 miles from Deneebow.

SEGALLA, a gold mine of Africa, in the kingdom
of Bambouk.

SEGAR, Sir William, in Biography, garter king at
arms, was author of '* Honour Civil and Military," folio,
1602. He was imprifoncd for granting the royal arms of
Arragon, with a canton of Brabant, to George Brandon,
the common hangman, but it being very evident that he had
been impofed upon he was releafed. He died in 1633.
Edmonfon's Baronage is laid to have been principally taken
from Segar's MSvS.

Skgar, in Geography. See Sad.sKAR.

SEGARDEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
30 miles W.N.W. of Hydrabad.

SEGARGIUM, a town of Thibet ; 52 miles S.W. of
Zueiiga.

8EGEB0RG, a town of the duchy of Holftein, the
name of which is derived from a cattle built there by the
emperor Lotharius in the year 1137, of which few vefligcs
now remain ; 18 miles N.W. of Lubeck. N. lat. 53° 58'.
E. long. 10° 19'.

SEGED, a town of Nubia ; 30 miles S. of Sennaar.

SEGEDA, \a ^iKient Geography, a very celebrated town
of Spain, in Boetica, in the interior of the country, between
the coaft of the ocean and the river Tader, according to
Pliny. — i\.lfo, a large and powerful town of Spain, in Cel-
tiberia, belonging to the people called Befii, according to
Appian.

SEGEDIN, in Geography. See Zegf.dis.

SEGEDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town on the
confines ot Dacia, on the river Tibifcus, which belonged
to the Jazyges.

Secedunu.m, one of tiic eighteen ftations on the wall of
Severus, in Englifli " Couiins'-Jioufe," being the firit rtation
reckoning from eaft to weft, three miles five furlongs and
one and a jialf chain from the next ftation to the well of it.
See Statiov.

SEGEHERAD, in Geography, a town of Norway, in
the province of Chriftiania ; 24 miles W. of Chriftiania.

SEGELOCUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of tiie
ide ol Albion, in the 5th Iter of Antonine, between Lin-
dum and Danum. All our antiquaries agree in placing
Segelocum, which is called Agelocum in Sth Iter, at Little-
horough, between Lincoln and Doncatler, where Roman
coin;;, altars, and other ancient remains have been found.

SEGELSBURG. in Cmgraphy, a town of the duchy
of Bremen ; 5 miles E. of Bremen.

SEGERA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas ; 5 miles S. of Medina.

SEGERS, or Skcjiikks, Geuaiid, in Biography. This
eminent painter was born at Antwerp in 1589. He was
firfl. a pupil of Henry van Balcn, but afterwards entered the
fchool of Abraham JanfTens, and had made confidcrablc
progrefs in tlie art when he went to Italy. On his arrival

SEG

at Rome, he attached himfelf as a difciple to Bartolommeo
Manfredi ; and from him adopted a tafte for the vigorous
flyle of Michael Angelo Caravaggio. To the ftreiiglh of
contrail, which he thus adopted, he added fomewhat of the
tone and colour he had brought with him from his natiTC
country ; producing the powerful effedt of candle-light,
though often falfely applied in fubjetts which appertain to
the milder illumination of the day. By fkilful produftions
of this nature, he acquired very confiderable fame, and
was at length invited by the cardinal Zapara, the Spanifli
ambaffador at Rome, to accompany him to Madrid. He
accepted the invitation, and was prefented by the cardinal
to the king, who received him in the moil gracious manner,
and engaged him in his fervice, with a confiderable penfion.
He employed himfelf at Madrid in painting feveral liillo-
rical fubjetls, and fome mufical converlation pieces, which
were greatly admired ; but after remaining there fome years,
the defire of revifiting his native country induced him to
requeft permiflion to retire. His renown had reached
Flanders, and his fellow-citizens were impatient to poHefs
fome of his produdlions ; yet, when he had arrived there,
and executed fome paintings in his ftrong manner, they,
whofe eyes had been accuftomcd to the pure brilliant hues,
and clear contrails of Rubens and Vandyke, were unable
to yield him that harvell of praife to which he had been
accuitomed, and he was obliged to change his manner, and
adopt a more tender and agreeable flyle. The facility with
which he effefted this change, proves his power over the
materials of the art, and his judgment in its principles;
and many of his latter pidlurcs bear evident teilimony in
fupport of his general ability. His moll efteemed produc-
tion is or was the principal altar-piece in the church of
the Carmelites at Antwerp, the fubjedl of which is the
Marriage of the Virgin. Vandyke painted his portrait
among the eminent artills of his country, which is engraved
by Pontius. He died in 1651, aged 62.

Segers, Daxikl, was the younger brother of Gerard,
and born at Antwerp in IJQO- His taile leading him to
deli^n fruit and flowers, he was placed as a difciple with
J. Brughel. At the age of 16 he entered the fociety of
theJeluits, and abandoned painting during his noviciate, but
when that term expired, he obtained permiflion of his fupe-
rior to vifit Rome, where his brother was then flourifhing
with diftinClion ; and he alfo acquired confiderable celebrity,
by the fidelity and fkiU with which he imitated the beauty
and variety of thofe objects of creation, as flowers, plants,
and infedls, which he cliofe for his models.

His produdtions were fought with avidity, and his talents
were not iinproduclive even to his convent, which received
valuable tributes in return for thole ingenious and entertain-
ing treafures of art. He appears, indeed, to have painted
more for the benefit of the wily fociety to wiiich he had
attaciieJ himfelf, tlian for his private advantage : and when
lie had produced his m(jft celebrated piilure, at the com-
mand of tile prince of Orange, it was prefented to tliat
monarch in tlio name of tlie fociety, which was nuinifitently
rccompcnled in return. He frequently painted garlands ot
flowers, as borders for piftnres, which were filled up with
hillorical fubjcAs by the firll painters. He died at Ant-
werp in 1660, aged 70.

SEGESTA, or.^E{:KSTA, or Segejle, m yJncient Geogra-
phy, a town ill the interior of Sicily, W. of Panormn. It
had a harbour and gulf of the fame name. The harbour
was called " Segeilanorum emporium," according to
Ptolemy.

Thucydides reprcfents it as a maritime town, and fpeaks
of the navigation at jEgclla. Thia ancient name i» f.nd to

havr

S E fr

S E G

hare been given to the place by Egeftua the Trojan, who is
faid to have been one of its founders ; but the Romans pre-
tend that it was founded by jEneas. Its rums are ftill
vifible. The mineral waters of this place were called " Se-
geftanse aquse :" and they are placed in the Itinerary of
Antonine on the route from the Lilybaean promontory to
Tyndaris, between Drepanum and Parthenicum.

Segesta Tiguliorum, Sejiri, a town of Italy, in the interior
of Liguria, towards the eaft. It was anciently confi-
derable.

SEGESTAN, or Seistan, in Gcsgraphy, a province of
Perfia, formerly called " Nimrofe," from a fabulous tra-
dition that it was once under water, and that it was drained
in the (hort fpace of half a day by the Genii, comprehends
part of Ariana and the country of the Sarangxans, and is
bounded on the N. and N.W. by Khorafan, E. by Camla-
har and Zableftan, and S. and S.W. by Mekran and Ker-
man. The greater part of this province is flat, fandy, and
uninhabited. A wind blows for a hundred and twenty days,
during the hot months, with fuch violence as to overwhelm
with clouds of fand, lioufes, gardens, and fields. Although
Segeftan is now reduced to a deplorable condition, it once
rivalled in profperity the molt flourifhing provinces of the
empire. The noble river Heermund (the ancient Ety-
mander), navigable for boats from Boll to Zaran^j, flows
through the extent of it, from the mountains of Hazara,
beyond Cabul to the lake of Zerrah. Capt. Chrillie, who
travelled in 1810 through the heart of Seiltan, reports that
from Noofliky, in northern Mekran, to the banks of the
Heermund, the country was a mere defert, interfered with
fand-hills, and that he did not fee a fingle town, or even
village, in the way ; the only inhabitants of this wild being
a few Balouche and Patan fliepherds, who lived in tents
pitched in the vicinity of the fprings. He reached the Heer-
mund in N. lat. 30^24'. E. long. 64" 16', and followed
the banks of that river for about fevcnty or eighty miles.
Its courfe lies through a valley, varying in breadth from
one to two miles, the defert riling on either fide in per-
pendicular cliffs. The valley, irrigated by the waters of
the river, is covered with verdure and bruftiwood. Our
traveller found an aflonifliing number of mixed towns,
villages, and at one of thefe, Kulcaupul, a ncible palace in a
tolerable ftate of prefervation. The remains of a city,
named " Poolkee," he defcribes as immenfe. The Heer-
mund is four hundred yards wide, very deep ; the water
being remarkably fine, and the banks cultivated for half a
mile on each fide. The prefent capital of Seiltan is " Doo-
fliak," fuppofed to be the fame with the ancient Zarang, and
now the refidence of the prince of Seiftan, fituated in N.
lat. 31° 8'. E. long. 63° 10'; about eight or nine miles
from the river. It is fmall and compaft, but the ruins cover
a vaft extent of ground. It is populous, has a good bazar,
and the inhabitants, dreffed in the Perfian manner, appeared
more civilized than the other natives of the province, who
are either Patan or Balouche (hepherds, men of wandering
life, and pitching their tents under the ruins of ancient pa-
laces. The country in the vicniity of the town i? open, well
cultivated, and produces wheat and barley fufBcient for ex-
portation to Herat ; the paihirage alfo is good and abundant.
The revenues of the chief of Seiltan amount to no more
than 80,000 rupees, and he can bring into the field about
3000 men. Twenty-five miles N. of Doolhak are the
ruins of a very large city, named " Pefhawaran," and a few
miles beyond that the remains of another, called " Jouen."
Ferrah, or Ferah, is diftant fixty-five miles from Doolhak ;
and it is defcribed as a very large walled town, fituated
in a fertile valley, on a river which flows into the lake of

Zerrah, or Zara, and nearly half-way between Candaliar and
Herat.

Seiltan is, at prefent, divided into a number of fmall inde-
pendent Hates, governed by chiefs, who live in fortified vil-
lages, fituated principally on the banks of the Heermund.
Aljout ten days' journey from Doofliak is the city of Kub-
beer, fituated in the midll of the defert, fifteen days' march
from Kerman and fixteen from Yezd. The whole of the inter-
mediate fpace is an arid wafte, interfected with one or two
ranges of mountains. Tiirougli this defert is a path, by
which Caflids, or couriers, can go from Kerman to Herat in
eighteen days ; but the rilk of perifhing is io great, that a
perfon of that defcription demands 200 rupees for the car-
riage of a letter. Kinneir's Mem. of the Perfian Empire.

SEGESTE, in jincknt Geography, SL town of Ktria, be-
lonc^ing to the Carni, according to Pliny. Strabo places it
in Pannonia, at the confluence of feveral navigable rivers,
fo that the Romans eitablifhed their magazines in it, during
their war with the Dacians.

Segeste, a town of Italy, in Liguria, S.E. of Portus
Delphini.

SEGESVAR, in Geography. See Schesbl'RG.

SEGETICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of European
Myfia, or of Mccfia, of which Craffus gained pofleilion,
according to Dion Caflius.

SEGEZ, in Geography, a river of Ruflia, which forms a
communication betw'een the lakes Sig and Vig, in the govern-
ment of Olonetz.

SEGGARS, in the Manufadure oi forceh^n and pottery,
are cafes formed of coarfcr clays, but which are capable of
fuftaining the required heat without fufion ; in which dif-
ferent kinds of earthenware are baked. See Porcelain
and Pottery.

SEGGERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, according to the Itinerary ot Antonine.

SEGIDA, a town of Spain, in Celtiberia. Stepli.
Byz. and Strabo.

SEGILMESSA, in Geography. See Si;CULMES.SA.

SEGISA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in the
Tarragonenfis, in the interior of the country of the Ba-
riftani.

SEGISAMA, and Segifama Julia, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragone!:fis, depending upon the Vaccsans, according
to Ptolemy. It was fituated S. ot Lacobriga, and E. of
Pallentia.

SEGLINGE, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Baltic,
near the coaft of Finland. N. lat. 60° 14'. E. long.
20° 30'.

SEGLORA, a town of Sweden, in Well Gothland ;
25 miles E. of Gothenburg.

SEGMENT of a Circle, in Geometry, a part of a circle,
comprehended between an arc and its chord ; or, it is a part
of a circle comprehended between a right line lefs than a
iemi-diameter, and part of the circumference.

Thus the portion AFBA (Plate XIII. Geometry,

Jig. 13.) comprehended between the arc AFB and the

chord A B, is a tcgment of the circle A B F D, &c. ; fo is

alfo A D B A a Icgmcnt comprehended between the arc

A D B and the chord A B.

As it is evident every fegment of a circle mud either be
greater or lefs than a femicircle, the greater part of the circle
cut off by a chord, »'. e. the part greater than a femicircle,
is called the greater fegment, as A F B ; and the leiier part,
or the part lefs than a femicircle, the hjfer fegment, aa
ADB, &c.

The angle which the chord A B makes with a tangent
L B, is called the angle of a fegment. It is demonltrated,

that

S E G

S E G

that the angle included by a tangent to a circle and a chord,
dra\Tn fron:i the point of contaft, is equal to the angle in the
alternate fegment.

Some alfo call the two mixed angles comprehended be-
twoen the two extremes of the chord and the arc, angles of
the fegnunl ; but thofe are in reality the fame with thofe of
the chord and tangent.

Segment, Angle in the. See Angle.
Seg-Mknt.s, Similar. See Similar.

The height of a fegment D E, and half its bafe, or chord,
A E, being given, to find the area of the fegment. Find
the diameter of the circle. On this defcribe a circle, and
draw the bafe of the fegment A B ; draw the radii A C,
B C ; and find the number of degrees of the arc A D B.
From the diameter had, and its ratio to the periphery, find
the periphery itfelf ; and from the ratio of the peripiiery to
the arc A D B, and the periphery itfelf, find the length of
the arc A D B. This done, find the area of the fedlor
A D B C A i and that of the triangle AC B. La'Uy, fub-
traft the triangle from the fetlor, and the remainder is the
area of the fegment.

If the area of the greater fegment B F A were required,
the triangle A C B mull be added to the fediors A C F and
B C F. For other methods of finding the area of a fegment
of a circle, we refer to Hutton's Menfuration, p. 133, &c.

Segment of a Sphtre, is a part of a fphere terminated by
a portion of its furface, and a plane which cuts it off, pafling
fomewhere out of the centre. This is more properly called
s^feSion of a fphere.

The bafe of fuch a fegment, it is evident, is always a circle
whofe centre is in the axis of the fphere.

The folid content of a fegment of a fphere is found, by
multiplying the furface of the whole fphere by the altitude
of the legment, and then dividing the product by the dia-
meter of the fphere, and to" the quotient adding the area
of the bafe of the fegment : or, if it be lefs than a hemi-
fphcrc, thus ; take the altitude of the fegment from the radius
of the fphere, and by the difference multiply the area of the
bafe of the fegment, and fubtraft this produft, from that
which will arife by multiplying the femi-axis of the fphere
into the convex lurface of the fegment ; then divide the re-
mainder by 3, and the quotient is tlie folidity fought.

The latter method fuppofes the axis of the" fphere to

be given ; if not, it may be found thus ; let the altitude

of the fegment be called a, and its femidiameter, j, then will

ss ss

a:s::s: — ; add — to a, and that fhall give the axis fought.

See Frustum, and Sphere.

Segment, Refljlance of a. See Resistance.

Segment is fometimes alfo extended to the parts of ellip-
fes, and other curvilinear figures.

Segments, Line of. On Gunter's feftor there are
ufually two lines, called lines of fegmcnts ; they are numbered
with 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and lie between the lines of fines, and
thofe of fuperficies. They reprefent the diameter of a circle,
fo divided into one hundred parts, as that a right line drawn
through thofe parts, and normal to the diameter, (hall cut the
circle into two fcgments, of which the greater fliall have that
proportion to the whole circle, which the parts cut have to
one hundred.

SEGMENT-jLi-jif^, a denomination given by botanids to
thole leaves that are cut and divided into many flircds, or
flice'!, as fennel, &c.

SEGMENTUM, among the Romans, an ornament of
lace ufed by the women on their fhoulders, which, according
to fome, refemblcd our Ihoulder-knots.

Segmenta were likcwile a kind of teflcllated or Mofaic

pavements, made up of pieces of various lliapes and colours,
but which had an uniform and regular arrangement.

SEGMOIDAL Valves, \n Anatomy, are little valves of
the pulmonary artery ; thus called from their refembling
fegments of circles, but more ufually called yf/niVuna/- 'Uiz/««.

SEGNA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Morlachia,
on the coaft of the Adriatic, declared a free port, and
erefted into a bifhopric by the emperor Jofeph II., in the
year 1785. It is a free town, under the proteftion of
Aullria. The city is ill built, worfe paved, and weakly-
fortified. It lies on the brink of the fea, on a foundation
of concreted ground, at the mouth of 3 narrow valley, fur-
rounded by marble hills. Segna is fuppofed to have been
formerly fitnated almoll; three miles farther from the valley,
on a fpot where are found traces of ancient habitations and
funeral monuments. The fea feems to have covered the
bottom of the valley as far as the city, which ftood on the
fide of a hill, and formed a tolerable harbour. The walls
of this city were not conftrufted before the l6tli century;
and this, together with other circumftances, affords a
further proof that Segna does not occupy the fcite of the
ancient Senia. The wind from the mountains fometimes
blows with fnch violence, that it is dangerous in winter to
encounter it in the ftreet. Horfes loaded with fait are fre-
quently thrown down in the market-place of Segna ; and
the roofs of houfes, though covered with heavy (tones, are
removed. When hurricanes occur, the (hips that happen
to be in the harbour run the greateil rifle of being loft ; nor
are they preferved without great labour and expence. The
fea in the mouth of the channel of Segna, oppofite to the
valley, is hardly ever calm ; but notwithftandmg all thefe
perils and difallers, the inhabitants had, about the begin-
ning of the lail century, fifty merchant- (hips at fea ; and
they acquired wealth by exporting the corn, wood, wax,
honey, tar, and iron of the Turkifh ftate, on which they
border, as well as the timber felled in the ancient forefts of
Vilebich ; and by importing, befiJes many other articles of
merchandize, fait, oil, and wine, for the fupply of the in-
terior provinces. At length, however, the inconvenience
of their fituation difconcerted their marine and commercial
enterprifes, fo that at prefent Segna has but few (liips be-
longing to it. Another damage was fullaincd by this city,
in coniequence of the regulation made by the court of
Vienna in 1741, which deprived it of 60,000 fiorius a-ycar
in money, 40,000 ells of cloth, and 20,000 meafures of
grain, given yearly by the emperor to the inhabitants of
Segna, who were a warlike people, and formed a kind of
barrier againft the Turks on that fide. When the Aullrians
took the country of Lika from the Turks, and formed all
the inhabitants into militia, Segna loll its importance. The
foil is fo unproduftive, that, witli the utmolt labour, it
fupplies fcarcely provifions fufficicnt for two months i[i the
year ; and they arc under a neceflity of procuring water from
a fpring at the diftance of twelve miles. The population
of Segna is at prefent computed at lefs than 7000 ; and yet
the people, amidil all their diladvantages, mauifeil a civility
aud politenefs ot manners, which are not met with in any
other place of the Aullrian coall, nor even among the Ve-
netian fubjefts of thefe parts. N. lat. 45° 4'. E. long.

'5° .V-
SEGNI, Bernardo, in Biography, an early Italian

hillorian and man of letters, wa^ born at Florence about
the clofe of the 15th century. He was educated at Padua,
where he purfucd with great alFiduity the Ihidy of the
Latin and Greek languages. He then engaged in legal
purfuits, which were interrupted by a commillion from liis
father to manage fome commerci.il bufinefs at Aquila. Re-
3 turning

S E G

S E G

turning to Florence, he was employed in public affairs by
the republic, and by duke Cufmo, who in 1 541 feiit him
on an erabally to Ftrduiand, king of the Romans. He
was, in 1542, appointed conful of the univerfity of Flo-
rence, then in very high reputation. He wrote a hillory
of Florence from the year 1527 to 1 555, which in every
refpeft is confidered as one of the belt produdions of the
age. It was fecn bv no one during his hfe, and was not
printed till the year 1713, when it appeared, together with
a life of Niccolo Capponi, gonfalonier of Florence, Stgni's
uncle. This writer likewife tranflated into the Italian Ian-
guage feveral treatife.s of Arillotle, which were printed at
Florence in 1549 — 50. He died in 1559.

Segni, in Geography, a town of the Campagna di Roma,
the fee of a bifhop, under the pope. Organs are faid to
have been invented in this town ; 25 miles S.E. of Rome.

Segki, in ylndeiU Geography, a people of Gaul, who are
fuppofed to have occupied a territory, which is the fcite of
a fmall town, called " Sinei," or " Signei," on the frontier
of Namur, and to have founded it.

SEGNITZ, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg, on the Maine ; 12 miles S.E. of Wurzbnrg. —
Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principality of Anfpach ;
4 miles S.W. of Maynbernheim.

SEGNO, Ital., in Muflc, a fign or mark of reference,
for the repetition of any itrain, or portion of a ftrain. It is
ufually an S, the initial o{ Jignum or fegno, dotted on each
fidtf, thus '}' ; of more ufe in rondeaux than in any other
movements. The (harp >>;, natural q, and flat b, are acci-
dental Jigm , as is the diefis x , or double (harp. The paufe,
or corona (^, \i 3. fegno dijtlenlio, as well as a final terminating
fign. (See all thefe terms under their feveral heads.)
The '$' is likewife ufed in canons and catches written on
one line, to mark the places where the feveral parts
come in.

SEGO, in Geography, a city of Africa, and capital of
the kingdom of Bambara, fituated on the Joliba or Niger.
Mr. Park, whofe death we have now reafon to lament, ar-
rived at this city in his firlt African expedition ; and to him
we are indebted for the following account of it. He fays,
that it confills, properly fpeaking, of four divifions or
quarters, two on each fide of the water, and each of them
furrounded by a mud wall ; fo that they exhibited the ap-
pearance of four diftincl towns. The two divifior.s on the
north fide of the river are called " Sego Korro" and " Sego
Boo ;" and thofe on the fouth bank are called " Sego Soo
Korro" and " Sego See Korro." The houfes are built of
clay, and have flat roofs ; but fome of them have two (lories,
and many are white-wafhed. Befides thefe buildings,
Moorilh mofques are feen in every quarter. Thefe (-bjeCts,
with the numerous- boats on the river, a crowded population,
and the cultivated (late of the furrounding country, formed
altogether a profpect of civilization and magni(icence, which
our traveller little expefted to find in the bofom of Africa.
From the beil inquiries he could make, he had reafon to
believe, that Sego contained altogether about 30,000 in-
liabitants. The king of Bambara cunitantly refides in the
largeil quarter of the city, called Sego See Korro ; he em-
ploys a great many flaves in conveying people over the
river ; and the money thus obtained, though the fare is only
ten cowries for each perfon, furni(hes a confiderable annual
revenue to the king. The boats on the Niger are of a fin-
gular conflruftion, each of them being formed of the trunks
of tvro large trees, rendered concave, and joined together,
not fide by fide, but lengthways ; the jundion being ex-
actly acrofs the middle of the boat. They are, therefore,
2

very long, and difproportionately narrow ; for Mr. Park
obfervcd in one of them four horfcs and a great many
people, crofling from a ferry. It was at a village near
this city that Mr. Park was ordered by the king to take up
his abode ; but the inhabitants being indifpofed, either
from averfion or from fear, to accommodate him witii
lodging and entertainment, he v.as under a neceflity of (hel-
tering himfelf, in a Itorm of thunder and rain, under a tree.
For an account of the hofpitable treatment iie received on
this occafion from a poor Negro woman, fee the article
Africa. When he received, on the third day of his abode,
an order from the king to depart from the vicinity of Sego,
Manfeng (the king) wifhing to rehcve a white man in di(-
trefs, fent him 5000 cowries, to enable him to purchafc
provifions in the courfe of his journey. The meflenger
added, that if Park's intentions were to proceed to Jennc,
he had orders to accompany him as a guide to Sanfanhing.
Sego is fituated in N. lat. 14° lo' 30". W. long. 2° 26'.
SEGOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography. See SEGOKBt:.
SEGODUNUM, a town of Galha Celtica, belonging
to the people called " Rutani," or " Ruteni," according
to Ptolemy. In the Peutingerian Tables, it is called " Se-
godum ;" and it afterwards took the name of " Rutena,"
or " Ruteni," and at length that of Rhodez.

SEGOLTA Rex, one of the Hebrew accents, ufually
anfwering to our femicolon, and marked witli three point-.,
over a letter, thus (•.•) or (.•.)

SEGONTIA, in Ancient Gesgraphy, a town of Spain,
in the Tarragonenfi;, upon the route from Emerita to Sara-
gofia, between Cafada and Arcobrega, according to the
Itinerary of Antonine.

Segostia Paramica, a town of Spain, in the Tarra-
gonenfis, belonging to the people called " Vardiili."

SEGONTIACI, a people of the ifle of Albion, who
inhabited with the Trinobantes, and were of the number of
thofe who fubmitted to Cxfar.

SEGONZAC, in Geography, a town of Frince, in the
department of the Charente, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrift of Cognac ; 6 miles S.E. of Cognac. The
place contains 2549, and the canton 12,386 inhabitants,
on a territory of 222^ kiliometres, in 19 communes.

SEGOR, iji Ancient Geography, a town of Palefline, in
the Pentapolis, at the fouthern extremity of the Dead fca.
It efcaped the deftruftion of the four other towns of the
Pentapolis. Its firft name was " Bala ;" but Lot having
obtained permiflion to flee from Sodom, called it Segor, or
the little town.

SEGORBE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Valencia, with the title of duchy, agreeably
fituated in a very fertile vale, abounding in grain and in
fruit, on a river of the fame name, which there takes that
of Murviedro or Morviedro. Its population confills of
1200 families, or about 6000 fouls. Some people relying
on the fimilarity of names, pretend that this is the ancient
" Segobriga," which we find on many Roman medals ;
others, on the contrary, place that ancient town in Cafiile ;
and others in Aragon. Segorbe is the fee of a bi(hop, fuf-
fragan to Valencia, the diocefe of which comprehends 4 ; pa-
rifhes. The clergy of its cathedral are compofed of four
dignitaries, ten canons, twenty-four beneficiaries, and
thirty-three chap lins. The town has four convents of
monks, a convent of nuns, a fcminary, a hofpital, five her-
mitages, oratories or chapels ; a provifor, who is at once
official and vicar-general of the diocefe ; nine gates, and
fix fquares. It abounds in fountains, three of which are
public, and about forty in private houfes. It was taken
from the Moors in 1245, ^7 Jar"cs I., king of Aragon.

The

S E G

The cathedral church has fome paintings of the fchool of
Joaiinez, and of that of Ribalta. The church of the con-
vent of nuns is of good architedlure, and has fome good
paintings. The feminary is kept in the ancient houfe of the
Jefuits. Antonio Ximen, a poet in the commencement of
the 1 6th century, and Juan Valero, a theologian of the be-
gmning of the 17th century, were born in this town. At
a quarter of a league from Segorbe ftands the Carthufian
monallery of Vel de Chrilto, founded by the infant don
Martin, fon and fuccedbr of Peter IV., king of Aragon.
Here are fome good paintings by Vergara, Camaron, Da-
nofo, Joannez, and Orrante. The monks have eftabhihed
a paper manufactory at Altura, a village of about ijpo in-
habitants, which belongs to them, and which is at a quarter
of a league's diftance between their monallery and Segorbe.
N. lat. 39° 58'. W. long. 0° 39'.

SEGORTIALACTA, in Jncimt Geography, a town
of Spain, in the Tarragonenfis, which belonged to the
Arevacas. Ptolemy.

SEGOSA, a town of Gaul, marked in the Itinerary of
Antonine between Aqs and Bourdeaux. It is now the
place called " Efcoulfe."

SEGOSTAEVO, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
the government of Kolivan ; 44 miles W. of Krafnoiarflc.

SEGOVELLAUNI, or SeGALAUni, in Jncknt Geo-
graphy, a people of the interior of Gallia Narbonuenfis, in
the vicinity of the Rhone. Pliny.

SEGOVIA, a tov/n of Hither Spam, fouth of Gauca ;
famous for its aquedutt, laid to have been conftrutlcd in
the time of Trajan.

Skgovia, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile,
which in the arrangement of its buildings exhibits the
figure of a fhip, with the Hern to the call, and the prow to
the weft, commanding an immenfe rock, and appearing
buried between two deep vallies, one lying to the north,
and the other to the fouth. The firlt is watered by a
llream, called Clamares, which forms a junftion with the
Erofma, that waters the laft, on which are five handfome
bridges. This river, whofe banks are clothed with wood,
formerly bore the name of Areva, whence the appellation
of Arevaci was given to the inhabitants of thefe vallies.
The city is furrounded with walls ; and a range of towers,
at equal dillances, is planted on the ramparts. The number
of houfes hat been ellimated at jooo, but the population
does not exceed 10,000 fouls. The Itreets are almolt. all
narrow and crooked, and irregularly paved. The four
fuburbs are on more even ground, and contain feveral nianu-
faftorics. Segovia is the fee of a bifliop, fufFragan of the
archbifliop of Toledo, whofe diocefe includes the cathedral
chapter of Segovia, the collegiate chapter of St. Ildefonfo,
and 438 parifhes. The cathedral chapter is compofed of
8 dignities, 37 canons, 7 prebends, and 19 fub-prebends ;
and befides tliefe, 23 chaplains are attached to the church.
In Segovia are reckoned 24 parifhes, a chapel of cafe, and
21 convents for both fexes. This city is the refidence of
the intendant of the diftritt, which allumes its name ; and
under the fuperintendance of a corregidor, an alcade, and
a fixed number of regidors. Here are a ftatiftical focicty,
the members of which allume the title of " friends of the
country ;" and a military fchool, deftined for the inllrudtion
of young engineers. Segovia was once a commercial and
opulent town, eminently diftinguifhed for its cloth and
woollen manufadtures ; and it has been calculated, that
44,100 quintals of wool were confumed in the looms of this
town, and that 34,199 perfons were employed by them ;
but its manufaAures and trade declined, I'o that, in the
1 8th century, the fabrication of ftufts and cloths employed

Vol. XXXII.

S E G

no more than 120 looms, in which only 4318 quintals of
wafhed wool were confumed. Between 40 and 50 years
ago, this manufafture revived ; and in 1790 there was an
addition of 63 looms, which employed 800 or 900 quintals of
wool, and afforded occupation to 2400 manufafturers.
This city has ftill a manufaftory of dclf-ware, but it is of
little importance. Among its public edifices we may
reckon the mint, producing at prefent only copper, which
is a handfome building, conftrudled in the 15th century by
Henry IV., and in part re-edified by Philip II. : its opera-
tions are carried on by hydraulic machines ; — the convent of
the Capuchins, with a fubterraneous chapel ; — the convent
of the Cannehtes ; — the town-houfe, the front of which has
two compartments, with finiple Doric pillars, arranged in
double rows, and on each fide a tower fupported on a piazza
by ten columns ; — the church of the Jcronimltes of Pcirral ;
—the cathedral church, which prcfents a mixture of Gothic
and Grecian architefture, though conftrudled in the i6th
century, with the principal altar of marble, and having in
the middle a filver ftatue of the Virgin, and feveral other
ornaments ; — and the alcazar, formerly the refidence of the
Callilian kings, bearing the charafters of venerable anti-
quity, where Alphonfo the Wife compofed his aftronomical
tables, and in which are apartments fretted with mofaic
work, ftill frcfli ; and a feries of 52 Itatues of painted wood,
and each bearing an appropriate infcription. The nobleft
monument of Segovia is its aqueduft, which has been re-
ferred by fome writers to a very remote antiquity, and
afcnbed to the architefts who built the Egyptian temple of
Serapis ; but which much more probably originated with
the Romans, at an unafcertained period, but perhaps with
the authority of Licinius, Larcius, or Trajan. The ma-
terials are of rough free-ftone. It commences at a large
flone bafon, (about 50 paces from the town,) from whence
it receives the water, which it conveys through an open
canal towards the fouth. At its origin the fabric is erefted
on a long i-ange of 75 arches, of which the firll is 14 feet
6 inches in height ; the laft, which is at the convent of St.
Francifco, is 33 feet 6 inches. At this point begins a
double row of arches, fupported one over the other, which
run in the direction of eait and weft, and crofs the valley
and the place of Azoquejo ; of thefe the greateft elevation
is 80 feet 10 inches. The whole range comprehends 159
arches, fupported on pilafters, moll of which meafure 6 feet
1 1 inches in the front furface, and 9 feet 4 inches on the in-
terior fide. The aqueduft terminates at the alcazar, after
having diftributed tiie greater part of the water through
different quarters of the town. In modern times, this noble
work of Roman architefture has been disfigured by the
ercftion of feveral houfes on its pilatters, a difpofition highly
injurious to the majefty of the original edifice. It is built of
fquare ilones, which are placed 01c on the other, without
any appearance of cement. Segovia was the native place
of Alphonfo de Ledefma, a good poet, who flourilhed at
the commencement of the laft century ; of Domenico Soto,
the fon of a gardener, who publ^lhed an eflay " De Juftitia
et Jure," two books " De Natura ct Gratia," and Conj-
mentaries on St. Paul's Epiftle to the Homans. At Se-
govia was alfo born the Jefuit Francis Ribcra, who died at
Salamanca in 1591, well known for the erudition and acu-
men difplaycd in his Comnuntaries on the mi.ior prophets.
Segovia is diftaut 46 miles N.N.W. of Madrid. N. lat.
41" 3'. W. long. 4" i'.

Skcovia, Nueva, a town of the idand of Lu9on,

founded in 1598, the fee of a biftiop, defended by a fort and

a garrilon ; lituattd near the N. toaft of the iiland ; 350

miles N. of Manilla. — Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the pro-

B b viiicr

S E G

S E G

vince of Nicaragua ; 70 miles N.N.E. of Leon. N. lat.
13° 30'. W. long. 89" ;&. — Alfo, a town of South Ame-
rica, in the government of Caraccas, and province of Vene-
zuela, founded by the Spaniards in 1552 ; 130 miles S.W. of
Caraccas. N. lat. 8° 50'. W. long. 68° 16'.

Segovia, Nueva, or Tare, a river of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Colta Rica, which runs into the Spanifh Main, N.
lat. 13° 10'. W. long. 83° j'.

SEGRA, a river of Spain, which rifes in the N. part of
Catalonia, and joins the Ebro, on the borders of Aragon,
near Mequinez.

SEGRAIS, John Regnault de, in Biography, a man
of letters, was born of a good family at Caen, in 1624. He
was intended for the church, but a courtier, charmed with the
fprightlinefs of his converfation, carried him to Paris when
he was about twenty years of age, and placed him with
Mademoifelle de Montpenfier, who firft gave him the title of
her almoner in ordinary, and then of her gentleman in ordinary.
He became known to the literary world by his lyric and paf-
toral poetry, and in 1656 he publifhed a collection of pieces
of this kind, together with fome little ftories called " Nou-
velles Frangoifes," by vvhicli he obtained confidcrable repu-
tation. He was thought to have been particularly luippy in
his Eclogues, in which he attempted to unite elegance with
the fimpTicity appropriate to his fubjeft. He aimed at a
higher (train in his metrical tranflation of Virgil's ^neid,
which was well received by the public, though it was not
free from faults, which were heavy drawbacks on its merit.
The reputation of Segrais gave him adminion,in the year 1662,
into the French Academy. In 1672 he quitted Mademoifelle
de Montpeniier, and was domefticated with Madame de la
Fayette, whom he allifted with his advice and correftion in
the compofition of her romance of " Zayde," and he en-
gaged his friend the learned Huet to prefix to it his Differta-
tion on Romances. He at length retired to his native city,
and married a richheirefs, who washiscoufin. Being now
at his eafe, and fomewhat incommoded with deafnefs, he de-
chned engaging in the education of the duke of Maine, ob-
ferving that experience had taught him that at court both
good eyes and good ears are req\iirite. He collected the dif-
perfcd members of the academy of Caen, and gave them an
apartment to meet in. He died in 1701, at the age of 76.
After his de.ath, there appeared his tranflation of Virgil's
" Gcorgics," and a mifcellany of anecdotes and literary
opinions.

SEGRE', in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrift, in the department of the Maine and Loire ;
18 miles N.W. of Angers. The place contains 558, and
the canton 9147 inhabitants, on a territory of 205 kilio-
metres, in 15 communes.

SEGREANT, a term ufed in Heraldry for a griffon,
when drawn in a leaping polture, and difplaying his wings,
as if ready to fly.

SEGREGATA, Polvgamia, in Botany, the laft order
of the clafs Syngenejla, in which the flowers are doubly com-
pound, each floret, or allcmblage of florets, having a partial
calyx.

SEGRO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ;
10 miles N.E. of Manfredonia.

SEGS, in Rural Economy, provincially the name applied
to fedges, or fedge-grafs.

SEGSTADT, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 5 miles E. of Hasfurt.

SEGUATANEIO. See Chequetan.

SEGUE, in Italian Mufic, is often found before aria,
loro, allelujah, amen, &c. to acquaint performers that fuch
movement* immediately follow the lait bar of the preceding

piece, over or after which fuch notice is written. But if the
v/ordsji piace, or aJ liiitum, are added, they imply that fuch
movements may be performed or not, at pleafure.

SEGUENZA, Ital. in Ecclejiajlical Mujic, is a kind of
hymn fung in the Roman church, generally in profe. The
feguenze are generally fung after the Gradual, immediately
before the Gofpels, and fometimes in the vcfpers before the
Magnificat. They were formerly more ufed than at prefent.
The Romifh church has retained three feguenze, called by the
Italians, li tre feguenze de/P anno ; which are, " Lauda Sion
falvatorem," &c. ; " Vittima pafchali laudes," &c. " Veni
Sanfte Spiritus." Thefe are fung, in many places, to figura-
tive mufic. There is alfo one beginning " Dies nx, dic^
ille," in the funeral fervice, which has been admirably fet by
all the great compoiers a cappella of Italy, and among the
Catholics of Germany.

SEGUIERIA, in Botany, named by Linnaeus in honour
of his friend and correfpondent John Francis Seguier, fecre-
tary to the Academy of Sciences at Nifmes, in Languedoc,
who was the author of an excellent and original work, enti-
tled Plantte Veronenfes, publifhed in two volumes oftavo, in
the year 1745, ^"'^ '° which a third fupplementary volume
was added in 1754. Seguier died in 1784. — Loefl. It. 191.
Linn. Gen. 272. Schreb. 364. Jacq. Amer. 176. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. 12 19. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. JulT. 440.
Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 52. Loureir. Cochinoh. 341. — Clafs
and order, Polyandria Moncgynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Cii. Cal. Perianth inferior, fproading, permanent,
of five, oblong, coloured, concave leaves. Cor. none. Stam.
Filaments numerous, capillary, fpreading, longer than the
calyx ; anthers oblong, flattifh. Pi/l. Gernien fuperior,
oblong, comprefTed, membranous at the top, tllicker on
one fide ; itvle very (hort, at the thicker fide of the germen ;
ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule oblong, augmented by a
very large wing, thicker on the ftraight fide, with three
fmallcr wings on each fide at the bale, of one cell, not
gaping. Seed folitary, oblong, fmooth.

EfT. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Corolla none. Capfulc
terminated by a lar^e wing, and furnidied with fmaller la-
teral wings. Seed folitary.

1. S. americana. American Seguieria. Linn. Sp. PI.
747. Jacq. Amer. 170. « Pi£t. t. 82." — Stem climbing,
pnckly. Leaves lanceolate, emarginate. Clutters branched,
leafy. — Native of South America, efpecially in woods and
coppices about Carthagena, flowering in September. The

Jlem of this flirub is generally twelve feet in height, with
very long, round, green fliining branches, by which it is
fupported. Leaves alternate, (talked, ovate, entire, (hining,
with recurved prickles. Flo'wers in terminal clufters,
whitifli, fmelling difagreeably. The unripe fruit is faid to
refemble that of Sccuridaca.

2. S. afiatica. Afiatic Seguieria. Loureir. Cochinch.
341. — Stem climbing, without prickles. Leaves ovate,
entire. Clufters long, axillary, terminal. — Native of woods
in Cochinchina. Stem (hrubby, branched, round, long,
tough. Leaves alternate, on fliort italks, rough. Floivers
in long terminal clulters, whitifti-green, fcentlefs.

SEGUIN Island, in Geography, a fmall ifiand on the
coafl; of Maine, in Cafco bay.

SEGULAM, one of the Fox iflands, in the North Pa-
cific ocean. N. lat. 53° 35'. E. long. 1 87° 50'.

SEGUNTIA Ckltiberum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Spain, in Celtiberia. Livy.

SEGUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Correze ; 12 miles W. of Uzerche. —
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Aveiron ;
12 miles E.S.E. of Rhodez.

3 SEGURA,

S E H

S E J

SEGURa, a town ef Spain, in the kingdom of Ara-
gon ; 23 miles S.E. of Daroca. — Alfo, a river of Spain,
which rifes in tlie mountains of Murcia, 10 miles S.S.E.
from Segura de la Sierra, traverfes the province of Murcia,
and the iouth part of Valencia, and runs into the Mediter-
ranean, 16 miles S.S.W. of Alicant. — Alfo, a town of
Spain, in Guipufcoa ; 18 miles S.S.W. of St. Sebaftian. —
Alfo, a tovrn of Portugal, in the province of Beira, near
the frontiers of Spain ; 6 miles N. of Rofmarilhal. — Alfo, a
town of Spain, in Eilremadura ; 25 miles S.E. of Xeres
de los Caballeros.

Segura de la Frontera, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Tlafcala, built by Cortes ; 50 miles S. of Tlaf-
cala.

Secura </(" la Sierra, a town of Spain, in Murcia ; 60
miles S.W. of Chinchilla.

SEGUS, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Pyrenees ; 4 miles N. of Argellez.

Segus, in Ancient Geography, a river of Germany, the
banks of which were inhabited by the Sicambri, according
to Caefar and Tacitus.

SEGtJSIANI, the inhabitants of Segufio. Their
country, in Cifalpine Tranfpadane Ganl, towards the fourccs
of the Duria Minor, formed a fmall ftate, of which Cot-
tius was the only king upon record. This prince retired to
the mountains, and efcaped fubjeftion to the Roman yoke
by his obfcurity. But he fought fecurity in an alliance with
the Romans, and with this view he flattered Auguftus by
afluming the name of Julius Cottius. He made many
efforts for rendering the pad'age of the Alps praflicable in
that part which he occupied. Claudius, upon augmenting
his fmall territory, gave him the name of king. After his
death, Nero united this country to the empire ; but the me-
mory of Cottius was long refpefted in the country which he
governed. In the time of Ammianus Marcellinus, that is,
about tlie year 370 of our era, the tomb of Cottius was
(hewn at Seguia. One part of the Alps took its name,
" Cottian," from him.

Segu.siani, or Seai/iani, a people of Gallia Celtica,
or X.yonnenfH. To the N. were the CEdui and Se-
quani, to the E. and N. the Allobroges, and to the W. the
Avcrni. Pliny fays, that thcfe people were dependent on
the CEdui in the time of Ciefar ; but that they rendered
themfelves independent under the empire of Auguftus.

SEGUSIO, SuzE, a town formerly not inconfiderable,
in Tranfpadane Gaul, among the mountains, on Duria
Minor. Under the Romans it obtained the title of muni-
cipal. In later times, its rulers were defignated by the title
of marquis. At prefcnt it i."; comprehended in Piedmont.
Among other things found in this place is the triumphal
arch on which were infcribed the appellations of the people
who were fubjeft to Cottius in the time of Auguftus. See
Segusiani.

SEGUSTERO, Sistekon, a town of Gallia Narbon-
nenfis. From its Celtic name we are led to prefume that it
exilled, or at leaft that its territory was inhabited, before the
Romans came into Provence. Some have thought that this
town depended on the Avantici.

SEGWAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Caglana ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Damaun.

SEHALOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 36
mills N. of Seringapatam.

SEHAN, a town of Arabia, in Yemen ; 3 miles
W.N.W. of Doran.

SEHAURUNPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, and ca-
pital of a circar, to which it gives name, between the Jum-
nah and the Ganges, in the fubah cf J)elhi ; 86 miles N.

of Delhi. N. lat. 30" 4'. E. long. 77' 15'.— Alfo, a cir-
car or province of Hindooftan, in the fubah of Delhi,
bounded on the N. by moimtains, which feparate it from
Thibet, on the E. by the Ganges, which divides it from
Sumbul, on the S. by the diftrift of Delhi, and on the W.
by Sirhind, from which it is divided by the river .lumnah. Its
chief towns are Schaurunpour, Mcrt-tt, and Hurdwar. It
is about 90 miles from E. to W., and nearly the fame from
N. to S.

SEHESTEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Natangen ; 54 miles S.E. of Konigfberg.

SEHIMA, in Botany, fo called by Forflol, from its
Arabic name ; a genus of that author's, feparated from
I/chamum, but apparently without fr*ficient reafon.

SEHIRMAN, in Geography, a mountain of Arabia, in
the province of Yemen ; 8 miles S. of Kataba.

SEHWAN, a town of Seweeftan, on the Siiade ; 66
miles N.E. of Nufierpour. N. lat. 26° 5'. E. long.
69° 16'.

SEIAL,a town of Perfia,in the province of Adirbeitzan;
50 miles S.E. of Ardebil.

SEJANT is a term ufed in Heraldry, when a lion, or
other beaft, is drawn in an efcutcheon, fitting like a cat,
with his fore-feet ftraight.

SEJANUS, .^Lius, in Biography, celebrated in the hif-
tory of Rome for the tyranny of his adminiftration, was a
native of Vulfinii, in Etruria. His father, Seius Strabo, a
Roman knight, was commander of the praetorian guards in
the reigns of Auguftus and Tiberius, ^lius, when young,
attached himfelfto Caius Csfar, the grandfon of Auguftus.
After the death of that prince, and of Auguftus, he
was affbciated with his father in his command, by Tiberius,
with whom he rofe to great favour, and was appointed go-
vernor to young Drufus. When the theatre of Pompey was
deftroyed by fire, the emperor, at the time that he declared
his intention of rebuilding it, pronounced an eulogy on Se-
janus before the fenate, on which that fervile body decreed
him a ftatue, to be placed in the new edifice. Having by
his artifices and diflimulation obtained a complete afcejidancy
over the mind of Tiberius, he applied himlclf to ftrengthen
the fabric of his power, and pave the way to higher ho-
nours. With this view he ingratiated lumfelf as much as
poffible with the prstorian guards, and he created a great
perlonal intereft in the fenate, by means of his recommenda-
tions to lucrative places, and he is faid to have fecured the
wives of many men of high rank by fecrct promifes of mar-
riage. The imperial family being, as he thought, a confi-
derable obftacle to his projciis of ambition, he determined
upon their deftruftion ; and beginning with Drufus, the Ion
of the emperor, who had manifefted a jcalouly of his in-
fluence, he entered into a criminal intrigue with ■ his wife
Livi M, the fifter of Gernianicus, by means of whom he was
luppoled to have caufed a flow poifon to be adminiftered to
that prince, which occafioned his death. He next endea-
voured to perfuadc Tiberius to quit Rome, and retire to a
life of repole, that the whole care of government might de-
volve upon himlelf, and that nothing ftiould reach the cm-
peror's ears but through a channel lubjctt to his controul.
This he eff^cfted in the twelfth year of Tiberius's reiga,
and from that moment Sejanue was mafter of Rome. The
diflike manifefted by the emperor to the widow and family of
Germanicus was inflamed by the minifter, till his perfecution
of them ended in the bnniftiment and death of Agrippina
and her two fons. Every kind of homage was now paid to
the minifter, Rome was crowded with his ftatues, and the
fenator.^ all vied with each other in adulation of the favourite.
At length Tiberius began to be fufpicious of his defigns,
B b 2 bui

S E I

S E I

but for a time he concealed his fufpicions in his own bread,
and even while under the fear of danger, he conteired upon
his minifler additional marks of hij favour, making him his
colleague in the confulfhip. He however gradually witlidrew
from him the tokens of his confidence, and finding that the
fymptoms of this change had greatly diminifhed the crowds
that attended his levees, he proceeded, though with much
caution, to the meafures for his deftruftion. He now ap-
pointed another commander of his prKtorians. Sejanus,
knowing the extent of his own guilt, began to be alarmed :
he called together his friends and followers, and held forth
to them the moft flattering promifes, and having increafed
the number of his partifans, formed a bold confpiracy, rc-
folved by any means to feize the fovereign power. A
powerful league was formed with aftonifhing rapidity, and
great numbers of all defcriptions, fenators as well as mili-
tary men, entered into the plot. Among thefe, Satrius Se-
cundus was the confidential friend and prime agent of the
minifter, who, for reafons that arc not known, refolved to
betray his mafter. For this purpofe he addreded hinifelf to
Antonia, the daughter of Antony the triumvir, the widow of
Drufus, and the mother of Germanicus. When this lUuf-
trious woman, who was highly elteemed by the people, as
well as honoured by the court, heard the particulars, fhe
fent difpatches to the emperor by one of her flaves. Tibe-
rius was aftonifhed, but not at all difmayed : the danger
preffed, and he determined to take decifivc meafures. He
fent Macro to Rome with a fpccial commifiion, and giving
him ample powers that might be adapted to all emergencies.
Early in the morning of the 15th, before the kalends of
November, a report was fpread, that letters had arrived at
Rome, with the view of augmenting ftill farther the ho-
nours of Sejanus. The fenate was fummoned to meet in the
temple of Apollo, near the imperial palace. Sejanus at-
tended without delay, and a party of prxtorians followed
him. Macro met him in the veftibule of the temple. He
approached the minifter with all demonftrations of profound
refpeft, and taking him afide, told him not to be furprifed
that he had not received a letter from the emperor himfclf,
but, fays he, I am this day to deliver the emperor's orders.
Sejanus, elated with joy, expefting fome unlooked-for dig-
nity, entered into the fenate-houfe, and Macro followed.
He opened his commifiion by reading a long letter in the
fenate to the confuls from Tiberius, which concluded vrith
an order to feize his perfon ; inftantly the whole afl'embly
loaded with infults and reproaches the man at whofe feet
they lately bent, and the people began to throw down and treat
with every indignity the llatues before which they had been
accultomed to offer facrifices. His perfon was feized, and
thrown into prifon, and being accufed of high treafon, he
was condemned without a fingle defender. On the fame day
he was executed, and his body thrown into the Tiber. A
madacre of his relations took place, and even his infant
children were inhumanly fbughtered. This catallrophe
took place in the year 31 of the Chriilian era, and it fur-
nifhed to Juvenal a fine inftance of the mutability of fortune,
of which he cook advantage in his tenth fatire.

SEIDERSHOLZ, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in
the principality of Aichftatt ; 3 miles N. of Aichftatt.

SEIBERSTORF, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles N.E. of
Ebenfurth.

SEIBO, or Zeybo, a town of the ifland of Hifpaniola ;
50 miles E.N.E. of St. Domingo.

SE I BOUSE, a river of Algiers, which runs into the
Mediterranean, near Bona.

SEICHES, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif.

triil of Marmande ; fix miles N.E. of Marmande, The
place contains 1^51, and the canton 13,546 inhabitants, on
a territory of 2jO kdiomctres, in 20 communes. — Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire,
and chief place of a canton, in the diltrift of Bauge ; nine
miles W. of Bauge. The place contains 1364, and the
canton 9906 inhabitants, on a territory of 240 kiliometres,
in 13 communes.

SEID Gender, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Lantlan ; 25 miles N. of Lar.
SEIDE'. SeeSAlDA.

SEIDENBACH, a town of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Culmbach ; 9 miles W.S.W. of Bayreuth.

SEIDENBERG, a town if Lufatia, in which are ma-
nufatlurcs of cloth and knit ftockings ; 8 miles S.S.E. of
Gorlitz.

SEIDENSCHWANZ, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflau ; 8 miles N. of Turnau.

SEIDENSTETTEN, or Seitten.stettin, a town
of Auftria ; 9 miles N.N.W. of Waidhoven.

SEIFERSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflau ; 5 miles S. of Krottau.

SEIGH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 15 miles S.
of Bahar,

SEIGHN, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 31 miles
N. of Hagypour.

SEIGN, a fortrefs of Ualmatia, in the territory of Spa-
latro ; 16 miles N.E. of Spalatro.

SEIGNELAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Yoniie ; 6 miles N. of Auxerre.

SEIGNEUR, or Seignor, Lord. See Sire, Sieijr,
MoNSEiGNEUK, Lord, &c.

SEIGNIORY, Dominium, in our Law, is ufed for a
manor or lordlhip.

SEIGNORAGE, or Slignourage, a right or due be-
longing to a feigneur, or lord.

Seig.n'Orage is particularly ufcd for a duty belonging to
the prince for che coining of money, called alfo coinage,
(which fee), and in the bafer Latin monctaglum. See Re-
MEoy/or the Majler of the Mint.

This duty is not always tlie lame, but changes according
to the pleafure of the prince, and the occafions of ftate. It
is in fome mealure for the difcharge of this duty that alloy
was invented ; that is, the mixture of other metals with
gold and filver.

Under our ancient kings, for every pound of gold brought
in the mafs to be coined, the king's duty was five (hillings ;
one (hilling, and fometimes eighteen pence, of which went
to the malter of the mint. Under Edward III. the feig-
norage of every pound weight of filver was eighteen penny-
weight, which was then equivalent to a (hilling. Under
Henry V. the king's feignorage for every pound of filver
was fifteen pence. At prefent, the king claims no feig-
Borage at all, but the fubjeft has his money coined at the
public expence ; nor has the king any advantage from it,
but what he has by the alloy.

In France, under Philip Auguftus, the feignorage was
one-third of the profit made by coining ; St. Louis fixed it
at one-fixteenth part of the value of the money coined :
king John, at three livres the mark of gold : Charles VII.
by reafon of the diftrelTed ftate of his finances, raifed it to
three-fourths of the value ; Louis XIII. fixed it at fix
livres the mark, or eight ounces of gold, and ten fols the
mark of filver. Louis XIV. took away the right of feig-
norage in 1679, though it was re-eftabli(hed in 1689, on
the foot of feven hvres ten fols the mark of gold, and
twelve fols fix deniers the mark of filver.

2 It

S E 1

It mud be obfervcd, that for the levying of this t'uty of
feignorage, thejull value of the money is augmented by the
value of the duty.

SEIHAN Dag, in Geography, a mountain of Turkifh
Armenia ; 36 miles S.iS.E. ot Erzerum.

SEIHOUN, a river of Caramania, which runs into the
Adaria. at Podendo.

SEJIAT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Diarbekir ; 6 m.iles N.E. of Diarbekir.

SEIKS. See Sikhs.

SEIL, a fmall idand near the W. coaft of Scotland. N.
lat. 56'i9'. W. long. 5° 37'.

SEILA. See Zeila.

SEILAND, a fmall idand in the North fea, near the
coalt of Norway. N. lat. 70° 20'.

SEILHAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diltridl of
Tulles ; 6 miles N.W. of Tulles. The place contams
1271, and the canton 11,355 inhabitants, on a territory of
237>7 kiliometres, in 9 communes.

SEILLAN, a town of France, in the department of the
Var ; 10 miles N.E. of Dragui^nan.

SEILLE, La, a river of France, which runs into the
Saone, 4 miles S.W. of Cuifery, in the departn;ent of the
Saone and Loire. — Alfo, a river of France, which runs into
the Scheldt, above Valenciennes.

SEIM, in Agriculture, a term ufcd by the farmers of
Cornwall to exprefs a certain determinate quantity of fea-
fand, which they ufe as manure to their lands.

They dredge this up on the fea-coalls, and carry it as
far towards the lands where it is to be ufed, as they can
by water. At the landmg-place the farmers bring a train
of horfes to receive it ; each horfe carrymg a feim, that is,
a fack of it containing thirteen gallons. The land-carriage
of this fand, in Cornwall alone, is fuppofed to coft thirty-
two thoufand pounds annually ; and yet the farmers find
abundant encouragement to continue the ufe of it, becaufe
it is fo rich a manure.

SEIMAN, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natoha ; 48 miles N.N.E.'of Alah Schr.

SEIMARIEH, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the
Euphrates ; 42 miles W. of Korna.

SEIME, a town of Nubia, which affords good water.
N. lat. 22° 15'. E. long. 30° 12'.

SEIMOUR, a river of Hindooltan, which runs into
the Jumna, 70 miles below Etayah.

SEIN, a fmall ifland near the coaft of France, in the
department of the Finilterre, the coalls of which arc dan-
gerous on account of its rocks and (hallows ; 28 miles
S.S.E. ofUfhant. N. lat. 48° 2'. W. long. 42'' 2'.

SEINE, L.\, a river of France, which vifes about two
leagues S. of Aignay-le-Duc, in the department of the Cote
d'Or, and runs into the Engli(h Channel at Havre de Grace.

Skine, J, a, a town of France, in the department of the
Var, fituatcd on a tongue of land, which runs into the fea ;
3 mili-s S. of Toulon.

Seine, a department of the northern region of Frarxc,
formed of the ifle of France, fituated in 48^ 50' N. lat.
containing 24 fquare leagues, on 4525 kiliometres, and
629,763 inhabitants, and divided into three circles or
diftnds, 20 cantons, and 79 communes. The circles are St.
Denis, including 36 communes, and 42,984 mhabitants ;
Sceaux, with 24 communes, and 39,923 inhabitants ; and
Paris, comprehending 1 2 cantons, in one commune, and
546,856 inhabitants. The contributions in the i ith year
of the French era, were 22,499,486 francs, and the ex-
pences charged upon it 1,819,941 francs 34 cents. The
capital is Paris. According to Haflenfratz, its length

S E I

is fix and breadth five French leagues. Its circie» are
eight, cantons 17, and population 947.472. Tliis depart-
ment is divcrfiiud with plains and eminences ; its foil is of
various qualities, and in fome parts moderately fiTtile. It
abounds with foflils of all kinds, efpecially in tlie vicinity
of Paris.

Sei.ne, Loiver, a department of the northern reoion of
France, formed of Roumois and the territories of Caux and
Bray, and bounded on the N.W. by the Engliih Channel,
on the E. by the departments of the Somme and the
Oi(e, and on the S. by the departments of the Eure and
the Calvados, from both which it is moltly feparated by the
river Seine. It is fituated in 49° N. lat., and contains
6372^ kiliometres, or 207 fquare leagues, and 642,773
inhabitants. It is divided into five circles, 50 cantons, and
987 communes. The circles are. La Havre, containing
1 17,735 inhabitants, in 123 communes; Yvetot, with 129,222
inhabitants, in 202 communes; Dieppe, having 106,082
inhabitants, in 222 communes; Neuchatel, with 82,506 in-
habitants, in 200 communes ; and Rouen, with 207,228 in-
habitants, in 200 communes. Its contributions in the year
II, were 9,104,417 fr. and cxpences 570,526 fr. 33 cents.
Its capital is Rouen. According to Haflenfratz, its length
is 35 and breadth 30 leagues ; its number of circles is feven,
and of cantons 64, and its population comprehends 536,400
inhabitants. This department affords abundance of grain,
fruits, and paftures.

Seike and Marne, a department of the fame region of
France with the former, formed of a portion of French
Gatinois, and of Upper and Lower Brie, and bounded on
the N. by the departments of the Oife and the Aifne, on
the E. by the departments of the Marne and the Aube,
on the S.E. by tlie department of the Yonne, on the S.
by th.1t of the Loiret, and on the W. by the departments
of the Loiret, and of the Seine and Oife. It contains 61 274
kihometres, or 300 fquare leagues, and 298,815 inhabitants.
It is fituated in 48'' 45' N. lat., and is divided into five
circles, and 561 communes. The circles are Melun, com-
prehending 55,830 inhabitants, in 107 communes ; Coulom-
miers, with 49,420 inhabitants, in 80 communes ; Meaux,
having 88,41 1 inhabitants, in 164 communes ; Fontainbleau,
with 57,964 inhabitants, in 104 communes ; and Provins,
having 47,190 inhabitants, in 106 communes. Its contri-
butions in the 1 ith year of the French era, were 5,126,616
fr. and expences 307,848 fr. 33 cents. The capital is
Melun. According to Haflenfratz, the length of this
department is 32, and its breadth 16 French leagues; its
number of circles is five, and of cantons 37, and its popu-
lation is 296,467. This department is diverfificd with
foreils, cultivated trails, and pallures.

Seine and Oife, a department of the fame region of
France, confilting of a portion of Vcxin-Fran9ais, of
Hurepoix, of Mantois, &c. and bounded on the N. by the
department of the Oife, on the E. by the department of
the Seine and Marne, on the S. by that of the Loiret, and
on the W. by the departments of the Eure, and of the
Eure and Loire. It contains 5880 kiliometres, or 286
fquare leagues, and 429,523 inhabitants. It is fituated in
48° 30' N. lat., and divided into five circles, and 656 com-
munes. The circles are Mantes, including 59,209 inha-
bitants, in 127 communes; Pontoife, with 91,068 inha-
bitants, in 165 communes ; Verfaillcs, having 163,849 in-
habitants, in 195 communes; Corbeil, with 56,507 inha-
bitants, ill 96 communes ; and Etampcs, with 58,890 inha-
bitants, in I I I communes. Its contributions in the year 1 1,
were 7,373,685 fr. and its cxpences 448,928 fr. 62 cents.
The capital is Verfailles. According to Halionfratz, the
length of this department is 24, and its breadth 18 French

leagues.

S E I

leagues. Its circles are nine, and cantons 59, and its
population 471,612. Tiie foil of" the two lall circles is
moderately fertile, but the others yield abundance of grain,
fruits, and paftiires.

SEINSHEIM, Markt, a town of Germany, and ca-
pital of a lordlhip, united to the country of Schwarzenberg ;
18 miles S.E. of Wuraburg.

SEIONT, a river of North Wales, which runs into the
Menai, near Caernarvon.

SEIR, in Ancient Geography, the name of mountains
which lay to the E. and S. of the Dead fea, appropriated
to them before the eltabhlhmcnt of the Ilraelites in the land
of promife. — Alfo, a mountain on the frontier of the tribe
of Juda and that of Dan. Jofh. iv. 10.

SEISACHTHEIA, Z-i^^^x^ay, in Antiquity, a public
facrifice at Athens, in memory of Solon's ordinanc, by
which the debts of' poor people were either entirely remitted,
or at leall the interelt due upon them leilcned, and the
creditors prevented from feizing upon the perfons of their
debtors, as had been cuftomary before that time.

The word fig-mfies the (baking oft a burden.

SEISENBERG, or Susoxbf.ug, in Geography, a town
of Carniola ; 1 1 miles S.E. of Weixelburg.

SEISENSTAIN, a t&wn of Aultria, on the Danube;
2 miles N.E. of Ips.

SEISIN, Skisina, in Lanu, figniiies poffijjion. In this
fenfe we fay, primer J'eifin, for the firft poilemon, &c.

Seifin is twofold, JVifm in faS, and fcijm in law. The
former is when an aftual and corporal poileirion is taken :
and the latter, when fomething is done, which the law ac-
counted a teifm, as an enrolment.

This in law gives a right to lands and tenements, though
the owner be by wrong diffeifed of them. He who hath an
hour's pofleffion quietly taken, hath fiiffi" de droit, (sf de
claimr, of which no man may dilleife him by his own force
or fubtlcty, without procefs of law. See Disseisin.

The civilians call the latter civihm pojffjjionem, and tlie
former naturalem.

Seisin, Livery of. See Livery.

SEISINA habendo, quia rex kabuit annum, diem et -vajlum,
a writ that lies for delivery of fdfin to the lord of lands
or tenements, after the king, in right of his prerogative,
hath had the year, day, and waftc, on a felony committed.

SEISINAM habere facias. See Habere.

SEISOR. See Disseisor.

SEI3SAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gers ; 9 miles S. of Auch.

SEISSEN, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzge-
birg ; 18 miles S.S.E. of Freyberg. N. lat. 50^ 35'.
E. long. 13"' 27'.

SEITAN, a name given by Avicenna, and other of the
Arabian writers, to a fpecies of prickly tree, often recom-
mended in their prefcriptions.

The word is fometimes alfo v;T\\lia fetan, Jiten, fetah, or
fetim.

Pliny mentions this as a wood remarkably durable. He
fays it grew moft plentifully in Egypt, and that it re-
mained uncorrupted in waters. It is called by him, and
others of the old Latin writers, fpina nigra, the black-thorn ;
and the durable nature of our common floe-tree, or black-
thorn, growing on our hedges, has tempted fome to believe
it to be the fame with \.\ie feten, or fpina nigra of the ancients ;
but this is overthrown by tlie common account of Pliny,
and others, of fliips being built of this wood, the fraall fize
of our black-thorn rendering it wholly impolEble to put it
to fuch ufes.

Theodotion is to be underftood of this wood, when he
fpeak.$ of the feta/j, or acaath'ma.

S E K

It is plain, from Avicenna, that \.\i\sfetan, or feiian, is uo
other than that fpecies of acacia, whicii, from ito producing
our gum arabic, is called the gum arabic tree.

SEITIL, in Commerce, a wine meafure at Vienna j 168
feitils = 70 kopfeu = 40 raaafles = 4 viertels =: an eimer ;
and 30 timers := a dreyling, and 32 einjers ^ a fuder of
wine. The contents of a maafs are 7 1 V French cubic
inches, or 86rV Englifh ditto, or 3 Englifli pints nearly ;
fo that one eimer is ;= 15 Englilh gallons.

SEITSAARI, in Geography, an ifland of the Baltic, five
verlls long, and about half as mucli in breadth, diltant 95
verlls from St. Peterfburg, and 75 from Vyborg. Ttie
land-banks here reach as far as to the Peteriburg channel,
and, being invifible from their lying under water, are fo
dangerous in dark nights, that in this place alone not fewer
veflels have been lo!t than in all other parts of the gulf
of Finland together. The land is every where unfruitful ;
though m fome of the marflies there is a (light crop of hay.
Great numbers of eels and itone pearch are caught here.
The herring and ftal iiiheries are alfo coniiderable. The
inhabitants compole about 20 families. Here is a light-
houle.

SEITTENHOFF, a town of the duchy of Carniola ;
3 miles N. of Weixelburg.

SEITZ, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 6 miles N.E.
of Cilley.

SEJUR, a river of Syria, that rifes a little N. of Antab,
and after a courle of about 30 miles through a plain deriving
its nam.e from it, lofcs itfelf in the earth. — Alfo, a town of
Syria ; 15 miles S. of Antab.

SEIX, a town ol France, in the department of the Ar-
riege ; 7 miles S. of St. Girons.

SEIZE, Se.vze, or Seife, To, in Sea Language, istojoin
two ropes, or the two ends of one rope, together, Sec. by
feveral clofe turns of fmail rope, line, or fpun-yari), round
them, with two or more crofs-turns.

Throat-fei'zing, is the firlt feizing clapt on where a rope
or ropes crols each other ; fee Rigging, Plate N^ii.
fg. 16, at 5.

Middle-feizing, is a feizing between a thi-oat and end-
Icizing, as at 6.

End-fei%ing, is a round feizing near the end of a rope, a»
at 7, on the lame plate.

Eye-feizing, is a round feizing next the eye of a (hroud,
&c. Rigging, Plate 11. Jig. 15, at 3.

T\k feizing, feajlng, or feafen of a boat, is a rope tied to
a ring or little chain in the foreltiip of the boat, by which
means it is faftened to the fide of the Ihip.

SEIZING, in Falconry, is when an hawk gripes her
prey, or any thing elfe, fall between her claws.

SEIZURE, in Commerce, an arrett of fome merchandizo
moveable, or other matter, either in confcquence of fome
law, or of fome exprefs order of the fovereign.

Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently entered, or landed
without entering at all, or landed at wrong places, are fub-
jeft to feizure.

In feizures among us, one half goes to the feizor, or in-
former, and the other half to the king. In France, half
the painted linens, &c. fcized, ufed to be burnt, and the
other half lent abroad; but in 17 15, by an arret of council,
the whole was ordered to be burnt.

SEKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in* the ifland oi'
Niphon ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Ixo.

SEKIALE, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjed ; 300 miles E. of Madian.

SEKIDO, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coaft, in
the dillrift of Agouna, which has an Englilh fadory.

SEKIN,

S E L

S E L

SEKIN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania, 30
miles S.W. of Selefkeh.

SEKMARA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Wangara, on the Niger ; 340 miles E. of Ghana. N. lat.
45' 30'. E. long. 18°.

SEKOOBOOM, a fmall ifland in the Sooloo Archipe-
lago. N. lat. 5° 5'. E. long. 120° 20'.

SEL, Le, a town of France, in the department of the
llle and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Redon ; 7 miles N.N.E. of Bain. The place con-
tains 3447, and the canton 4971 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1325 kiliometres, in 7 communes.

Sel, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a name given
to the fruit of an Indian plaiit, refembling the cucumber
in its manner of growth, but bearing a fruit like a piita-
chia-nut.

There are three of thefe fruits mentioned by the Arabian
writers, the bel, fel, znAfel.

They tell us exprefsly that the bel and fel, as alfo the fruit
fel, were not the fruit of a tree, hut of a plant, and that
of the creeping kind. It is very probable, that the other
fel of Avicenna is the roct of the nymplnea Indica, which he
mentions in the chapter of nenuphar, as poiTefTrng the fame
virtues v/hich he attributes to this fort of fel, or the fame with
thofe of mandrake.

SEL A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Palefline, in the
tribe of Benjamin, according to Jofhua. Here Saul was in-
terred in the tomb of his father Cis. — Alfo, a river of
Peloponncfus, the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on
the coaft of Mellenia, between the promontory Cyparifuni
and the town of Pybus.

SELABINA, in Geography, a town of Hungary, 4
miles S.W. of Rofenburg.

SELACHLEA, a town of Abyffinia ; 20 miles E. of
Sire.

SELAGEREH, a town of Afl'am, on the Burram-
pooter ; 60 miles N.W. of Ghcrgong.

SELAGINOIDES, in Botany, the name of a genus of
molles in the arrangement of Dillenlus, a fpecies of ly>.o-
podium 5 the characters of which are thefe : the capiules
are produced in the alas of the leaves, in the manner of thole
in the felago, but they are of a different form, being tricoc-
cous, and fometimes quadricoccous, and opening, when
mature, into fo many valves.

Of this genus of mofs we have only one known fpecies,
which is the prickly felagiuoides, commonly called feeding
mountain mofs. This is found in the mountainous parts
of Yorkfhire, and in Wales, and loves rocky and moill
places.

SELAGO, an ancient generic name in the works of
Pliny, who obferves that the plant fo called was in great
repute among the Celtic nations ; its juice being cxprcfTed
and uicd by the Druids as a remedy for many diforders,
efpecially for difeafes in the eyes. The name indeed (fays
DeTlieis) is cxprefTive of this latter quality, being derived
from the Celtic words yf/, fight, znAjack, good or falutary.
Tiie celebrated hall of Fingal, recorded in Ollian's poems,
owes its appellation to tlie fame fource, Selma meaning beau-
tiful to behold, helle-'vue. Selago has alfo been thought to be
derived from felego, to choofe ; the Druids having gathered
or felefted it both for medicinal and religious purpofes. It
is impoffible to make out the reafons which induced Linnxus
to apply this name to the genus under confideration, which
appears to have nothing in common with the celebrated fuc-
culent Selago of the ancients. — Linn. Gen. 317. Schrcb.
399. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 181. Mart. Mill. Dift. v.4.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.431. Juff. no Lamarck Illuftr.

t. 521. Gsertn. t. 51.— Clafs and order, Didynamia Gytn-
nofpermia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Vitices, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall,
permanent, cloven into four, occafionally five, fegments, the
lower one larger. Cor. of one petal : tube very fmall,
thread-ihaped, fcarcely perforated : limb fpreading, five-
cleft ; the two upper fegments fmaller, the bottom one
larger. Stam. Filaments four, capillary, the length of
the corolla, to which they are attached, the two upper
ones longer ; anthers fimple. Pifl. Germen fuperior,
ronndifh ; llyle fimple, as long as the Itamens ; iligma fimple,
acute. Peric. none, except the corolla involving the feed.
Seeds one or two, roundilh.

Eil. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Corolla a capillary tube,
with an almoft equal limb. Seeds one or two.

Juffieu obferves that all the fpecies of Selago are herbaceous
or (lirubby ; and that the flowers in molt of them are allied
to thofe of Eranthemum and Verbena. — Willdenow enume-
rates twenty fpecies, and fo does profefTor Martyn. From
the joint ttock of thefe two authors, the following ones are fe-
lefted, as an epitome of the genus. They are all natives of
the Cape of Good Hope, flowering for the molt part be-
tween .June and September.

S. corymbofa. Fine-leaved Selago. Linn. Sp. PI. 876.
(Camphorata africana umbellata frutefcens ; Commcl.
Hort. V. 2. 79. t. 40.) — Corymb much divided. Flowers
feparate. Leaves thread-fhaped, in bundles. — Stems flender,
woody, feven or eight feet high, branched, not ftrong
enough to fnpport themfelves. Leaves fhort, linear, hairy,
in axillary clutters. Floiuers fmall, perfedlly white.

S. polyfiachya. Many-fpiked Selago. Linn. Mant. 250.
(Valerianella africana fruticans, foliis erici ; Commel. Hort.
V.2. 221. t. Ill ?) — Corymb compofed of numerous cluftered
fpikes. Leaves ihread-fliaped, in bundles.— i'/fw ereft, fix
ii'ches high, branched at the top. Leaves foniewhat rigid;
linear, fliort. Floiuers numerous, white.

5. Rapunculoides. Rampion-leaved Selago. Linn. Sp.
PI. S77. Amer. Acad. v.4. 319. (Rapunculus, foliis an-
guftiifimis, dentatis, floribus umbellatis ; Burm. Afr. 1 13.
t.42. f. I.) — Spikes forming a corymb. Leaves toothed. —
Root long, woody, creeping, fibrous. Stems erect, fimple,
two feet high, thick, rough. Leaves feffile, very narrow
and rough, toothed and pointed. Flowers terminal, corym-
bole, nearly umbellate.

S.fpuria. Linear-leaved Selago. Linn. Sp. PI. 877.
(Melampyrum africaiium, fpicatum, foliis anguflifCmis den-
tatis ; Burm. Afr. 115. t.42. f. 3.) — Spikes corymbofe.
Leaves linear, with fmall teeth. — Stem about two feet in
height, branched, round, purplifli. Leaves alternate, cluf-
tered, refembling thofe of Hehenflreitia dentata. Floiuers
in ovate, oblong fpikes, clofely imbricated, violet-co-
loured.

6. fafciculata. Clufler-flowered Selago. Linn. Mant.
250. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 3. t. 496. Collect, v. 3. 246. —
Corymb much divided. Leaves obovate, fmooth, ferrated.
Stem quite fimple, ereft, about two feet high. Leaves al-
ternate, oblong, ferrated except towards the bafe, fligiitly
decurrent, dark green above, yellowifh underneath. Floiuers
purple or violet-coloured, forming an elegant, terminal,
capitate corymb.

S. ovata. Oval-headed Selago. Willd. n. II. Curt.
Mag. t. 186. (Lippia ovata; Linn. Mant. 89.) — Spikes
conical, cylindrical, terminal. Leaves fcattered, linear.
Stem flirubby. — A proftrate/6rni, about a foot high. Stems
flender, hairy, branched. Leaves flightly Uiceulent ; feve-
ral fmaller ones at each axil, generally ternate. Floiuers
white, with a yellow fpot on the two uppcrmoll fegments,

and

S E L

and fometimes on all of them, and an orange fpot at the
mouth of the tube. BraQeai alternate, ovate, large. It is
valuable not fo much on account of its beauty as its fra-
grancy. Linnseus defcribed it under the name of L'lppia
ovata from a dried fpecimen, which may account for ins
faring the flowers are of a dark-violet colour. M. L'He-
ritier firft referred it to Selago ; in doing which, Mr. Curtis
obferves, it would have been better to change the fpccfic
name to bralieata, its flaral leaves or brafteas conftituting
the moil prominent feature of the plant.

Selago, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the fhrubby
and under-fhrubby kindst, of which the fpecies cultivated
are; the fine-leaved felago (S. corymbofa) ; the linear-
leaved felago ^S. ipuria) ; and the ovate-headed felago
(S. ovatai.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed by
cuttings and layers. The cuttings (hould be made from the
young under-fhoots, and be planted out during the fummer
months in a bed of frefh earth, covering them clofe with a
bell or hand-gldfa, fhadiug them from the fun, and rcfrefh-
ing them now and then with water. They (hould be gra-
dually hardened, and then tranfplanted into fmall pots,
placing them in the fhade till they have taken root. The
layers may be laid down in the autumn or fpring, and when
well rooted be taken off and planted out in pots, as above.
The plants (hould afterwards be placed out with other hardy
ereenhoufe plants, and about the end of October removed
into the dry itove. They 0!;ly require protcft'on from froll,
being treated in the fame manner with the hardier fort of
greenhoufe plant?.

They afford much ornament and variety in greenhoufe
colleftions, among other fiiwilar plants.

SELAH, in Scripture Crhkifm, a word which occurs no
lefs than fcventy times in the Hebrew text in the Pfalms,
and which has occafioned great difficulty to the critics.
The Septuagint renders it li%\,xXij^y., q. d. a paufe in finging :
and this, it muft Jie owned, was greatly wanted before the
Pfalms were divided into verfes.

SELAM, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the left
bank of the Nile ; 6 miles N. of Siut.^ — Alfo, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Yucatan, near the coaft ; 45
miles N.W. of Merida.

SELAME', an ifland, or rather clufter of fmall iflands,
near the coall of Arabia, at the entrance into the gulf of
Perfia, near cape Mo9andum.

SELAMUM, a town of Egypt, on the W. branch of
the Nile i 48 miles N.N.W. of Cairo.

SELANIEH, or Zelaxieh, a town of Egypt, on
the E. branch of the Nile, oppolite to Damietta.

SEL ANION, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the common crocus veriius, or the garden fpring-
flower, which we call the crocus.

RELB, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach ; 14 miles S.E. of Hof.

SELBE, a river of the I(le of Man, which runs into
Ramfey harbour.

SELBERG, a mountain of Aullrian Swabia j 4miles
W.N.W. of Schonau.

SELBISTAN, a fmall town of Periia, in the province
of Farfiftan, at the diftance of 18 furfungs from the capital
of the province, containing about 4000 inhabitants, fituated
at the foot of a hill, on the banks of a fmall ftream, which
is moftly abforbed in the irrigation of the gardens and fields
adjoining the town.

SELBITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach; 3 miles S.S.E. of Lichtenberg. — Alfo, a
river of Germany, which rifes in the principality of

SEL

Culmbach, and runs into the Saal, 2 miles N.E. of Lich-
tenberg.

SELBOE, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Dron-
theim, where a copper-mine was dilcovered in the year
1712 ; 40 miles S.E. of Dronlheim.

SELBOSOE, a town of Norway, in the province of
Drontheim ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Drontheim.

SELBY, a market-town partly within the liberty of
St. Peter of York, and partly in the lower divifion of the
wapentake of Barkllon A(h, Weft Riding and county
of York, England, is fituated on the fouth bank of the
river Oufe, at the diftance of 14 miles S. by E. from 1
York, and 181 miles N. by W. from Locdon. This town I
is of great antiquity, having been known in Saxon times by
the appellation of Salebia. In the year 1070, William the
Conqueror eredled a monaftery at Stlby ; and having (hortly
after vifited his new foundation, along with his queen, the
latter was here delivered of a fon, who fucceeded to the throne
by the title of Henry I. From thele circumftanccs thii
place derived confiderable celebrity ; and was endowed with
various privileges. Many of tliele, however, are now lolt,
but it ftill retains a market, held on Monday weekly, and
three annual fairs, held on Eaiter Tuefday, the 22d of
.Tune, and the loth of Oftober. Here alfo are holden the
petty feflions for the wapentake of B.'.rkfton A(h.

Selby abbey Itood on the weft fide of the town. It was
dedicated to the honour of St. Mary and St. German ; and
was filled with monks of the Benedidline order. King
William Rufus gave the patronage of it to the archbilhop
of York and his fuccelibrs, in lieu of the claim they had to
fome part of Lincolii(hire. Previous to the didolution its
revenues were valued at 729/. I2.f. lod.per annum, according
to Dugdale ; and at 819/. 2s. 6d. according to Speed;
which, with the abbey itfelf, were granted by king
Henry VIII. to fir Ralph Sadler. Since that period the
buildings of this monaltery have been appropriated to various
ufes ; and moll of them are now demoli(hed, except the
church, which appears to have been a very fpacious and ele-
gant pile. From the various ftyles of its architecture, no
doubt can be entertained of its having been erected at dif-
ferent periods. The oldeft divifions are the body and nave,
which evince an early Norman origin, and are probably
coeval with the foundation of the abbey. The weftern
front, though extremely irregular, is exceedingly curious,
both with refpect to ftructure and ornaments. The entrance
on this fide, and hkeivife the northern porch, are particularly
worthy of obfervation. The form of this church is that of
a crofs, the (liaft of which meafures 267 feet in length, and
its tranfept loo feet. From the centre of the whole pile
rifes a maffive tower, which was rebuilt m 1702. On each
fide of the choir are twelve ancient ftalls, fimilar in form and
workmanlhip to the pnebendal ftalls in York cathedral. In
the windows are confiderable remains of ftained glafs, re-
prefenting the armorial bearings of Thomas, earl of Lan-
cailer, and other diftinguifhed charaAers of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. Here are likewife feveral ancient
monuments, and a great variety of modern date, i. e. created
fince the church became the parochial place of worfhip about
the year 1600.

According to the parliamentary returns of 181 1, Selby
pari(h contains 742 houfes, and 3363 inhabitants. The
principal trade of the town confifts in (hip-building, and
in the manufafture of leather, fail-cloth, and iron articles.

Five miles to the northward of Selby is the village of
Cawood, remarkable for the ruins of its ancient caftle,
which is faid to have been erecEted by king Athelltane in
the year 920, and which afterwards became a palace of the

archbilhops

S E L

S E L

archbidiops of York. The (lately entrance or e;ateway is
ftill remaining, on the fummit of which cardinal Wolfey ufej
to fit, and enjoy the view of the furronndinjr country. Ca-
wood caftle continued in all its fplendour till the commence-
ment of the civil war in 1641, when it was feized upon,
and garrifoned for the parliament. It fubfequently, how-
ever, fell into the hands of the king's party, and fuftained
a fiege of ten months before it was retaken by the parlia-
mentary troops, when it was ordered to be demoli(hed.
The Hiftory of Selby, by James Mountain, l2mo. York,
1800. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. by John
Bigland, 8vo. 1812.

SELCH Skerrie, one of the fmaller Orkney iQands, a
little N. of North Ronaldfiia.

SELCHA, or SELiiCHA, in ylncient Geography, a town
of Judsa, fituated in the half tribe of Manaileh, on the
other fide of Jordan, according to Jofhua.

SELDEN, John, in Biography, a very diftingulflied
fcholar, and an eminent political charafter, called by Gro-
tias "the glory of England," was born at Salvington, in Suf-
fex, in 1584. He was educated at the free-fchool at Chi-
chefter, whence he was fent to Hart-hall, Oxford, where
he refided about four years. He then removed to Lon-
don, for the fludy of the law, and with this view entered
himfelf in Clifford's-Inn, and about two years after he re-
moved to the Inner Temple, wliere he foon acquired great
reputation by his learning. He had already made himfelf
known by fome works of great merit, and this year he
wrote verfes in Latin, Greek, and Englifh, upon Mr.
William Browne's Britannia's Paftorals.

Having been called to the bar, he occafionally pleaded,
but was much more employed as a chamber counfellor. The
firft: objeft of his private lludies was the hillory and anti-
tiquities of his own country, and in 1607 he drew up a
work, entitled " Analefton Anglo-Britannicon," which was
a chronological fummary of Englilli hillory down to the
Norman conquell. This work was followed, in 1610, by
•' England's Epinomis," and " Jani Anglorum Facies al-
tera," a I^atiii and Englifli treatife on the origin and pro-
grefs of Englifli law. By thefe compofitions he became
known as a diligent enquirer into the early hillory and con-
ilitution of his country, and acquired the ellecm of fcveral
eminent literary chara6ler«, among whom were Camden,
Spelman, and iir Robert Cotton. He was alfo on familiar
terms with Ben Jonfon, Drayton, Browne, and other
poets of that period, who feem to have regarded his learn-
ing and talents with great refpeft, though his genius ap-
pears to have been inclined to poetry. In 1614 he publifhcd
his largell Englifh work, a treatife on " Titles of Honour,"
in which he difplayed a vail extent of reading, dircfted by
found judgment. It became a ftandard authority with re-
gard to all that concerns the degrees of nobihty and gentry
in this kingdom, in which light it is Itill referred to ; and it
abounds in hillorical information concerning the origin of
fuch dillinftions as he traced through other countries. In
the year 1617 he entered upon a wider field of literature,
and made himfelf known to the learned throughout Europe,
by a celebrated work " De Diis Syris." The chief or
leading objeft of this performance was to treat on the hea-
then deities mentioned in the Old Tellament, but he ex-
tended it to an enquiry into Syrian idolatry in general, with
occafional illullrations of the theology ol other nations.
This work was received with great applaufe by the learned
world, and a new and improved edition of it was printed at
Leyden, under the care of Daniel Heiiifius.

Hitherto Selden had pad'cd his life in the tranquillity of a
man of letters, engaged in fubjefts not liable to debate ; but
Vol. XXXII.

his next publication, being "A Hillory of Tythes,"
printed in 1618, fubjefted him to much angry oppofition,
and brought upon him, fays his biographer, " a ftorm from
a quarter which has always proved dangerous to free en-
quirers." In the work alluded to, he had confidered the
qucllion of the divine right to that impoll, advanced by the
clergy, and now beginning to be maintained by the Englifli
church, and though he only treated ot it as a matter of his
hillory, without arguing for or againll the right, yet as the
fum of his authorities manifeltly inclined the baUnce to the
negative fide of the queflioH, fome of the clergy took of-
fence at his freedom, and made an accufation againll him be-
fore king James. That fovereign, who was fond of inter-
fering in theological difputes, and who was always delirous
of keeping on good terms with the church, fcnt tor Mr.
Selden, and gave him a lefture on the fubjeft, and being af-
terwards called before the archbifhop of Canterbury, and
fome other members of the high commiflion court, he was
induced fo to degrade himfelf, as to fign a declaration of
his forrow for what he had done. He, however, cautioufly
avoided retrafting his opinion, or contradiftin^ the fafts
which he had produced. Several anfwers to Selden's work
were publifhed, to which he was not permitted publicly to
reply, though he circulated fome remarks upon them among
his friends. This incident unqueftionably confirmed him in
that hoflility to civil and ecclefiadical tyranny which ever
after marked his conduft. Selden was next to fhine in the
charafter of an advocate for conllitutional liberty, with
which his name is now fo clofely allied. The parliament
which James's necellities had obliged him to convoke in 1621,
was foon at illue with him on the point of their powers and
privileges, all of which the king aflerted to have been grants
from his predecellors and himfelf, while they maintained
them to be an inheritance from their ancettors. Selden be-
ing reforted to by the parliament as the ablefl legal antiqua-
rian of his time, for information relative to the ancient pri-
vileges of that body, fpoke fo freely before them againll
the praftices of the court, and was lo inllrumental in draw-
ing up their fpirited proteflations, that he was feleAed as one
of the viftims to the royal refentment, and committed to
cuflody. His imprifoiiment was not rigorous, and he was
foon difcharged upon his own petition. Refuming now his
antiquarian lludies, he edited, in 1723, the hillorical work
of Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, with learned notes re-
lative to the laws and cuftoms eltabhllied by William the
Conqueror. In the following year he was eledled to the new
parliament, as one of the reprefentatives for Lancaller, but
nothing occurred to call forth his exertions during that fef-
iion. He was again a member in the two firft parliaments
of king Charles, in the fecond of which he was appointed
to fupport fome articles of impeadiment of the duke of
Buckingham. He afterwards took up the caufe of fir Ed-
ward Hampden, who had been imprifoned for refufing to
contribute to a forced loan ; and in 1628 he was tiie perfou
whom the houfe of commons employed to produce matter
of record to jullify its refolutions in favour of the fubjeft's
right to his liberty and property. Thefe ufeful and very ho-
nourable labours did not fo entirely engrofs his attention,
but that he found time, in 1629, to draw up his learned
treatife, entitled " Marmora Arundeliana," the occafion ot
which was the importation by the earl of Arundel of fome
very ancient Greek marbles, containing infcriptions of great
value in the iludy of hiftory and chronology. This was
another obligation conferred by Selden on the learned world,
which was received with due gratitude.

On the diflblution of the parliament, on account of its vi-
gorous proceedings againll the meafureB of the court, Sel-

C c den

SELDEN.

den was one of the eight members of the houfe of commons
who were thrown into the pnfon of the Tower, on a charge
of fedition. Their application to be releafed on bail was
only aflented to by the judges, on condition of giving feciirity
for future good behaviour, which they rt-fufed to do, as re-
pugnant to the dignity of parliament, and the rights of
Englirtimen. Being brouj^ht up by virtue of the habeas
corpus aft to Weitminller-hali, the like condition was again
propofed, and again rejeftcd, and both parties feemed to
perfiil in their determination : of courfe the term of impri-
fonment was indefinitely protrafted. Its rigour was, how-
ever, foftened, and fhortly after became very lenient. Sel-
den beuig removed, firft to the Marlhalfea prifon, and then
to the Gatehoufe, was at length fuffered to go at large on
bail, as were the others likewife, till the beginning of 1634,
when bail was no longer required, and they were fully libe-
rated. Their firmnefs was much applauded by the parlia-
ment party, and Selden was dillinguiflied among them as
being their fpokefman, when the point was argued before
the judges. During the imprifonment of Selden, his mind
was not inaftive ; his ftudies were turned to Jewilh hiltory
and antiquities, and the lirll fruits of them were fhewn in a
work entitled " De luccclTionibus in bona defunfti ad leges
Ebrxorum," which was publiihed in 163 I, and reprinted in
1636, with the addition of a treatife " De fucceilione in
Pontificatum Ebrasorum." Selden had long employed his
great talents in a work which was intended to aflert and
jullify the maritime prerogatives of this country, in oppo-
fition to the principles advanced by Grotius in his work en-
titled " Mare Liberum." Selden's treatife was, after it had
long lain on the Ihelf in MS., read and approved by king
James : and the fubjeft, in 1635, having become very inte-
retting in confequence of fome difputes with the Dutch, his
majelty commanded its publication. It was therefore fitted
by him for the prefs, and appeared in that year under the
title of " Mare Claufum feu Dominio Maris." In this per-
formance, the author firtt attempts to prove, by reafonine and
example, that the fea is cap-ible of dominion : and then to
eftablifli hillorically the Britiih right over the circumjacent,
or, as they have been denominated by others, the narrow
feas. (See Campbell's Lives of the Admirals, vols. i. ii.)
This author, fpeaking of Mr. Selden and his Mare Claufum,
fays in which, " he has effedlually demonllrated, from tiie
principles of the law of nature and nations, that a dominion
over the fea may be acquired, and from the moll authentic
hiftories, that fuch a dominion has been claimed and enjoyed
by feveral nations, atid fubmitted to by others for their com-
mon benefit : that this was, in faft, the cafe of the inhabit-
ants of this idand, who, at all times, and under every kind
of government, had claimed, exercifed, and condantly en-
joyed fuch a dominion, which had been confeffed by their
neighbours frequently, and in the moft folemn manner. All
which, with learning, induftry, and judgment fuperior to
praife, this great man hath fully and unqueilionably made
out to the fatisfadion of foreigners, as it is the defign of
this work to imprefs the fame fentiment on the minds of all
fcnCble Britons, viz. "that they have an hereditary, uninter-
rupted right to the fovereignty of their feas, conveyed to
them from their earlieft anceftors, in truft for their latell
pofterity."

Selden's work was, in truth, acceptable to all parties, and
the king in council ordered copies of it to be kept in the
council cheft, the court of exchequer, and the court of ad-
miralty, as faithful and (trong evidence to the dominion of
the Britifh feas. Several following years of Selden's life
feem to have been chiefly occupied in Hebrew itudies, of
vjhjchoneof the principal produds appeared in 1640, under

the title " De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta difciphnam
Ebraeorum :" Lib. feptem. This work is a copious digell
of Jewilh laws and inflitutions, as well from the rabbinical
writers, as from the writings of the Old Teltament, which
is generally efteemed a valuable repertory of all the matter
afforded by hiltory or tradition relative to the fubjeft.

This year, 1640, th_' lon^ parliament met, and Selden wa«
chofen one of the reprt-fentatives for the univerfity of Ox-
ford. His name appears in feveral committees appointed
for the correfting of tlie abufes, and retraining the oppref-
fions of the reign, which parliament was, at this period, re-
folved to puriue. One of its ftrong meafures, viz., the im-
peachment of lord Strafford, he did not concur in, notcon-
fidering that this meafure was warranted by the law of the
land. Nor did he feem willing to proceed further in the re-
formation of religion, than to check the ufurpations of ec-
clefiaftical power, to which he was a moft decided enemy ;
and he had no with whatever to abrogate the epifcopal form
of church government, which he preferred to the prefby-
terian. So well aifected was he, upon the whole, to the
exiiling conftitution in church and ftate, that after the king
had withdrawn to York, there was a defign of appointing
him keeper of the great feal. When the differences between
the king and parliament were maiiifellly tending to an open
rupture, Selden oppofed the attempts of both parties to
gam poflelTion of the power of the fword, hoping that the
ftrong arm of the law might prove fufficient to fettle the
conteft, and when his efforts had proved fruitlefs, he with-
drew, as much as he was able, from public bufinels. He re-
mained, however, in parliament, and was one of the fynod
which met at Weftininiter for the eftablifliment of church
government. In 1643 he was appointed by the houfe of
commons keeper of the records in the Tower, and in the
next year he fubicribed the Solemn League and Covenant.
It is mentioned to his honour, that he conftantly employed
his influence, in thefe contentious times, for the fervice and
proteftion of learning and learned men ; and the univerfity
of Oxford, oil different occafions, expreffed its gratitude
for the good offices which he performed for it in times of its
diftrefs. He likewife befriended the fifter univerfity, in
which he was regarded with fo much veneration, that he
was elefted to the mafterfhip of Trinity-hall, though he
thought It right to decline the office. His learned la-
bours were ilill unintermitted, and new works were occa-
fionally iffuing from his pen. Of thefe, the moil confidera-
able were, " Eutychii jEgyptii Origines Ecclefii fux,"
tranflated from the Arabic ; " De Anno Civili Veteris Ec-
clefix ;" " Uxor Ebraica," which contained an account of
all the Jcwifh rites and inllitutions relative to marriage ; an
edition of tiie ancient work entitled " Fleta ;" " De Syne-
driis Veterum Ebrsorum," being a copious account of the
juridical courts of the Jews. His concluding work was
" Vindicix de Scriptione Maris Claufi," the objeft of
which was to controvert a malignant infinuation of a Dutch
author, that he had compofed his Mare Claufum in order to
pleafe king Charles, and obtain his liberation from imprifon-
ment. Selden died in November 1654, having completed
his feventieth ye.ir. He was interred with great folemnity
in the Temple church, and on thisoccafion the learned Ufher
pronounced a funeral difcourfe. Seldi-n was always in
affluent circumilances, and had intended, at his death, to
bequeath his valuable library and mufeum to the univerfity
of Oxford, but owing to fome offence given to him, he
left it to his executors, who, however, reftored them
to their firll deftination, and they now make part of
the Bodleian library. After his death, his amanuenfis
printed a coUeftion of Selden's fayings, entitled " Table

Talk,'-

S E L

S E L

Talk," which contains much curious matter, and became
popular.

" Selden," fays Dr. Aikin, to whofe lives of Seldcn
andUflierour readers are referred for much curious and in-
terelliiig matter, " was one of the molt learned men of his
time, and though the nature of his fubjedls, and a harlh and
difficult llyle, have thrown his works out of the ordinary
courfe of reading, yet he has been a confiderable benefaftor
to htcrature, and his merit, as fuch, has been freely acknow-
ledged by the mod eminent fcholars at home and abroad.
Grotius, Salmafius, Bochart, Gerard VolHus, Gronovius,
Daniel Heinfius, and many other writers of great celebrity,
have mentioned him with high encomium, and in England
he was looked up to as at the head of a literary body. He
was liberal in his patronage of men of letters, and appears
to have been free from the jealoufy and arrogance too fre-
quently accompanying the learned charaAer. Lord Claren-
don, though widely different from him in political fenti-
ments, has, in his own life, fpoken of him in terms of pro-
found refpedl and admiration ; and from perfonal knowledge,
has teltiiied to the amiable qualities of his heart, and urba-
nity of his manners, as well as to the powers of his under-
ftanding." Another author obferves that he was a man of
uncommon gravity and greatnefs oi foul, averlc from flattery,
liberal to fcholars, and charitable to the poor. His works
were publiftied coUeftively in three vols, folio, by Dr. David
Wilkins, In 1726, with a Latin life of the author.

Selden is celebrated in German mufical diftionaries, as a
mufical writer, for his notes on the Arundelian Marbles, con-
cerning Hyagnis, the inventor of tlie flute, the Ambabaia:,
Terpander, and the Nomes of the ancients.

SELE, in Axicient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
interior of Sufiana. Ptolemy.

Sele, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs into
the gulf of Salerno, N. lat. 40^ 28'. E long. 13^. — Alfo,
a town of Nubia ; 85 miles W. of Arkiko.

SELEBAR, a river on the W. coall of Sumatra, which
runs into the fea, S. lat. 4° 2'. E. long. 102° 15'.

SELECTI JuDlCES, in the Roman Republic, were per-
fons appointed by the prietor with the mutual confent of
contending parties, and bearing in many refpedls a remark-
able refemblance to our juries ; for they were firll returned
by the prstor, then their names were drawn by lot, till a cer-
tain number was completed ; then the parties were allowed
their challenges ; next they ilruck what we call a tales ;
and, laftly, the judges, like our jury, were fworn.

SELEFKE', or Itsckil, in Geography, a town of
Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Caramania, feated on a
river which foon after palfing the town difcharges itfclf into
the Mediterranean, oppollte to the ifland of Cyprus ; an-
ciently called Seleucia. It is now the refldence of a fa;i-
giac, under tiie government of Cyprus. N. lat. 36° 43'. E.

'o"K- 33'^ 3°'-

SELEMEUS, m Ancient Geography, a river of Achaia,
N.W. and E. of the river Charadrus, which difcharged itfelf
iiito the gulf of Corinth.

SELEMIE, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the E.
branch of the Nile ; 43 miles N. of Cairo.

SELENiE, i;!Xii»,ti, in Antiquity, a kind of cakes ufed
in facritices, and fo called from their being broad and horned,
in imitation of the new moon.

SELENDERS, in the Manege, are chaps or mangy
fores in the bending of a horfe's hough, as the malanders are
in the knees.

SELENEUSIACA Terra, Earth of Seleneufia, in
the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a light fungous eartli,
called by later naturalills agaricus mineralis, and when

found in form of powder, or in a difcontinuous ftate, lac
lunx.

It is an earth common enough, wherever there are ftone
quarries, all over the world ; but the finelt ever met with is
that from Sicily, the place where the ancient Seleneufia, or
Selinus flood, and from whence the ancient phyficians had
it. Some of them have called it the creia Seleneuftaca ; but
all their defcriptions agree in proving it to be this very earth
now found there. Diofcorides and Galen mention its re-
markable diilufibility in water, and Pliny mentions its melt-
ing in a kuid of juice, or fmooth homogene fubllance with
it ; properties fo very apphcable to this earth, and fo little
fo to any otiier, as to leave no doubt of their having been
origir:ally r.pplied to the very fame fubllance.

The ancients gave it internally as an aftringent ; but its
principal uL" was external, as a cofmetic among the ladies.
And Dr. Plot recommends our lac lunse, on perfonal ex-
perience, for the fame purpofes.

SELENGA, in Geography, a river which rifes in Chinefe
Tartary, and traverliiig tiie confines of RufTia, runs into
the Baikal lake, 36 miles W.N.W. of Verchnei Udinll<.

SELENGJNSK, a town of RulTia, in the government of
Irkutflv, at the conflux of the Selenga and Chilok. It was
made an ulhog in the year 1666, and about 20 years after-
wards, the fort, which is now Handing, was built, and to
this the place owes its profperity. The town lies parallel
to the river, and contains two ohurches, and about 15a
houfes, inclolcd within the fortification. This is defended
by five pieces of brafs cannon, and as many iron guns ; and
the gairifon confills of a regiment of foldiers. The in-
habitants are nicknamed " Perofhniki," from the great quan-
tities of fand found in thefe parts. The whole adjacent
country is mountainous and barren, but a few miles below
it tliere is good arable land. The country about Selcnginfk
yields a great quantity of rhubarb, infomuch that the rhu-
barb exported from RulFia grows in thefe parts ; 84 miles
S.E. of Irkutflc. N. lat. 51". E. long. 106° 44'.

SELENIACON, a name for a kind of amulet worn for
the epilcpfv.

SELENITE, \n Mineralogy, cryftaUized gypfum. See
Gypsum, and Sulphate of Lime.

SELENIZ, in Geography, a mountain of Carinthia ; 10
miles S. of Clagcnfurt.

SELENOGRAPHY, formed from a-iXmri, moon, and
y^-y-yri, defcription, a branch of cofmography, which dcfcribe«
the moon, and all the parts and appearances of it, as geo-
graphy does thole of the earth.

Since the invention of the telefcope, felenography is very
much improved.

We have now diftindl names for moll of the regions,
mountains, &c. vifible in the moon's body. Thefirltwho
attempted, but in a very rude manner, to make a map of
the !iioon's furface, was Riccioli. Hevelius, a celebrated
altrommer, who was a bnrglier-maller of Dantzic, and
who publiflied his felenography, reprelented the appearance
of the moon in its different Hates from the new to the full,
and from the full to the new, and named the fevcral places
of the moon from thole of the earth, wliich figures Mayer
prefers; but Langreiius and Ricciolus named tliem after-
wards, from the names of the celebrated allronomers and
philolbpliers, afTigning the largell fpots to thofe of the moll
celebrated charailers, wiiich dillinttion 13 now generally fol-
lowed. Thus, what tile one calls mons Porphyritct, the
other calls Ariflarchus. What the one calls JEtna, Sinai,
Athos, Apenninus, &c. the otiier calls Copernicus, Po/ldonius,
Tycho, Gaffirndus, &c. A map of the moon, as it appears
when full, was drawn by Caflini, who publiflied a work
C c 2 entitled

S E L

entitled " InftruAions Seleniques." The late Mr. Rud'el,
a painter of eminence, made excellent drawings of the
moon ; b'lt the mod accurate and complete that have yet
been publifhed, are thofe of the celebrated Schroeter, who
has given highly magnified views cf molt parts of the moon's
furface. Dr. I5rewfter, in his improved edition of Fer-
gufon's Aftronomy, has given feveral tables of the lunar
fpots. The firil of thefe tables is fo'-med from the obferva-
tions of Lambert, and contains the longitude and latitude
of 207 fpots, with the names given them by Riccioli and
Hevehus, together with remark-, on their pofition, appear-
ance, and ftructnre. The fecond table contains the loncji-
tude and latitude of 89 lunar fpots, as determined by To-
bias Mayer, with general remarks. The third table ex-
hibits the new names 'vhich have been given to the anony-
mous lunar fpots by Jer. Schroecer, with their poiitions, as
determined by the editor, from a comparifon of Schroeter'i
plates with Mayer's engraving of the moon, and his table
of the lunar fpots. Our limits wdl not allow of our in-
fertion of either of thefe tables, and they are incapable of
abridgment.

SELENTI, in Geogrnphy, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Caramania, at the mouth of the river Selenti, which here
runs into the Mediterranean ; 45 miles E. of Alanieh. N.
lat. ;?9°3'. E. long. 29^ 18'.

SELERNES, one of the fmaller Shetland illands. N.
lat. 60° 40'. W. long. 1° 22'.

SELESTRIA, a'town of Afiatic Turkey, in Carama-
nia ; 50 miles S.W. of Tarfus.

SELETZKAIA, a town of RulTia, in tlie government
of Archangel ; 80 miles S. of Archangel.

SELELFCIA, in indent Geography, a famous city of
Afia, built by Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals, and
iituated on tlic weilern bank of the Tigris, about 45 miles
N. of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the Macedonian
conquefts in Upper Afia, and is laid to have been the firit
and principal caufe of the dellruclion of Babylon. Pliny
reports, that the intention of the firft of the Seleucidx was
to raife, in oppofition to Babylon, a Greek city, with the
privilege of being free. The ramparts and foffe of this
Grecian city are faid to be nearly oppofite to the ruins of
Ctefiphon (which fee) ; and in procels of time Seleucia and
Ctefiphon became united and identified, under the name of
Al Modain (which fee), or the two cities. For the precife
fituation of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctefiphon, Modain, and
Bagdad, cities often confounded witli each other, we refer
with Gibbon, to an excellent geographical traft of M.
d'AnviUe, in Mem. de I'Academie, torn. xxx. Many ages
after the fall of the Macedonian empire, Seleucia retained
the genuine charaders of a Grecian colony, arts, military
virtue, and the love of freedom. The independent republic
was governed by a fenate of 300 nobles ; the population
confilted of 600,000 citizens ; the walls were ftrong ; and as
long as concord prevailed among the feveral orders of the
ftate, they viewed with contempt the power of the Par-
thians ; but the madnefa of faction was fometimes provoked
to implore the dangerous aid of the common enemy, who
was polled almoit at the gates of the colony. The Par-
thian monarchs, like the Mogul fovereigns of Hmdoollan,
delighted in the paftoral life of their Scythian ancellors ;
and the imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain
of Ctefiphon, on the ealiern bank ef the Tigris, at the
diftance of only three miles from Seleucia. (See Strabo,
lib. xvi. p. 743.) By the influx of tiie innumerable at-
tendants on luxury and defpotifm, who reforted to the
court, the little village of Ctefiphon infenfibly fwelled
into a great city. Under the reign of Marcus, A.D. 165,

S E L

the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctefiphon and Se-
leucia. They were received as friends by the Greek colony ;
they attacked as enemies the feat of the Parthian kings ;
and yet both experienced the fame treatment. The fack
and conflagration of Seleucia, with the maflacre of 300,000
of the inhabitants, tarniflied the glory ot the Roman
triumph ; though it has been alleged in their favour, that
the citizens of Seleucia had firil violated their faith. Se-
leucia, already exhaulted by the neighbourhood of a too
powerful rival, lunk under the fatal blow : but Ctefiphon,
in about 33 years, had fufficiently recovered its itrength to
maintain an obftinate fiege againll the emperor Severus.

Browne (Travels in Africa, p. 391.) identifies Seleucia
with Suadea, the port of Antioch, about four hours dif-
tant from it. Its former pofTellors, he lays, took immenfe
pains to render it convenient for traffic; but it is now ren-
dered ufelels, by the negligence of its prefent mailers. A
large gate, fays this traveller, yet remains entire ; it ap-
proaches to the Doric order. The rock near it has been
excavated into various apartments. A part exiils of the
thick and fubllantial wall which defended Seleucia towards
the fea. The port mutt have been commodious and fecure,
thougli fmall, as it was formed by a mole of very large
Hones. Although it be at prefent dry, the fand in the
bottom appears no higher than the furface of the fea. A
little to the north is a remarkable palTage, cut in the rock,
leading, by a gentle defcent, from the iummit of the moun-
tain t'Hvards the water. It is about 600 common paces
long, from 30 to 50 feet high, and above 20 broad. In
the middle of it is a covered way, arched through the
rock, but both the ends are open. A channel for water
runs along the lide, conveying the pure element down from
the mountain to Seleucia. The whole rock above is full
of artificial cavitie?, formed for fome purpofe now unknown.
A Greek infcription of five lines is vifible on the S. fide of
the cavern. Towards the fea are fome catacombs, orna-
mented with pilaltcrs, cornices, and mouldings.

Jackfon, in his " Journey from India," confiders Bagdad
as the fcite of the ancient Seleucia, and he fays that feveral
of the coins of Seleucus are found in Bagdad. The gold p
coin IS worth about Iwo guineas ; it bears as ftrong an
impreflion of the head as the ancient Roman coins, but has
a long beard.

Seleucia, a town of Afia Minor, winch was anciently
in Cihcia ; but in the 4th century of the Chritliaa era, the
province of Ifauria was made to conllitute a part of Ci-
licia ; and this city became the metropolis of the pro-
vince. The Notitia of Hierocles reprefents Seleucia as
founded by Seleucus Nicanor, and as being one of the
largefl. and richeft towns of the Ealt. The river Calycadnus
was navigable near this city, and facilitated the commerce
of the country. In the year 116, Seleucia threw off the
Roman yoke ; but Trajan fent hither a body of troops in
the beginning of the year 117, who reduced it to fubjec-
tion. However it again recovered its liberty, as we learn
from a medal of Gordian and another of Philip, on which
it is denominated cleothera, or free.

Seleuch, a large town of the Perfide, in the territory
of Elymais, on the river Edyphonte, according to Strabo.
It was alfo named Soloee. — Alfo, a town of Afia, in Pi-
iidia, according to the Notitia of Hierocles. Appian re-
lates that it vras one of the nine towns built by Seleucus
Nicanor, who gave it his own name. — Alfo, the name given
to the town of Trallis, in Lydia. Pliny. — Alfo, an epif-
copal town of Afia, in Pamphylin.

Seleucia PierLi, a town of Afi;:, in Syria, fituated on

the coall of the Mediterranean fea, N.W, of the river

1 Orontcp,

S E L

S E L

Orontes, and near it, and S.W. of Antioch. According
to Piiiiyi it was a free city-

Seleucia, the name which Seleucur; gave to a town of
Gadara, fituatcd to the E. and beyond the fea of Tiberias.
^Alfo, a town of Judea, in the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on
the other fide of Jordan.

SELEUCIANS, Seleuciani, in Ecckfiajllcal Hijlory,
a feft of ancient heretics, called alfo Hermiani.

Seleucus and Hermias taught, that God was corporeal ;
that the elementary matter was co-eternal with him ; and
that the human foul was formed by the angels of lire and air.
They alfo denied, that Jefus Chrill fat at the right hand of
God ; alTerting that he had quitted the right, and had re-
moved his throne into the fun.

SELEUCIDjE, in Chronology ; era of the Seleucidae,
or the Syro-Macedonian era, is a computation of time, com-
mencing from the eltab!i(hment of the Seleucidx, a race of
Greek kmgs, who reigned as fucctffors of Alexander the
Great, in Syria, as the Ptolemies did in Egypt.

This era we find exprelled in the book of Maccabees, and
on a great number of Greek medals ilruck by the cities of
Syria, &c.

The rabbins and Jews call it the era of contrads, becaufe,
being then lubjedt to the kings of Syria, they were obliged
to follow their method of com.puting in all contrffts.

The Arabs call it therlck dilcarnain, era of two horns,
which fome fay fignify the era of Alexander the Great ; be-
caufe that prince bore two rams' horns on medals, in imitation
of Jupiter Ammon, whofe fon he would needs be ; but others
underlland it much better of the two kingdoms of Syria and
Egypt, which were now cloven or divided, and of one fingle
empire parted into iwo monarchies.

The grand point is to know the year in which the fepa-
ration was made ; or, which is the fame thing, when Se-
leucus Nicanor, one of Alexander's captains, and the firll of
the SeleucidsE, e'lablilhed his throne in Syria.

Without dc-tailing the various fentiments of various au-
thors, it may fuffice to obferve, that, according to the bell
accounts, the firlt year of this era falls in the year 311 or
312 before Cluilt, which was twelve years after Alexander's
death. S?e Epociia.

SELEQCIS, ui ylnctent Geography, a country of Afia,
in Syria, which took its name from the city of Seleucia.
It was alfo called Telrapolh, on account of four celebrated
towns contained in it, according to Strabo. This country
extended fouthwards as far as Phoenicia.

SELEUCO Belus, a town of Afia, in Syria; fituated
towards the river Orontes, W. of mount Belus, about N.
lat- ^f iroK

SELEUCUS, a town of Afia, in Syria, in the vicinity
of Apamea.

Seleucus I., in Biography, furnamcd Nicator, king of
Syria, was Ion of a Macedonian named Antiochus, a cap-
tain under king Pliilip. Seleucus entered, when young, into
the feivicc of Alexander the Great, by whom he was raifed
to an important command, and after the deatii of that con-
queror, he was placed by Perdiccas at the head of the ca-
valry. On the divifion of the provinces made by Antipater,
the government of that of Babylon was entrufted to Seleucus,
in which fituation he oppoied the advance of Eumenes againll
Antigonus. When, however, that leader, after tiie death
of Eumenes, marched to Babylon, he (hewed fuch a hodile
difpofition towards Seleucus, that the latter thought it iic-
ceifary to take refuge with Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Upon
the defeat of Demetrius, the fon of Antigonus, by Ptolemy,
Seleucus recovered his government of Babylon, and added
to it Media and Sufiana, wiiich be wrellcd from Nicanor,

the governor, for Antigonus. Demetrius afterwards ex-
pellcd Seleucus from Babylon, but he foon returned, and
durably ellablifhed his autnority. He then proceeded with
a powerful army to the Eaft, conjuercd and flew Nicanor,
and marching through Perfia, Batiria, and Hyrcania, fub-
dued thofe countries, and the otiier provinces which had
formed part of Alexander's empire on this fide the Indus.
From thefe important viftories he ailumed the name of Ni-
cator ; and the other fuccefsful captains of Alexander taking
the title of kings in the year 306 B.C., iie followed their
example. The hiiturical era of the Seleucidse, however,
commenced fix years earlier than this, i'i%. in the year 212
B.C., when he recovered Babylon. He now marched to
regain the diftritts of India Proper, conquered by Alexander,
but he was oppofed by lo large a force, that he thought it
expedient to leave him in pollefTion, on condition of being
fupplied by him with 500 elephants. One realon of his
making this treaty was the neceffity of joining with Caf-
fander, Lyfimachus, and Ptolemy, in order to reduce the
overgrown power of Antigonus, which menaced the inde-
pendence of them all. This purpofe was effected by the
great battle of Ipfus, in which Antigonus loil his hfe.
His dominions were fliared by the four confederate monarchs,
previoufly to which Seleucus had feizcd the province of
Upper Syria, and founded the famous city of Antioch.
He alfo built other cities in the fame province, to which he
gave family names, as Seleucia, from himfelf ; Apamea,
from his wife ; and Laodice, from his mother ; and as he
was a great founder of cities in all his territories, he filled
Afia with places bearing the names of his family. After
this, he built Seleucia on the Tigris, which became one of
the molt famous cities in the Eail, and was the caufe of the
defertion and ruin of Babylon. In many of his new cities
he fettled colonies of the Jews, whom he endowed with ample
privileges, and to him was owing their eltablifhment in the
Afiatic provinces to the weft of the Euphrates. When he
was advanced in years, he is faid to have refigned to his fon
Antiochus, his wife Stratonice, and with her he refigned to
the prince all the provinces of Upper Afia. Seleucus and
Lyfimachus were now the only lurvivors of Alexander's
captains, and a domeltic tragedy having taken place in the
family of the latter, fome of its members took refuge in the
court of Seleucus, whom they urged to make war upon
Lyfimachus. He accordingly invaded, witii a very power-
ful army, the territories of Lyfimaclius in Afia Minor.
That prince crofted the Hellefpont to protcit them, and a
moll bloody battle was fought between the rivals in Piirygia,
in whicli Lyfimachus was flain, in tlie year B.C. 281. Se-
leucus took poflcflion of his dominions, but did not long
enjoy the fruits of viiitory, for as he was marching into
Macedonia, ieven montlis after, he was treacheroufly mur-
dered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, one of the fugitives from tlie
court of Lyfimachus. Seleucus died in the 43d year from
the death of Alexander, and in the 73d year of his age.
He was a prince of fplendid qualities, mild and equitable
in his government, and a patron of letters and learned men.
Uinver. Hift.

Ski.eucus II., furnamcd Callinicus, fuccceded liis father
Antiochus Theos, in tlie year 246 B.C. His mother Lao-
dice having cruelly put to death Berenice, the fecund wife of
Antioclius, and her Ion, Ptoleitiy Euergctes, the brother of
Berenice, marciied into Syria, flew I^aodice, and took pof-
feflion of great part of the Syrian empire. After his return
to Egypt, Seleucus recovered part of his loft dominions ;
but being defeated by Ptolemy, lie applied for aid to hi»
brother. Tliis union brought about a truce witli Ptolemy,
but the twa brothers then quarrelled, and Seleucus was de-
feated

S E L

S E L

feated by Atitiochui in a j^reat battle at Ancyra. The war
between them was carried on with great inveteracy, while
the empire was invaded on one fide by Eumenes and Attalus,
kinirs of Pergamus ; and on the other, Arfaces, founder of
the Parthian monarchy, was raaking-a progrefs in Hyrcania.
Seleucus was at length delivered from the hollility of his
brother, who was detained captive in Egypt, whither he
had fled, and he then turned his arms againll Arfaces, but
in a great battle that was fought he was defeated and taken
prifoner. He died in Parthia, in confequence of a fall from
his horfe, in the year 226 B.C.

Seleucus III., furnamed Ceraunus, eldeft fon of the
preceding, fucceeded him on the throne. He was a weak
and incapable prince, and after a reign of three years he
was poifoned by two of his chief officers, while engaged in
an expedition againlt Attalus.

Selei'cus IV., furnamed Philopator, fucceeded his
father Antiochus the Great, in the year 187 B.C. He
was favourable to the Jews during the greatelt part of his
reign, but near the clofe of it he employed Heliodorus to
carry off the treafures of the temple at Jerufalem, as is men-
tioned in the fecond book of Maccabees. He was after-
wards poifoned by Heliodorus, who ufurped his throne.
This event occurred in the year 1 76 B.C. There were
feveral other kings of the name of Seleucus, but they did
nothing worthy of notice.

SELEZNEVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfic, on the Ilim ; 28 miles S. of Ilimfk.

SELF-Abuse. See j'c^-Pollution.

Self -Dirjence, in Law. With regard to the defence of
one's felf, or the mutual and reciprocal defence of fuch as
ftand in the relations of hulband and wife, parent and child,
mailer and fervant, it is obferved, that, in thefe cafes, if the
party himfelf, or any of thefe his relations, be forcibly at-
tacked in his perfon or property, it is lawful for him to repel
force by force ; and the breach of the peace, which happens,
is chargeable upon him only who began the affray.

Self-defence, therefore, as it is juftly called the primary
law of nature, fo it is not, nor can it be in faft, taken away
by the law of fociety.

In the Englilh law, particularly, it is held an excufe for
breaches of the peace, nay, even for homicide itfelf ; but care
mult be taken, that the rcfiftance does not exceed the bounds
of mere defence and prevention, for then the defender would
himfelf become an aggreffor. Blackft. Com. vol. iii.

SELF-Examination. See Examination.

SELF-heal, in Botany. See Pruxella.

SELF-Heal, in the Materia Medka. The greater felf-
heal, with an undivided leaf, grows wild in pafture grounds,
and flowers in June and July. It has been reckoned among
the vulnerary plants, and is accounted ferviceable in all forts
of wounds and putrid ulcers. It is reltringent, and good
for inward bleedings, and making bloody water ; and has
been much ufed in gargles, for ulcers in the mouth, throat,
or gums, either in juice, or in a Itrong decoftion.

Its virtues do not appear to be very great ; its auftere or
bitterifh tafte is more fenfible in the flowery tops than in the
leaves ; though the latter are generally direfted for medi-
cinal ufe.

Self-heal is alfo a name given to fanicle.

SELF-Z.O'Uf, in Ethics, is that principle, or paflion, which
leads a man to defire and piirfue his own happinefs. It is con-
tradiftinguifhed from benevolence. See vWfn/a/ Philosophy.

SELF-0/>ens, a term ufed by the miners in the north of
England to exprefs certain natural cavities, or chambers,
which are frequently met with, fome near the furface, fome
at very great depths, fome fmall, and others very large.

Thefe are of various figures, and often run into ftrange
finufes. Dr. Liller, in accounting for the origin of earth-
quakes, fuppofes the whole crufl of llie earth to be more or
lefs hollowed in this manner ; which he alfo argues for, from
the ftreams of waters which arife in large quantities from
the fides of mountains, and mult have communication with
thefe felf-opens, and fupplies from them.

Thefe natural hollows the doflor thinks to be the means
of continuing, and propagating earthquakes ; the firft caufe
of which he afcribes to the breath of the pyrites, which he
alfo fays is the pvritcs itfelf tola Jubjlantia. This he ob-
ferves takes fire of itfelf, on being expofed to the air in our
fight, and may do fo, from various other caufes under-
ground. The fulphuieous fmell of the air and waters be-
fore and after earthquakes, in the places where they happen,
feems a proof that they owe their origin to fome fuch ful-
phureous m.atter as tins ftone ; and the rolling and defultory
noife of an earthquake feems alfo to (hew that it is not ex-
panded every way at once, but is propagated through a
chain of thefe fubterranean hollows.

It is not neceflary that we fhould fuppole a continued
chain of them, from the place where the earthquake begins
to be felt to the fpot where it ends ; but if there are many
of them irregularly fcattered about the earth, the force cf
the explofiou will be fufficient to burd through the foliii
parts between, and open a paffage from one to the other,
which may continue open no longer than the force continues,
and after the (hock is over, clofe together again, fo as to
leave no trace where it was.

Our miners not only find the natural caverns, but they
alfo find them often full of what they call^>r damps, which
are inflammable vapours, of the very nature of thofe which he
fuppofes to occafion earthquakes ; and when fired make the
fame explofions, and caufe the fame effects in a certain degree.
Thefe fometimes require 3 candle, or other adtual fire, to
come in contaft, in order to kindle them ; but fometimes
they are found kindled of themfelves, and flaming on the
furface of the waters, in the bottoms of the pits, or at the
fiflures of the coal. Phil. Tranf. N° I J7.

SELGA, or Seloe, m Ancient Geography, a confiderable
and well-peopled town of Aiia, in Pifidia. It was co-
lonized from Lacedsemon.

SELGENFELT, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the circle of Natangen ; 3 miles S. of Konigfberg.

SELGENTHAL, a town of Germ.any, in the circle of
the Lower Rhine ; 3 miles N.W. of Burken.

RELGOV.£, in Ancient Geography, a people of Britain,
feated to the welt of the Gadeni, in the countries now
called EMcdale, Annandale, and Nithfdale, lying along the
fliores of the Solvvay Frith, which is believed to have de-
rived its name from that of this ancient Britifh nation. Mr.
Baxter fuppofes that the name of thefe people was com-
pounded of the two Britifh words Sal Giii, which fignify
fait waves, alluding to the SoUvay Frith, with which the
coalls of their country were wafhed. But Dr. Macpherfon
thinks it more probable, that the name was derived from
the Britifh word Sealg, which literally fignifies hunting,
and metaphorically theft. The Selgovx became firfl: ac-
quainted with the Romans, when Agricola marched his
army through their country into Caledonia, in the fecond
or third year of his government in Britain ; at which time
they made their fubmiffion to that vidtorious general.
From that period they were alternately under the dominion
of the Romans, or enjoyed freedom, as that people ex-
tended or contrafted the limits of their empire in this ifland.
The Romans had feveral ftations and camps in the country

of

S E L

S E L

.t the Selgovae, of which fome veftiges are IHU re-
maining.

SELI, in Botany, a word formed by an abbreviation of
the word fefell, and fignifying the fame plant.

SELIA, in yinde/it Geography, n town of Hifpania, in
the interior of Boctica. It belonged to the Turduli, ac-
cording to Ptolemv.

SELIAKINSKO, in Geography, an ottrog of Ruffia,
in the government of Tnbolfk, on the Enifei ; 260 miles
N.N.W. of Turuchanfk. N. lat. 69"" 55'. E. long.

85° 14'.

SELICHA, a name given by the Arabians to a kind of
cinnamon.

SELICO, or Seluco, in Geography, a town of Africa,
on the north fide of the Gambia, in Mandingo.

SELIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine, and cleftorate of Mentz, formerly
imperial, on the Maine ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Franckfort un
the Maine. N. lat. 49° 59'. E. long. 8° 46'.

SELIGENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg ; _j miles N. of Smalkalden.

SELIGER, a lake of Riifila, in the government of
Tver ; 80 miles W.N.W. of Tver.

SELIGONION, in Botany, a name by which fome
authors have called piony.

SELIM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Palefline, in
the tribe of Judah, on the fouthcrn fide along the'frontiers
of Edom, according to Jolhua. This was afterwards com-
prifed in the tribe of Simeon. See Salem.

SELur I., in Biography, a Turkilh emperor, was the fe-
cond fon of Bajazet II. In 151 1, being governor of Tre-
bizond, he rebelled againft his father, and marched to
Conltantinople, where he was defeated and obliged to feek
his fafety in a precipitate flight. The janizaries, however,
favouring him, Bajazet was forced to refign his crown to
him, and foon after died, probably by poifon. Selim
afcended the throne in 1512, being at that time about
46 years of age. His firll (lep was to proceed agaiiill his
eldell brother Achmet, who was at the head of fome troops
in Afia. He defeated and put him to death, which was
foon after the fate of another brother. Selim then invaded
Perfia with a numerous army, and defeating Shah Ifmael in
a great battle, entered the city of Tauris. He afterwards
annexed Diarbekir to the Turkifli empire ; and one of his
officers recovered Bofnia, which had been conquered by the
Hungarians. In 15 1 7 Selim turned his arms agaiiilt the
fultan of Egypt, and obtained a vittory over him near
Aleppo, the fultan being (lain in the engagement. Aleppo
and Damaicu- fubmitted to Selim after this event, and he
prepared to march into Egypt. Arriving in the neigh-
bourhood of Cairo, a very bloody battle enfued between
■him and Tnman Bey, which terminated in a total defeat of
the Mamelukes. Cairo, after a defperate refinance, was
taken, and all Egypt fubmitted. Selim returned to Con-
ltantinople, and, elated with his luccefles, made a vow that
he would not lay down his arms till he had put an end to
the Perfian empire. His career was, however, flopped by
difeafe, which terminated in his death at a village in Thrace,
in 1520. Selim was one of the molt able and vigorous of
the Ottoman fovereigns, and made greater additions to tlic
riirkifh empire than any one of his predeceiibrs. He
was, at the fame time, unprincipled in his projefts of am-
bition, and had all the ferocious cruelty of an eaftcrn
defpot.

Selim II., Turkifli empcrcr, fon of Kolyman I., fuc-
ceeded his father in 1566. Being of an indolent difpofition,
mid extremely intemperate, the aftions of hij reign are

thofe of his viziers and generals. Of thefe the principal
was the capture of Cyprus, tlien belonging to the Venetians,
which, after a vigorous refillance, was reduced in 157I.
The European powers, who had combined for its relief,
gained, in the fame year, the famous naval battle of Le-
panto, which nearly ruined the Turkifli marine. Notwith-
itanding this fuccefs, the Venetians were obhged to make
peace with the Turks in 1574, upon very difadva'itageous
terms. During the remainder of Sclim's reign, the affairs
of the Ottoman empire were profperous. Selim died at
the age of 52, probably of intemperance. He had many
good qualities, but was flothful and feufual.

SELIMABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bengal; 12 miles S.S.E. of Burdwan. N. lat. 23° 5'.
E. long. 87° 48'.

SELiMBRIA. See Selivra.

SELIME', a village of Nubia, on the route of the
Soudan caravan from Afliut to Darfur ; 42 miles S. of
Sheb.

SELIMPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 24 miles N.W. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 23^ 23'. E. long. 87° 35'.

SELIN, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Galam ;
15 miles S. of Galam.

SELINA, in Ancient Geography, Ilan-Adajfi, or Ifle of
Serpents, an ifland of the Euxine fea, near the mouth of
tlie Danube : called Paraclilus, or Paracladium. Some
authorn have denominated it Melajita.

SELINAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Oudc, on the Ganges, oppofite to Furruckabad.

SELINCOURT, a town of France, in the department
of the Somme ; 18 miles W. of Amiens.

SELINE, a river of Silefia, which runs N.W. into the
Loh, 7 miles S. of Breflau.

SE-LING, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in the
province of Quang-fi. N. lat. 21° 55'. E. long. 106" 29'.

SELINGUE. See Selenga.

SELINO, a province of the ifland of Crete, fouth of
that of Kilfamos, which takes its name from that of a fmall
town, built on the fouth coait of the ifland, in the fituation
formerly occupied by Lifl'a or Liflus, a place of fmall im-
portance, mentioned by Ptolemy. It is entirely moun-
tainous, but very fertile. It furni flies a little filk, honey,
wax, and a tolerably large quantity of fruits, fuch as
cherries, apricots, peaches, pears, and oranges. This is
the only province in which the chefnut-tree is cultivated,
and It thrives well on the fchiltole hills and mountains of
this country. The chefnuts are carried to Canea, Retimo,
and Candia. A quantity is alfo annually exported to Syria.
Oil, however, is the principal commodity of Selino ; and it
is reckoned better than any other in the ifland. The mer-
chants of Canea generally eltablifti their fpeculations on the
quantity and quality of the oils of Selino. Wine, wheat,
and barley, are not plentiful. The population of the
Turks is eftimated at a fourth or fifth of the inhabitants.
Olivier.

SELINUM, in Botany, an ancient generic name of
Theophraftus and Diolcoridcs, whofe ZiXtvav is faid to be
derived from tthc^v. to iv sKu ?u!o-9ai, on account of its grow-
ing in mud, whence Homer's fXEoSfstrloy aiKm-i. De Tlicis
fays that Selinum is derived from <rf?i»in, the moon, becaufe
of the fliape of its growing feeds ; and that it is the founda-
tion of many other compound names of umbelliferous plaits
among the Greeks, as cj■oc■l^l^w, ■s-iTfoo-s^ivoi', &c. — Linn.
Gen. 133. Schreb. 184. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1396.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 303. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 2. 131. Purfti 127. Jufl'. 223. Lamarck 11-
lullr. t. 200. Gxrtn. t. 21. — Clafs and order, Pen-
4 tanuria

S E L

S E L

tandria Digynla. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. Umlellifene,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. General umbel of numerous, flatly-fpreading
rays ; partial fimilar. General involucrum of many, lanceo-
late, linear, reHexed leaves ; partial fimilar, fpreading, the
length of the flower. Perianth fcarcely difcernible. Cor.
univerfdl uniform ; all the flowers fertile ; partial of five,
heart-rtiaped, equal petals. Slam. Filaments five, capil-
lary ; anthers roundifh. Pijl. Germen inferior ; ilyles
two, reflexed ; iligmas fimple. Peric. Fruit comprefled or
flat, oval, oblong, llriated on each fide in the middle, fe-
parable into two parts. Seeds two, oval-oblong, flat on
both fides, llriated in the middle, their fides mem-
branous.

Obf. The form of the feeds is liable to variation, and
fo is the number of leaves in the involucrum.

Efl'. Ch. Fruit oval-oblong, comprefled, llriated down
the middle. Involucrums reflexed. Petals heart-fliaped,
uniform.

1. S. fyhepe. Wood Milky Parfley. Linn. Sp. PI.
!^50. Fl. Dan. t. 412. (" Thcflelinum Plinii ; Lob.
ic. 711." Tournef. Inft. 319.) — Stem fmooth. Root
fpindle-fliaped, much divided. — Native of Denmark,
France, and Piedmont. The whole herb 13 fomewliat
milky. Stems numerous, fmooth, llriated. Leaflets linear.
Flowers white, in fpreadmg umbels. Seeds oval-oblong,
with three, elevated, approxmiating furrows.

2. S. palujlre. MarOi Milky Parfley. Linn. Sp. PI.
350. Engl. Bot. t. 229. — Herb milky. Root generally
fingle. Stem folitary. Styles much divaricated after
flowering. Petals involute. — Native of marfhes in Great
Britain and the north of Europe, flowering in July. Root
perennial, fomewhat fpindle-lhaped. Stem folitary, ereft,
four feet high, hollow, furrowed, fmooth, leafy, bright
purple at the bafe, branched upwards. Leaves alternate,
about five or fix on the item, remote, twice or thrice op-
pofitely pinnated, and cut -into narrow, pointed, fmooth
legments. Stipulas flieathing, reddifti. Umbels large, ho-
rizontal, compound, compofed of \\hxt& Jlowers, on pale
purplifli footltalks. " The whole plant abounds with a
white, bitter, foetid juice, of the confidence of cream,
which foon dries to a brownifli refin. The Ruffians are faid
to ufe the root indead of ginger."

3. S. aujlriacum. Auft^rian Selinum. Willd. n. 3.
Jacq. Aultr. v. i. t. 71. — Stem furrowed. Leaves of the
involucrum wedge-ftiaped, much divided. — Native of Auf-
tria and the fouth of Europe, flowering in July. Root
perennial, containing a yellowifh-white milk. Stem llriated,
fmooth. Radical leaf divided by a round ftalk into three
branches, which are again fubdivided. Leaves dark green
above, paler beneath. Flowers yellowifli-white, forming a
compound umbel, which is ufually made up of about twenty
partial ones.

4. S. /ibiricum. Siberian Selinum. Willd. n. 4. Retz.
Obi. falc. 2. 16. — Leaves triply pinnate. Involucrums
faded, of nine leaves. — Native of Siberia. Root biennial,
fpindle-fliaped. Stem ereft, three feet high, hollow, llri-
ated, glaucous. Leaves triply pinnate ; leaflets acute, on
comprefled llalks which are chaimelled on the upper fide.
Flowers white ; the general umbel compofed of twenty or
thirty partial ones. Its root fmells like that of Daucus
Carota.

5. S. Caruiftlia. Caraway-leaved Selinum. Linn. Sp.
PI. 350. Jacq. Aullr. v. 1. t. 16. — Stem furrowed,
acutely angular. General involucrum none. Leaflets
lanceolate, cut, callous and pointed at the tip. — Native of
Auftria and Siberia. It flowers at Kew in July and Au-

guft. Root perennial, fibrous, both tallelefs and fcentlefs.
Stem almoll three feet in height, pale green, fimple, occa-
fionally with one branch. Leaves pinnate in a compound
manner, terminating in a white point. Flowers white, with
a tinge of red on the under fide ; the general umbel com-
paft, confiding of about twenty partial ones.

6. S. Cljabrai. CarrotTleaved Selinum. Willd. n. 6.
(S. caruifolia Chabraei ; Jacq. Audr. v. i. t. 72.) — Stem
round, ftriated General mvolucrum none. Sheathes of
the leaves loofe. Leaflets thread-diaped, linear. — Native
of Switzerland and Germany. Fird introduced at Kew by
E. Daval, efq., in 1791, where it flowers in July and
Auguil. Stems about a foot high, fmooth, channelled.
Radical leaves refembling thofe of the lad fpecies ; Jlem-
leaves fimply pinnate. Flowers white, (lightly purplifh on
the outfide. Partial umbels imequal in Cze, much fmaller
than in the lad fpecies, generally about" ten in number.
Villars has obferved that this fpecies is as it were inter,
mediate between Peucedanum and Selinum.

7. S. Seguieri. Fennel-leaved Sehnum. Linn. Suppl.
179. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 61. — Stem nearly round,
furrowed. General involucrum none. Leaflets trifid,
linear, pointed. — Native of Italy, flowering in July. Stem
much branched, four feet high, obfcurely llriated at the
top. Branches oppofite. Leaves oppofite, triply pinnate,
fpreading ; leaflets linear, acute, decurrent. Flowers
white, the general umbel large and handfome, compofed of
about forty partial ones.

8. S. Mannieri. Annual Selinum. Linn. Sp. PI. 351.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. i. t. 62. — Umbels crowded together.
General involucrum reflexed. Seeds with five membranous
ribs. — Native of the fouth of France, flowering in July and
Auguft. Rost annual. Stem eredl, two or three feet high,
fometimes purplifh, with numerous dreaks. Leaves fmooth,
bipinnate ; leaflets deeply pinnatifid. Flowers greyifli-
white, forming a clofe conipaA general umbel.

9. S. decipiens. Madeira Shrubby Sehnum. Willd. n. 9.
" Schrad. Sert. Hannov. fafc. 3. 23. t. 13." — Stem woody,
naked below. Lower leaves bipinnate. Leaflets lanceo-
late, entire, unequally ferrated. — Native of Madeira, flower-
ing in June and July. Stem an inch thick. Leaves re-
fembling thofe of Angelica, wide and bipinnate. Sheathes
widened, toothed. Involucrum many-leaved.

10. " S. canaden/e. Canadian Selinum. Purfli v. I. 192.
(Apium bipinnatum ; Walt. Fl. Carn. 115.) — Herb very
fmooth, fhining. Leaves bipinnate. Leaflets much di-
vided ; fegments lanceolate. Fruit oval. — On the mouths
of large rivers from Canada to Carolina, flowering in July.
Flowers white." This fpecies is adopted on the authority
of Mr. Purfli, who has referred it from Apium to the pre-
fent genus.

Selinu.m, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, in
the Thebaid, on the other fide of the Nile, between Panum
and Anten, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SELINUS, or Selinuntum, a town of Sicily, fouth-
ead of Mazarum, on the fouthern coalt. It was founded by
a colony from Hybla, another town of Sicily, 100 years
before the dedrudlion of that city by Gelon. In its vi-
cinity were many palm-trees, whence arofe the epithet of
palmofa given to it by Virgil. It was dedroyed, a httle
before Himera, by Hannibal, who took it by dorm, and
treated the inhabitants with great barbarity, maflacreing a
great number, and carrying the red into captivity. The
inhabitants had confecrated to the Olympian Jupiter a trea-
fure, in which, among other rarities, was a llatue of
Bacchus, the face, hands, and feet of which were made of
ivory. It appears to have been deftroyed in the year of

Rome

S E L

Rome 350 : its ruins are ftill vifible. It took its name from
that of a fmall river, on the banks of which grew parfley,
called in Greek j-iXivov.

Selixus, a river of Sicily, the mouth of which is placed
by Ptolemy on the fouthern coaft of the ifland, between the
promontory of Lilybsum and the mouth of the river Ma-
zara. — Alio, a river of the Trachjean Cilicia, the mouth of
which is placed by Strabo between a fortified place called
Laertes, and a rock named Cragus. — Alfo, a river of
Achaia, which commenced in mount Lampia, and ran from
fouth to north, and paded to the call of Egium. — Alfo, a
river of the Peloponnefus, in the Elide : it watered the ter-
rilory of Scillunte, according to Paufanias. — Alfo, a river
of Afia Minor, in Ionia: it ran near the temple of Diana,
according to Strabo. — Alfo, a river of Myfia, which tra-
verfed the town of Pergamus, and after having watered the
territory of Caicus, flowed into that river. — Alfo, a town
of Cilicia, where Trajan died in the year 117, after his re-
turn from the Parthian war. — Alfo, a port of Egypt, upon
the coalt, of the nome of Libya, between Zagylis-Villa
and Trifarchi-Villa, according to Ptolemy.

SELION of Land, Selio Terrs, is derived from the
French, feillon, which fignifies a ridge of land, or ground
arifing between two furrows, and contains no certain quan-
tity, but fometimes more and fometimes lefs. Therefore
Crompton fays, that a felion of land cannot be in demand,
becaufe it is a thing uncertain.

SELISIA, in Geography, a river of Friuli, which unites
with the Cobara, and forms the Meduna.

SELIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hif-
pania, in Lufitania, in the interior of the country. Pto-
fcmy.

SELIVRA, or Selimbria, in Geography, a fea-port
town of European Turkey, in Romania, iituated on the
north fide of the fea of Marmora, and having an old caftle,
formerly very ftrong, and houfes near it, called the " Upper
Town." In the fuburbs is an imperial granary, where the
corn of the province is depofited. It is the refidence of a
Greek archbifliop ; 34 miles W. of Conftantinople. N. lat.
40° 52'. E. long. 28=^ 12'.

SELKA, a town of Hindooilan, in the circar of Sur-
gooja; 5 miles S.S.W. of Surgooja.

SELKAKARI, a fmall ifland on the eaft fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 36'. E. long. 24° 54'.

SELKIE; the name in Zetland for a feal. Many of
thefe are found in that illand.

SELKIRK, Alexander, in Biography, whofe adven.
tures have given rife to a well-known and highly efteemed
romance, was born at Largo, in Fifefhire, in Scotland,
aboot the year 1676, and was brought up to the fea-fervice.
He left England in 1703, in the capacity of failing-mafter
of a fmall veflel, called the Cinquc-Ports-Galley, Charles
Pickering captain ; and in the month of September, the
fame year, he iailed from Cork, in company with another
ftiip of 26 guns and 120 men, called the St. George, com-
manded by captain William Dampikr (fee his article),
intended to cruife againll the Spaniards in the South fea.
On the coaft of Brafil, Pickering died, and was fiiccecded
in the command by lieutenant Stradling. Tliey proceeded
round Cape Horn to the ifland of .luan Fernandez, whence
they were driven by the appearance of two French fliips of
36 guns each, and left five of Stradling's men on fliore, who
were taken off by the French. Hence they failed to the
eoatt of America, where Dampier and Stradhng quarrelled,
and feparatcJ by agreement. This was in the month of
May 1704; and in the following September, Stradling
fame to the ifland of Juan Fernandez, where Selkirk and

Vot. XXXII.

S E L

his captain havinjr a quarrel, he determined to remain there
alone. But when the (hip was ready to fail, his refolution
was fhaken, and he defired to be taken on board ; but now
the captain refufed his requeft, and he was left with his
clothes, bedding, a gun, and a fmall quantity of powder
and ball, forae trifling implements, and a few books, with
certain mathematical and nautical inftruments. Tims left
fole monarch of the ifland, with plenty of the neceflaries of
life, he found himfelf at firft in a Ctuation fcarcely fup-
portable ; and fuch was his melancholy, that he frequently
determined to put an end to his exiitcnce. It was full
eighteen months, according to his own account, before he
could reconcile himfelf to his lot. At length his mind be-
came calm, and fully reconciled to his fituation : he grew
happy, employed his time in building and decorating his
huts, chafing the goats, whom he foon equalled in fpeed,
and fcarcely ever failed of catching them. He alfo tamed
young kids, and other animals, to be his companions.
When his garments were worn out, he made others from
the fltins of the goats, whofe flefti ferved him as food. His
only liquor was water. He computed that he had caught,
during his abode in the ifland, about 1000 goats, half of
which he had fuffered to go at large, having firit marked
them with a flit in the ear. Commodore Anfon, who
went there 30 years after, found the firil goat, which they
fhot, had been thus marked ; and hence they concluded
that it had been under the power of Selkirk. Though he
conftantly performed his devotions at ftated hours, and read
aloud, yet when he was taken from the ifland, his lan-
guage, from difufe of converfation, had become fcarceljr
intelligible. In this folitude he remained four years and
four months, during which only two incidents occurred
which he thought worthy of record. The firft was, that
purfuing a goat eagerly, he caught at the edge of a pre-
cipice, of which he was not aware, and he fell over to the
bottom, where he lay fome time fenfelefs ; but of the exaft
fpace of time in which he was bereaved of his aftive powers
he could not form an accurate eftimate. When, however,
he came to himfelf, he found tke goat lying under him dead.
It was with difficulty that he could crawl to his habitation,
and it was not till after a confiderable time that he entirely
recovered from his bruifes. The other event was the arrival
of a fliip, which he at firft fuppofed to be French, but
upon the crew's landing, lie found them to be Spaniards,
of whom he had too great a dread to truil himfelf in their
hands. They, however, had feen him, and he found it ex-
tremely difficult to make his efcape. In this folitude Sel-
kirk remained until the 2d of February 1709, when he fav»
two fliips come to the bay, and knew them to be Englifli,
He immediately lighted a fire as a fignal, and he found,
upon the landing of the men, that they wore two pri-
vateers from Briltol, commanded by captains Rogers and
Courtney. Thefe, after a fortnight's ftay at Juan Fer-
nandez, embarked, taking Selkirk with them, and returned
by way of the Eaft Indies to England, where they arrived
on the ift of Oftober 17 u ; Selkirk having been abfent
eight years. The public curiolity being much excited, he,
alter his return, drew up fome account of what had oc
curred during his folitary exile, which he put into the handt
of Defoe, who made it the foundation of his well-known
work, entitled Robinfon Crufoe. The time and place of
Selkirk's death are not on record. It is faid, tliat fo late
as the year 1798, the cheft and miWket, which Selkirk had
with him on the ifland, were in poflcflion of a grand nephew,
John Selkirk, a weaver in Largo, North Britain. The
circumftaiicea of Selkirk's feclufion from human fociety,
during his llay on the defolate ifland, hare given birth to a
Dd fine

S E L

S E L

fine poem by Mr. Cowper, with which all our readers are
no doubt well acquainted. Biog. Brit.

Selkirk, in Geography, a royal borough town, and a
parifh, in the county of Selkirk, Scotland. It derived its
name from the Celtic word Scheleckgrcch, which fignifies
the kirk hi the wood ; expreffing thus in one word the fitua-
tion of the place itfelf, and the Itate ;)f the furrounding
country, wiiicli in former times was one continued foreit.
From the circumdance of its being placed on the lummitof
a conliderable eminence, Selkirk enjoys an extenfive pro-
fpett in all diredions, efpecially up and down the river
Ettrick. The inhabitants boail greatly of the fpirit dif-
played by their anceftor? at the celebrated battle of Floddon.
Of a hundred citizens of Selkirk, who followed the fortune
of their prince on that occafion, it appears that feveral fur-
vived the conteft, and even carried oft fome fpoils and
trophies. The Englilh, in refentracnt, reduced their town
to afhes. But, on the other hand, king James V. granted
to them a thoufand acres of the forell ; the trees for re-
building their houfes ; and the property as the reward of
their heroifm. Thefe borough lands are now worth about
1500/. per annum, and are divided into a great number of
fmall properties ; a circumllmce which tends to damp that
fpirit for commerce and nianufaftures, by which the in-
habitants of towns are in general dillinguidied. On the
day on which the magillratea annually furvey this trad, a
ftandard, taken from the Englifh in the iield of Floddon, is
carried before the corporation of weavers, a member of
which was the captor. It may be added, that the fword
of William Brydon, the town clerk, who led the citizens to
the battle, and who is laid to have been knighted for his
valour, is ilill in tiie pofleflion of a citizen of Selkirk, his
lineal defcendant.

Selkirk has a weekly market held on Tuefday, and fix
annual fairs ; two in March, and one in July, Auguft, Oc-
tober, and December. As a royal borough, it unites with
Lanark, LinUthgow, and Peebles, in fending one member
to parliament. The corporation coniilts of two bailies,
a dean of guild, treafurer, and ten counfellors, and poUefles
a revenue of about 300/. per annum, drawn fronTthat por-
tion of the borough lands which has not been alienated in
fee to private individuals. The parifh, which is about ten
miles fquare in extent, lies partly in Selkn-kfhire and partly
in Roxburghftiire ; and, according to the parhamentary re-
turns of 181 1, contains 440 houfes, and a population of
2466 perfons, of whom about looo are refident within the
borough.

The principal objed of intereil in this vicinity is Newark
caftle, fituated on a peninfula, formed by the ftream of
Yarrow, which has here cut its turbid courfe through a
deep gulf of rugged rocks, enveloped in wood, and pre-
fenting a molt " fantaitically wild fcene of grandeur and
beauty." The caftle is now a ruin, but enough of it yet
remauis to evince its ancient ftrength and importance. It
is generally fuppoled to have been the birth-place of Mary
Scot, the flower of Yarrow. Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii.
8vo. 1805. Statiltical Account of Scotland, by Sir John
Sinclair, vol. ii. 1792.

SELKIRKSHIRE, one of the fouthern counties of
Scotland, is fituated between 55° 22' and 55° 43' N. lat.
and between 2° 50' and 3''- 20' W. long, from the meridian
of Greenwich. It is bounded on the W. by the county of
Dumfries ; on the E. by Mid-Lothian and Roxburghfhire ;
on the S. by the county laft mentioned ; and on the N. by
that of Peebles. Its greateft length, from the fource of
Ettrick water to the jundiou of Gala and Tweed, is 27
miles, and its greateil breadth from Borthwick brae to Glen-

faxburn, about 17 miles. Taking, at a medium, 20 miles
for its length, and 12 for its breadth, its contents may
be calculated at about 240 fquare miles, or 153,600 acres.
The proportion of arable land adually occupied in huf-
bandry maybe computed at about 6880 Scotch acres.

General A/pea of the County. — With the exception of a
few vallies, the whole of Selkirkfhire is mountainous, and
prefents elevations of confiderable height, Meade, in the
parifh of Galaihiels, being 1480 feet above the level of the
fea. In the parifh of Ettrick, the molt remarkable hills
are the Ward Law and Ettrick Penn : the former rifes lOOO
feet above the level of the fea, the latter 2200. In the
parifh of Yarrow, the hills are in general fteep and tower-
ing : the moit remarkable are thofe called " Blackhoufe
heights." The higheft point of elevation above the level ot
the fea meafures 2370 feet. For the moft part, the moun-
tains exhibit a green appearance ; though upon fome few
there is a confiderable quantity of heath. Toward the
fource of the waters of this county, that is, on its weltern
extremity, the hills are more green, and are covered with
long coarfe grafs. Towards their jundion with the Tweed
they have a greater mixture of heath, and the grafs is
(horter. On the north fide of the Tweed, fome of the hills
are covered with loofc Hones, but none of them are very
rugged or barren of herbage, or interrupted by mofTes.
Bordering on Minchmoor, over which was the old road
from Peebles to Selkirk, their afpeft is bleak and barren,
and forms a itriking contralt with the green hills on the op-
pofitc fides of the Yarrow and the Tweed.

Rivers and Lakes. — The Tweed, Ettrick, and Yarrow,
flow through this county. The Tweed enters it near the
ancient feat of Elibank, and flows through it for nearly
ten miles, along a well-cultivated and fertile but narrow
valley. At the ealtern corner of the county it receives the
Gala, a fmall water, which rifes in Mid-Lothian, and
which forms the boundary of Selkirkfliire for five miles.
Yarrow water rifes near the weitern extremity of the county,
and flowing through the Loch of Lows, and St. Mary's
Loch, augmented by many fmaller waters, joins the Ettrick
about a mile above Selkirk. From the nature of its
fource, lochs, and from the circumlcance of its receiving
in its courfe many additional ftreams from the hill.^, the Yar-
row, in time of high winds and rain, is rapidly flooded, and
rendered impaffable ; but, from its rapid defcent, it as rapidly
fubfides.

The Ettrick alfo takes its rife in the wettern angle of the
foreft, and running in an almoft parallel diredion with the
Yarrow, unites with it about a mile above ; they fall into
the Tweed three miles below Selkirk, after a courfe of 30
miles. Thele waters, as they pafs through this county,
form many beautiful windings. Near their fource they are
hemmed in on each fide by high towering hills ; but as they
approach their confluence with the Tweed, the expanfe be-
tween the hills becomes wider and more open ; and they flow
tlirough fertile vallies, in a broader channel, with a lefs rapid
ftream. For a confiderable way above their jundion, they
are finely fringed with natural and artificial wood ; but
the extenfive torefts which once beautified and adorned
their banks, and from which the country obtained the ap-
pellation of Ettrick fore/}, are now almoft entirely deftroyed.
Every ftream abounds with trout ; and for a confiderable
way up the Ettrick and Yarrow, falmon are caught in large
quantities. Ale water takes its rife from the Kingfmoor loch,
but only runs in this county for a fhort way ; in fome
places palTing out of it into Teviotdale, and in others form-
ing its boundary. Borthwick water alfo conftitutes part of
its boundary. The hills are every where interfededby fmall

Itreami

SELKIRKSHIRE.

itreams called burns. Thefe, flowing in a deep bed, form
glens or hollows, provincially called hopes, which afford
flielter during the night, and in llormy weather, to the (heep
in this paftoral diltrift, and produce richer grais than the
expofed fides of the hills. When the country was covered
with wood, thefe glens mud have afforded much beautiful
fcenery. In the louth-well diftrift of the county are a
number of fmall lakes, not however worthy of defcrip-
tion. The two already mentioned, viz. the Loch of the
X,ows, and St. Mary's Loch, lie contiguous, being feparated
only by a narrow neck of land. The firfl is very fmall,
but th<; latter extends fix miles in circumference, and one
mile in breadth. Both of them are furrounded by high av.d
fleep hills, and abound with pike and pearch.

Soil. — The foil of the (heep-walks, with fome exceptions,
is found and dry, generally from its lying on a bottom of
gravel, granite, or wkinflone ; and even a good deal of it
either inclining towards clay, or incumbent on clay or tilth,
is prevented from retaining a hurtful quantity of water, by
its fteepnefs, and the firm confidence of its fiirface. There
is very little pure clay in the whole country ; and moll of
the land where a mixture of it appears, or where it forms
part of the fubflratum, lies on the fides Of the hills, nearly
at an equal dillance from their fummits and the vallies below.
There are fomt, though very few, marfhy fpots near the
fides of rivers, and on the tops of high mountains. There
is, indeed, an extenfive flat, in an elevated fituation, be-
tween the waters of Ettrick and Borthwick, of a foft and
fpongy nature, and full of moraffes, but this may be confi-
dered as the only exception to the general afiertion that de-
ferves to be noticed. Heath grows vigoroufly on dry foil,
but becomes rare and ftunted, according to the wetnefs of
the land, and in very wet land difappears altogether. De-
tached portions of it are found in every corner. It is only
on the higher grounds, towards the fources of the waters,
that the mofly foil prevails ; lometimes appearing in its na-
tive dark and ftcrile hue, but more frequently prefenting a
thin fward of beautiful and tender grafs, through which the
feet of cattle fink more or lefs, according to the depth of
the mofly lubdance, and the quantity of rain it has imbibed.
It is ia fuch places, chiefly, that the plant abounds which
is called mo/s, of whole leaves and root fheep are extremely
fond early in fpring, when other food is fcarce. The
foil of the fmall part in tillage is light, dry, and eafily ma-
naged. Even the few places which lie on tilth have fo much
declivity, that a little care in laying out and ploughing the
ridges, carries off both the fprings and the furface-water.
Very little of it is fufficiently deep and ftrong for producing
wheat. But nearly the whole of it is admirably adapted for
turnips, clover, barley, and oats : peas, too, fucceed very
well : the white grains, though not large, have thin huflcs,
are plump, and of an admirable quality. Turnips feldom
fail, and clover is frequently raifed in very weighty crops.
Thefe fafts give the belt idea of a Iharp, warm, and kindly
foil, which is rath.er, on the whole, however, deficient in
depth. White clover appears, in every field that is furren-
dered to pafluie, without having been fown, and indeed is
found in all parts of the county where the foil is dry.

C/imule. — IiL the lower part of the countythere is not fo
much humidity as might be expefted, from its elevation,
and the numero\is mountains with which it is furrounded.
Lefs rain falls at Selkirk than at Wool, about five miles
nearly due fontli of it ; and only about half an inch more
than at Hawkfhill, nearLcith. According to the Statifti-
cal Account of Scotland, (vol. ii. p. 438.) tlie mean quan-
tity of rain which fell yearly in Wool parifh was found to
be 3ii inches ; the medium height of the barometer 29 ,V ;

the medium of heat 43 degrees. Branxholm or Wool may
be taken as a pretty jufl ftandard of the chmate, about fix or
eight miles above Selkirk, on the waters of the Ettrick and
Yarrow. There are few places, even in the higheft part of
the country, fo very moilt as Langholm ; though, in pro-
portion as it rifes, there is a greater quantity of rain ; the
air becomes colder and more penetrating ; frofts are more
early and fevcrely felt, and fnow hes deeper and longer.
The rays of the fun, refledted by the furrounding moun-
tains on fome vallies 600 feet above the ocean, excite a de-
gree of heat that brings the crop very quickly to maturity.
The number of fprings that are obftrufted in their courfe,
forms marfhes more or lefs deep and extenfive. There are
many moraffes, fome of them of an unknown depth ; a
good deal of moffy land ; and feveral lakes. The moifture
exhaled from the vail quantity of water cclleftcd in thefe,
greatly increafes the dampuefs of the atmofphere, and pro-
duces frequent mi its and (howers. Nor can this inconve-
nience be effeftually obviated by the numerous drains
which are daily making, though thefe mutt doubtlefs contri-
bute to meliorate the climate. The general courfe of the
weather and feafons is much the fame as in Roxburghfliire.
See Roxburghshire.

Mineralogy. — -There are no metals, coal, lime, or free-
ftone, in any part of this county. But there is abundance
of whinitone and granite. MofTes, formed of decayed wood
and other vegetables, are made into peat for fuel. Some of
them are of confiderable extent and depth ; and thofe to-
wards the fouth-eaft, in the parifhes of Selkirk, Robertfon,
and a corner of Yarrow and Afhkirk, cover large beds of
excellent (hell-marle. In the rills by which fome of them
are fed, many fmall ftones are found ; fome of them over-
fpread with a glutinous fubflance, others incrufted with
matter very fimilar to that of which the (hells are com-
pofed ; others again with fhells in every progreflive ftate of
formation ; and a few with the animals alive, in fhells com-
pletely formed, but of different degrees of confiftence and
hardnefs.

To account for this incruftation of ftones with calcareous
earth, in a county where no lime is known to exilt, and to
determine whether it comes from fome rock as yet unex-
plored, from loofe fragments or particles fcattered among
other fubflances, and waflied away by ftreams, or from pul-
verized fhells, or from any other matter found in the neigh-
bourhood, would require a fcicntific and accurate exami-
nation of the furrounding mountains, and the different ftrata
of which they are formed. On the fuppofition of the
incruftation proceeding from a rock, or detached pieces of
lime, it may become a queftion how far this fubftance is nc-
ceflary or ufeful to the animals in rearing their (hells, and on
the other fuppofition, of its being occafioned by pulverized
(hells, it is of equal importance to afcertain the materials
from which thefe (liells arc conltruiSed.

/Igriculture. — The agriculture of fuch a county as this,
cannot be a very interefling fubjeft. In the lower parts of
the county, the bell pradlices in agriculture arc fucccfifully
piirfued, as in Roxburghfliire and Berwickfhire ; but in the
upper part of the county, or foreft, as it is called, where the
arable land is not fenced ofl', and the difadvantages of an un-
favourable foil and climate occur, little can be done. In this
fituation, the fmall portion of arable land on the (l<irts of the
hills is chiefly cropped with oats, which are the grain bell
adapted to the nature of the chmate, and the wants of its
inhabitants, both as a part of their food, and for the lup-
port of their horfes. In thefe fituationa, the principal im-
provement that can be adopted, confills in rendering the
arable land fubfervicnt to the lupport of (heep, vrhich form
D d 2 the

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the great objeA of the farmer's attention. Accordingly,
green crops, fuch as turnips and hay, &c. are raifed on many
of the farms, from which very great advantages are derived,
being food to the fheep in Itorms. Little wheat is pro-
duced in the county. Both barley and bear or bigg are
fown. The return from barley is, at an average, from feven
to eleven-fold. The return from bear is nearly the fame,
but the weight and market price are greatly inferior. Arti-
ficial grades are very generally town. Peafe are lefs culti-
vated than formerly, the preference being given to turnips.

JA-ve Stock. — Sheep are the Itaple animal of this county,
and their number is eftiniated at 1 18,200. There are two
forts, viz. the original breed, which are black. faced, and the
white-faced, which are generally of the Cheviot breed. The
former, being about one-third of the whole number, are to be
found in the upper or weftern part of the county, and the
latter moflly in the lower diltrifts of the (hire. The dif-
ferent qualities and value of thefe two breeds fliould feem
nearly balanced, for though, of late years, a preference has
been given to the Cheviot fheep, on account of their fuperior
fleece, and even the opinion of their being lefs hardy than the
black-faced fheep has been difputed, yet it is admitted that
the white-faced lambs, when very young, are much barer in
wool, and therefore lefs protected from the weather, than
the black-faced ; and in an inclement lambing fealon, nearly
four times more of them die than of the black-faced kind.
The mutton of the latter is likewife accounted more deli-
cate. The pradlice of making ewe-milk cheefe is nearly
abandoned, from an opinion that it weakens the ewe. The
few horfes requifite for cultivating the arable dillrift, are of
the Lanarkfhire and Northumberland breed. Swine are
reared only by a few gentlemen for their taHes, and by
millers for the market. Vaft quantities of poultry are raifed
by the farmers, who fend cart-loads of eggs to Berwick,
which are bought by " egglcrs," who fell them again for
the London market.

Indofures. — Inclofures are not very generally ufed, unlels
round gentlemen's feats, and on the farms in their own pof-
feflion. The reader is referred to what is mentioned in the
account of Roxburghfhire, as to the kind of inclofures ufed.

Toiuns, yUlaget, Roads, Fairs, and Manvfa3ures. — Sel-
kirk is the capital of the county. (See Selkirk.) Gala-
fhiels, fo called from its being fituated on the banks of the
water Gala, is a thriving village. It has been long kiiov\'n
for its manufaftures of woollen cloth, which was at iirll
coarfe, and of a grey colour, and was called " Galifhiel's
grey ;" but the cloths recently manufactured are ot various
kinds and colours. In confequeixe of an aft of parliament
obtained in 1764, a road of twelve miles was made from
Crofslee toll-bar, on the confioes of Mid-Lothian, through
Selkirk, to Haremofs toll-bar, with a branch of three miles
to Galafhiels. Part of the road from Kelfo to Peebles, of
about fix or feven miles long, alfo runs through this county
from Galafhxl's bridge to Gait-hope burn, beyond HoUilee
toll-bar. The expence of thefe roads, and of a fubilantial
bridge over the Tweed, was 6j6o/. There are two con-
fiderable fairs held at Selkirk ; four lefTer fairs are likewife
held there, and three at Galafhiels for various purpofes.
The chief manufaftures arc woollen cloth, flockings, tanned
leather, and different implements of hufbandrj', or wood
blocked out for making them.

Antiquities. — There are but few remains in this fhire of
Britifh or Roman antiquities. There are the remains' of
fome Brititli ftrengths m the eaflern divifion of the fhire,
which were ereCled upon heights, and were conflrufted gene-
rally in a form between the circular and the oval. There is
alfo a Roman camp in the midll of feveral of thefe ftrengths.

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in the parifh of Robertfon. But the mod remarkable re«
mains of the Britons in this fhire, is the "Catrail," or battle
fence, confifting of a large folic, with a rampart on either
fide. Its length is 28 miles. This vaft war-fence can only
be referred, for its conltruftion, to the romanized Britons,
who, after the abdication of the Roman government, had
this country to defend againft the intrufion of the Saxons on
the eall, during the fifth century, the darkeft period of our
hiftory. The modern antiquities of Selkirklhire confill
chiefly of ruined caftk-s and mofs-grown towers, erefted, fome
of them, in the twelfth century, but the greater number of
them in fubfequent ages of foreign hollilities or domeftic
feuds.

Hijiorical Events. — Like other counties of Scotland, Sel-
kirkftiire has its fhare of family feuds, fanatical conflicts,
wars, »nd battles, which would occupy too large a portion of
our pages to recount. Selkirk became a royal burgh on an _
occafion that reflects high honour on the loyalty and fpirit I
of this ancient town. When James IV. was marching for- ■
ward to his fate at Floddon field, a hundred townfmen joined
him under the town clerk. They fought ftoutly ; they
almGpft all fell in the field rather than flee. On the 13th of
September 1645, was fought the decillve battle of Philip-
liaugh. This is one of the lalt civil conflicts which ftained
the forcfts of Selkirklhire with human gore.

Eminent Natives. — This Ihire puts forth a fair claim to
rank in its annals many characters of celebrity. The
Douglaffes, the Scotts, the Murrays, and Patrick Ruth-
ven, who had learned the art of war under the great I
Guftavus, and was created lord Etterick, are names con- |
fpicuous in hiftory. Andrew Pringle, who was placed in
the fenate hoiife on the 14th of June 1759, by the title of
lord Alemoor, as a lawyer was diftinguilhed by his modefty
and eloquence, and as a judge for his dignity and knowledge.
It produced an eminent foldier in colonel William Ruffel, of
Afhyfted, who diftinguilhed himfelf amongft the warriors of
India. Mary Scott, the Jioiver of Tarroiu, is ftill remera-
bered by the " ccld-blooded minifters of Etterick forelt."
She is celebrated by Ramfay in amorous rant :

" With fuccefs crown'd, I'll not envy
The folks, who dwell above the fky ;
When Mary Scott's become my marrow,
W^e'U make a paradife on Yarrow."

Population. — This county has feven parilhes, and a por-
tion of two others, containing a population of 5889 perfons.
Selkirklhire, as a county, fends one reprefentative to the
united parliament. Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. Svo. 1805.
Chalmers' Caledonia, vol. ii. 4to. 1810.

SELL, in Building, is of two kinds, viz. ground-fell,
which denotes tlie loweft piece of timber in a timber
building, and that on which the whole fuperftrufture is
raifed. See Ground-P/j/cj.

Sell, Window, called alfo tuindow-foil, is the bottom
piece in a window-frame.

SELL-Bed, in Mining, a term ufed in fome parts of
England to exprefs fome particularly rich parts of the vein
of ore.

In Cornwall they f imetimes find the tin-ore fo pure, that
it requires only bruifug to drefs it, without the wafhing
and feparation by grates, launders, and the hke means :
they call thefe coUeftions of ore the fell-beds of tin ; and
it is obferved, that thefe never have any firings ifluirg from
them, as the other lands have. Philof. Tranf. N° 60.

SELLA, in Ancient Geography, a river ef Melfenia, N.
of the illc of Oenuiia.

Sella, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Benguela.

SsiLA>

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Sella, among the Romans, a chair in which the old and
infirm are carried by fervants through the city, and in
journeys. Sometimes the phyficians prefcribed it as an
exercife. See Lectica.

Sella Curu/is, among the Romans. See Curule chair.

Sella Equina, Turcica, or Sphenoides, in Anatomy, is a
name given to the four apophyfes of the os fphenoides, or
cuneiforme, in the brain ; in regard of their forming a re-
femblance of a faddlc, which the Latins cs^ fella.

They are fometimes alfo called by the Greek name
clinoides. In it is contained the pituitary gland, and in
fome beafts, the rete mirabile.

SELLA RE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Ultra ; l6 miles N.E. of Bova.

SELLASIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Laconia,
S.W. of Glympes, on the river Oenus. It was dellroyed
in the timeof Paufaiiias. WhenT.Quiiitius Flaminius palled
into the Peloponnefus, 19^ years B. C, to deliver Greece
from the yoke of the tyrants who opprelled it, he fo-
journed near this place ; but a little after this time, it vx'as
dellroyed by Aratus, the conqueror of the Laceda;monians.
Towards the N.W. was a mountain, which bore the name
of Mount Olympus. The famous battle of Sellafia, in the
year 122 B. C., was fought between this mountain and Eva.
Antigonas, king of Macedonia, was at the head of the
Achxans, and Cleomenes, king of Sparta, commanded the
Lacedemonians. This laft, having been entirely defeated,
returned into Egypt to king Ptolemy Philadelphus.

SELLA Y, in Geography, a fmall ifland of the Hebrides,
in the diltrift of Harris and county of Iiivernefs, Scotland.
It is about a mile in circumference, and yields excellent paf-
ture for fheep.

SELLE, a town of France, in the department of the Can-
tal ; 6 miles S. of Aunllac. — Alfo, a river of France, which
runs into the Scheldt, about fix miles above Valenciennes.

SELLE-fur-Bieei, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Loiret ; 7 miles N.E. of Montargis.

SELLEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 25
miles S.E. of Mahmoodabad.

SEI^LEF, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
110 miles E. of Ifpahan.

SELLEIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Sicyonia. Strabo places the village Ephyra
on the bank of this river. — Alfo, a river of jEtoha, in
Agraea, according to Strabo. — Alfo, a river of Alia Minor,
in the Troade, which watered the town of Arifta, according
to Homer, cited by Strabo.

SELLEMPOLTR, in Geography, a town of HindooHan,
in Oude ; 42 miles S.E. «f Gooracpour, N. lat. 26° 1 5'.
E. long. 84° 12'.

SELLES, in Ancient Geography, a people who, accord-
ing to Homer, fixed their feat, together with the Perrhaebi,
in the environs of Dodona ; but he mull be underftood to
mean that they were rather minifters of the temple than a
diftinft people. Strabo, however, fays, that a barbarous
people of this denomination inhabited the environs of
Dodona.

Sf:i.LES-/ur-Cher, in Geografihv, a town of France, in the
department of the Loire anc Cher, and chief place of a
canton, in the diltritl of Romorantin ; 14 miles S.W. of
Romorantin. The place contains 3400, and the canton
6745 inhabitants, on a territory of 325 kihometres, in 9
conuiiunes.

SELLI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in the
Troade.

Selli, lAAoi, in Antiquity, an appellation given to thofe
who firlt delivered oracles. Thefe, according to Strabo

and Euttathius, were men, and the mmt felli is faid to come
from SelU, a town in Epirus, or from the river called by
Homer Selleis.

SELLIA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra ; 4 miles NN.E. of St. Severina.

SELLI ERA, in Botany, a genus dedicated by Cava-
nilles to a Parifian engraver, Natalis Sellier, who executed
the plates of the firlt and fecond volume of Cavanilles'
/cones, and alfo of his Monadelphia. — Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 49.
De Thcis, 427. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. . . .

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, permanent, deeply
five-cleft. Cor. of one petal, irregular ; tube cloven lon-
gitudinally to the bafe ; limb afcending, cloven into five,
lanceolate fegments. Stam. Filaments five, placed in aa
ereft manner on the germen, furrounding the ftyle ; anthers
ovate, erecl. Pijl. Germen inferior, ovate, turban-fhaped ;
flyle fimple, incurved, longer than the filaments ; iligma
globular, truncated. Peric. Berry ovate-turbinate, crowned
by the calyx, of one cell and many feeds. Seeds ovate,
comprefTcd, roughifh.

EfT. Ch. Calyx fuperior, five-cleft. Tube cloven lon-
gitudinally to its bafe. Berry of one cell and many feedi.

I. S. radicans. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. t. 474. f. 2. — Native
of the moiil maritime parts of Chih, flowering between
February and May. — Stem proltrate, hairy, a foot high,
fending out fibrous roots. Branches fcarcely more than an
inch long. Leaves alternate, fpatulate, entire, cluftered at
the axils. Floiuers blue and white, either terminating the
branches, or axillary, on folitary ilalks, which have two
awl-fhaped brafteas in the middle. — Cavanilles defcribcd
this elegant little plant from a dried fpecimen only. He
fays that it differs from Scrsvola in its fruit, which he fuf-
pcdls to be fucculent, as in Paffijlora ; for after immerfing
the berry in warm water, he found it abounded with little
moill cavitits containing a glutinous fluid.

SELLIERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Jura ; 9 miles W. of Poligny.

SELLIGA, in the Materia Medica, a name by which
fome authors have called the narda Celta, or Celtic fpike-
nard of the fliops.

SELLINAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan,
in Oude, on the left bank of the Ganges ; 60 miles W. *f
Kairabad.

SELLING 0/ Land, in Rural PraBices, the bufinefs of
difpofiug of or transfernng it from one to another for a cer-
tain IHpulated fum. There are different modes of effetling
this, according to Mr. Marfball, as by public biddings,
and private contrail or agreement, in each of which a pro-
per deg. oe of precaution is rcquifite. In the former, a»
the conditions are fixed, an accurate valuation affords the
grtatell lafety ; and in the latter, with upright intentions,
little more is necefl^ary. In particular cafes, however,
where a landed eltate has fallen i;uo bad hands, more caution
may be required, and it may be occafionally neceP.ary to
call in the profeflional aid of thofe who, from the nature
of their rnployincnt, are upon their guard againft all ions
of trick and >-ur,iiing. It is fuggeilcd as :.igtly improper
to make ufe of the perfon who is to examine the title and
adjnll the de^^d of conveyance, to cnrry on the bufinefs of
purch.iri:ig an ellate ; — of whofe value and ufes he is profef-
fioiiully ignorant ; as the iircfolutioii, want of decitioi, the
confequent miflakes, and the neccffary delays, that will
always at'cnd the negociatious of men who are coi.fcious
of a want r f knowledge in the fubj' Cl they are employed to
treat on, nmit ever tend to the difadvantage of their em-
ployers. Tiie above writer bae known f« many iuftances

of

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of difadvantage arifing from fuffering mere men of the law
to intermeddle in the piirchafes of lands, before the preli-
minaries of agreement have been ad|ulled, that no apology
is due to the profelTion for the obfervations which he has
thrown out in the above cafes.

But in purchafiiig by private contraift, the particulars
whicli may be required to be fnriiifhed by a feller, are, he
fays, the quantities of the feveral pieces of lands on fale,
together with the maps, or rough draughts of the fame ;
the tenure under which they are holden ; fome aflurance
as to the title of the feller, and his right of alienation ; the
tenancy under wliich the feveral farms are let : and, if on
lives, the ages of the nommees ; if for a term of years,
the number unexpired; if at will, the notices (if any)
which the tenants liave had : and an abftradl of the co-
venants under which they are let ; particularly thefe which
relate to taxes and repairs, to the expenditure of produce,
to the ploughing of grais-lands, 5cc. : the exiiting rents
and profits receivable ; whether for tenanted lands, appur-
tenances, or abllratt rights ; with the eltimated value of
the demelne, and the wood-lards, in hand ; together with
the eftimated value of the timber growing upon the eftate
on fale ; as well as of the minerals and foffils which it may
contain : the outgouigs to which the eilate is liable ;
the propofod time of the delivery of poffeflion ; the price
and the mode of payment expefted for the fame. And in
the next place, he confiders it as proper to fet down the par-
ticulars of iri/lruffions to be given to a furveyor, or other
valuer, of an eftate to be purchafed. But it will be right,
however, he thinks, to premife, that much, in this refpeft,
depends on the probabiHty of purchafing ; and on the time
allowed for making the eflimate. In cafes of fale by
pubhc aaftion, where there can be no certainty as to pur-
chafe, and where the time for valuation is limited, a rough
eftimate of each farm, and a general idea of the value of
the timber and other appurtenances, may be all that can
be prudently afcertained. While in a fale by private con-
trail, where the refufal of an eftate is granted, and time
allowed for deliberate furvey, a more mmute inveftigation
may be preper, efpecially when there is every reafon to
believe that a bargain will take place. For the fame re-
port will not only ferve as a guide to the purchafe, but
will become a valuable foundation on which to ground the
future management of the eftate. And he fuggefts, that
for thefe and other reafons, a purchafe by private contrail
is moft to be defired by a gentleman, who is not in the
habit of perfonally attending public fales, and is unac-
quainted with the bufinefs of auftion rooms. But, he fays,
it does not follow that a fale by auftion is equally ineligible
for a feller ; who may gain the 'vantage ground by this
mode of difpofal ; provided he can fruftrate the combina-
tions of public fales. The auftion duty, however, and the
heavy expences of pubhc fales, are objeftions to this
method of making a bargain ; as the money thus expended
muit neceffarily come out of the pocket of the buyer or
the feller.

And in regard to the particulars to be required from a
furveyor or furveyors, they are principally thefe. The
rental value of each field or parcel of land, with the ftate in
which it lies, as to arable, meadow, pafture, or wood-land.
The value of the timber, and other appurtenances. The
charafteriftic, and the ftate of management, of each farm or
tenement ; with the eligibility of its occupier ; together
with the ftate of repair of buildings, gates, fences, water-
courfes, and roads ; the amount of the incumbrances and
outgoings ; and, laftly, the probable value of the im-
provements of which the eftate may appear to be capable, in

different ways. And it is alfo added, that thefe feveral

particulars of information being procured, the fubjefts of
treaty are few. The two ttatements having been duly com-
pared, fo that no mifunderftanding can take place between
the parties, the price, with the times and mode of payment,
are the principal matters of agreement. A clear under-
ftandmg refpefting the cuft ody of title deeds, and the expences
of conveyance, require, however, to be enumerated among
the preliminaries of the purchafe before any thing is finally
fetttlcd.

But in what relates to the bufinefs of the negociation, it
is bell carried on by letters ; which become vouchers of
fafts. Whatever is done by interview requires to Tie re-
duced to writing, and to be read by or to the parties before
they feparate, that no poffibility of mifconception may
arife. And in addition to thefe precautions, it is proper, in
large purchafes, and v.-hen abftrafts of intricate title deeds
are to be made out, and examined, that a legal contraft, or
memorandum of agreement, ftiould be entered into for the
mutual fatisfaction and furety of the parties. This con-
traft, and the deed of conveyance, (namely, the inftrament
whicli is legally to transfer the property from the feller to
the purchafer,) may be faid to conclude and ratify the
bufinefs of the purchafe, and in this part of it, legal
aflillance is elfentially neceflary ; to examine exifting deeds,
and lee that the feller has a legal right and clear title to the
land, and a legal power to difpofe of it ; as well as to draw
up, or examine, the frefti deed of conveyance, and fee that
it is fufiicient to transfer the property, legally and ade-
quately, to the purchafer of fuch landed eftate or property.
See Valuation of Land.

SELLIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
Lufitania, S.E. of Callipo and N.E. of Scalabis.

SELMA Creek, in Geography, a river of Kentucky,
which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 38° 54'. W. lonj;.

84: 34'-

SELMAST, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan or Azerbijan, fituated in the moft pifturefque, and
at the fame time, the raoft flourifliing divifion of the pro-
vince, lying along the N. and W. border of the lake of
Urumea, from Tabruz or Tabris, to the confines of Ar-
menia. The town contains about 2000 inhabitants, prin-
cipally Neftorian Chriftians, and is famed for its lofty
poplars and delightful gardeiis ; 75 miles W.S.W. of Ta-
breez. N. lat. 37° 45'. E. long. 45° 20'.

SELNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim ; 16 miles N.W. of Chrudim.

SELO, a river of Naples, which runs into the Medi-
terranean, near Pefti.

SELOCZOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ;
40 miles E. of Lemberg.

SELOGOORAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ;
20 miles N. of Notchegong.

SELOKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of To-
bollk. N. lat. 64° 8'. E. long. 76° 14'.

SELOMMES, a town of France, in the department of
the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Vendome ; 6 miles S.E. of Vendome. The
place contains 652, and the canton 4396 inhabitants, on a
territory of 215 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

SELON, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 10
miles S.W. of Tiagar.

SELONDA, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the N. coaft of Cumbava. S. lat. 8° 5'. E. long. 1 17''34'.

SELONGEY, a town of France, in the department of
the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Dijon ; 4 miles N. of Is fur Tille. The place contains

1878,

S E L

S E L

1S78, and the canton 5801 inhabitants, on a territory of
200 kilionnetres, in 1 1 communes.

SELORICO. SeeCELORico.

SELOWITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 12 miles S. of Brunn.

SELRAIN, a town of Tyrol; 7 miles W.S.W. of
Infpruck.

SELSEA Bill, a cape on the S. coaft of England, in
the county of Suflex, which takes its name from a village,
fituated on a peninfula formed bv an inlet of the fea, called
«' Selfea harbour ;" 8 miles S. of Chichcller. N. lat. 50°
41'. W. long. 0° 50'.

SELSTEN, a town of the duchy of Bremen ; 8 miles
S.S.E. of Bremervord.

SELTERS, or Nieder Selters, a town of Germany,
in the archbifliopric of Treves, litiiated on the Emfbach ;
near which is a celebrated medicinal fpring ; 2 1 miles N. of
Mentz. See Seltzer- /^rt/fr. — Alfo, a village of the prin-
cipality of Nadau, on the Lahn, with a medicinal fpring;

2 miles N. of Wcilburg.

SELTSCHAN, or Sedlezany, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Moldau ; 22 miles S.E. of Beraun. N. lat.
49° 42'. E. long. 14^ 25'.

SELTZ, a river of Germanv, which runs into the Rhine,

3 miles N. of Ingelheim.

Seltz, or Se/'z Benhehn, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton,
in the dillrift of Willembourg, feated on the Rhine; 22
miles N.N.E. of Strafburg. The place contains 1070, and
the canton 10,1 10 inhabitant?, on a territory of 155 kilio-
metres, in 18 communes.

SELTZBACH, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Rhine ; 6 miles S.W. of Colmar.

SELTZ ER-Water, the name of a mineral water of
Germany, which arifes near Neider Seltzer, of Lower
Seltzer, about ten miles from Francfort on the Mayne, and
which is now ufed in England and many other countries.

This water iflues forth at the fpring with great rapidity,
is remarkably clear and briii;ht, and on pouring it from one
bottle into another, difcharges abundance of air-bubbles.

That which is im.ported at London is brought over in
ftone-bottles, clofcly corked and cemented, containing about
three Englifh pints each, by which mrans this water, as
long as the common air is excluded, will retain many of its
excellent qualities for feveral months ; but this caution is fo
necellary, that if too large an empty fpace ie left even in
the neck of a bottle, it foon lofes in a great degree the
briflt, fmart, pungent talte, which principally charatlerizes
its excellence, and is more liable to be injured by keeping
than any other mineral water.

Hoffman, in confequence of an analyfis of this water,
obferves, that an immediate effervefcence enfues on mixing
any acid with it, and efpccially with Rhcniih wine and fu-
gar, in which cafe the emotion is attended with a nolle, and
the liquor becomes milky ; but mixed with Rhenifh wine
alone, it becomes turbid, and acquires a brown colour with
a reddilh cart ; that the talle of this water is not fo pene-
trating and fubacid as that of moil other mineral waters,
but has a flavour rtfembling that of a dilated folution of a
lixivial fait ; that, with an addition of powder of galls, it
does not become purple, r.or blacken the llools of thofe
who drink it ; that, on adding oil of tartar, it becomes
milky without any precipitation : that a quart of this water
gently evaporated yields a drachm and twelve grains of a
faline matter, winch, diU'olv d and filtrated, yulus, on a
fecond evaporation, two (cruples of a pure alkaisne lalt ;
and that this fait diflblved in water, and added to a lolution

of corrofive fublimate, precipitates a yellow powder or tur-
bith mineral, and mixed with an infufion of rhubarb, gives
it a reddifh colour, and mixed with fal ammoniac, emits a
pungent fmell : that a quart of this water, faturated with
fpirit of vitriol, and gently evaporated, affords a drachm
and a half of fait, not diitinguifliable from vitriolated tar-
tar : that no medicinal water is fo apt to fpoil and be
corrupted by keeping, and that if it be fet for a day or
two in an open veflel, it wholly lofes its natural flavour,
and taftes only like water in which oil of tartar had been
mixed.

From all thefe obfervations he infers, that this water
abounds with an alkaline fait in a much greater quantity
than any of the other known mineral waters, without feem-
ing to contain any particles of the ferruginous earth and
bitter purging fait, which are the common ingredients of
the other mineral waters : on this account, he adds, that it
does not purge, but generally goes off by urine. Hoffman
recommends it as one of the mildeft and moft innocent of
all the mineral waters, and obferves that it may be taken
by perfons of the weakeft conilitution.

From the experiments of Dr. Brocklefty on Seltzer-
water, we learn, that upon dropping twelve drops of very
highly coloured fyrup of violets into a wine-glafs of it, the
fyrup feemed iirft to manifeil a purple hue, but upon their
intimate union, the whole changed into a beautiful green :
that the fame quantit)' of oil of tartar per deliquium
dropped into a glafs of fparkling, frefli, clear water,
quickly turned the whole milky, and after Handing, a fine
pearl-coloured powder fell to the fides and bottom of the
glafs ; on adding an equal number of drops of pure de-
phlegmated fpirit of vitriol to a glafs of this water, a light
cloud was feen fufpended towards the middle of the glafs,
and numerous air-bubbles rofe from all parts of the water,
and the fparkling might be renewed by adding one or more
drops of the acid, and (haking the glafs ; and the like ebul-
lition was more readily produced bv a folution of fugar and
Rhenifh wine, or vinegar with the fame : and the fame ap-
pearances were exhibited by dropping any vegetable or
mineral acids into this water, as are obferved when alkalies
and acids are mixed together : a volatile cauftic alkali, in
half an hour after it had been dropped into this vi'ater, pro-
duced at firit a cloud and afterwards a precipitation. Lixi-
vium faponarium fo far decumpoled a glafs of Seltzer-
water, that a cloud inftantly appeared in the middle of it,
and the air-hubbles emerging from the lower part of it were
greedily abforbed by the caaltic alkali, which is known to
imbibe fixed air, whenever it comes into contadl writh it.
This water, fays Dr. Brocklelby, poured into a glafs, fe-
parates more air-bubbles than any other water which he had
tried, and continues longer to do fo in the open air, but its
fparkling may be renewed by adding ai.y lub acid vegetable,
and a little fugar, as fharp cyder and Rhenifli wine and
fngar ; but, he adds, that the bed Seltzer-water here will
not perfeftly curdle milk, nor lather with foap, and that
with powder of gall-nuts no farther change of colour ap-
peared than in pure writer. By evaporating twenty-four
ounces of the bell Seltzer-water, he obtained thirty-fix
grains of a faline refiduum ; and the greatell quantity he
could ever get from a pint, wine incalure, was lels than
thirty grains.

Ten drops of tlrong fpirits of vitriol, poured on as many
grains of fait of Seltzer-water, cauled great and iiiltant
ebullition, and fuffocating lleam, which tinged blackiih a
filver fpoon held in them, and gave to its poliihed furface a
bitter talte.

Having dilToIved fixty-fix grains of pure white fait, ob-
1 1 tamed

S E L

S E M

tained from this water, in diftilled water, and filtrated it, he
thereby obtained feven grains of a calcareous earth, per-
feftly foluble in all weak acids ; but by feveral different
modes of trial he was led to conclude, that this water con-
tains no ferruginous principle.

Finding that the falts and earths contained in Seltzer-
water are too inconfiderable, both in quantity and quality,
to promife any very material medicinal effetls, he proceeded
to inveltigate what might be afcribed to the great quantity
of fixed air, which this water conllantly difcharges, in a
heat not exceeding that of the human body ; and the refnlt
was, that the faftitious air yielded by a bottle full of water,
containing exaAly fourteen ounces feven drachms, in a heat
never exceeding ii6^ by Fahrenheit's fcale, amounted to a
quantity which occupied a fpace, that required two ounces
two and a half drachms of water to fill it ; or allowmg two
hundred and fixty-five grains of common water for a cubic
inch, the whole water amounted to twenty-feven cubic
inches, and that which would fill the fpace occupied by the
air four ounces and one-fifth ; and fo large a quantity of in-
terltitial air, he fays, was generated in a heat not incom-
patible with life in any part of the world, as the fever-heats
in all climates teftify, and lefs than the heat which is often
experienced without inftantaneous prejudice, in fome tropi-
cal climates.

However, this generated air foon began to be re-abforbed
into the body of the water, and in about eight hours, the
fpace occupied by the remaining air did not exceed one-
fifth of what it had formerly done.

From another experiment with the fait of Seltzer-water,
he found that this feems to have let go much the greateft
part of its fixed air, and probably thereby loft, moft of the
virtues inherent in the pure frefh water itfelf.

From fuch experiments Dr. Brocklefby infers, that Selt-
zer mineral water contains, befides the mere elementary
water, a very fmall quantity of calcareous earth, and a
much greater portion of a native mineral alkali, together
with fome acid retained a while within the water, but which
either evaporates into the open air, or elfe is foon combined
with the mineral alkali : and he thinks it probable, that the
aftive virtues of this water depend more on this elaltic mat-
ter, or fixed air, which it contains in fuch uncommon
abundance beyond other mineral waters, than in any combi-
nation of its faline and earthy contents, which are found in
fuch fmall quantities, as to be incapable of any material
fervice, though this water is known to be exceedingly bene-
ficial.

This account of the analyfis of Seltzer-water is clofed
with the hiftory of fome medical cafes, in which the ufe of
this water completed a cure, after a great variety of other
remedies had proved infufficient.

The operation of this water, as Hoffman obferves, is
chiefly by urine, for it has no purgative virtues. It cor-
rects acidities, renders the blood and juices more fluid, and
promotes a brilk and free circulation ; and, therefore, it is
good in obftruftions of the glands, and againft grofs and
vifcid humours. It is of great ufe in the gravel and flone,
and other diforders of the kidnies and bladder.

It is alfo excellent in gouty and rheumatic complaints,
efpecially when mixed with milk, or improved by the addi-
tion of Rhenifh wine and a little fugar. It is drank with
great fuccefs in fcorbutic, cutaneous, and putrid diforders.
It relieves the heart-burn, and is an excellent ftomachic.
On account of its diuretic quality, it is fervicesble in drop-
fical complaints : and mixed with affes' milk, it is much re-
commended in confumptive cafes, and in diforders of the
lungs ; with or without milk, it is in great elteem in nervous

diforders, and alfo in hypochondriacal and hyfleric com-*
plaints, and in obilru&ions of the menfes, accompanying
the ufe of it with proper exercife.

It is alfo adminiltered with fuccefs in purging and fluxes
arifing from acidity in the bowels ; and it is faid, if drank
by nurfes, to render their milk more wholefome and nourifh-
ing, and to prevenfit from turning four on the ftomachs of
children. See on the fubject of this article Hoffman,
Oper. vol. v. p. 144. London Med. Obferv. vol. iv. p. 7,
&c. Elliot's Account of the Principal Mmeral Waters,
p. 194, &c.

SELTZER-lVa/er, Art'ifinal, may be prepared by adding
one fcruple of magnefia alba, fix fcruples of foflil alkali,
and four fcruples of common lalt to each gallon of water,
and faturating the water with fixed air, in the manner di-
rected under V'iK'sioST-lVater.

SELVA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia,
on the coalt of the Mediterranean, 35 miles N.E. of Ge-
rona. N. lat. 42° 20'. E. long. 3° 2'.

Selva, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Venice, feparated
from Ulbo by a narrow channel ; it is rocky, and the foil fo
poor, that the ohves feldom come to perfection : the vines
produce bad grape', and the corn is ftill worfe. The (lone
that abounds here is chiefly hard whitifli marble. N. lat.
44° 38'. E. long. 14° 5'.

SELVAGE, in Sea Language, a fort of hank or flcein
of rope-yarn tied together at feveral diftances. It is ufed to
faften round any rope, as a fhroud or ftay, fo that a tackle
may be hooked in it, to extend the faid (hroud or ftay,
which is called y^//m_f »'/ up.

SELUCHUSA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland near
the Peloponnefus, being one of thofe which were fituated
on the coaft of the promontory of Spir<eum. Pliny.

SELUCIA, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Irak,
160 miles N.W. of Baflbra.

SELVE, La, a town of France, in the department of the
Aveyron, and chief place ef a canton, in the diftriA of
Rodes or Rhodez ; 14 miles S. of Rhodez. The place
contains 840, and the canton 673S inhabitants, on a terri>
tory of 242^ kiliometres, in 15 communes.

SELVIG, a town of Denmark, on the W. coaft of the
ifland of Samfoe. N. lat. 55° 52'. E. long. io° 36'.

SELUNE, a river of France, which runs into the fea,
near mount St. Michel.

SELUR, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on this
fide of the Ganges, in the interior of the country of the
Carxans, according to Ptolemy.

SELYMBRIA, Selyvra, caUed alfo by Suidas Oly-
brla, a town of Thrace, on the coaft of the Propontide,
between the mouth of the river Athyras and Perinthus, or
Heraclea. Its name fignifies the town of Selys, bria figni-
fying town in the language of the Thracians. See Se-

LIVRA.

SELZBACH, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Rhme, 7 miles below Fort Vauban.

SEM, a river of RufTia, which rifes in the E. part of the
government of Kurflc, and pafling by Kurfli, unites with
the Dema, near Sofnitza, in the government of Novgorod
Sieverflcoe.

SEMAMPLEXICAULE Leaf, in Botany. See
Leaf.

SEMANA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
fubah of Delhi ; 35 miles S. of Sirhind. N. lat. 29° 23'.

E. long. 75° 33' Alfo, a town of Japan, in the ifland of

Niphon ; i2j miles W. of Meaco.

SEMAO, an ifland of the Eaft Indian fea, about 24.
miles long from N. to S., and from fix to ten broad; fepa-

rated

S E M

rated from the S.W. end of the ifland of Timor by a narrow
channel, called the " Straits of Semao." S. lat. io° ij'.
E. lonpf. 133^ 45'.

SEMAR, a river which rifes in mount Cenis, and after
forming a boundary by its courfe between Savoy and Pied-
mont, falls into the Doria at Sufa.

SEMARILLARIA, in Botany, a term applied to
feeds which are furrounded half way down by an arillus, or
any other fimilar covering.

SEMATAI, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Pe-tchc-li ; 35 miles N.E. of Pekin.

SEMAU, an ifland in the Ealt Indian fea ; 9 miles S.
from the ifland of Timor.

SEMAUE, or Semauat, a town of the Arabian Irak,
on the Euphrates, where a toll is coUefted ; 115 miles S.E.
of Bagdad.

SEMBEKE, an ifland in the Red fea, near the coaft
of Arabia. N. lat. 25° 12'.

SEMBELLA, among the Romans, a fmall filver coin,
equal in value and weight to half tiie libella.

SEMBEWGHEWN, in Geography, a town of the
Birman empire, on the Irawaddy ; 30 miles S. of Pagham
Mew.

SEMBIANI, Sembians, in Ecckftajlkal Hiftory, a fed
of ancient heretics, denominated from their leader, Sembius,
or Sembianus, who condemned all ufe of wine, as evil of it-
felf ; perfuaded his followers, that the wine was a produc-
tion of Satan and the earth, denied the refurreftion of the
dead, and rejected moll of the books of the Old Teftament.
Jovet.

SEMBR ACENA, in jincient Geography, a town of Ara-
bia Felix, near the fea, in the kingdom of the Sabasans, ac-
cording to Ptolemv.

SEMBRADOR, an engine, invented by Don Jof. de
Lucatello, for the evenly fowing of feeds, defcribed in the
Pliilofophical Tranfaftions under the title of the Spanijh
Setftbrador.

The perfeClion of agriculture is allowed to confift much
in fetting plants at proportional dillances, and giving fuf-
ficient depth to the roots, that they may fpread, and receive
their neceliary nourifliment ; yet there is very little care
taken in the praftice of this important part of huftiandry,
but all forts of grains are fown byhandfuls caft: at random,
by which means four parts in five of the feed are loft. To
remedy this inconvenience, the fembrador, or fower, is in-
vented, which being failened to the plough, the whole bufi-
nefs of ploughing, fowing, and harrowing, is done at once ;
the feedfman's trouble is faved, and the grain fpread at
equal dillances, and equally deep at the bottom ot the
furrow.

An experiment to this purpofe was made before the em-
peror Leopold in the fields of Luxemburgh in Aultria,
where the land ufually yields four or five-fold ; but the
crop from the ground fowed by this inftnimcnt was fixty-
fold, as appears by a certificate of the emperor's officer
appointed to fee the experiment ; figned, Vienna, Aug. 1,
1663.

We have a figure of the fembrador, in the Tranfeftions,
N^ 60. by the earl of Calllemain. See Plough.

SEMACHON, or Simaciiok, in Ancient Geography, a
lake ot Paleiline.

SEME, orSuEME. See Seam.

SEMECARPUS, in Botany, derived from o-i-.^un'.i.', to
mart, and «-^ §770;, a fruit ; a name evidently derived from
the ufe that is made of its nut, in the Eail Indies, to mark
table linen and articles of apparel. If thcfc are put over the
nut, and pricked, the juice exuding will make an indelible

Vol. XXXII.

S E M

ftain, which ferves as an excellent natural marking ink. —
Linn. Suppl. 2J. Schreb. 196. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1476.
Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. (Anacardium ; Juff. Gen. 368.
Lamarck lUuitr. t. 208. Gaertn. t. 40.) — Clafs and
order, PentandriaTrtgyma. Nat. Ord. Terciinlacea, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fliaped,
cloven half way down into five, heart-fliaped, acute feg-
ments. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, bordered, obtufe, larger
than the fegments of the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, awl-
fliaped, fliorter than the corolla, infertcd into the receptacle ;
anthers oblong, fmall. Pifl. Germcn fuperior, globular,
flattened ; ftyles three, recurved, fituated on the germen and
fl^iorter than it; lligmas club-fhaped, retufe. Perk, none,
except the receptacle, which is ercd, flefliy, pear-fliaped,
imoolh. Seed, a nut roiling upon the receptacle, heart-
ftiaped, flattened on both fide?, fmooth and fliining.

Obf. Dr. Roxburgh has obferved fome trees of Seme-
carpus with male flowers only, on which account proftflbr
Martyn has defcribed the genus as belonging to the clafs
and order of Polygamia Dioecla.

Etr. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Petals five. Nut
fomewhat kidney-fliaped, ftanding on a large, fli-fliy, flat-
tened receptacle.

I. S. Anacardium, Marking-nut tree. Linn. Suppl.
182. Roxb. Coromandel. v. i. 13. t. 12. — Native of
mountainous, dry woods throughout the Eall Indies, flower-
ing in July and Auguft, but ripening its feed in Janu.iry
and February. A handfome lofty tree, vvhofe bark is rough,
afli-coloured and glutinous withinfide. Branches numerous,
fpreading, rather hairy. Leaves alternate, on (hortifli Ilalks,
wedge-fliaped, rounded at the tip, entire, firm, nearly fmooth
above, whitifli and a little rough beneath. Flowers in large,
terminal, eredl panicles, compofed of numerous, fmall fpikes,
of a dirty-greenifli-yellow colour. Bradeas numerous, (mail,
deciduous. Receptacle yellow, as large as the nut, which is
black, containing a corrolive refinous juice, at firft of a pale
milk colour, but turning black.

The -wood of this tree is foft, containing an acrid juice.
The flefliy receptacles when roaded have the flavour of
apples, and are eaten by the natives. The green fruit,
pounded into a pulp, makes gnod bird-lime ; when ripe, its
black acrid juice is highly efteemed by the Telinga phy-
ficians, as a remedy for various diforders.

SEMEGONDA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Wangara, on the Niger, near a lake called
by Ptolemy Libya Palus. N. lat. 15° 22'. E. long.
22° 30'.

SEMEIOTICA, trifiiwT.Krt, formed from ai\^uo\, fign,
ox fymptom, that part of medicine which confidcrs the iigns
or appearances of difeafes, which are the fole guides to the
phyfician, by which he can alcertain the feat and nature of
difeafes, and their probable termination. It includes, there-
fore, the art of d'lagnofis and prognofts, and nojology, or the art
of arranging difeafes in methodical order. See thefe words
refpeclively.

SEME LA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Tripoli;
145 miles S. of Mefurada.

SEMELE, in Mythology, the mother of Bacchus.

SEMELITANI, in Ancient Geography, a people wlw
inhabited the interior of Sicily, according to Pliny.

SEMEN, m Botany. See Seed.

Semen, in Phyfiology, an animal fluid fecreted by the
male, the contaft of which is ncceilary to render the germs
formed by tlie female prolific. See Genekation.

Semen SanHum, or Santonicum. See Worm Seed.

SEMENCAN, in Geography, a town of Grand Bu-
ckaria ; loo miles S.E. of Balk.

E e SEMEN-

S E M

S E M

SEMENDEllY, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Java. S. lat. 7° l'. E. long. 106° 50'.

SEMENDRIA, a town and fortrefs of Servia, on the
S. fide of the Danube ; 20 miles S.E- of J3elgrade. N".
lat. 44° 52'. E. long. 20° 41'.

SEMENGE, in Mufc, an inftrument ufed in Arabia by
thofe wandering muficians who accompany the dancing
women. It is a fort of bad violin, joined with a drum.
The body is commonly a cocoa-nut fhell, with a piece of
fl<in extended upon it ; three livings of catgut, and fome-
times of horfehair, are fitted to it ; and it is played with a
bow, not lefs awkward in its form than the Greek lyre.

SEMENGIAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Segeftan ; 132 miles S. of Kin.

SEMENJAN, a town of Grand Bucharia ; 70 miles
W. of Anderab. N. lat. 36° 22'. E. long. 66" 50'.

SEMENNUD, a town of Egypt, on the E. branch of
the Nile ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Manfora.

SEMENOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Niznei-Novgorod ; 36 miles N. of Niznei-Novgorod. N.
lat. 55° 30'. E. long. 44° 14'.

SEMENOVSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Vologda ; 44 miles N.N.W. of Vologda.

SEMENTINiE Ferine, in Antiquily, featls held an-
nually among the Romans, to obtain of the gods a plentiful
harvell.

They were celebrated in the temple of Tcllus, or the
Earth, where folemn facrilices were offered to Tellus and
Ceres.

The time of the celebration was about feed-time, ufually
in the month of January ; for Macrobius obfervcs, they
were moveable fealls. They had their name from femen,
feed.

SEMERON, in Ancient Geography, a royal town of
Judsa, in the tribe of Zcbulon, according to the book of
Jofhua, whither, it is faid, Jabin fent a meffenger to de-
mand fuccour of the king of the city, and which he accord-
ingly obtained, together with that of feveral other kingfs, to
attack the Ifraelites ; but they were all defeated and (lain in
the combat. — Alfo, a mountain of Judaea, in the tribe of
Ephraim, E. of Sichem ; called alfo the mountain of Sa-
maria.

SEMETS, SuMMETS, or Summits, in Botany, are ufed
by Dr. Grew and others, for the apices of the attii-e of
plants.

SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fignifying half ;
but only ufed in compofition with other words, as in the
following articles.

The French, inftead of femi, frequently ufe demi, the
Greeks hemi.

In mufic, femi has tlu-ee feveral ufages ; firft, when pre-
fixed to the name of a note, it exprefl'es a diminution of half
its value, as in femi-breve, &c.

Secondly, when added to the name of an interval, it ex-
prelles a diminution, not of half, but of a leffer femi-tone,
or four commas, in the whole compafs, as in fcmi-diapente,
&c.

Thirdly, in old mufic to the end of the i6th century, it
implies imperfeftion in the value of notes, as a femi-circle,
or circolo mezzo ; the whole circle then implying perfeftion,
or triple-time. O three breves, or three times three femi-

breves, without a point. I common time, or, as it was

then called, imperfeft, or dual meafure. See Mufical
Characters, and the firlt TiME-Tai/e.

SEMI-ARIANS, in Ecclefiq/lical Hijlory, a branch of
the ancient Arians, confifting, according to Epiphanius, of

4

fuch as, in appearance, condemned the errors of that herefi.
arch, but yet acquiefced in fome of his principles, only pal-
liating and hiding them under fofter and more moderate
terms. See Arians.

It is true, they feparated from the Arian faftion ; but
yet could never be brought to acknowledge that the Son was
homooufios, that is, confubttantial, or of the fame fub-
ftance with the Father ; they would only allow him to be
homoioufios, that is, of a like fubftance with the Father,
or fimilar to the Father in his efience, not by nature, but
by a pecuHar privilege. See Ho.Moousios, &c.

Though, as to expreflion, they only diflered from the or.
thodox by a fingle letter, yet were they, in effeft, of the opi-
nion of the Arians, as they placed the Son in the rank of
creatures. It did not avail their teaching, that there was
no other creature of the fame clafs with him, fince by deny-
ing him confubftantial with God, they effectually precluded
him from being truly God.

Yet fome, even among tlie orthodox, ufe the word homoi-
oufios, in fpeaking of the Son ; applying fuch an idea to it
as it feems is confiftent with orthodoxy.

But the name Semi-Arians is alfo given, by the fecond ge-
neral council, to another branch of Arians, who believed
orthodoxly of the Father and Son, but denied the deity of
the Holy Ghoft ; thus rejefting that part of the Arian
fyltem relating to the Son, but ftiffly retaining that which
related to the Holy Ghoft.

As the zeal of the Arians was chiefly levelled againft the
fecond perfon in the Trinity, that of the Semi-Arians was
bent againft the third ; whence, as the former were fome-
times called Xfis-o/ja;^^, the latter were denominated ITvEiiiia-

Macedonius, bifhop of Conftantinople, made an innova-
tion in this feft in 360, and gave rife to a new branch of
Macedonian Semi-Arians, or Pneuraatomachi ; who allowed
the Son not to be o^uoiic-;-;, of the fame fubftance, but cjj.'ho:,
of /He fubftance with the Father ; and at the fame time
openly affcrted the Holy Ghoft to be a creature. This
herefy was condemned by the eleventh general council held
at Conftantinople in the year 381. See Macedoniaks.

SEMIBREVE, O -e-, half a breve g, in M>ific.

See the TiHE-Tab/es.

SEMICIRCLE, in Geometry, a figure comprehended
between the diameter of a circle, and half the circumference.

Two femicircles can only cut each other in one point.

Semicircle is alfo an inftrument in Surveying, fome-
timcs called the graphometer.

It confifts of a femicircular limb, as F, I, G, {Plate VII.
Surveying, Jig. ■^.) divided into one hundred and eighty de-
grees, and fometimes fubdivided diagonally or otherwife
into minutes. This limb is fubtended by a diameter F G,
at the extremities of which are eredted two fights. In the
centre of the femicircle, or the middle of the diameter, is
fixed a box and needle. On the fame centre is fitted an
alidade, or moveable index, carrying two other fights, as
H, I. And the whole is m.ounted on a llaff, with a ball and
focket.

The femicircle, then, is nothing elfe but half a theo-
dolite ; with this only difference, that whereas the limb of
the theodolite, being an entire circle, takes in all the 360°
fucceffively ; in the femicircle the degrees only going from
I to 180, it is ufual to have the remaining 180°, or thofe
from 1 80° to 360°, graduated in another line on the limb
within the former.

To take an Angle with a Semicircle. Place the inftrument
in fuch manner, as that the radius C G may hang over one

leg

^ E M

leg of the angle to be meafured, and the centre C over the
vertex of the fame. The firft is done, by looking through
the fights F and G at the extremities ot the diameter to a
mark nxcd up in one extremity of the leg ; the latter is had
by letting fall a plummet from the centre of the inftrument.
This done, turn the moveable index H I on its centre to-
veards the other leg of the angle, till througli the fights
fixed in it, you fee a mark in the extremity of the leg.
Then the degree, which the index cuts on the limb, is the
quantity of the angle.

For farther ufes of the femicircle, they are the fame with
thofe of the theodolite,

SEMICIRCULAR Arches. See Arch.

Semicircular Canals, in Anatomy, three fmall mem-
branous tubes, inclofed in excavations of the bone, and com-
pofing part of the labyi-inth of the ear. See Ear.

SEMICIRCULARIS T.-ema, a part of the brain.
See Brain.

Semicircularis Palpebrarum Mufculus, a name given
by Spigelius, and fome others, to one of the mufcles of the
face, called by Albinus and Winflow the mufculus orbi-
cularis palpebrarum.

SEMICOLON, in Grammar, one of the points or Hops,
■jfed to diftinguilh the feveral members of a fentence from
each other.

The mark or charafter of the feraicolon is (;). It has its
name, as having fomewhat lefs effeft than a colon, or as de-
manding a fhorter paufe.

The ufe of tlie femicolon, the grammarians generally fay,
is to mark a fenfe lefs complete than the colon, and more
complete than tlie comma ; but this only conveys a very ob-
fcure idea. In effeft, the precife office of the femicolon, or
that office which diltinguiflies it from the colon, is a thing
very little known to th:- world. Our beil authors leem to
ufe them promifcuoufly. See Colon.

Dr. Ward, formerly profefibr at Grefham, is perhaps the
firft who fettled a juft ufe of the femicolon. His pofition
is, that the femicolon is properly ufed to diflinguifh the con-
junA members of fcntences. Now by a conjunft member
of a fentence, he means, fuch an one as contains at leaft two
fimple members.

Whenever, then, a fentence can be divided into feveral
members of the fame degree, which are again divifible into
other fimple members, the former are to be feparated by a
femicolon.

E. gr. If Fortune bear a great fway over him, who has
nicely Hated and concerted every circumftance of an affair ;
we mult not commit every thing, without rcferve, to For-
tune, lelt file Ihould have too great a hold of us.

But thoui^h the proper ufe of the femicolon be to diftin-
guifh conjundt members, it is not necefi'ary that all the
members divided by it be conjunft. For upon dividing a
fentence into great and equal parts, if one of them be con-
jundt, all thofe other parts of the fame degree arc to be dif-
tinguifhed by a femicolon. Thus, whoever is overtaken
with poverty ; the fame will find, that coldnefs, contempt,
injuries, &c. are not far behind. Hither likewife may be
referred fuch fentenccs, where the whole going before, the
parts follow: as, the parts of rhetoric are four; invention,
difpofition, elocution, and pronunciation.

According to bifhop Lowth, a member of a fentence,
whether fimple or compounded, that requires a greater paule
than a comma, yet does not of itfelf make a complete fen-
tence, but is followed by fomething clofely depending on it,
may be dillinguidied by a femicolon. E. gr. But as this
paffion for admiration, when it works according to rcafon,
improves the beautiful part of our fpecies in every thing that

S E M

is laudable ; fo nothing is more deftruftive to them, when
it is governed by vanity and folly. Here the whole fen-
tence is divided into two parts by the femicolon ; each of
which parts is a compounded member, divided into its fimple
members by the comma ; which fee.

SEMICON, a mufical inilrumciit among the Greeks,
which had thirty-five firings.

SEMICROMA, Sextuple of. See Sextuple.

SEMI-CUBICAL Parabola, a curve of the fecond
order, in which the cubes, of the ordinates are as the fquares
of the abfciffes. Its equation is ax"' ^^yK

SEMICUPIUM, a half bath, in which the patient is
only placed up to the navel. See Insessus.

SEMIDIAMETER, a right iine drawn from the centre
of a circle or fphere, to its circumference ; the fame with
what we otherwife call a radius.

The diilauces, diameters, &c. of the heavenly bodies,
are ufually cftimated by altronomers in femidiameters of the
earth.

For the proportions and values of the femidiameters of the
planets, fee Planets. For their apparent femidiameters,
fee Diameter.

SEMI-DIAPASON, in Mufic, a defeftive oftave ; or
an otlave diminifhed by a lefTer iemitone, or four commas.
See Diapason.

SEMI-DIAPENTE, a defedive fifth, called ufuaUy
by the Italians falfa quinta, and by us a falfe fifth.

SEMI-DIATESSARON, a defeftive fourth, called,
properly, a falfe fourth.

SEMI-DITONE, Diapason. See Diapason.

Semi-ditone, Dts-diapafon. See Dis-diapason.

SEMI-DITONUS, is ufed by fome writers, as Salinas,
for the third minor.

SEMI-DOUBLE, in the Roml/li Breviary, a term ap-
plied to fuch offices and feftivals as are celebrated with lefs
folcmnity than the double ones ; but yet with more than the
fingle ones.

The femi-double office has double vefpers, and nine lelTons
at matins ; but the anthems are not redoubled. It is per-
formed on Sundays, on the oftaves, and on the fealls marked
for femi-double in the calendar.

SEMIFLOSCULOUS, a term ufed to exprefs the
flowers of a certain clais of plants, of which the dandelion,
hawkweed, and the like, are kinds.

This fort of flower confiits of a number of femiflofculi,
which are diipofed into one or more circles, and all com-
prehended in the fame cup, which often becomes inverted
as the flower ripens. Thefe femiflofcules are petals, hollow
in their lower part, but in their upper half are flat, and con-
tinued in the fhape of a tongue. Thefe are often feparated
from each other by intermediate leaves, and are placed upon
the embryo fruit, from which there Hands out a flender ca-
pillament, divided at the end into two parts ; often carried
beyond the vagina, fupported by five props. The embryos
are placed in the thalamus, or bottom of the cup, and finally
become feeds, fometinies winged with down, fometimcs
naked, fometimes coronated, and lomclimes foliated.

SEMIGALLIA, Duchy of, in Geography, a divifion of
Courland, about i lo miles in length, and from lo to 25 in
breadth, bounded on the north by Riilfia, from which it is
feparated by tiie Dwina, and elfewhere by Courland. It is
fubjedt to Ruflia. Its capital is Mittaw.

SEMIGERMANjE Gentes, in .Ancient Geography,
the name of a people who inhabited the Pennine Alps, ac-
cording to Ptolemy.

E e 2 SEMIJA,

S E M

S E M

SEMIJA, in Geography, one of the Fox i(lands, in the
North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 53" 5'. E. long. 175' 14'.

SEMI-INTEROSSEUS Indicis, in Anatomy, a fmall,
fhort, flat, fle(hy mufcle, very like the antithenar, or in-
ternal femi-interofTeus of the thumb. It is fituated ob-
liquely on one fide of that of the thumb, between the firft
phalanx of it and the firft metacarpal bone. It is fixed by
one end to the outfide of the bafis of the firft phalanx of
the thumb, and a little to that bone of the carpus, by
which this phalanx is fupported ; and by the other end it is
fixed near the head of the firft phalanx of the index, on
that fide next the thumb. It lies almoft parallel to the
antithenar, croffing it a little ; this mufcle lying on the
convex fide of the hand, and the antithenar on the concave.
Window.

SEMI-JUDAIZERS, in Ecdefiajlkal Hiftory, a fed
of Socinians, confifting of the difciples and friends of
Francis Davides, fuperintendant of the Socinian churches
in Tranfylvania ; who, in confequence of his adherence to
the opinions he had adopted, was thrown into prifon by
Chrirtopher Bathori, prince of Tranfylvania, where he died,
in the year 1579, in an advanced age. The moft eminent of
his followers were Jacob Palxologus, of the ifle of Chio,
who was burnt at Rome in the year 1585; Chriftian
Francken, who had difputed in perfon with Socinus ; and
John Somer, who was mafter of the academy of Claufcn-
burg. The followers of Davides were called Semi-Judaizers
by the Socinian writers, according to Mofheim, by way of
reproach ; but others maintain, that it was grounded on
their fentimcnts, and that it was defigned to exprefs the
partial preference they gave to the Law of Mofes above the
Gofpel of Chrift. Tlie words of Chrift, as Davides aQ'erts,
and thofe of his apoftles, are to be tried by the doArine of
Mofes and the prophets, which ought to be to us the folc
rule of life and religious worftiip. He alfo maintains, that
there is no difference between the old covenant eftabliftied
by Mofes, and the new coiifirmed by Chrift, in doftrine or
in promifes ; and that they differ merely in this circum-
ftance, that under the former there was the miniftry of the
letter, and under the latter that of the fpirit ; and, therefore,
the one has not abroi^ated or changed the other : fo far
from it, that the new covenant exifted only till the
deftrudlion of Jerufalem, and will have no farther in-
fluence till the time of Chrift's worldly government over
Ifrael in the city of Jerufalem, which is to be rebuilt. In
the mean time, Chrift is not really the Chrift or king of
God's people, but only by defignation ; the Chrift pre-
difted by the prophet, and promifed by God, having no
other than an earthly kingdom, which Jefus was appointed
to take pofleffion of ; but being (lain by the Jews, contrary
to the divine purpofe, he was tranflated into a fecure and
quiefcent ftate. In this ftate he is not any more to be
called God, as he was by virtue of his office during his
abode on earth, becaufe his office hath ceafed ; nor is he
entitled to any adoration and worfliip, as Socinus thought,
nor to any other kind of reverence, except obedience to his
precepts, and faith in his doftrine ; nor is he employed
under the diftinguifliing appellation of prieft and interceflbr,
both which offices terminated at his death. See the pro-
pofitions drawn up by Fauftus Socinus, and prefented to
C. Bathori, in Socin. Op. tom. ii. p. 801 — 803, or Toul-
min's Life of Socinus, p. 453, &c.

SEMII^, in Geography, a river of Cabuliftan, which
joins the Dilen at Kerdiz, to form the Cow.

SEMILUNAR, Semilunaris, in Anatomy, an epithet
appliid, in confequence of their figure, to various parts of
the body.

Semilunar Cartilages of the Knee-joint, are two fmall
portions of cartilage fituated in that articulation. See Ex-
tremities.

Semilunar Portion or £i/ge of the Fafcia Lata. See
Fascia.

Semilunar Valves of the Aorta and pulmonary Artery,
the three valves placed at the entrance of each of thele vef-
fels. See Heart.

SEMILUNARES Cochle.^, in Natural Hiftory, the
name of a genus of fea-fnails, fo called, from their having
femicircular mouths. See Contiiology.

The charadlers of the genus are thefe. They are uni-
valve ftiells of a compadl body, with a flat femicircular, and
often dentated mouth ; the columella, or inner lip, running
diametrically acrofs it in a ftraight line. Some of the
fpecies have exferted apices, and lome deprefled ; thefe are
nearly globofe (hells, and the turban is never much pro-
duced, but lies flat or level with the bottom.

There are many diftinctive and fpccific charadlers in the
feveral fpecies of this genus, which arrange together con-
fiderable numbers of the fpecies under each. Thus the
neritas, which are of this genus, are fome of them umbili-
cated, and otiiers have teeth and a kind of gums. The fnail
kinds, diftinftly fo called, that fall under this genus, are
very different from the neritse, in that they have no teeth,
no gum, and no palate. Tiie term femilunares eochkte was
invented by Rimiphius to exprefs their mouths, being of the
(hape of half a circle.

The neritas generally inhabit caverns in the fides of rocks,
and ufnally ftick faft to the ftone. Boiiani, Recreat. Ment.
ct Ocul. p. ^G. Aldrovand. de Teltac. lib. iii. cap. 8.
Plin. lib. ix. cap. 33.

All the fpecies of the femilunar fliells have few convolu-
tions, and have the extremity of the voluta fmall,- and ufually
ftanding a little out.

The fpecies of the femilunar cochleae are thefe, as ar-
ranged uiider the two general divifions of dentated neritje,
and umbilicated cochleae ; w's. the dentated nerita, com-
monly called the gum-fhell ; the bloody-tooth nerita ; the
ox-palate nerita ; the ftriated and puntluated nerita ; the
canaliculated, the furrowed, the thrufh, and the partridge
nerita.

Of tlie neritas which have no teeth, we have ten fpecies ;
•uiz,. the jafpcr with a^ong beak ; the jafper with an oper-
culum ; the lemon-coloured pea ; the yellow pea ; the
prickly ; the reticulated ; that variegated with black fpots ;
the red and white fafciated ; the lightly ftriated green ; and
the imdulated nerita.

Of the umbilicated fnails we have nine fpecies; 11/2. the
long umbilicated ; that with an exferted apex ; that with a
depreffed apex ; tefliciilated ; the hermit ; the umbonated ;
the fmall nipple ; the heavy white ; and the orange-coloured
cochlea. Hift. Natural. Eclairc. part ii. p. 256.

Semilunaris Z/inca, in the abdomen, is tlie line follow-
ing the outer edge of the redlus abdominis mufcle. See
Obliquus.

SEMIMEMBRANOSUS, (ifchio-fous-tibien ; demi-
aponevrotique) ; a mufcle of the thigh, fituated on the
pofterior part of the limb, elongated, and extending from
the tuberofity of the ifchium lo the upper and back
edge of the tibia. It commences from the tuberofity
of the ilchium, in front of the bleeps and femitendinofus,
and behind the quadratus femoris, by a ftrong flat ten-
don, which foon expands into a broad aponeurofis, thicker
at its external than at its inner edge, and giving origin
luccefllvely by the latter to the mufcular fibres. The
latter are all parallel, fhert, and placed obliquely, and form

a thick

S E M

a thick mafs, which is largeft at its middle, and fmaller at
the two ends. They defcend obliquely inwards, and termi-
nate in an aponeuroiis, which, beginning oppofite to the end
of the fuperior one, receives the fibres fucceffively, and
ends below in a thick tendon, which paffes behind the knee-
joint, and divides into three portions. The external is nar-
row and (lender, afcends obliquely outwards behind the
joint, and is fixed above the external condyle of the thi^h,
confounded with the external head of the galtrocnemius.
The middle, which is broad and continuous with the pre-
ceding, is fixed to the back of the internal tubercle of the
tibia, and fends an expanfion over the popliteus. The in-
ternal, more confiderable and rounded, feems to be the con-
tinuation of the tendon ; it turns round the tiaberofity, and
is attached in front of it, contained in a fibrous fheath, hned
by a fynovial membrane, which mull be opened to gain a
clear view of it.

It is covered by the femitendinofus, the biceps, and the
fafcia lata ; it lies on the quadratus, the adduftor magnus,
the popliteal artery, the knee-joint, and the inner head of
the gaftrocnemius, between which and its tendon there is a
fynovial membrane.

It bends the leg on the thigh, or the thigh on the leg ;
and it extends the thigh on the pelvis, or carries the pelvis
backwards on the thigh.

SEMI-METALS, a term formerly applied in Chmijlry,
to thofe metals not podefRng duftility or malleability ; thefe
properties being then confidered as the prmcipal characters of
a metal. In a mechanical point of view this is doubtlefs the
cafe, but the chemical properties of this numerous clafs of
bodies are fo ilriking, as to render the above diilindlion ob-
folete. See Metals.

SEMINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Parthia. Ptolemy.

SEMINAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Oude ; 36 miles N. of Kairabad.

SEMINAL, Seminalis, in Medkhie, fpermatic, or
fomething belonging to the iemen or ieed.

Se.minai, Leaves, thofe foft, plain, and undivided leaves,
that firit flioot forth from the greatell part of all fown
feeds, and are different from thofe of the fucceediui^ plant in
figure, texture, and all other refpefts. See Seed and Ve-
getation.

SeiMIN'AI, Varieties of Plants, fuch as are produced from
feeds, which, in many initances, is invariably the cafe, as in
the potatoc, &c.

SEMiNAL-i?«o/, in Natural H'lftory, a name given by Grew
to that part of the feeds of plants, which may otherwife
be called the inner body of the feed : this is di'lributed
through the parenchyma of the feed, but is wholly different
from it ; and diltinguiflied by Dr. Grew from the radicle,
which becomes the plant-root in its future growth. The
parenchyma of the feed is, in feme degree, that to the fe-
minal-root, which the mould or earth is to the plant-root, or
radicle ; and the feminal-root is to the plant-root, what the
plant-root IS to the trui.k.

SEMll^ALIS, in Botany, a name by which fome au-
thors have called horfetail.

SEMINARA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Ca-
hhria Ultra; dcllroyed by an ■arlliquake in 17S5, though
tlie inhabitants efcaped ; 17 mile'* N.N.E. of Reggio.

SEMINARY, a place appointed for the initruction of
young pcrfoiis deltincd for t!'e minillry, in its duties, cere-
monies, and offices ; firll inllituted, as Thomafiin tells us,
by St. Au'Tuiline.

Of thele fcminaries there are many abroad, furnirticd with
halls for the alTcmblics of the exercitauts, and little chara-

S E M

bers, or cells, where each perfon retires, ftudies, and prays,
apart. Such is thefcminary of St. Sulpitius, at Paris.

The council of Trent decrees, that children exceeding
twelve years of age be taken, brought up, and inilrufted
in common, to qualify them for the ecclefiaftical ftate ; and
that there be a feminary of fuch belonging to each cathedral,
under the direftion of the bifhop.

In France, the eftablifhment of feminaries was fomewhat
different from the decree of the council ; none are taken ia
but young people ready to lludy theology, and to be or-
dained : fo that the feminaries were a kind of houfes of pro-
bation, where the vocation of clerks is examined, and they
are prepared to receive orders. And by an edict of 1 74.9,
no feminary could be eilablifhed without letters patent from
the king.

For the fubfiftence of thefe feminaries, there are feveral
unions of benefices, or elfe the clergy of the diocefe are
obhged to contribute to maintain them.

Pope Pius IV. having eilablifhed a feminary at Rome, in
confequence of the decree of the council of Trent, by ad-
vice of the cardinals, it was given to the Jefuits, who have
made very good ufe of it.

Seminary, among the canons of St. Auguftine, is ufed
for a kind of college, or fchool, where penfioners are kept,
and inftruCled in claflical and other learning ; and this among
us is the popular fcnfe of the word.

The houles of die fociety de propaganda Jidc, eilablifhed
for the preparing of ecclcfiailics for mifCons among infidels
and heretics, are alfo called feminaries. The principal of
which is that at Rome, called the apnJloTical college, apojlolkal
feminary, pajloral femmaryi feminary of the propaganda, &c.
See PisTOiA.

Seminary is how ufed among us in the fame fenfe with
fchool ; which fee.

Seminary, in Gardening, the term ufed for the feed-plot,
or place allotted for raifing plants from feed, and keeping
them till they are fit to be rem.oved into the garden, or
nurfery.

When the feminary is intended for trees, it mull be pro-
portioned to the quantity of feeds fown, and of a foil adapt-
ed to the generality of the trees intended to be raifed in it.
The land fhould be good, and the fituation warm, and well
defended, and as near the nurfery as poUible. A fertile
mead, or rich pallure, lowly fituatcd, will be very proper
tor the purpofe. In preparing the feminary, let the ground
be double dug, working the fward to the bottom, which
operation may be performed in winter. In the fpring, the
weeds mufl be conitantly kept down ; and about Midfum-
mer, if the foil is not naturally very rich, fome rotten dung
fhould be fpread over the furface of the ground, which
fhould be then trenched, or double du'T afrclh. From
Midfummer till September, the ground mull be kept
clean from weeds, and jull before the feeds are com-
mitted to it, it fhould be double dug afrefli ; at which time
the parts mult be wholly incorporated. When this is
done, the ground inuil be levelled, and the beds laid out for
the different purpofes wanted ; referving fuch a portion of
it as will be wanted for the reception of thofe feeds which are
to be fown in the fpring.

The feminary mull be divided into different apartments,
for the different forts of feeds, according to their nature ;
thofe feeds that are fown in autumn being fown in a part by
themfelves ; thofe in the fpring in another. Tliofe lleds,
which remain till the fecond fpring bifore they come up,
fhould be all fown in beds contiguous to each other ; and
thofe, which often continue three years, mull be fown by
themfelves. When the phints produced in any of the

apartmentt

S E M

S E M

apartments are taken ofF for the nurfery, the ground fhould
be double dug, and lie fallow the following fummer, ma-
nuring it with rotten dung, and double-digging it about
Midfummer, as before. In autumn it will be ready to be
fown afrelh, which (hould be done with feeds of a different
nature from thofe by which it was before occupied. The
feminary fhould be well fenced and guarded. The feminary
which is moft in ufe is for the fupply of the flower-garden,
and this is the place where flowers are to be raifed from their
feeds, to procure varieties, or, as the florifts exprefs it, new
flowers : as alfo for the fowing of all the biennial plants, to
fucceed thofe which decay in the flower-garden.

The feminary fhould always be fitiiated at fome diftance
from the houfe, and be walled or paled round, and kept un-
der lock and key, to keep out dogs, &c. and to prevent a
great deal of damage that is frequently done by thofe who
are not acquainted with gardening before they are aware of
it. The feveral direftions for the management of the femi-
nary are to be feen under the names of the feveral plants in-
tended to be raifed in it.

SEMINATION, in Jgriculture, the aft of fowing
grain or other forts of feed. It is of much confequence to
have this performed m as equal and regular a manner as pof-
fible ; the crops being thereby much better, and more pro-
duftive. See Sowing.

SEMINERVOSUS, in Jnatomy. See Semitendino-
sus.

SEMINIFEROUS Tubes or Duas, the innumerable
fine canals compofing the body of the teftis, into which the
feminal fluid isfecreted. See Generation.

SEMINIUM, a term ufed by the writers on fofllls to ex-
prefs a fort of firll principle, from which the feveral figured
ftones, or, as they are more ufually called, the extraneous
foffils, are fuppofed to have their origin.

The generahty of the learned world, at this time, fup-
pofed thefe to be the remains of real fliells, &e. brought
from the fea to the places, where they are now found, at the
time of the univerfal deluge. See Formed Stones, and
Adventtt'wus Fossils.

But thofe who difl'ent from this fyflem pretend, that thefe
fofnie bodies, though they exaftly reprefent fhells, &c. yet
never were in the fea at all, but that their minute firil prin-
ciples, or, to ufe their own term, their feminia, have been
carried from the fea, through fubterranean pafTages, to the
places where we now find the complete fhells, &c. into which
they have grown. Langius, who has written exprefsly on
this lubjeft, though he has candidly coUefted all that has
been faid in favour of the diluvian fyffem, by the abettors
of it, yet is not convinced by thofe arguments, but rather
inclines to the other fide of the queftion, or the rife of fuch
foffils from feminia.

Thefe fofTile fhells are ufually found tliroughout one and
the fame fubft;ance, and that the moll different imaginable
from the fubftance of the living creatures which they re-
prefent ; and often, though found in pairs, and perfeftly
clofed on all fides, yet when broken, they are found full of
the fubllance of the Hone in which they lie; and tlie armature
of feveral kinds of them, particularly of many of the cor-
nua ammonis, is fuppofed to plead greatly in favour of this
hypothefis ; as it is not of the nature of or at all owing to
the fubftance of the matrix in which they lie, or of the
matter of which they are formed, and is therefore to arife
folely from the nature of the feminium from which they
are formed.

The immenfe number of the fea-fhells, as they are called,
thus ff und foffile, is alfo thought to argue much on this fide
of the queftion ; as the favourers of this hypothefis fuppofe

that the fea could not, at any one time, have given up fuch
numbers as the earth is flocked with, though there are no
limits to the numbers fuppoted to be raifed from feminia ;
and the immenfe columns of black marble found in Ireland,
and found of fuch regular joints, are brought as a proof of
the poflibihty of fuch a formation of foflils as this from fe-
minia, which they fuppofe mufl have given origin to thofe
pillars.

SEMINOLES, in Geography, a divifion of the Creek
nation of Indians, who inhabit the flat level country on th«
rivers Apalachicola and Flint.

SEMIORBICULARES Oltl.s, Superkr and Inferior,
in Anatomy, the names under which Winflow defcribes the
orbicularis oris. See Deglutition.

SEMI-ORDINATES, in Geometry, the halves of the
ordinates or applicates. See Ordinate and Conic Sec-
tions.

SEMI-PARABOLA, a curve defined by the equation,
a x"'~ ' =^ y" ; as a x' = y^, a x' = ^*. ' ■

In femi-parabolasji"' : v'" (:: ax""^' : a a"""' ) ■.-.x"'''^ : I
z"""', or the powers of the femi-ordinates are as the powers
of the abfciffes, one degree lower ; e. gr. in cubical femi-
parabolas, the cubes of the ordinates^' and "y ' are as the
fquares of the abfciflcs x'- and z'. See Parabola.

SEMI-PELAGIANS, in Ecdejiqjlkal Hijlory, a name
anciently, and even to this day, given to fuch as retain fome
tinfture of Pelagianifm.

St. Profper, in a letter to St. Auguftine, calls them re-
liquias Pelagit.

Many learned men, principally among the Gauls, who
could not come into St. Auguftine's doftrineof grace, &c.
were accufed of Semi-pelagianifm ; they were alfo called
Majftlians, or priejis of Marfeilks, in regard their opinions had
their firft rife in that city.

CaHian, who had been a deacon of Conflantinople, and
was afterwards a priell at MarfeiUes, was the chief of thefe
Semi-pelagians. And about the year 430, feveral other per-
fons embarked in the undertaking of fixing upon a kind of
mean between tlie opinion^! of Pelagius and thofe of Auguf-
tine, and formed this new feft.

The leading principles of the Serai-pelagians were the five
following. I. That God did not difpenfe his grace to one
more than another in confequence of predeflination, i. e. an
eternal and abfolute decree, but was willing to fave all men,
if they complied with the terms of his gofpel. 2. That
Chriil died for all men. 3. That the grace purchafed by
Chrill, and necefiary to falvation, was oflered to all men.
4. That man, before he received grace, was capable of faith
and iioly defires. 5. That man was born free, and was con-
fequently capable of refifling the influences of grace, or of
complying with its fuggeftion. The Semi-pelagians were
very numerous ; and the doftrine of Caflran, though varioufly
explained, was received in the greatell part of the monaftic
fchools in Gaul, from whence it fprcad itfelf far and wide
through tlie European provinces. As to the Greeks, and
other eaftern Cliriflians, they liad embraced the Scpii-pelagiau
doArine before Caflian, and ilill adhere firmly to it. In the
fixth century, the controverfy between the Semi-pelagians
and the difciples of Auguftine, prevailed much, and continued
to divide the Weftern churches. Mofheim's Eccl. Hift.
vol. i.

SEMI-PERIOD, in Gramma/-, a mark of diftinftion re-
commended by Dr. Ward, but not admitted by other gram-
marians. It is greater than the colon, and fuppofed to an-
fwer the fame pnrpofe between the colon and period as the
femicolon does between the comma and colon. It is ufed to
terminate a perfeft fentence, when a new fentence arifing out

of

S E M

S E M

' of the preceding is annexed to it ; and he diftinguifhes it by-
beginning the new fentence with a fmall^'etter. But the colon
and feraicolon, differently applied, fuperfede the neceflity of
his new diftinftion.

SEMIPOLATNOI, or Sempalat, in Geography, a
fortrefs of Ruflia, in the government of Kolivati, on the
Irtifch, firft built in the year 1714, on the bank of the
Irtifch ; but afterwards taken down and crefted in feveral
different fituations. It now ftands in its fourth fituation,
and is ealily commanded from the mountains that lie to the
eafl of it ; and the adjacent country is very pleafant and
fertile, but remains uncultivated. The gardens at Sempa-
lat yield a very fine fpecies of melons. The fort derives its
name from Sempalat, a ruinous town, diftant from it about
16 verfts on the river Irtifch, where are feen fome remains
of old ftone buildings. The Ruffian fettlers found here
feven houfes, as the name of the place imports. Some
learned men are of opinion, that certain infcriptions found
among the ruins, relate to the mythology of the Kalmucks ;
and that this place was deferted by thefe people, in con-
formity to a maxim of their religion, that when any con-
fecrated place is profaned by war, it fhould be for ever re-
linquifhed ; 148 miles S. of Kolivan. N. lat. 50° 25'.
E. long. 80" 14'.

SEMI-PORCELLANjE, in the Hijlory of Shells. See
Shells.

SEMIPREBEND. See Prebend.

SEMI PROOF, an imperfed proof.

In the French law, the depofition of a fingle evidence
only makes a femiproof.

The teftament of a perfon deceafed is deemed a femi-
proof.

In enormous cafes, the femiproof frequently determined
them to try the torture.

SEMIQUARTILE, or Semiquadrate, is an afpcft
of the planets, when diftant from each other 45 degrees, or
one fign and a half.

SEMIQUAVER, in Mufc. See Qltaver.

SEMIQUINTILE is an afpeft of tlie planets, when at
the diflance of 36 degrees from one another.

SEMIRA, i;i Geography. See Samira.

SEMIRAMIS, in Biography, queen of Affyria, a very
diftinguifhcd perfonage in ancient hillory, lived at a period
fo remote, that little can be known with certainty of l-"r
aftioMS. It appears, however, that Semiramis was a female
of obfcure origin, but of great beauty and a fuperior under-
ilandiiig, and that fhe became the wife of Menon, an ofiiccr
of high ranli under king Ninus ; that following licr huf-
band to the army, file engaged in the invafion of Baftra,
and attraftf d the king's notice, whom he afterwards married,
her former hufband, through jealoufy or defpair, having put
an end to his life. After the death of Ninus, who left her
regent and guardian of their infant fon, flie ail'umed tlie
reins of empire, and governed with great glory. She
founded the famous city of Babylon : then purfuing her
hufband's plan of conqucfl, and marching through Media
and Perfia, every where, it is faid, leaving traces of her
fplendour, in works of magnificence and utility, penetrated
to the banks of the Indus. She there encountered the king
of the country, at the head of a vail army, and underwent
a total defeat, whicii obliged her to return to Baftra with
fcarcely a third part of her forces. A confpiracy being
then formed to afl'aflinate her, at the infligation of licr own
fon, fhe either foil under it, or was obliged to refign her
crown after wearing it upwards of 40 years.

SEMIREVERBERATORY Fire, in Chemlflry, a term

ufed to exprefs fuch a reverberatory fire, in which tlie flame
is only beaten back upon the bottom of the velTel.

SEMIRHOMBUS, in Surgery, a fort of bandage.
SEMIRUS, in /Indent Geography, a navigable river of
Italy, in Brutium, the country of the Locri, according to
Pliny.

SEMIS, among the Romans, thehalf oftheax.
SEMI SAT, in Geography. See Sami.sat.
SEMISEXTILE, or Semisextus, or S. S. an afpeft
of two planets, wherein they are diflant from each other one-
twelfth part of a circle, or 30 degrees.

The femifextile was added to the ancient afpefts by
Kepler ; and, as he fays, from meteorological obferva-
tions.

SEMISICILICUS, a word ufed by fome pharmaceutic
writers to exprefs a drachm.

SEMISIDERATUS, a word ufed by fome for a perfon
ftruck with a hemiplegia.

SEMISOSPIRO, in the Italian Mufic, a little paufe,
or the eighth part of a bar in common time.

SEMISPINALIS DoRSi, m Anatomy, a portion of the
mufcular mafs, wliich fills the hollow of the fpine between
the traniverfe and the fpinous procefl'es. It arifes from the
tranfverfe procefTes of four, five, fix, or feven of the
inferior dorfal vertebrae, beginning with the fecond from the
loins, and ia inferted in the fpinous procefTes of the two
loweft cervical, and of the two, three, or four firfl dorfal
vertebra. It lies on the multifidus fpina, with which it is
much connefted ; and it is covered by the longiflimus dorfi
and complexus. It is defcribed as a diftinft mufcle by Al-
binus and Soemmerring : Boyer and Bichat include it with
the multifidus fpinx under the name of tranfverfaire epineux.
See Multifidus, under which article its aftion is de-
fcribed.

SEMITA LuMlNOSA, a name given to a kind of lucid
traft in the heavens, which a little before the vernal equinox,
or after the autumnal, may be feen about fix o'clock at
night, extending from the weftern edge of the horizon, up
towards the Pleiades.

The phenomenon has been taken notice of by Caffini and
Fatio, who both evince, that this light comes difFufcd from
both fides of the fun. Its brightnefs is much the fame with
that of the via laftea, or the tail of a comet : it is feen
plaineil with us about the beginning of Oftober, or the
latter end of February.

Fatio conjcftures, tliat the bodies, or rather the conge-
ries or aggregate of bodies, which occafions this light,
conforms to the fun like a lens, and takes it to have ever
been the fame ; but Caflini thinks it arifes from a vafl
number of fmall planets, which encompafs the fun, and
give this light by refleftion ; efleeming it alfo not to have
exilled long before he obferved it. See Zodiacal Light.

SEMITALES, among the Romans, a name given to
the gods who were tlie proteftors of roads.
SEMITEINTS. See Teints.

SEMITENDINOSUS,^feminervofus;ifchio-prc-tibien,)
in Anatomy, a long mufcle at the back of the thigh, thicker
above and very flender below, extending from the tuberofity
of the ifchium to the tibia. It arifes from tlie ifchium by a
tendon, which, for the fpace of three inches, is common to
it with the long head of the biceps flexor cruris. The mufcular
fibres arifing from tiiis tendon form a fafciculus, which is firfl
flender, then larger, and then again diminiflicd, and iiiter-
fefled in its middle by an aponcurofis very obliquely diredled.
The femitcndlnofus pifles along the inner and pollcrior edge
of the thigh, and terminates below in a tendon, which firft

conftitutes

S E M

S E M

conftitutes the (harp edge of the inner ham-ftring, then goes
behind the internal condyle and the knee-joint, (ends off an
expanflon, which contributes to the formation of the aponeu-
rofis of the leg, turns round the head of the tibia, and fpreads
into a flat form to terminate on the anterior furface of that
bone, a little below the knee, behind the tendon of the far-
torius, and in company with that of the gracilis. Between
this tendon, and the internal lateral ligament of the knee-
joint, there is a burfa mucofa. The mufcle is covered by
the fafcia of the thigh, and at its origin by the gluteus
magnus : it covers the femimembranofus and the adduAor
longuj. The feraitendinofus afts on the knee, the hip, and
the pelvis, in the fame way as the femimembranofus does.
See the defcription of that mufcle. ■

SEMITERTIAN Fever. See Fever, Semitertian.

SEMITONE, m Muftc, one of the degrees, or concin-
nous intervals, of concords.

There are three degrees, or lefs intervals, by which a
found can move upwards and downwards fucceffively from
one extreme of any concord to the other, and yet produce
true melody ; and by means of which, feveral voices and
inilrumcnts are capable of the neceflary variety in paffing
from concord to concord. ' Thefe degrees are the greater
and lefs tone, and the femitone. The ratio of the firll is
8:9; that of the fecond 9:10.

The ratio of the femitone is 15:16; its compafs is five
commas ; which interval is called a femitone, not that it is
geometrically the half of either of the tones, for it is more ;
but becaufe it comes foraewhat near it. It is alfo called the
iiaiural iem\tov\e, and the greater femitone, becaule greater
than the part it leaves behind, or its complement to a tone,
which is four commas. The Italians alfo call it feconda
tn'more, or a leffer fecond.

There are feveral fpecies of femitones ; but thofe that
ii(ually occur in pradfice are of two kinds, diftingni(hed by
the addition of greater and lefs. The firft is expre(red by
the ratio of 16 to 15, or 14 ; and the fecond by 25 to 24,
or 44. The ocstave contains ten femitones major, and two
diefes, nearly ; for the meafure of the oftave being expreffed
by the logarithm i. 000000, the femitone major will be mea-
fured by 0.093109 ; and the oftave contains feventeen femi-
tones minor, nearly. If the meafure of the oftave be the
logarithm i.oooooo, the meafure of the femitone minor will
be o. 058894. Thefe two differ by a whole enharmonic diefis ;
which is an interval prafticable by the voice, and was much
in ufe among the ancients, and not unknown even among the
modern praftitioners. Euler, Tent. Nov. Theor. Muf.
p. 107. See Interval.

Thefe femitones are caihdjiailious notes ; and with refpeft
to the natural tones, are exprelTed by charafters called ji?a/i
andjharps.

Their ufe is to remedy the defefts of inftruments, which,
having their founds fixed, cannot always be made to anfwer
to tlie diatonic fcale.

By means of thefe we have a new kind of fcale, called the
Semi TONIC Scale ; which fee.

In praftical mulic, on keyed and fretted inftruments, it
is a nominal half-tone ; though mathematicians, in theory,
find it impoffible to divide a tone into halves. Roud'eau,
after explaining the fcientific and nominal dilference between
the major and minor femitone ; the major changing its place,
as e tof, and i to c ; and the minor remainm? on the fame
line, or on the fame fpace of the ftafF; "as Ft^ Fx<, Bb Bk^ ;
obferves, that though the imaginary change of tone is ex-
preded by the accident of a (harp or a flat, yet there is no
difference in the found of E« and Ft^, or in A* and Bb> on

S

the organ or harpfichovd, the fame tones being fometimes
major and fometimes minor, fometimes diatonic and fome-
times chromatic, according to the key we are in.

For the importance of the femitone in mufic, fee Matthe-
fon's 6r89niflni»prob€, or Treatife on Thorough-bafe, where
he has bellowed many pages on this interval. Zarlino (;all«
it il/a/e, the fait, or feafonmg of mufic.

The ufe of femitones has been much abufed of late,
by the now too common trick of running up and down the
piano forte in half-notes. Our flow chromatic is fundamen-
tal, and produftive of modulation ; but the quick chiefly
conillls of appoggiaturas, and mere notes of talle, unnoticed
in the bafe and the accompaniments. See Modern Chro-
matic.

For the fober ufe of fucceflive femitones with good tafle
andeffeft, fee Mozart's Theme, N° 5. Var. 4. fecond flrain.

SEMITONIC Scale, or the Scale of Semitones; a fcale
or fyltem of mufic, confifting of 12 degrees, or 13 notes,
in the oftave, being an improvement on the natural or diatonic
fcale, by inferting between each two notes of it another note,
which divides the interval or tone into two unequal parts,
Cdlled femitone.

The ufe of this fcale is for inftruments that have fixed
founds, as the organ, harpfichord, &c. which are exceed-
ingly defedlive on the foot of the natural or diatonic fcale.
For the degrees of the fcale being unequal, from every note
to its ottave, there is a different order of degrees ; fo that
from any note we cannot find any interval in a feries of fixed
founds ; which yet is neceffary, that all the notes of a
piece of mufic, carried through feveral keys, may be found
in their jult tune, or that the fame fong may be begun in-
differently at any note, as may be neceflary for accommo-
dating fome infirumcnt to others, or to the human voice,
when they are to accompany each other in unifon.

The diatonic fcale, beginning at the lowed note, being
firlt fettled on an inilrument, and the notes thereof diftin-
gui(hed by their names, a, b, c, d, c, f, g ; the inferted
notes, or femitones, are calhd JiSitious notes, and take the
name or letter below'with *, as c *, called c fharp ; fignify-
fying that it is a femitone higher than the found of c in the
natural feries ; or this mark b> called z flat, with the name
of the note above, fignifying it to be a femitone lower.

Now .^ and ;-"4 being the two femitones the greater
tone is divided into ; and \^ and I4, the femitones the lefs
tone is divided into ; the whole oftave will ftand as in the
following fcheme, where the ratios of each term to the next
are written fraftion-wife between them below.

fX.

Scale of Semitones.
d. J». e. /. /«. g. g».

flb- *•

For the names of the intervals in this fcale, it may be
confidered, that as the notes added to the natural fcale are
not dcfigned to alter the fpecies of melody, but leave it
ftill diatonic, and only correft fome defefts arifing from
fomething foreign to the office of the fcale of mufic, viz.
the fixing and limitins^ the founds; we fee the reafon why
the names of the natural fcale are continued, only making
a diftinftion of each into a greater and lefs. Thus an in-
terval of one femitone is called a lefs fecond ; of two femi- j,
tones, a greater fecond ; of three femitones, a lefs third; of ll
four, a greater third, &c. "

A fecond kind of femitonic fcale we have from another
divifion of the oftave into femitones : which is performed
by taking an harmonical meau between the extremes of the

greater

S E M

greater and lefs tone of the natural fcale, which divides it
into two (emitoncs nearly equal. Thus, the greater tone
8 : 9 is divided into two femitoncs, which are i6 : 17, and
17 : i8 ; where 16:17: 18, is an arithmetical divifion, the
numbers reprefenting the lengths of the chords ; but if
they reprefent the vibrations, the lengths of the chords are
reciprocal ; wz. as i : | f : 4 5 which puts the greater femi-
tones 4-f next the lower part of the tone, and the lefTer -!-J
next the upper, which is the property of the harmonical di-
vifion. And after the fame manner the lefs lone 9 : 10 is
divided into the two femitones 18 : 19, and 19 : 20; and
the whole oftave Hands thus :

m-

d. d^. e. f. /«. g. S¥:-

b. 6.

This fcale, Mr. Salmon tells us, in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions, he made an experiment of, before the Royal
Society, on chords, exaftly in thefe proportions, which
yielded a perfedt concert with other inllruments, touched by
the belt hands. Mr. Malcolm adds, that, having calculated
the ratios thereof, for his own fatisfaftion, he found more
of them falfe than in the preceding fcale ; but then their
errors were confiderably lefs, which made amends. Mal-
colm's Mufic, chap. X. § 2.

SEMIVOWELS, in Grammar. See Consonants.
SEMIVULPA, in Zoology, a name hy which Gefner,
and fome others, have called the opoHum.

SEMIZUS, \n Ancient Geography, a town of LefTer Ar-
menia, in Melitene. Ptolemy.

SEMLIN, in Geography. See Zemlin.
SEMLYO, a town of Hungary ; iz miles W.N.W. of
Stuhl Weiflenburg.

SEMMARA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ; 10
miles W. of Oppido.

SEMMYA, a town of Hindoollan, in Bahar ; 14 miles
N. of Bahar.

SEMNAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Comis ;
40 miles S.W. of Damegan.

SEMNEON, in Ancient Geography, a town and epifco-
pal fee of Afia, in Pamphylia.

SEMNI, a race of philofophers in India.
SEMNO, in Geography, a river of Albania, which runs
into the Adriatic ; 4 miles W. of Canovia.

SEMNONES, a people of Germany, who, according to
Tacitus, boatted of being the mod noble among the Suevi.
SEMODIUS, among the Romans, a meafure equal to
half the modus, or the fixth part of the amphora.

SEMONES, among the Ancients, a clafs of gods that
were of a middle nature between the celeitial and terreftrial
gods. Jultin Martyr has miftaken one of thefe for Simon
Magus. Mem. de I'Acad. des Infcrip. vol. i. p. 270.

SEMOVNIE, m Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, in Bulgaria; 12 miles W. of Nicopoli.

SEMOY, a town of France, in the department of the
Forells ; 5 miles N.W. of Chiny.

Semoy, a river of France, which rifes near Arlon, and
enters the Meufe near Chiteau Renard, in die department
of the Ardennes.

SEMPACH, a town of Switzerland, and capital of a
bailiwick, fituated on a lake to which it gives name ; 7
miles N.W. of Lucerne. — Alfo, a lake of Switzerland, ia
the canton of Lucerne, fix miles long and two wide ; 8 miles
N.W. of Lucerne.

SEMPERVIVjE, in Botany, a natural order of plants,
Co termed from one of the principal genera ; as alfo per-
haps, more efpecially, in allufion to the tenacioufnefs of the
living principle, common to the whole order, and to which
the faid genus owes its name. See Sempervivum.
Vol. XXXII.

8 E M

This is the 83d of JuJTieu's orders, the lirft of his 14th
clafs, whofe charafters may be found at length ui der the
article Ficoide^e. The Semper-viv^ are dchned as follows.

Calyx inferior, divided deeply into a d/finite number of
fegments. Petals inferted into the bottom of the calyx,
alternate with its fegments, and agreeing with them it: num-
ber, or more rarely the corolla is nionopetalous, either tubu-
lar, or deeply divided. Stamens either as many as tin piials,
and alternate therewith ; or twice as numerous, inferted al-
ternately into the claws of the petals, and the bottom of
the fegments of the calyx ; anthers roundifh. Germens 'Seve-
ral, equal in number to the petals, joined togethei by the
internal angle of their bafe, glandulai at the oppofite part,
their glands, in fome inftances, affuming the form of fcalcs ;
ftyles and (ligmas as many as the germens. Capfules as many,
of one cell, with many feeds, feparating at the inner margin
into two valves, whofe edges bear the Jeeds. Corculum in-
curved, furrounding a farinaceous mafs. Stem herbaceous, or
foinewhat fhrubby. Leaves oppofite or alternate, fnccnlent.

The genera are Til/iea, Crajfula, Cotyledon, Rhodiola, Se-
dum, Sempervivum, and Septas ; to which Penthorum is fub-
joined, as akin to the reft, but differing in habit, (as being
not fucculent,) and in " the mode in which the capfule
burfts ;" fee Penthorum, where Juflieu's miftake is rec-
tified, and this genus referred to the order in quellion, with-
out any exception or doubt.

SEMPERVIVUM, a name which immediately befpeaks
its own derivation, femper vivexs, ever-living, or evergreen ;
the plants which compofe this genus being from their very
fucculent nature fo extremely tenacious of life. — Linn. Gen.
244. Schreb. 329. W^iUd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 930. Mart. Mill.
Dift. V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 522. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
V. I. 334. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 171. .Tufl. 307. La-
marck Uluftr. t. 413. Gaertn. t. 65. — Clafs and order,
Dodecandria Dodecagynia. Nat. Ord. Succulents, Linn.
Sempervi-va, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, permanent, deeply
cloven into about twelve, concave, acute fegments. Cor.
Petals twelve, oblong, lanceolate, acute, concave, a little
larger than the calyx. Neftaries ufually wanting. Stam.
Filaments twelve, (lenderly awl-(haped ; anthers roundifh.
Pi/l. Germens twelve, fuperior, placed in a circle, ereft,
terminating in the fame number of fpreading ftyles ; iligmas
acute. Peric. Capfules twelve, oblong, comprefled, fhort,
ranged circularly, pointed outwardly, opening inwardly.
Seeds numerous, roundifh, fmall.

Efl'. Ch. Calyx inferior, in twelve deep fegments. Petak
twelve. Capfules twelve, with many feeds.

Obf. Linnius in a remark under the natural charafter
in his Gen. PI. makes the greater number of petals the
effential dillinftion between this genus and Sedum, but in the
Sy/l. Feg. the neftariferous fcales are properly made charac-
terillic of tiie latter. According to this principle, Semper-
vivum fediforme , of Jacquin, has been referred by fir J. E.
Smith, in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 6, to Sedum, with which
it accords alfo in habit, differing altogether from Sempervi-
vum, except in number of petals, &c. a circumllance
known, in this cafe, to be uncertain. Neverthelefs, there
being in Sempervivum hirtum, according to Schmidcl's figure
at leaft, a minute indication of a fcale, or tooth, at the bafe
of each gcrmcn, the learned editor of Hort. Kew. was in-
duced, on that ground alone, to prefer the charafter de-
duced from number, in the above plant of Jacquin. Both
Willdcnow and Martyn enumerate fourteen fpccics of this
handfome genus, including Sediformc ; many of thefe arc
beautifully figured by Jacquin and Curtis. The fnllowing,
beginning with the only Britifh fpccies, may fcrve as an
epitome of the whole.

F f S. uaorum.

S E M

S E M

S. UHoruw. CommoTi Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. PI. 664.
Engl. Bot. t. 1320. Curt. Lord. fafc. 3. t. 29. Fl. Dan,
t. 601. — Leaves fringed. Offsets fpreading. Common on
old tiles and decayed thatched roofs, where it forms large,
denfe tufts, flowering, though fparingly, in July. — Roots
perennial, fibrous, throwing out numerous, rofaceous, leafy
runners. Stems ercft, nearly a foot high, round, flelTiy,
downy, leafy, corymbofe at the top, many-flowered. Leaves
extremely fucculeiit, carinated, acute ; the radical onesobo-
vate ; thofe of the item alternate, lanceolate, more flender,
reddifh. Flo-wers p.ile pink, or flerti-coloured, downy. —
" The bruifed leaves are by ruftic furgcons ufed as a cooling
external application, but their virtues are inconfiderable."

S. g/ol'iferum. Globular Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. PI 665.
Curt. Mag. t. 507. Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. t. 40. App. — Leaves
fringed. Offsets refembling little globes. — Native of Rullia
and Germany, flowering in June and July. — Roots perennial,
refembling thofe of the laft fpecics in habit, as indeed do
all the other parts. Stems not fo high, more leafy. Leaves
narrower, clofely fringed, tipped with red ; thofe of the
globular off^-ets co?npattly imbricated. Flowers large and
handfome, in a terminal clufter ; their petals yellow, and
lilac coloured at the bafe.

S. tortuoftim. Gouty Houfeleek. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
173. Wiild. n. 8. Curt. Mag. t. 296. — Leaves obovate ;
gibbous and hairy beneath. Neftaries two-Iobed. — Native
of the Canary Idands, flowering in July and Auguft. — A
JhruUy plant of humble growth, producing numerous flefhy
evergreen leaves growing thickly together, in cluftcrs, on
the offsets ; thofe of the ftem ovate, fmaller, coloured.
Fhiuering Jlems numerous, each fupporting many ftarry,
elegant, bright yeMow Jlowers.

S. araclinotdeum. Cobweb Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. PI. 665.
Curt. Mag. t. 68. Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. t. 42. App. — Leaves
interwoven with hairs. Offsets globular. — Native of the Alps
of Italy and Switzerland, flowering in the fummer.— This
very elegant fpecies, commonly known by the name of Cob-
•ujeh Scdum, refembles all the other fpecies in habit, but is
exceedingly remarkable for a woolly Xubftance on the top of
its globular offsets, which, as the leaves expand, is extended
with them, and affumes the appearance of a cobweb, whence
the fpecific name. Fk-jner-Jlalks about fix inches high, of
a bright pink colour, like the ftem-leavcs. Flozuers ter-
minal, corymbofe, pink or reddilh.

S. montamim. Mountain Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. PI. 665.
Jacq. Auitr. v. 5. t. 41. App. — Leaves not fringed. Off-
fets fpreading — Native of Switzerland, flowering in June
and July. — This elegant fpecies differs chiefly from .:». tedo-
rum in having fmaller leaves without, any fringe or indenture
at their edges, and more expanded offsets. Flowers beau-
tifully variegated with lilac and a brownifli-red colour.

S. monanlhes. Cluftered or Dwarf Houfeleek. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3. 174. Willd. n. 14. Curt. Mag. t. 93. — Leaves
roundifii, club-fliaped, cluftered together. Stalks foiitary,
generally finglc-flowered. Nectaries obcordate. — Native of
the Canary Iflands, flowering in July. — Remarkable as being
by far the fmallett fpecies of Semperv'ivum, but more fo on
account of its veBarles, which are ufually feven in number,
and form a principal part of the fruftification.

The remaining fpecies are .S. arboreiim, canarienfe, glutino-
fum, glandulofum, villofum, Jiellatum, and hirtum.

Sempervivum, in Gardening, contains plants of the fuc-
culent, hardy, herbaceous, evergreen, and fhrubby peren-
nial kinds, of which the fpecies cultivated are ; the common
houfeleek (S. teftorum); the globular houfeleek (S. globi-
ferum) ; the cobweb houfeleek (S. arachnoideum) ; the
mountain houfeleek (S. montanum) ; the tree houfeleek (S.
arboreum) ; and the Canary houfeleek (S. canarienfe).

In the fixth fort a variety with variegated leaves was ob-
tained from a branch accidentally broken from a plant of
the plain fort, at Badmington, the feat of the duke of
Beaufort.

Method of Culture. — The different herbaceous- forts are
all capable of being increafed without difficulty, by plant-
ing their off-fet heads, which ftiould be flipped with a few
root-fibres to them, and planted in the ipring feafon 00
rubbifli, rock-works, or other places, or in pots tor variety ;
and ths tender greenhcufe forts may be railed from cuttmgs
of the branches and from feeds ; but the firft is the better
metiiod. The cuttings fliould be made from the fmaller
branches in the early fummer months, and be planted out in
pots, or a bed of fine earth, in a warm fliaded fituation :
where the cuttings are fucculent, they (hould be laid in a
dry place for a few days to heal over the cut part ; they
fliould be fliaded from the fun ; and thofe in pots lightly
watered in dry weather : when they are become well rooted,
they fliould be carefully removed into feparate pots of a
middle fize, being placed in the greenhoufe. Some for-
ward thele plants by means of bark hot-beds.

The feeds of the Canary kind Ihould be fown in the au-
tumn or early fpring in pots of light mould, placing them
in a garden-frame to proteiS them from froit, having the air
freely admitted in mild weather : when the plants are come
up, and have a little ftrength, they fliould be removed into
fmall pots and placed in the greenhoufe.

The firft forts are ornamental on wall?, buildings, and
rock-works, as well as in pots ; and the latl two kinds
among other potted greeuhtule plants.

SEMPHIROPOL, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
the province of Tauris ; 60 miles S. of Perekop. N. lat.
45° 8'. E. long. 34° 10'.

SEMPHORIS, in Ancient Geography, a town Ctuated
in the environs of Galilee, accordinir to Jofephus.

SEMPRONIUS, in Geography, a poll-town of New
York, nearly in the centre of the county of Onondago,
within the jurifdiftion of the townftiip of Scipio, 20 miles
S.E. from the ferry on Cayuga lake, and 457 miles from
Wafliington.

SEMPT, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Ifer,
5 miles above Landfliut.

SEMRAH, a town of Hindooft;an, in Bahar ; 38 miles
N- of Chuprah. N. lat. 26= 45'. E. long. 84-" 51'.

SEMSAT. See Samlsat.

SEMSHIN, or Semptchin, a town of Little Bucharia ;
18 miles E.S.E. of Tourfan. N. lat. 44° 30'. E. long.
89° 49'-

SEMTCHIARSKOI, a fortrefs of Ruflia, on the Ir-
tifch. N. lat. 51°. E. long. 78^ 10'.

SEMUR, or Semlr en Auxois, a town of France, and
principal place of a diltricl, in the department of the C6te
d'Or, feated on a rock, near the river Armanijon ; 10 miles
N.W. of Dijon. The place contains 4295, and the canton
14,782 inhabitants, on a territory of 277^ kiliometres, in
28 communes. Its principal commerce confifts in woollen
cloth of its own manufafture. N. lat. 47° 20'. E. long.

Semur en Briennois, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftridl of Charolles ; 12 miles S. of CharoUes. The
place contains J9S, and the canton 1 1,106 inhabitants, on
a territory of 182^ kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat.
46^ 16'. E. long. 4° 10'.

SEMUSSYR, one of the Kurilfl^oy iflands, 30 verfts
from Ketoi, another of the fame iflands. Its length is
130 verfts, and its breadth not more than 10. This ifland
has four mountains, one of which exhibits evident traces of

Its

SEN

SEN

itshavinpf been formerly burni : in other refpciSs it has the
fame properties with tliofe of Kelo't ; which fee. The paf-
fage from this ifla..d t ' Tfhirpo Oi is 200 verits.

SEMYDA, ni Botany^ the name of a tree, mentioned
by Theophrallus, and by fome fuppofed to be the fame
with the betula, or birch-tree, but very erroneously.

SEMYSTA, in Ancient Geography, an iflaud of the
Britifh ocean, near the coaft of the Ofifmii, in which the
Gauls had a celebrated oracle^ according to Pomponius Mela.

SEMZA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Archangel ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Mezen.

SENA, or Mahzali, a town of Africa, in the country
of Mocaranga, on the river Zambeza, where the Portuguefe
have a faftory. S. lat. 17° 35'. E. long. 35- 20'.

Sena, Ser.na, or Egyptian CaJJia, in the Materia Medica,
a purgative leaf much ufed in draughts and corapofitions of
that intention.

The fhrub which bears it is a fpecies of caJJia ; which fee.

There is alio a kind of fena growing about Florence ; but
it is inferior to that of the Levant, as is owned by the
Italians themfelves. Father Plumier mentions alfo a third
kind growing in the Antilles iflands.

M. Lemery diftinguifhcs three forts of fena of the Le-
vant : the firit brought from Seyda, called fena of apalto,
that is, citflom fena, by reafon of the cuftom paid the grand
(ignior, for the privilege of exporting it ; the fecond comes
from Tripoli ; the third is called fetia of Mocha.

Sena is a native of Egypt, the bett of which is faid to
grow in the valley of Balabras, or of Nubia : it alfo grows
in fome parts of Arabia, efpecially about Mocha ; but as
Alexandria has ever been the great mart from which it has
been exported into Europe, it has long been dillinguiflied
by the name of Alexandrian fenna or fena.

The belt fena, named in Nubia " guebelly," grows wild,
and yields two crops of leaves, the abundance of which de-
pends on the periodical rains. The firll crop is collefted
after the firft rains, about the middle of September ; the
fecond in the following March. The plants are cut down,
and expofed on the rocks to dry in the fun. The leaves are
then picked, packed up in bales, and fent down to Alex-
andria, where they are mixed with two other fpecies of
caflia : the one the C fenna of For(]<al, with obtnfe leaves ;
the other probably the C. angujlifolia of Willdenow, the
leaves of which are longer, narrower, and fiiarpcr pointed
than thofe of the proper fena, and come from Mocha.
There is reafon alfo for thinking that it is further adul-
terated with the leaves of colutea, bladder-fena, and of box.
The fena, after being thus mixed, is repacked in bales at
. Alexandria, whence it is exported to Europe.

M. Bh)ndel, who was French conful at fevcral fea-ports
of the Levant, informs as, that the true fena grows only in
the woods of Ethiopia, and in Arabia; and that the fena,
vifhich was brought from Saide and Tripoli, was carried
there by the caravans ; and this opinion is llrengthened by
the negative tellimony of Alpinus, who, in liis book " De
Plantis ./Egypti," does not notice fena. But as Hadel-
quifl; found this plant growing fpontaneoudy m Upper
Egypt, Blondel's aliertion is not to be implicitly received.
Sena appears to have been cultivated in England in the time
of Parkinion, A.D. 1640.

The odour of fena leaves is faint, rather difagreeable, and
fickly ; the taile (lightly bitter, fwcetifli, and naufeous.
Boiling water extraAs about one-third of the weight of the
leaves em[)loyed: the infufion has a deep reddifli-brown co-
lour, with the odour and taltc of the leaves. This infufion,
when expoled to the atmofphere, depofits a lemon yellow-co-
loured iiifohible matter ; and a fimilar precipitate is produced
by oxyrauriatic acid, and fevcral other fubltances. Alcohol

and fulpluiric ether, digefted on the powdered leaves, ac.
quire a deep ohve-grcen colour. When tlie ethereal tiniture
is poured on the furface of pure water, a dark olive pellicle
remains after the evaporation of the ether, which is almoit
infipid, and has all the properties of refm ; and a golden
colour is communicated to the water. This colour may be
produced by fome extraftive being taken up by the ether,
clofely united to the refin. The alcoholic tincture is ren-
dered only flightly milky by the addition of water, and
fcarcely any precipitate is produced; but a copious one is
thrown down by oxymuriatic acid. The aAive principle of
lena appears to be a very oxidizable cxtraftive, refin, and a
peculiar volatile matter; and it contains alfo mucus, and
iome faline ingredients. According to Bullion Lagrange,
the refidue of the watery infufion evaporated to dryneff,
and burnt, yields potafs, fulphate of potafs, carbonate of
lime, magnefia, and filica.

It is in common ufe as a purgative, generally operating
under four hours after it is taken ; and is well adapted for
all cafes, in which the bowels require certain, but moderate,
evacuation (fee Cassia Senna) ; and though it be not eafily
accounted for, its bitterncfs aids its operation. To this
purpofe Dr. Cullen remarks, that when fena was infufed
in the infufum amarum, a lefs quantity of the fena was ne-
cefiary for the dofe than the fimple infufion of it. Sena,
however, when infufed in a large proportion of water, as a
drachm of the leaves to four ounces of water, rarely occafions
much pain of the bowels ; and to thofe who do not objeft to
the bulkinefs of the dole, may be found to anfwer all the
purpofes of a common cathartic, its operation being aided
by plentiful draughts of weak broths or gruel. The dofe,
in fubftance, is from a fcrnple to a drachm ; in infufion, from
one drachm to three or four. It gives out its virtue both to
watery and fpirituous menftrua ; communicating to water
and proof fpirit a brownifh colour, and to reftificd fpirit, a
fine green. The two inconveniences attending the ufe of
this medicine, are its being liable, in molt: conllitutions, to
occafiou gripes, and its being accompanied with an ill fla-
vour, which is apt to naufeate the llomach and palate.
The griping feems to be occafioned by the refinous matter,
as the infufion made with cold water does not gripe, al-
though It purges. The firIt may be greatly obviated by-
dilution ; the latter by aromatic and other additions ; e. gr.
cinnamon, or a drachm or two of its diltilled water, or car-
raway, or cardamom feeds. The decoftion is a bad form
in which to adminider this drug, as its aftivity is much im-
paired by boiling ; ou-mg, according to Grew, to the total
didipation of the nauleous and volatile principles ; but, as
Thomfon conceives, to the oxydizement of the extraftive,
which alio accounts for the fevere gripings occafioned by
the decoilion.

Several compofitions of this kind arc prepared in the
fhops, fufllciently palatable, and which operate for the mod
part with cafe and mildnefs. Such are the following : via.
confcHion of fena, the cledluary of fena of the Lond. Pli. of
1787, and the lenitive eledtuary of P. L. 1745 and 1720.
(See Electuaky of Sena.) The Dublin pharmacopeia
direfts the eletluary of fena to be prepared by taking of
fena leaves, in very fine powder, 4 ounces ; palp of prunes,
I pound; pulp c;f tamarinds, 2 ounces ; molallcs, lApint;
and ed'ential oil of carraway, 2 drachms. Boil the pulps
with the fyrup, to the thicknefs of honey ; then add the
powder ; and when the mixture is nearly cold, the oil :
finally, mix the whole thorougiily together.

Thefe eledluaries furnilh a mild and pleafant purgative,
and well adapted for thofe who are afflicted with habitual
colliveiiefs, and alfo for pregnant women. Tile dofe is
from 5j to 3'v, or more, taken at bed-time.

F f 2 ' E.xtraSl

SEN

SEN

Extras of Sena. See Cassia.

As the aAivity of fena is impaired by the preparation of
it in the form of a decoftion, it mull neceffarily fuffer much
more in this preparation. Tlie extract is black, fhining,
and tenacious, and has an odour fimilar to that of wort, and
a bitterifh talte. It is almoft inert as a purgative, and might
properly be altogether rejefted.

However, feme have highly extolled M. Geoffroy's dry
extraft, which is made of a very ftrong infufion, evaporated
to a dry and pulverizable fubftance. This, they fay, is
cafily taken, of no ill taite, and operates in a very fmall
quantity, one-third part containing the virtue of the whole,
or nearly fo ; the niceft calculations fhewing, that 24 grains
of the extraft, fome part of which may be fuppofed to be
earth, or other accidental or ufelefs matter, poflefs the
virtues of a drachm in fubltance. Mem. de I'Acad. des
Scienc. Paris, 1738.

Infufion of Sena. See CassIA.

The Dublm pharmacopeia direfls this infufion to be pre-
pared by taking 3 drachms of fena leaves, half a drachm of
lefTer cardamom feeds, freed from the capfules and bruifed,
and boiling water, as much as will yield, when ftrained,
6 ounces by meafure. Digeil for an hour, and when the
liquor is cold, ftrain it. Thefe infufions will fpoil in warm
weather in 48 hours ; and by fimple expofure to the air, at-
tract oxygen, which occafions a yellowifh precipitate of
©xydized extraftive, that gripes violently, but is not pur-
gative ; on wliich account they (hould be preferved in a
well-clofed veflel, and made only when wanted. They are
alfo precipitated by the Itrong acids, the alkaline carbonates,
lime-water, folutions of nitrate of filver, oxymuriate of mer-
cury, fuperacetate of lead, tartarized antimony, and infu-
fion of yellow cinchona bark, which are confequently in-
compatible in formulx with thofe infufions. The infulions
now mentioned contain all the purgative principles of the
plant, and the aromatics corredl its griping properties.
They are given alone, or more generally combined with
neutral falts and manna. The dofe of the fimple infufions
may be from f ^iij to f ^iv ; but with the addition of 3j of
the tartrate of potafs, or 3iij of the fulphate of magnefia,
which are the ufual adjunfts, f Jij are fuflicient.

Infufion of Tamarinds and Sena is prepared, according to
the Edinb. Ph., b) taking of preferved tamarinds, i ounce ;
fena leaves, i drachm ; coriander feeds, bruifed, half a
drachm ; raw fugar, half an ounce ; and boiling water,
8 ounces. Macerate in a covered earthen veffel, which is
not glazed with lead, (haking frequently, and after 4 hours
ftrain. It may be made with double or triple the proportion
of fena. This infufion is made, according to the direAions
of the Dubl. Ph., in the fame manner as the infufion of
fena, except that jj of tamarinds is added, before ftraining
the liquor.

In thefe infufions, the naufeous tafte is covered by the
fugar ai d the acid of the tamarinds ; but in other refpeAs
they agree both in their properties, and in the effeds of the
incompatible fubilances ; to which, however, mull be added
all falts having potafs for their bafe.

Compound Powder of Sena. See Cassia, and Powder
of Sen<i.

Tinflure of Sena is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph.
of 1809, by taking of fena leaves, 3 oz., carraway feeds
bruifed, i-^oz., cardamom feeds bruiltd, 1 dr., raifins Itoned,
4 oz., and proof fpirit, 2 pints. Macerate for 14 days and
filter. The Dubl. Ph. direfts to take of fena leaves lib.,
carraway feeds bruifed, i| oz., lefler cardamom feeds hufli-
ed and bruiled, -5 oz., and proof fpirit, a gallon. Digeft
for 14 days, then filter.

Compound Tindure of Sena, formerly called Elixir falutis,

or Elixir of health, is prepared by taking of the leaves of
fena, 2 oz., jalap root bruifed, i oz., coriander feeds
bruifed, ■§ oz., proof fpirit, 351b Digeil for 7 days, and
to the filtered tinfture add of refined fugar, 40Z.

Thefe tinftures are ilomachic and purgative : they are
very efficacious in flatulent colic, atonic gout, and as an
opening medicine for thofe whofe bowels have been weaken-
ed by intemperance. The dofe is from fsij to f^j in any
appropriate vehicle.

Syrup of Sena, according to the Lond. Ph., is prepared
by taking of fena leaves, I oz., fennel feeds bruifed, i dr.,
manna, refined fugar, of each lib., and boiling water, a
pint. Macerate the fena leaves and the fennel feeds in the
water for 12 hours; ftrain the liquor and mix with it the
manna and the fugar. The Dubi. Ph. direfts to take of
manna, refined fugar, of each lib., fena leaves, i 01.,
and boiling water, a pint. Let the fena leaves be mace-
rated in the water in a covered vellel for 12 hours ; then
didolve the manna and the fugar in the ftrained liquor.

Tliis fyrup contains the purgative properties of the fena,
and is chiefly intended for children ; but the fimple infufion
of fena, fweetened with fugar, and with the addition of a
little milk, given in the form of tea, is more willingly taken
by children, and operates with greater certainty, Lewis
Woodville. Thomfon.

Sena, Baflard, m Botany. See Cassia.

Sena, Bladder. See Colutea.

Sena, Podded. See Coronilla.

Sen.a, Scorpion, Emerus, a fpecies of coronilla ; which
fee. The leaves of this plant are ufed, but Boerhaave is
unacquainted with any medicinal virtue in them. Ruppius
writes, that the common people fubftitute the leaves in-
ftead of thofe of fena ; and Buxbaum tells us, that old
women who pretend to medicine, call it fenes blatter, and ufe
it inftead of ieiia leaves.

Sena, in j^ncient Geography, a river of Italy, in Umbria,
between the Metaurus and the Mifus, according to Silius
Itahcus.

Sena Gallica, Senagaglia, a town of Italy, in Umbria, of
Gaulifh origin, as its name indicates. When the Romans
had put the Gauls to flight, they eftablifhed a colony in
this city, towards the year 359. . Pompey vanquifhed Mar-
cius in this place and deftroyed it. Ptolemy afligns it to
the Senones, from whom it derived its name.

Sena Infula, an ifland, according to Mela, in the Britifli
ocean, on the coall of the Ofifmii. It is now the Ifle of
Sein or of Saints, on the coaft of Bretagne.

Sena Julia, Sienne, a town of Italy, in Etruria, E. of
Volatern, from which it is feparated by mountains. Dif-
ferent accounts have been given of its origin, from which
we may infer, that it is not one of the ancient towns of
Etruria. The Romans eftabhfhed a colony in this place in
the year of Rome 456, or as others fay, 471. A new
colony was eftablilhed in this place in the time of Julius
Caefar, who gave it the name of Julia. In 1 370 it was
fubjeft to Charles IV. : it fuff^ered much in the wars of the
Guelphs and Ghibellmes. Charles V. gave the inveiliture
of it to Philip II. his fon, who fold it to Cofmo, duke of
Florence, in 1558.

SENABA, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the left
bank of the Nile; 13 miles S. of Melaiii.

SENAC, John, in Biography, a diftinguifhed French
phyfician, was born in Gafcony, about the clofe of the
1 7th century. Little is recorded refpeding the progrefs
of his education and life ; but he is ftated to have been a
doftor of the faculty of phyfic of Rheims, and a bachelor
of that of Paris ; which laft degree he obtained in the
year J724 or 1725. He was a man of profound erudition,

united

SEN

united with great modefty, and became poflefled, by his in-
dultry in the practice of his profeffion, of much found
medical knowledge. His merits obtained for him the
favour of the court, and he was appointed confulting phy-
sician to Louis XV., and fubfequently fucceeded Checoy-
neau in the office of firft phyfician to that monarch. He
was alfo a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, and of the Royal Society of Nancy. He died in
December, 1770, at the age of about 77 years, and the
king appointed no phyfician as his fucceffor, as long as he
lived.

This able phyfician left fome works, wliich will probably
maintain a reputation as long as medicine is ftudied. We
allude more efpecially to his treatife on the heart and its
difeafes, " Traite de la Strufture du Cceur, de fon Aftion,
et de fes Maladies," Paris, 1749, in two volumes, 4to.
which is ftill a Itandard work upon this interefting fubjeft.
An eflay " De recondita febrium intermittentium et remit-
tentium natura," AmlL 1759, is generally afcribed to
Senac. He alfo publifhed, when young, an edition of
Heiiler's Anatomy, with fome interefting comments and
obfervations of his own, entitled, " Anatomie d'Heifter,
avec des Efi'ais de Phyfique fur I'Ufage des Parties du Corps
Humain," Paris 1724, and afterwards " Difcours fur la
Methode de Franco, et fur celle de M. Rau touchant
POperation de la Taille," 1727. " TraitC- des Caufes, des
Accidens, et de la Cure de la Pelte," 1744. A work
under the aftiimed name of Julien Morifon, entitled " Let-
tres fur la Choix des Saignces," 1730, was from his pen;
as well as a paper in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences for 1725, under the title of " Reflexions fur les
Noyes," in which he combatted fome erroneous opinions
refpefting the caufe of death by drowning, and the treat-
ment founded upon them. A work, entitled " Nouveau
Cours de Chymie fuivant lea Principes de Newton et de
Stahl," Paris, 1722 and 1737, has been attributed by mif-
take to Senac ; it was in fail a compilation of notes taken
at the leftures of Geoffrey by fome ftudents, and is un-
worthy of his pen. See Eloy, Dift. Hift de la Medecine.

SENACIA, in Botany, a genus of Commerfon's, ap-
parently named by him in honour of the French phyfician
Senac, (fee the preceding article,) who might perhaps have
patronized the expedition of Commerfon, Ijut of whofe bo-
tanical merits we find nothing recorded. Jufheu, Gen. PI.
378, merely mentions this genus under Celajlrus, as differing
from that in having a longer ftyle, oblong anthers, and a fruit
with generally two cells, two valves, and fix feeds. Our
predeceffor, the Rev. Mr. Wood, feems to have intended to
adopt Scnacia ; fee Cela.strus, at the end. We do not
however find that any other writer has done fo, nor do we
know of what fpecies the genus in queflion ought to confift,
except thofe mentioned in the place jufl cited. The precife
ftruAure of the capfule, and the number of the feeds, are fo
little afcertained in fome reputed fpecies of Celajlrus, and the
variablenefs of thefe charafters, in others, is fo well known,
that while Gsertner himfelf has even doubted the diilinftion
between Euonymus, (fee that article,) and Celajlrus itfclf, we
feel little inclination to fubdivide the latter. The compara-
tive length of the ftyles in thefe plants, variable in different
Hates of the flowers, can afford no certain mark of generic
ditlin£tion.

SENAILLE'E, John Baptiste, in Biography, a
French mufician, born about 1688. He was a great per-
former on the viohn for his time. Haying travelled into
Italy, the manager of the Opera at Modena engaged him
to perform in his orcheflra, and did him the honour to prepare
for his reception a feat more elevated than what was allowed

SEN

to the reft of the band. The duke dcfired him to play fome

folns between the ads of the opera, and he obeyed his
ferene highnefs, to the great joy of the whole audience.
He has left five books of folos, which had great reputation,
till thofe of Le Claire appeared ; which are now as little
known as thofe of Senaillee, though infinitely fuperior to
them. What a fluftuating art is mufic, and how tranfient
the fame of its profeffbrs ! fince we may be certain, that
the works of him who now enjoys the higheft reputation,
will be for ever plunged into oblivion, at the latelt, in a
period of 25 years ; or appear as ridiculous to our children,
as our ancient mufic now does to us !

SENAMARIBO, in Geography, a river of Guiana,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. c° «o'. W. long.
54° 6' ^

SE-NAN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the pro-
vince of Koei-tcheou, furrounded on all fides by moun-
tains ; 845 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 27° 56'. E.
long. 107°.

Senan, a town of Algiers ; 20 miles S. of Oran.

SENANLU, a town oif Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania;
30 miles N,W. of Selefkeh.

SENAPSE', a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; 17 miles W. of Dendera.

SENARPONT, a town of France, in the department
of the Somme ; 22 miles W. of Amiens.

SENATE, Senatus, an alTembly or council of fena-
tors ; that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate, who
have a fhare in the government.

Such were the fenates of Rome, of Carthage, &c. among
the ancients ; and fuch are the fenates of Venice, of Ge-
noa, &c. among the moderns.

The fenate of ancient Rome was, of all fenates, the
moft celebrated, during the fplendour of the republic.
Cicero in his oration for Milo, defines it, templum fanaitat'ut
ampHtudinis, mentis, conjtliique pubiici Romani, caput orbts,
ara fociorum, portufque omnium gentium. The Roman fenate
exercifcd no contentious jurifdittion : it appointed judges
either out of the fenate, or among the knights ; but it
never ftooped to judge any procefles in a body. Tlie fenate
concerted matters of war, appointed who fhould command
the armies, fent governors into the provinces, took order,
and difpofed of the revenues of the commonwealth. Yet
did not the whole fovereign power refide in the fenate ; it
could not alone eleft magiftrates, make laws, nor decide of
war and peace : but in all thefe cafes, the fenators were to
confult the people. Under the emperors, when the fenate
became defpoiled of moit of its other offices, they began
to hear caufes. For thofe of lefs confequence they ap-
pointed particular judges ; the reft, principally criminal
caufes, they referved for their own cognizance, to be judged
by them in a body, and that frequently in the emperor'*
prefence. This was put in their way to keep their heads
from ftate affairs. Nero farther committed to the fenate
the judgment of all appeals; but this did not hold long;
nor do we find any footfteps of it any where but in the
fixty-fccond Novel.

With regard to the jurifdidion of the fenate, Dr. Mid-
dleton obferves, that the fupreme power at home was in the
colleftive body of the people ; yet where halte, perhaps,
or fecrecy was required, and where the determination;] of
the fenate were fo jull and equitable, that the confent of
the people might be prefumed, and taken for granted, the
fenate would naturally omit the trouble of calling them
from their private affairs to an unnecelFary attendance on
the pubhc ; till by repeated omiffions of this kind, begun
at firft in trivial matters, and proceeding infcnfibly to more

feriout,

SENATE.

ferious, they acquired a fpecial jurifdiftion and cognizance
in many points of great importance, to the exclufion even
of the people ; who yet, by the laws and conftitution of
the government, had tlie abfolute dominion over all. For

example: ,• n.- j

1. They affumed to themfelves the guardianlhip and
fuperintendance of the public religion ; fo that no new god
could be introduced, nor altar crefted, nor the Sibylline
books confulted, without their exprefa order.

2. They held it as their prerogative, to fettle the number
and condition of the foreign " provinces, that were an-
nually, affigned to the magiftrates, and to declare which of
them fhould be confular, and which prstorian provinces.

3. They had the diftribution of the public treafure, and
all the expences of the government ; the appointment of
ftipends to their generals, with the number of their lieu-
tenants and their troops, and the provifions and clothing of
their armies.

4. They nominated all ambaffadors fent from Rome, out
of their own body, and received and difmilTed all who came
from foreign ftates, with fuch anfwers as they thought
proper.

5. They had the right of decreeing all fupplications, or
public thankfgivings, for viftories obtained, and of con-
ferring the honour of an ovation, or triumph, with the title
of emperor, on their viftorious general?.

6. It was their province to inquire into public crimes or
treafons, either in Rome, or the other parts of Italy ; and to
hear and determine all difputej among the allied and de-
pendent cities.

7. They exercifed a power, not only of interpreting the
laws, but abfolving men from the obligation of them, and
even of abrogating them.

8. In the cafe of civil diifenfions, or dangerous tumults
within the city, they could arm the confuls by a vote with
abfolute power, to dcftroy and put to death, without the
formality of trial, all fuch citizens as were concerned in ex-
citing them.

9. They had a power to prorogue, or poltpone the aflem-
blies of the people ; to decree the title of king to any prince
whom they pleafed ; thanks and praife to thsfe who had de-
ferved them ; pardon and reward to enemies, or the dil-
coverers of any treafon ; to declare any one an enemy by a
vote ; and to prefcribe a general change of habit to the city,
in cafes of any imminent danger or calamity.

The tribunes foon fnatched from them that original right,
which they had enjoyed from the very foundation of the
city, of being the authors, or firft movers of every thing,
which was to be enafted by the people, and excluded them
from any fhare or influence in the aflcmblics of their tribes ;
and though in the other affemblies of the curis and the cen-
turies, they feemed to have referved to them their ancient
right, yet it was reduced to a mere form, without any real
force ; for inttead of being what they had always been, the
authors of each particular aft that was to be propofed to the
people's deliberation, they were obliged, by a fpecial law,
to authorize every aflembly of the people, and whatever
fhould be determined in it, even before they had proceeded
to any vote. And C. Gracchus afterwards, in his famous
tribunate, ufed to boaft that he had demohfhed the fenate at
once, by transferring to the equeft;rian order the right of
judicature in all criminal caufes, which the fenate had pof-
fefled from the time of the kings.

It has been a queftion among the learned, how fenators
were created, and how the vacancies of the fenate in old
Rome were fupplied.

Dr. Middleton is of opinion, that tlie conftant and regular
9

fupply of the fenate was from the annual magiftrates ; who,
by virtue of their fevcral officjs, acquired an immediate right
to lit and vote in that aiiembly. The ufual gradation of
thefe offices was that of quseltor, tribune of the people, xdile,
prxtor, and conful ; which every candidate, in the ordinary
forms of the conilitution, wasobhged to take in their order,
with this exception only, that he might forego either the tri.
bunate, or the sedileftiip, at his own ciioice, without a nc-
ceflity of palling through them both. See Qvxstor, Tri-
bune, &c.

But though thefe offices gave both an immediate right,
and aftual entrance into the lenate, yet the fenatorian cha-
rafter was not elteemed complete, till the tiew fenators had
been enrolled by the cenfors at the next lullrum, or general
review of all the orders of the city, which was generally held
every five years. Yet this enrolment was but a matter of
form, which could not be denied to any of them, except for
fomc legal incapacity, or the notoriety of fome crince, or in-
famy upon their charafters ; for which the fame cenfors
could expel, or deprive any dlher fenator, of what rank or
(landing foever. See Censor.

It has been the opinion of fome, that under the king^ of
Rome the choice and nomination of all the fenators depcnfled
wholly on the will of the prince, v-khout any right in the
people, either direft or indireA ; and that the confuls, who
Succeeded to the kingly power, enjoyed the fame prero-
gative, till the creation of the cenfors, who ever after pof-
fefled the fole and abfolute right of making and unmaking
fenators. But Dr. Middleton is of opinion, tnat the kings,
the confuls, and the cenfors, afted in this affair but minif-
terially and fubordinately to the fupreme will of the people,
in whom the proper and abfolute power of creating fenators
always refided. And the doftor adurcs us, upon the ftriflcft
fearch into the ftateof theprefent queftion, as it flood under
the kingly government, he cannot but conclude, from the
exprefs tellimony of the bell hillorians, the concurrence of
fimilar fads, and the probability of the thing itielf, that the
right of ciioofing fenators was originally and conllitutionally
veiled in the people. Middleton of Rom. Sen. p. j6.

But lord Hervcy, who feems to have lludied the Roman
hiilory with care and attention, is of a different opinion.
The fenate, at its firll ellabhihment (notu-ithllanding the
judicial and legiflative power it afterwards acquired) was
nothing more than the king's council. In this light not
only Fettus, Eutropius, and Livy, reprefent the fenate, but
even Dionyfius himfelf. It is therefore highly probable, hit
lordlhip fays, that each member of this council wa-- merely,
as Livy and Plutarch relate, the choice of the king, and not,
as Dionyfius reports, elefted by the people. Nor is there
the lead ground to imagine, he tells us, from any author
whatever, except Dionyfius, that during the whole regal
government, the people had, direftly or indirettly, aftually
or virtually, any Ihare or concern at all in the choice of the
fenators. The firtl inftitution, in a word, every augmenta-
tion, and every fupply on vacancies, he fuppofcs to have
depended entirely on the will and authority of the kings.
Nor does he, like Monfieur Vertot, imagine thereafon why
Dionyfius had reported otherwife, proceeded from his repub-
lican fpirit, but from what every body who reads him mud
find in his manner of defcribing every inftitution, law, or
cuitom, among the Romans, viz. an affeftation of tracing
its origin from fome fimilar practice in the Grecian Hates, in
order, from his partiality to that country, to give Greece
the honour of having furnilhed the ll<(.tch of every plan, on
which the Roman government was framed, and the Roman
greatnefs raifed.

Soon after the cxpulfion of Tarquin, and the eftablifhment

of

SENATE.

of the confular government, the fenate, which, by many
condemnations to death, or exile, the laft king had reduced
to lefs than half its complement, was filled up to its former
number of three hundred ; this fupply, according to every
hilU'rian, was made out of the plebeians ; and in all pro-
bability, his lordlhip fays, by the fole power of the confuls,
fince no author relates otherwife, and all authors agree that
the confulate power at firit differed from the regal powers
in no particulars but that of being annual, inftead of per-
petual, and divided between two perfons, inftead of being
velted in a (ingle one.

Till the time of the cenfors then, lord Hervey tells us,
there is not the Iraft reafon to imagine, that the people had
any hand in promoting any man to the fenatorial rank.
From the time that the people were allowed to choofe the
annual magillr^tcs out of their own body, till the time the
commonwealth fell into confufion, which ended, as con-
fnfion generally does, with a total lofs pf liberty, the only
difficulty in accounting for the filling up of the fenate, his
lordfhip fays, is to reconcile the right of the annual magif-
trates to enter the fenate, with the power of the cenfors.
And this, he thinks, may be done by diftinguilhing between
a right to 'vote in the fenate, and being afenator, which were
two different privileges, and quite diftinft honours. The
firft was obtained by virtue of exercifing any public office,
from the quicftorfliip to the conlullhip ; and was confe-
quently conveyed by the people ; whereas the laft was a dig-
nity conferrable only by the cenfors. Feftus fays, that thofe
who held any public office in the ftate, and by virtue of that
office voted in the fenate, were neverthelefs no fenators till
made fo by the cenfors. And Aulus Gellius, in his chapter
upon the " Pedarii Senatores," fays the fame thing.

Thefe two clades were always diftinguilhed even in the
tdift that convoked the fenate ; the form of the edift, as
may be feen in many writers, being to convene the fenaiors,
and all thofe who had a right to "vote in the fenate.

Nor was the difference, according to Aulus Gellius, be-
tween the voters in the fenate, and the confirmed fenators, fo
uneflential, as it may at firft appear ; for thofe, who had
only a right to vote in the fenate, and were not enrolled
fenators, had no right to fpeak there, and could only pafs in
filence to one fide or the other, when a divifion was made on
the point in debate. Whereas an enrolled fenator had a
right, when he gave his vote, to fpeak as long as he pleafed,
and on what he thought fit ; a privilege, which amounted to
a power of flopping all proceedings for that day, and was
often fo ufed.

From the ftory of Fabius Maximus and CrafTus, related
by Valerius Maximus, book ii. chap. 2. there appears to
have been another very eflential difference between a fenator,
and a voter in the fenate ; for by that ftory one muft imagine
that thofe who were enrolled fenators, had not only the fole
right of debating any queftion that came into the fenate, but
were like a fecret committee, or cabinet council, who pre-
vioufly weighed every propofal that was to be made in a
general fenate, and determined whether it fhould be brought
in or not.

The power of taking cognizance of the manners of every
Roman citizen, was firft annexed to the cenforlhip, when
the office itfelf was disjoined from that of the confulfhip,
in the three hundred and eleventh year of Rome, as may be
feen in Livy, book iv. chap. 8. But the power of choofing
the new ienators was not transferred from the confuls to the
cenfors till near a hundred years afterwards, in the tribune-
ftiip of Ovinius ; and it was then given to the cenfors by the
people, to revenge the breach of the Licinian law (which
kw ordained that one of the confuls fliould always be chofea

out of the plebeians) for both the confuls being that year
patricians, and one of the cenfors that year, for th'e firft time,
being a plebeian, the tribune Ovinius put the people upon
this expedient to do themfelves juftice, and mortify the
nobility.

When the annual niagiflrates were not fufficient to fupply
the vacancies in the fenate, the cenfors chofe whom they
pleafed. And that the annual magiftrates were fcldora
enough to fupply the vacancies, may eafily be concluded,
when one confiders how few they were, and how many va-
cancies muft be made in fo large a body as three hundred
men, by natural deaths, the change of perpetual war, and
the purgations made by the reforming authority of tiie
cenfors.

The filling up of the fenate then from the Olivian tribune-
(hip till the time of the Gracchi, lord Hervey thinks, de^
pended entirely on the cenfors ; for though he allows that
the annual magiftrates, at the expiration of their office, had
a fort of claim and pretenfion to be put on the roll of fe-
nators, by the cenfors ; yet as the cenfors, under the pre-
tence of reformation, had an uncontroulable power to re-
move fenators already enrolled, fo on the fame pretence they
could, if they pleafed, refufe to enrol, and even without
giving any reafon ; fince their manner both of expelling or
admitting fenators was merely by omitting or inferting a
name in the ceremony of calling over the roll.

Though the cenforftiip, therefore, at its original inftitu-
tion by Servius Tullius, was nothing more than the office
of numbering the people, and taking the valuation of their
eftates, and an office annexed firft to the royal authority,
and afterwards to the confular power ; yet when it was
detached from the confular power, and erefted into a
feparate office, with the power of filling up the fenate
annexed ; from that time, as the cognizance of the manners
of every citizen of Rome was alfo in their department, his
lordfhip looks upon the cenfors to have been full as abfolute
in the city and the civil government, with regard to all pro-
motions and degradations, from the fenate down to the
loweft tribe, curia, or century, as the confuls were in the
camp and the military government.

Ever after the time of the Gracchi, the ftate was either
in fuch confufion, or fuch abfolute flavery, that his lord-
fliip thinks there was no regular method at all obferved in
filling up the fenate, or any juitice in purging it. Who-
ever had the fovereign power in his hand, under what title
foever he feized or poffeffed it, modelled the fenate by the
introduftion of new members, or the expulfion of old ones,
juft as he thought fit.

Dr. Middleton politely acknowledges, that the hypo-
thefis of lord Hervey has the advantage of his own, and
will be thought the more folid or plaufible by the gene-
rality of readers. See Letters between Lord Hervey and
Dr. Middleton, concerning the Roman Senate ; pubhflied
by Dr. Knowles, quarto, 1 778.

The magiftrates who had the power of afTembling the
fenate were the diftator, the conluls, the prastors, the
tribunes of the commons, and the interrex. Yet upon
extraordinary occafions the fame privilege was allowed to
the tribuni militum, invefted vi'ith confular power, and to
the decemviri, created for regulating the laws ; and to
other magiftrates chofen upon feme unufual occafion.

In the early ages of the republic, when the precinfts of
the city were fmall, the fenators were perfonally fummoned
by an apparitor ; and fometimcs by a public crier, when
their affairs required immediate difpatch ; but the ufual
way of calling them, in later days, was by an edift ap-
pointing the time and place, and publifhed feveral days

before,

SENATE.

before, that the notice might be more pubhc. Thefe
edifts were commonly underftood to reach no farther than
to thofe who were refident in Rome, or near it ; yet when
any extraordinary aiTair was in agitation, they feem to have
been pubhlhed alfo in the other cities of Italy. If any fena-
tor refufed, or neglefted to obey this fummons, the conful
could oblige him to give furety for the payment of a
certain fine, if the reafons of his abfence (hould not be
allowed. But from iixty years of age they were not
liable to that penalty, nor obliged to any attendance but
what was voluntary.

The fenate could not regularly be affembled in a private
or profane place, but always in one fet apart, and folemnly
confecrated to that ufe by the rites of augury.

The fenate frequently met in certain curias. See

But their meetings were more commonly held in certain
temples, dedicated to particular deities ; as in that of
Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Vulcan, Caftor, Bellona; of Con-
cord, Faith, Virtue, the Earth, &c.

Thefe temples, on account of the ufe which the fenate
made of them, were called hkewife curie; as well as the
proper curis, or fenate-houfes, on account of their folemn
dedication, are frequently called temples.

On two Ipecial occafions the fenate was always held
without the gates of Rome, either in the temple of Bellona,
or of Apollo, ifl. For the reception of foreign ambaf-
fadors, and efpecially of thofe who came from enemies,
who were not permitted to enter the city. 2dly. To give
audience, and tranfaft bulinefs with their own generals,
who were never allowed to come within the walls as long
as their commiffion fubfilted, and they had the aftual com-
mand of an army.

The fenate met always, of courfe, on the ifl of January,
for the inauguration of the new confuls, who entered into
their ofiSce on that day.

The month of February, generally fpeaking, was re-
ferved entire by old cuftom to the fenate, for the particular
purpofes of giving audience to foreign ambadadors.

In all months, univerfally, there were three days, which
feem to have been more efpecially dellined to the fenate,
the kalends, nones, and ides, from the frequent examples
found in hiftory, of its being convened on thofe days. But
Auguftus enafted afterwards, that the fenate (hould not
meet regularly, or of courfe, except on two days only of
each month, the kalends, and ides.

On their days of meeting, they could not enter upon any
bufinefs before the fun was rifen, nor finiih any after it was
fet ; every thing tranfafted by them, before or aftv^r that
time, was null and void, and the author of it liable to cen-
fure. Whence it became a (landing rule, that nothing new
Ihould be moved after four o'clock in the afternoon. The
fenate, as has been (hewn above, was corapofed of all the
principal magiftrates of the city, and of all who had borne
the fame offices before them : and confided therefore of
(everal degrees and orders of men, who had each a different
rank in it, according to the dignity of the charafter which
he fuifained in the republic. At the head of the fenate fat
the dictator and confuls, in chairs of (late. Manutius
thinks that the other magiftrates fat next to the confular
chair, each according to his rank ; the pritors, cenfors,
aediles, tribunes, quaellors. But Dr. Middleton rather
thinks that the confular fenators, who, in all ages of the
repubhc, were the leaders and iirft fpeakers in the fenate,
ufed to fit next in order to the confuls ; and after them the
praeL(.rs, and all who were of prstorian dignity, or had
been prsetors ; then the lediles, the tribunes, and the
6

quxllors, on diftinft benches ; and on the fame bench with
each, all who had bone the fame offices ; but the curule
magiftrates, as the prjetors and aediles, were pernaps diiliii-
gui(hed, at the head of their feveral benches, by feats fome-
whjt raifed, or feparated at leaft from the reif, in the form
of our fettees, or of that lonj^a cathedra, which Juveoal men-
tions, to denote the curule dignity.

All the private fenators fat on different benches, and in a
different order of precedency, according to the dignity of
the magiftracies which they had feverally borne. Firft
the consular, then the pntorians, acdilitians, tribunitians,
and qUEeftorians ; in which order, and by which titles, they
are all enumerated by Cicero. And as this was their order
in fitting, fo it was the fame alfo in dehvering their opinion*
when it came to their turn. Cic. Phil. 13, 14.

The fenate being affembled, the confuls, or.the magiftrate,
by whofe authority they were fummoncd, having firlt taken
the aufpices, and performed the ufual office of religion, by
facrilice and prayer, ufed to open to them the reafons of
their being called together, and propofe the fabjetl of that
day's deliberation ; in which all things dmne, or relating to
the worfhip of the gods, were difpatched preferably to any
other bufinefs. When the conful had moved any point,
with intent to have it debated and carried into a decree,
and had fpoken upon it himfelf as long as he thought proper,
he proceeded to a(k the opinions of the other fenators,
feverally in their name, and in their proper order, beginning
always with the confubrs, andgoingon to the prstorians, &c.
It was the praftice originally to a/k the prince of the fenate
the firft ; but that was foon laid afide, and the compliment
transferred to any other ancient confular, diftinguiihed by
his integrity and fuperior abilities ; till, in the later age*
of the republic, it became an eftablifhcd cuitom to pay that
refpedl to relations, or particular friends, or to thofe who
were likely to give an opinion the moft favourable to their
own views and fentiments on the queftion propofed. But
whatever order the confuls obferved in afking opinions 00
the I ft of January, when they entered into their office, they
generally purfued the fame through the rell of the year.
Julius Caefar, indeed, broke through this rule ; for though
he had afked Craffus the firft, from the beginning of hi»
confiillhip ; yet, upon the marriage of his daughter witk
Pompcy, he gave that priority to his fon-in-law, for which,
however, he made an apology to the fenate.

This honour of being afked in an extraordinary manner,
and preferably to all others of the fame rank, though of
fuperior age or nobiHty, feems to have been feldom carried
farther than to four or five diftinguiftied perfons of confular
dignity ; and the reft were afterwards afked according to
their feniority. And this method, as has been faid, wa»
obferved generally throughout the year, till the eleAion of
the future confuls, which was commonly held about the
month of Auguft ; from which time, it was the conftant
cuftom to adc the opinions of the confuls eleA, preferably
to all others, till they entered into their office, on the I ft
day of January following.

As the confuls eleft had this preference given in fpeaking
before all the confulars, fo the prztors, and tribunes eleft,
feem to have had the fame, before the reft of their particular
orders.

None were allowed to fpeak till it came to their turn,
excepting the magiftrates, who feem to have had a right of
fpeaking on all occafions, whenever they thought fit ; and
for that reafon, perhaps, were not particularly afked, or
called upon by the confuls.

If in the debate feveral different opinions had been
offered, and each fupported by a number of fenators, the

conful,

SENATE.

conful, in ihe clofe of it, ufed to recite them all, that the The decrees of the feiiate were ufually publi(hed, and

fenate might pafs a vote feparately upon each ; but in this openly read to the people ioon after they were paffed ; and

he gave what preference he thought fit to that opinion an authentic copy of thera was always depolited in the public

which he mcft. favoured, and fometimes even iupprefled treafury of the city, or otherwife they were not confidered

fuch of tJiem as he wholly difapproved.

In cafes, however, where there appeared to be no diffi-
culty or oppofition, decrees were fometimes made, without
any opinion being a(ked or delivered upon them.

When any queilion was put to the vote, it was determined
always by a divili^n, or feparation of the oppolite parties.

as legal or valid.

As to the force of thefe decrees, it is difficult to define
precifely what it was. It is certain that they were not con-
lidcred as laws, but feem to have been defigned originally as
the ground-work, or preparatory (lep to a law, with a fort of
provifional force, till a law of the fame tenor iliould be en-

to the different parts of tlie fenate-houfe ; the conful, or afted in form by the people ; for in all ages of the republic,
prefiding magiilrate, having firit given order for it in this no law was ever made, but by the general fufTrage of the
form : Let thofe, -who are of fuch an opinion, pafs over to that people.

fide ; thofe, 'who think differently, to this. Even under the kings, the coUeftive body of the people

What the majority of them approved, waa drawn up into was the real fovereign of Rome, and the dernier refort in
a decree, or fenatus-confultiim, which was generally cob- all cafes. But their power, though fupreme and final, was
ceived in words prepared and diftated by the firll mover yet qualified by this check, that they could not regularly
of the quefkion, or the principal fpeaker in favour of it ; enad any thing, which had not been previoufly confidered
who, after he had fpoken what he thought fuflicient to re- and approved of by the fenate. This indeed continued to be
commend it to the fenate, ufed to conclude his fpeech by the general way of proceeding in all quiet and regular times,
fumming up his opinion in the form of fuch a decree as he from the beginning of the repubUc to the end of it ; and the
defired to obtain. Which decree, when confirmed by the conltant ilyle of the old writers, in their accounts of the
fenate, was always figned and attelled by a number of public tranfaftions, is, that the fenate voted or decreed, and
fenators, who chofe to attend through the whole procefs of the people commanded fuch and fuch an aft. Middleton,
it, for the fake of adding tiieir names to it, as a teftimony iibi fupra, and the authorities cited by him.
of their particular approbation of the thing, as well as Before tlie accelfion of Auguftus the fenate had loft its
of refpeft to the perfon, by whofe authority, or in whofe power, and alio its dignity. Many of the moit noble families
favour it was drawn. were cxtinft ; the republicans of fpirit and ability had pe-

When the fenate appeared to be difpofed and ready to rifhed in the field of battle, or in the profcription. The
pafs a decree, it was in the power of any one of the ten door of the affembly had been defignedly left open for a
tribunes of the people to intercede, that is, to over-rule it. mixed multitude of more than a thoufand perfons, who re-
See Intercession, flefted difgrace upon their rank, inftead of deriving honour
In all cafes, where the determinations of the fenate were from it. Juhus Casfar introduced foldiers, ftrangers, and half-
over-ruled by I le negative of a tribune, of which there are barbarians into the fenate ; and this abufe, recorded by Sue-
numberlefs inilances, if the fenate was unanimous, or gene- tonius, became ilill more fcandalous after his death. Au-
rally inclined to the decree fo inhibited, they ufually palled a gullus, ioon after his acceffion, fet about the reformation of
vote to the fame purpofe, and in the fame words, which was it. He was elefted cenfor : and in concurrence with his
called y?flj/uf auHoritas, an authority or judgment of the fenate, faithful Agrippa, he examined the lilt of the fenate, expelled
and was entered into their journals. But this had no other a few members whofe vices or whofe obftinacy required a
force than to teilify the judgment of the fenate on that par- public example ; perfuaded near two hundred to prevent
ticular queition, and to throw the odium of obftrufting an the ihame of anexpulfion by a voluntary retreat ; raifed the
■ ufeful aft on the tribune who hindered it. qualification of a fenator to above ten thoufand pounds;
, . In order to deter any magillrate from afting faftioufly created a fufficient number of patrician families; and accepted
and arbitrarily in affairs of importance, they often made it for himfelf the honourable title of prince of the fenate, which
part of the decree, which they were going to enaft, that if had always been bcftowed, by the cenfors, on the citizen moft
any one attempted to obflruft it, he fhould be deemed to aft eminent for his honours and fervices. But in thus reftoring
againft the interefl of the republic. Yet this claufe had the dignity, he dellroycd the independence of the fenate,
feldom any effeft on the hardy tribunes, who ufed to ap- the principles of a free conllitution being irrecoverably loft,
ply their negative in defiance of it as freely as on any other when the legiflative power is nominated by the executive,
indifferent occafion. How he was afterwards recompenfed by the flattery of the
The faftions, and leaders of parties, had feveral arts of fenate is well known. (See Augustus, Proconsul, and
obftrufting, or pollponing a decree, by many pretexts and Impekator.) It was, however, on the' dignity of the
impediments which they could throw in its way. Some- fenate, that Auguftus and hiii fucceifors founded their new
times they alleged fcruples of religion, that the aufpices empire; and in the adminilLation of their own pewers, they
were not favourable, or not rightly taken ; which, if con- frequently conlulted the great national council, and feemcd
firmed by the augurs, put a ftop to the bufinefs for that day. to icfer to its decifion the moit important concerns of peace
At other times, they urged fome pretended adm.onition from and war. Rome, Italy, and the internal provinces, were
the Sibylline books, which were then to be confulted and fubjctt to the immediate juriidiftion of the fenate. With
interpreted to a fenfe that ferved their purpofe. But the regard to civil objefts, it was the fupreme court of ap.
moit com.Tion method was to wafte the day, by fpcaking for peal ; with regard to criminal matters, a tribunal, conlti-
two or three hours fiiccefTively, fo as to leave no time to tutcd for the trial of all offences that were committed by
finilh the affair at that meeting : yet when fome of the more men in any public ftation, or that aftefted the peace and
turbulent magiftrates were grofsly abufing this right, againlt majefty of the Roman people. The exercife of the judicial
the general inclination of the affembly, the fenators were power became the moit frequent and ferious occupation of
fometimes fo impatient as to filence them, as it were, by the fenate; and the important caules that were pleaded before
force, and to difturb them in fuch a manner, by their clamour them afforded a laft refuge to the fpirit of ancient eloquence,
and hiffing, as to oblige them to defill. As a council of ftate, and as a court of juftice, the fenate pot".
Voi„ XXXII. G s ' •"'•ffed

SENATE.

fefled very confiJerable prerogatives ; but in its legidative
eapacity, in which it was fuppofed virtually to reprefent the
people, the ritjhts of fovereignty were acknowledged to
refide in that afrembly. Every power was derived from tiieir
authoritv ; every law was ratified by their fanftion. Their
regular meetings were held, as we have ah-eady faid, on three
ftated days in^every month ; their debates were condufted
with decent freedom ; and the emperors themfelves, who
gloried in the name of fenators, fat, voted, and divided with
tlieir eqnals.

Augullus found by experience, what he had previoully
expended, that the fenate and people would fubmit to flavery,
provided they were refpeafiilly affured, that they iliU enjoyed
their ancient freedom; a feeble fenate and an enervated
people cheerfully acquiefced in the pleafing illufion, as long
as it was fupported by the virtue, or even by the prudence
of tlie fuccedbrs of Augullus. It was a motive of felf-
prcfervation, not a principle of liberty, that animated the
confpirators agaiuit Caligula, Nero, and Domitian. After
feventy years of patience, the fenate made an ineffectual at-
tempt to reallume its long-forgotten rights. When the
throne was vacated by the murder of Caligula, the confuls
convoked the aiiembly in the Capitol, and daring forty-eight
hours afted as the independent chiefs of the commonwealth.
But while they deliberated, the prxtorian guards had re-
folved : the dream of liberty was at an end ; and the (enate
awoke to all the horrors of inevitable fervitude. Dcfertedby
the people, and threatened by a military force, that feeble
ailembly was compelled to ratify the choice of the pr^-
torians, and to embrace the benefit of an amnefly, which
Claudius had the prudence to offer, and the generulity to
obferve. To cenfure, to depofe, er to punilh with death tlie
firlt magillrate of the republic, who had abufed his delegated
trull, was the eminent and undoubted prerogative of the
Roman fenate ; accordingly they condemned Nero to be put
to death, as Suetonius oblerves, more ma'jorum ; but on the
death of Commodus, that feeble aliembly was obliged to
content itfelf with inflifting on a fallen tyrant that public
juftice from which, during his life and reign, he had been
fhielded by the ftrong arm of military defpotifm. Till the
reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good lenfe of the
emperors, had been diltinguilhed by their real or affefted
reverence for the fenate, and by a tender regard to the nice
frame of civil policy inftitutej by Augullus. But Severus,
trained from his youth to the delpntifm of military command,
difdained to profefs liinifelf the fervant of an affembly that
dctelled his perfon, and trembled at his power ; he alfumed
the conduct and tlyle of a fovereign and a conqueror, and
exercifed, without difguife, the whole legiflative as well as
executive power. Hence the fenate, neither elefted by the
people, nor guarded by military force, nor animated by pub-
lic fpirit, relied its declining authority on the frail and crum-
bling bafis of ancient opinion. The fine theory of a republic
infenfibly vanilhed, and made way for the more natural and
fubllantial feelings of monarchy. The polifhed and eloquent
Haves from the eaftern provinces, by wliom the fenate was
filled, jullified pcrfonal flattery by fpeculative principles of
fervitude. The lawyers and the hiftorians concurred in teach-
ing, that the imperial authority was held, not by the dele-
gated commifTion, but by the irrevocable refignation of the
fenate ; that the emperor was freed from therellraint of civil
laws, could command by his arbitrary will the lives and for-
tunes of his fubjefts, and might difpofe of the empire as of
his private patrimony. Poilerity, who experienced the fatal
eflefts of the maxims and example of Severus, jullly coii-
fidered him as the principal author of the decline of the Ro-
man empire. Such was the timid ingratitude of Gallienus,

that, unmindful of his obligations to the fenate aud people for
repulfing the Alemanni from Rome, he publilhed an edid,
prohibiting the fenators from cxercifing any mihtary em-
ploy ; and even from approaching the camps of the legions.
Tacitus was chofen emperor by the fenate, and the judg-
ment of this aflembly was confirmed by the confent <.f the
Roman people, and of the praetorian guards. By this elec-
tion the fenate regained feveral important prerogatives, the
principal of whicli were the following : I. To invelt one of
their bodv, under the title of emperor, with the general com-
mand of the armies and the government of the frontier pro-
vinces. 2. To determine the lill, or as it was then ftyled,
the college of confuts. 3. To appoint the proconfuls and
prefidents of the provinces, and to confer on all the magif-
trates their civil jurifdidion. 4. To receive appeals through
the immediate office of the prefeft of the city from all the
tribunals of the emperor. 5. To give force and validity by
their decrees to Inch as they Ihould approve of the emperor's
edifts. 6. To thofe feveral branches of authority, we may
add fome infpeSion of the finances, fince even in the Hern
reign of Aurclian, it was in their power to divert a part of
the revenue from the public fervice. Diocletian expreffed
his diflike of Rome and Roman freedom, by framiii>; a nev7
fyilem of imperial government, which was nfterwardi com-
pleted by the family of Conllantine; and as the image of
the old conftitution was religioufly preferved in the fenate,
he refolved to deprive that order of its fmall remains of power
and confideration. The name of the fenate was mentior.ei
with honour till the lall period of the empire ; the vanity of
its members was Hill flattered with honorary dilliiiAlons ;
and the aflembly which had been fo long the fource, and fo
long the inflrument of power, was refpeflfuUy fuffered to
fall into oblivion. The fenate of Rome lofmg all connec-
tion with the imperial court and the actual conllitution, was
left a venerable but ufelefs monument of antiquity on the
Capitoline hill. During the Goth'c war, and in conleqiiencc
of the conquell of Rome by Naries, the inftitution of Ro-
mulus, after a period of thirteen centuries, expired ; and if
the nobles of Rome ilill affumed the title of fenators, few
fubfequcnt traces can be difcovered of a public council, or
conllitutional order. Afcend fix hundred years, and contem-
plate the kings of the earth foliciting an audience, as the
fiaves or freedmen of the Roman fenate. From the year
1 144 the fenate was reftored, and its eftablifliment is dated as
a glorious era in the acls of the city. After its revival, the
confcript fathers, if the expreffion may be ufed, were inverted
with the legiflative and executive power ; but their views
feldom reached beyond the prefent day, and that day was
molt frequently dillurbed by violence and tumult. In its
utmoll plenitude, the order or aflembly confilU-d of fifty-fix
fenators, the moll eminent of whom were diltinguifhed by
the title of counfellors : they were nominated, perhaps an-
nually, by the people ; and a previous choice of their eledors,
ten perfons in each region or parifli, might afford a bafis for
a free and permanent conllicutioii. The popes confirmed by
treaty the ellablifliment and privileges of the fenate, and
expefted from time, peace, and religion, the reftoration of
their government. The motives of public and private in-
tereft; might fometimes draw from the Romans an occafional ■
and temporary facrifice of their claim? ; and they renewed |
their oaths of allegiance to the fiicceffors of St. Peter and
Conftantine, the lawful head of the church and republic. At
length the union and vigour of a public council were dif-
folved in a lawlefs city ; and the Roman fee adopted a more
ftrong and fimple mode of adminiltration. They condenfed
the name and authority of the fenate in a fingle magillrate,
or two colleagues ; and as they were changed at the end of 1

a year.

SEN

a year, or fix months, the g^-eatnefs of the fenate was compen-
fated by the (hortnefs of the term. The fenators of Rome
indulged their avarice and ambition ; their juftice was per-
verted by the interelt of their family and faftion ; and as they
puniftied only their enemies, they were obeyed only by their
adherents. In this itate of anarchy, mod of the Italian
republici chofe, in fome foreign but friendly city, an im-
partial magiihate of noble birth and unblemifhed charafter,
a foldier and a Ilatefman, recommended by the voice of fame
and his country, to whom they delegated for a time the fu-
preme adminillration of peace and war. See Gibbon's Hilt,
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

Senate of four hundred, an ancient fenate of Athens,
when the city was divided into four tribes, each of which
chofe a hundred men. This lafted till Solon inltituted the
fenate of five hundred, after the city was divided into five
tribes.

Senate of Venice. See Pregadi.

SENATOR, a member of a fenate.

There were two orders, or degrees, among the Roman
nobility : that of X^e fenators, and that of the kmghts ; after
thefe two, came the people. The firft hundred fenators were
appointed by Romulus, and called palres, fathers. Upon
the union with the Sabines, RomuIu<!, or as others fay,
Tullus, add':>d a fecond hundred, called patres majorum gen-
tium : this diftinguifhed them from a third hundred, added by
the elder Tarquin, and called patres minorum gentium, fathers
of the lover rank.

In ancient Rome, the number of fenators is commonly fup-
pofed to have been limited to three hundred, from the time
of the kings to that of the Gracchi. But this muft not be
taken too ftridly. The fenate generally had that number,
or thereabout, and upon any remarkable deficiency, was
filled up again to that complement by an extraordinary crea-
tion. But as the number of the public magiftratcs increafed
with the increafe of their conquells and dominions, fo the
number of the fenate, which was fupplied of courfc by thofe
magiftrates, mull be liable alfoto fome variation. To what
number Sylla increafed them is not abfolutcly certain ; but
in Cicero's time they were not lefs than four hundred and
fifteen, as appears by his letter to Atticus, lib. i. ep. 14.

In the time of Gracchus they were fix hundred ; during
the civil wars they were reduced to three hundred. .Julius
Csefar augmented that number to nine hundred ; the trium-
virs toabove a thoufand : and Auguftus reduced them to
fix hundred, according to Dion Cafiius ; and to three hun-
dred, according to Suetonius. For the choice of fenators
belonged at firltto the kings, then to the confuls, then to
the ccniors, who in their cenfus or furvey every fifth year,
appointed new fenators in lieu of thofe dead or degraded ;
but at length it fell to the emperors. See Senate.

Though, for a long time, none were raifed to the dignity
of ienators, but thofe moft confpicuous for their prudence,
&c. yet fome regard was afterwards had to their eilate, left
their dignity fhould become debafed by poverty. To hold
the fenatorial dignity, a yearly revenue of eight hundred
thoufand feilerces was required, which amounts to between
fix and feven thoufand pounds of our money. Half as much
was required for the qualification of the kniehts. The fena-
tors who funk below tliis revenue, were difcarded, and ex-
punged out of the hll by the ccnfor ; and this was increafed
by Auguftus to twelve hundred thoufand.

This quahfication muil not be taken, as it is by fome, for
an annual income, but th^ whole eitate of a fenator, real
and perfonal, as ellimated by the furvey and valuation of the
cenfors.

This proportion of wealth may feem perhaps too low,

SEN

and unequal to the high rank and dignity of a Roman fena-
tor, but it mult be confidered only as the lowell to which
they could be reduced ; for whenever they funk below it,
they forfeited their feats in the fenate.

In ancient Rome, a certain age was required for a fenator,
as is often intimated by the old writers, though none of them
have exprefsly fignified what it was. The legal age for
entering into the military fervice was fettled, by Servius
Tullius, at feventeen years ; and they were obliged, as Fo-
lybius tells us, to ferve ten years in the wars, before they
could pretend to any civil magiltracy. This fixes the pro-
per age of fuing for the quxllorfhip, or the firll Hep of
honour, to the twenty-eighth year ; and as this office gave
an admiffion into the fenate, fo the generality of the learned
feem to have given the fame date to the fenatorian age. Some
writers, indeed, on the authority of Dion Cafiius, have
imagined it to be twenty-five years, not reflefting that Dion
mentions it there as a regulation only propofed to Auguftus
by his favourite Mscenas. Dr. Middleton takes the quaef-
torian age, which was the fame with the fenatorian, to have
been thirty years complete.

The laws concerning the age of magiftrates were not very
ancient : and were made to check the forward ambition of
the nobles, and to put all the citizens upon a level hi the
purfuit of honours. And Livy tells us, that L. Villius, a
tribune of the people, was the firft who introduced them,
A.U. 573, and acquired by it the furname of Annalis.
Middlet. of Rom. Sen. p. 99.

The fenator;; were ordniarily chofen from among the
knights, or from among fuch as had borne the principal
of&ces. At firft the magiftrates were taken wholly from
among the fenators ; whence Tacitus calls the fenate the
feminary of all dignities : but after the people had been ad-
mitted to magiftratures, fenators were taken from among
fuch as had difcharged thofe offices, .though before ple-
beians.

There was fome law fubfifting from the earlieft times, con-
cerning the extradtion and defcent of fenators, enjoining
that it fliould always be ingenuous ; and a; tlieir morals were
to be clear from all vice, fo their birth likewife from any
ftain of bafe blood. In confequence of which, when Ap-
pius Claudius, in his cenfordiip, attempted to introduce the
grandfons of freed (laves into the fenate, they were all im-
mediately turned out again.

Thefe are fome of the laws by which the cenfors were
obliged to aft, in the enrolment of the new, or the omif-
fion of old fenators ; and when we read of any left out,
without any intimation of their crime, it might probably be
for the want of one or other of thefe legal, or cultomary
qualifications.'

It was from the fenatorian order alone, that all ambaffa-
dors were chofen and fent to foreign ftates ; and when they
had occafion to travel abroad, even on their private affairs,
they ufually obtained from the fenate the privilege of a free
legation, as it was called ; which gave them a right to be
treated every where with the honours of an ambaflador, and
to be furnifhed on the road with a certain proportion of pro-
vifions and ucccfTarics, for themfelves and their attendants ;
and as long as they refided in the Roman provinces, the go-
vernors uftd to aflign them a number of liftors, or mace-
bearers, to march before them in ftate, as before the magif-
trates in Rome. And if they had any law-fuit, or caufe of
property depending in thofe provinces, they feem to have
had aright to require it to be remitted to Rome.

At home, likewife, they were diftinguidied by peculiar

honours and privileges ; for at the public ftiows and plays

they had particular feats fct apart, and appropriated to them

G g 2 in

SEN

in the moft commodious part of the theatre ; and on all fo-
lemn feftivals, when facrifices were offered to Jupiter by the
magiftrates, they had the fole right of feafting publicly in
the Capitol, in habits of ceremony, or fuch as were proper
to the offices which they had borne in the city.

The pecuhar ornament of the fenatoriaii tunic was the
lalut clavus (fee Laticlavium), as it was called, being a
broad Itnpe of purple fewed upon the fore part of it, and
running down the middle of the br.'ai^, which was the pro-
per diltindlion between them and the knights, who wore a
much narrower llripe of the iamc colour, and in the fame
manner. The faihion alfo of their Ihoes was pecuhar, and
different from that of the reil of the city ; this difference
appeared in the colour, Ihape, and ornament of the (hoes.
The colour of them was black, while others wore them of
any colour perhaps, agreeable to their feveral fancies ; the
form of them was fomewhat like to a fhort boot, reaching
up to the middle of the leg, as they are lom.etim.es feen in
ancient ftatues and bas-reliefs ; and the proper ornament of
them was a half moon fewed, or fattened upon the fore-
part of theni, near the ankle.

Confuls, pritors, xdiles, tribunes, &c. during the year
of their magiftracy, always wore the prxtexta, or a gown
bordered round wi'h a ftripe of purple. In which habit
alfo, as has been fignified above, all the reft of the fcnate,
who had already borne thofe offices, ufed to afiilt at the pub-
lic feftivah and folemnities.

The fenators carried their children with them to the fc-
nate, to inform them betimes of affairs of ftale; though
thefe children had not admittance till feventeen years of age.
Some make a diftinftion among the fenators, and fay, that
befides the fenators who were allowed to fpeak, and were
afked their opinions, there were others, who, without fpeak-
ing, or being ever allied their judgment ; were only to follow
the opinion of thofs they thought the molt reafonablc, ai;d
were hence called /fJjWi. A. Gellius gives us another no-
tion of the pedarii, and fays, thofe were thus called, who,
having never borne the office of curule magillrate, were
obliged to go to the fenate on foot.

They had the name fenators, q. d. old msn, given them in
imitation of the Greeks, who called their fenate yffsfn.-:.
So when the Athenians aflembled the people to coniult about
the affairs of the public, the officers fummoned none but
luch as were at lealt fifty years old.

The Egyptians and Perfians followed the fame example,
after the Hebrews ; and the Lacedsmonians and Cartha-
ginians received none but luch as were fixty years of age.
See Conscript.

As to other matters relating to Roman fenators, fee the
article Senate, fupra.

SENATUS AucTORiTAS. See Senate.

SENATUS-CONSULTUM, a vote, or refolution, of
the Roman fenate, pronounced on fome queition, or point
of law, propofed to it. See Senate.

The fenatus-coniulta madeapartofthe Roman law: when
paffed, they were depofited in the temple of Ceres, under
the cuftody of the sediles ; and at laft they were carried, by
the cenfor, to the temple of Liberty, and put up in an ar-
mory called tabulitria.

Julius Capitohnus fpeaks of a fort ol fenatus-confuUa ta-
cha, which, he fays, were made in reference to affairs of
great moment and fecrecy.by the fenators themfelves, with-
out the privity of the public officer?, under an oath of fe-
crecy, till their defigns (hould be effcfted.

The narrative of the famous fenatus-confultum, or rather
decree, againft the mufician Timotheus, at Sparta, for

3

S E N

augmenting the number of llrings on his lyre, is confirtncd
by Paufanias and Suidas.

This curious piece of antiquity is preferved at fuUlength
by Boethius (De Muiica, cap. I.) Mr. StilHngflcet (Prin.
and Power of Harm. § 185.) has given an extrad from it,
in proof of the fimplicity of the ancient Spartan mufic. The
faft is mentioned in Athenasus ; and Cafaubon, in his notes
on that author (Animad. in Athen. p. 386.), has inferted
the whole original text from Boethius, with corrections, to
which we refer the learned reader. We ffiall here, how-
over, give a faithful tranflation of this extraordinary Spar-
tan yla of Parliament. *

'■ Whereas Timotheus the Milefian, coming to our city,
has dilhonoured our ancient mufic, and, defpifing the lyre
of feven llrings, has, by the introduction of a greater va-
riety of notes, corrupted the cars of our youth ; and by the
number of his ftrings, and the novelty k{ his melody, has
given to our mufic an effeminate and artificial drefs, initcaJ
of the plain and orderly one in which it has hitherto ap-
peared ; rendering melody infamous, by compofing in the

chromatic, inftead of the enharmonic ; The

kings and the ephori have, therefore, refolved to pafs cen-
fure upon Timotlieus for theie things : and, farther, to
oblige him to cut all the fupertluous Itrings of his ekiirn,
leaving only the feven tones ; and to banifh him from our
city, that men may be warned for the future, not to introduce
into Sparta any unbecoming cuftoms."

The fame ilory, as related in Athenxas, has this addi-
tional circumllance, that when the public executioner was on
the point of fulfilling the fentence, by cutting off tlie new
llrings, Timotheus, perceiving alittleftatuein the fame place,
with a lyre in his hand, of as many llrings as that which
had given the offence, and (hewing it to the judges, was ac-
quitted.

Indeed the decree only informs us, that the ufe of a lyre,
with more than feven llrings, was not allowed at this time
by the Lacedxmonians ; but does not prove that the relt of
Greece had confined their mufic within the compafs of feven
notes : nor, confequently, afcertain how many of the eleven
llrings were additions peculiar to Timotheus. That the otit-
cry againlt the novelties of this mufician was, however, not
confined to .^parta, appears from a paffage in Plutarch's
Dialogue, where he gives a lift of the innovators who had
corrupted and enervated the good old melody, by additional
notes both upon the flute and lyre.

" Lafus of Hermione," fays he, " by changing mufical
rhythms to the dithyrambic irregularity of movement, and,
at the fame time, emulating the compafs and variety of the
flute, occafioned a great revolution in the ancient mufic.
Melanippides, who lucceeded him, in like manner, would
not confine himfelf to the old mufic, any more than his Hho-
lar Philoxcnus, or Timotheus."

The fame thing alfo appears from the bitter invectives to
which the comic poets at Athens, efpecially Pherecrates and
Ariftophancs, gave a loofe ; not, perhaps, from underlland-
mg mufic, o\- being at all fenfible of its effefts, but from
that envy which the great reputation of the mufician had
excited. An exalted charafter is a ffiooting butt, at which
fatirifts, and wicked wits, conllantly point their arrows ;
and the ftage at all times wages war againft whatever calls
off the public attention from itfelf.

The abufe, therefore, of this mufician, which .ibounds
m ancient authors, is, perhaps, as great a proof of his fu-
perionty as the praife. A Greek epigram, preferved in
Macrobius, informs us, that the Ephefians gave him a thou-
l^nd pieces of gold for compofing a poem in honour of
Diana, at the dedication of the temple of that goddefs ;

and

SEN

S E N

and was not that a fufficient reafon for hungry authors to
rail?

Plutarch tells lis, that the comic poet Pherecrates intro-
duced Mufic on the llage, under the figure of a woman,
whofe body was terribly torn and mangled. She is allied
by Jullice, under the figure of another woman, the caufe
of her ill-treatment ? when (he relates her (lory in the follow-
ing words : " The firlt fource of all my misfortunes was
Melauippidcs, who began to enervate and debilitate me by
his t'wel've Jlrmgs. However, this would not have reduced
me to the deplorable condition in which I now appear, if Ci-
ne(ias, that curfed Athenian, had not contributed to ruin
and disfigure me in his dithyrambic ftrophes, by his falfe
and untuneable inflexions of voice. In (hort, his cruelty to
me was beyond all defcription ; and next to him, Phrynis
took it into his head to abufe me by fuch divifions and fiou-
ridies, as no one ever thought of before, making me (ub-
fervient to all his whims, tvvHting and twirling me athoufand
ways, in order to produce irom fve JlrlngSi the tnvelve dif-
ferent Diodes. But (till, the freaks of fuch a man would
not have been fufficient to complete my ruin, for he was able
to make me fome amends. Nothing now was wanting but
the cruelty of one Timotheus to fend me to the grave, after
maiming and mangling me in the mod inhuman manner."
" Who is this Timotheus ?" fays Juilice.

Music.

" O 'tis that vile Milefian blade.
Who treats me like an arrant jade :
Robs me of all my former fame ;
And loads me with contempt and (hame :
Contriving (till, where'er he goes,
New ways to multiply my woes :
Nay more, the wretch I never meet.
Be It in palace, houfe, or ftreet,
But Itraight he tries to clip my wings.
And ties me with a do-z.enjlrings.'"

SENAURA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Bickaneer ; j miles E. of Jefl'elmere.

SENCE, a river of England, which rifes in Leicefter-
(hire, and runs into the Anker, near Atherltone, in War-
wick(hire.

SEND, is ufcd by feamen, when a (hip, either at an
an-chor, or under fail, falls with her head, or ftern, deep
into the trough of the fea, i. e. into a hollow made between
two waves, or billow:;. They fay ihe feiu/s much that way,
whether it be a-head or a-llern.

SENDAL, in our V/cl IVrilcri, a kind of thin line filk,
mentioned in the ftat. 2 Rich. II. cap. I.

SENDEBAS, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
eaft branch of the Nile ; 13 miles S. of Semmcnud.

SENDELBACH, Langen, a town of Germany, in
the bifliopric of Bamberg j 5 miles S.S.E. of Forcheim.

SENDEN, a town of Germany, in the bifliopric of
Mnnll-r ; 7 miles S.S.W. of Munller.

SENDENHORST, a town of Germany, in the bi-
(hopric of Mnnfter ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Paderborn.

SENDESE, a town of Egypt, on the Kalits il Menhi ;
3 miles N. of Behnefe.

SENUGEAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
13 miles S.E. of Bahkefri.

SENDGISCHOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of S.uid<,;nirz ; 36 miles S.S.W. of Sandomirz.

SENDI, or SiNDi, in yiruiriit Geography, a people of
Scythia, in the country called Sendica, in the vicinity of
*he couutry of the Tauro-Scythians. Pliny.

SENDIA, in Geography, a town of New Mexico, on
the Bravo ; 50 miles S. of Santa Fe.

SENDUARY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 45
miles S.S.W. of Patna.

SENEBIERA, in Botany, a genus of Decandolle's,
dedicated to Mr. John Seiiebier, a Genevan naturalift, who
publidied a work upon Vegetable Phvfiology, in 1 791.
Decand. Mem. de la Soc. d'Hifloire Naturelle, 142. De
Theis, 427.

SENECA, Lucius Asvjevs, in Biography, a cele-
brated plnlofophcr, was born at Corduba, near the com-
mencement of the Chriltian era. His father was a man of
equeltrian rank, and an eminent orator, of whom (ome de-
clamations and controverfies are extant. His n:other was
Helvia, a Spani(h lady of dillinftiim. Being educated at
Rome, he was early initiated in the ftiidy of eloquence by
his father, and other mailers ; but his own propenfity led
him to devote his talents to the ftudy of philofophy. He
firft joined the Pythagoreans, whom he foon left for the
Stoics : he, however, confined himfelf to no feft, but ex-
tended his inquiries to all the fyllems of Grecian philofophy.
In conformity to the wifhes of his father, he pleaded fome
time in the courts of juftice, and acquired by the practice a
confiderable reputation ; but it is thought he relinquilhed
the bar, through fear of the jealoufy of Caligula, who was
ambitious of oratorical fame. Entering into pubhc life, he
obtained the office of quellor, and had rifen to fome con-
fequence in the court of Claudius, when, at the inlligation
of Mellalina, he was accufed of an adulterous commerce
with Julia, the daughter of Germanicus, and was banifhed
to the idand of Corfica. In that idand he remained in exile
eight years, confoling himfelf with the maxims of phi-
lolf)phy, though never refigned to the leverity of his lot, as
may be inferred from his complaints, and his abjedt applica-
tion to the emperor for pardon.

Upon the marriage of Claudius to his fecond wife Agrip-
plna, Seneca was, through ! er influence, recalled, and,
after being raifed to the pra;tor(hip, was appointed preceptor
to her fon, the afterwards mod; infamous Nero ; while Bur-
rhus was made his governor and military iultruttor. They
are faid to have ailed with the mo(l perfcdl unanimity in
reftraining him from thofe vices, to which his fituation and
inclination prompted him ; and obtained an afcendancy over
him, to which is attributed the flattering promife of the firlt
years of his reign.

When Nero began to difplay his real charafter, his
quarrels with his mother, who was as violent and wicked as
her ion, laid his governors under great difficulties. Once
they were the means of reconciling them, but at length the
breach was irreparable, and Nero determined to free himfelf
from one wlion; he regarded as a dangerous competitor, by
the horrid crime of matricide. Seneca and Burrhus were
apprilcd of his intention, and did not oppofe it, as they
ought to have done ; and after the deed was perpetrated,
Seneca wrote to the fenate, in the name of the emperi r, to
jullify it. Burrhus died very foon, and the influence of
Seneca over his pupil was entirely loft ; neverthelefs the
tyrant heaped upon his preceptor unbounded wealth, which
not only cxpofed the charadler of the philofopher to leveie
cenfure, but was in the end the principal caufe of his de-
llrutliou. Finding that he was an objeft of envy to the
favourites of the prince, he rcquelltd permillion to retire
from court, and refund all that he had received from tlie
imperial liberality. Nero allured him of his continued re-
gard, and would not hear of the proffered rellitution of re-
wards, which he had fo well merited. Seneca, however,
knew him too well to place any confidence in his declara-
tions.

SEN

tions, and kept himfelf out of fight as much as polTible.
Notwithftaiidiiig his prudence, it is faid that the tyrant en-
gaged one of his freedmen to poifon him, and that Seneca
by good fortune efcaped the fnare. It was not long, how-
ever, before an occafion was given to the emperor to gratify
Ids hatred againll one, whom he felt as a fecret ceufor of
his vices. Under the pretence of Seneca's conneftion with
a confpiracy, a miKtary tribune was fent with a band of
foldiers to Seneca's houfe, where he was at fupper with his
wife Paulina, and two friends. He was, without much
ceremony, commanded to put an end to himfelf. The phi-
lofopher heard the feiitence with equanimity, and only aflced
for time fufficicnt to make his will. This was refufed, and
turning to his friends, he faid, tliat fince he was not allowed
to Ihew his gratitude to them in any other way, he would
leave them the image of his life, as the belt memorial of
their friendfliip. He then exhorted them to moderate their
grief. He embraced Paulina, and endeavoured to comfort
her ; but (he refufed any other confolation than that of
dying with him. The death which he chofe was that by
opening his veins, and he expired in the year 65, and in the
12th year of Nero's reign. The emperor would not fuffer
Paulina to die with her hulband ; but file never recovered
the lofs of blood which fhe had experienced, before the im-
perial decree arrived.

The charadler of Nero has been greatly extolled by fome
writers, and not lefs deprecated by others ; but Tacitus,
without pretending to conceal his faults, inclines to a fa-
vourable opinion of him ; and it is completely aicerlained,
that while Nero followed the precepts of his mailer, he ap-
peared a good prince ; and that all virtue was banifiied from
the court, when Seneca left it.

" If," fays one of the philofopher's biographers, " a
writer could be eftimated by his works, a purer moraliit
could not ealily be found ; for their conllant tenor is that
of fohd virtue, tempered with humanity, and exalted by
the nobleft principles of theifm. They are indeed marked
with the tumid pride inculcated by the Stoical feft, to
which he chiefly adhered, though he freely adopted what he
found good in others." Of his writings which have come
down to us, the greater part are moral, confining of epiftlcs,
124 in number, and of diftindl treatifes on Anger, Confola-
tion, Providence, &c. There are, moreover, fevcn books
on phyfical topics, entitled " Natural Queftions," in which
are to be found the rudiments of fome notions regarded as
fundamental in modern phyfics.

A number of tragedies are extant, under the name of
Seneca, but they are probably not his ; nor is it at all
known to whom they ought to be afcribed. The editions
of Seneca's works are very numerous. Of the works, not
including the tragedies, the moll efteemed are thofe of
Lipfiuj ; the Variorum, 3 vols. ?vo. ; the Leipiic, 2 vols.
8vo. ; and the Bipontine. Of the tragedies, are the Va-
riorum ; that by Heinfius, with notes by Scaliger ; and the
quarto Delphin.

Seneca, in Geography, a town of America, in the county
of Onondago, in New York, laid out in ilreets and fquares,
on the north fide of Seneca Falls. The inhabitants have
erefted, at a great expence, flour and faw-mills, of the belt
kind in this place, and alfo a bridge acrofs Seneca river ;
and as the place is central, and acceflible from the eaftern
and weitern countries, it promife? a rapid increafe.

Seneca Creek, a creek in Maryland, which has two
branches ; one called Little Seneca. It empties into Po-
tomac river, about 19 miles N.W. of the mouth of Rock
creek, which feparatcs George-town from Wafiiington
city.

S E N

Seneca Late, a lake in Ontario county, Nevr York,
which is a handfome piece of water, from 35 to 40 miles in
length, and about 2 miles wide. At the N.W. corner of
the lake ftands the town of Geneva ; and on the E. fide, be-
tween it and Cayuga, are the towns of Romulus, Ovid,
Hector, and Ulyd'es, in Onondago county, New York.
Its outlet is Scayace river, wliich alfo receives the waters of
Cayuga lake, 9 miles N.E. from the mouth of Canada Saga,
18 miles below Geneva.

Seneca River, a river in the ftate of New York, which
has an eailerly courfc, and receives the waters of Seneca and
Cayuga lakes, which lie north and fouth, 10 or 12 miles
apart, and empties into the Onondago river, 14 miles below
the Falls, at a place called the Three Rivers. The river is
boatable from the likes downwards. Witliiu hall a mile of
the river is the famous fait lake.

SENECAI, or Sene^e, Antoixe Baudebox de, in
Biography, a French poet, was born at Ma^on in 1 543.
He was brought up to the bar, and pleaded for a time,
rather in comphance with his father's wifhcs, than from his
own inclination. A duel, in wliich he was engaged, obliged
him to retire to the court of Savoy, where fie had another
quarrel with the brothers of a lady, who attached herfelf to
him ; and the coufequences of which caufcd him to with-
draw to Madrid. After this he returned to France^ mar-
ried, and purchafed the place of firll valct-de-chambrc to
Therefa, the wife of Lewis XIV. Lofing that oHice, on
the death of the queen, he, with his family, was received
into the houfe of the duchefs of Angouleme, where for
30 years he enjoyed an honourable retreat. At her death,
he fixed his refidence at his native town, where he died in
1737, having attained to his 94th year. Scnege devoted
himfelf to literature, and many of his compofitions were
inferted in the " Mercurcs," and other periodical works of
the time. By his poems he has obtained a rank among the
fuccefiful votaries of the French mufes. Voltaire deno-
minated him " a poet of a Angular imagination," and fays,
that his tale of " Kaimac" is a diftinguifiicd performance.
He alfo fpeaks in praife of his " Travaux d'ApoUon."
His tale, entitled " La Mauiere de Filer le parfait Amour,"
is much efteemed. He was alfo the author of " Remarques
Hilloriques," with obfervations on the Memoirs of Cardinal
de Retz.

SENECAS, or Senekas, in Geography, a tribe of In-
dians, being one of the Six nations. They inhabit the
territory on Genefiee river, at the Geneflee caftle. This
tribe confilts of about 1780 perfons. They hare two towns
of 60 or 70 inhabitants each, on French creek, in Pennfyl-
yania; and another town on Buffaioe creek, which falls
into the eaftern extremity of lake Erie, on the New York
Ihore; and two fmall towns on Alleghany river. The
Seneka Indians are wonderfully expert in the ufe of bows
and blow-guns, with which they fhoot fquirrels in the
woods. The blow-gun is a narrow tube, about fix feet
long, made of a cane-reed, or fome pithy wood, through
which they drive {lender arrows by the force of the breath.
The arrow^s are not much thicker than the lower ftring of a
violin : they are generally headed with fmall triangular bits
of tin ; and round the oppofite ends, for the length of two
inches, a quantity of the down of thirties, or fomething very
hke it, is bound, fo as to leave the arrows at this part of
luch athickiiefs that they may but barely pafs into the tube.
The arrows are put in at the end of the tube that is held
next to the mouth, the down catches the breath, and with
a fmart puff' they will fly to the diftance of 50 yards.

SENECEY, or Grand Sennecey, a town of France^

m the department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place

9 of

SEN

SEN

of a canton, in the diflridt of Clialons fur Saone ; 8 miles
S. of Chalons fur Saone. The place contains 2345', and
the canton 13,612 inhabitants, on a territory of 2225 kilio-
metres, in i8 communes.

SENECIO, in B'jtany, an ancient name, occurring in,
Plniv, derived horn Jhiex, an old man ; ox fencfcerc, to grow
old ; which is fnid to have been borrowed from tlie fancied
refemblance of its capitate feed-down to the grey or filvery
liead of age — Linn. Gen. 424. Schreb. 555. Willd. Sp.
PI. V.3.I973. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 881.
Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibtb. v. 2. 176. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 5. 36. Tlumb. Prodr. 157. Purlh. 528. Tounief.
t. 260. Juir. 181. Lamarck Ilhillr. t. 676. Gaertn.
t. 166. (Jacobxa ; Gsertn. t. 170.)— Clafs and order,
Syngencfia Polygamia-Superflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite Dlf-
cotde^, Linn. Corymbifera, JuH.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx calyculate, conical, truncated ;
fcales awl-fhaped, numerous, parallel and contrafted into a
cylinder at the upper part, contiguous, equal ; not fo nu-
merous at the bale, but imbricated, withering at the tip.
Cor, compound, higher than the calyx ; Jlorets of the dillc
perfcft, tubular, numerous, funuel-fhaped, with a five-cleft,
reflexed limb ; thole of the radius, if any, female, ligulate,
oblong, flightlv three-toothed. Slam, (iri the perfeft florets)
Filaments five, capillary, very fmall ; anthers cylindrical,
tubular. P'lfl. (in all the florets) Germen ovate; Ityle
thread-fliaped, the length of tlie ftamens ; ftigmas two, ob-
long, revolute. Peric. none, except the conical, converging
calyx. Seeds in both kinds of florets alike, folitary, ovate,
erowned with capillary, long down. Recept. naked, flat.

Obf. Senecto of Tourncfort and otliers, is deftitute of a
common radius to the corolla, whereas their Jacobxa is fur-
nilhed with one. This, however, is by no means a fufGcient
generic diitincfion. Moll autiiors have accordingly united
them into one genus.

Ell. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down fimple. Calyx cy-
lindrical, many-leaved, equal, fcaly at the bafe ; fcales dead
at the tip.

In the Species Plantarum of Linnaeus we meet with only
forty fpecies of Senccio, (to which however many others are
added in his Supplementum Plantarum,) whereas Willdenow
enumerates one hundred and twenty-two. Thefe are divided
into the four following fedlions, from each of which we fhall
feleft a few fpecies m order to give as clear and concife an ac-
count of this extenfive genus as we are able.

Seft. I. Flor'ihusjlofcuhjjis. Flowers without a radius.

S, rec/inatus. Grafs-leaved Groundfel. Linn. Suppl. 369.
Willd. n. I. (8. graminifolius ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 1.
t. 174.) — Corolla naked. Calyx ventricofe, fomewhat im-
bricated. Leaves thread-fliaped, linear, quite entire, fmooth.
— Native of the Cape of Good Hope, flowering from June
to Auguil. Sicm herbaceous, about three feet high, wavy,
reclined and branched at the top, yellowilh-green, round.
Leaves f.-liile, fcattered, grafiy, fpreading, revolute at the
edge, rough, i^/owfrj terminal, panicled, golden-cohjured,
with a glaucous calyx.

S. ptirpureus. Purple Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PI. I 215.
Willd. n. 6. (Cacalia villofa ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 3. t. <;8o.)
— Corolla naked. Leaves lyrate, hairy ; the upper ones lan-
ceolate, toothed. — Native alfo of the Cape, and flowering
from June to September. Roat perennial, thick. Stems
numerous, ered, a foot high, ftriated. Leaves alternate,
lyrate, obtufe, thickilh ; the lower ones on long llalks ; all
beautifully veined. Floiuers terminal, corymbofe, purple,
rather fmall.

S. cernuus. Drooping Groundfel, Linn. Suppl. 37c.

Willd. n. 7. (S. rubens ; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. t. 98.) —
Corolla naked. Leaves elliptical, toothed or ferrated, rather
hairy. Stalks elongated, fingle-flowered. — Native of the
Eafl; Indies, flowering in July and Auguft. Stem herba-
ceous, a foot high, erect. Leaves alternate, ftalked, veined,
rough, with two little angulated^i^«/aj at the bafe of each
foottlalk. Flowers folitary, terminal, violet-coloured, on
long, generally drooping Italks.

S. Pfeudo- China. Chiiiefe Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PL
1216. Willd. n. 18. (S. madrafpatanus, rapi folio, flori-
biis maximis, cujus radix a iionnullis China dickur ; Dill.
Elth. V. 2.345. ^- ^5^- ^•335-) — Corolla naked. Leaves
lyrate, pinnatihd, tootlied- Flower-llalk nearly naked,
very long. — Native of the Eafl: Indies, flowering from June
to Auguft. Root perennial, tuberous, flelhy, fibrous.
Stem none. Leaves radical, large, ftiaped like thofe of a
turnip, fmooth. Flower-Pall: flender, more than a foot
high, lufl:aiiiing a few -^eWovi Jlo-wers at the top.

S. vulgaris. Common Groundfel, or Simfon. Linn.
Sp. PI. 121 6. Engl. Bot. t. 747. Curt. Lond. fafc. I-
t. 61. — Flowers without a radius, fcattered. Leaves
finuated in a pinnate form, toothed, embracing the item.
A common weed, flowering throughout the year, in any
kind of foil or fituation. Root annual, fibrous. Stem ereft,
branched, leafy, lomewhat panicled, round, angular, either
fmooth or clothed with a cottony down like the back of the
foliage. Leaves alternate, bright green ; radical ones
ftalked ; thofe of the Hem feflile, auriculate. Floiuers ter-
minal, icattered or panicled, yellow. Seeds furrowed, pu-
befeent. Seed-down feflile, rough. The great peculiaiuty
of Seneclo in having the fcales of the calyx withered, and
black at the tip, is very confpicuous in the prefent fpecies,
whofe flower-buds and young tops are the food of many
Imall birds, and efpecially domellic Canary-birds. In
feveral parts of England it is called Simfon, apparently a
corruption of the generic name, perhaps through the me-
dium of the French Senejfon.

The remaining fpecies of this fcdlion, defcribed by Willde-
now, are, S. angujllfollus, mucronatus, nlveiis, hleraclfolms,
erubefcens, perficifoUus, blftorus, panlculatus, bldentatus^ fcaber,
vejlltus, vlrgatus, dlvarlcatus, croatlcus, japonlcus, peucedanl-
folius, arable us, and vcrhenefollus.

Seft. 2. Florlhus radlatls, radio Jlatlm revoluto. Flowers
with a revolute radius.

S. vtfcofus. Stinking Groundfel, Linn. Sp. PI. 12 17.
Engl. Bot. t. 32. — Radius revolute. Leaves pinnatifid,
vifcid. Scales of the calyx lax, and nearly as long as the
calyx itfelf, which is hairy. Not uncommon in many parts
of Britain, in a chalky or fandy foil ; flowering from July
to October. The whole herb is hairy and vifcid, with a
very fetid fmell. Root annual. Stem a foot high, much
branched, fpreading, furrowed, leafy. Leaves alternate,
feflile, very ilightly embracing the Item, pinnatifid, fome-
what toothed. Flower-Jlalks folitary, terminal, each bear-
ing zjlower of a bright gold colour.

S. llvldus. Green-fcaled Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PI. 1216.
Engl. Bot. t. 2515. (S. corollis revolutis, foliis amplexi-
cauhbus lanceolatis dentatis, fquamis calycinis brevillimis in-
taftis ; Lmn. Hort. Upf. 261.) — Radius revolute. Leaves
clafping the flem, lanceolate, pinnatifid, and toothed. Scales
of the calyx fhort ; their points acute and not difcoloured.
— Native of Spain, and lately difcovered by W. Middle-
ton, efq. in Yorkfliire. It flowers in Oftober. " This
new Britifli fpecies," fays the author of Englifli Botany,
" is moll like S fyhmtktis, but the elTential and all-fufEcient
marks of dillinclion are the dilated bafe of the leaves which

embrace

SENECIO.

embrace the ftem, and the taper-pointed fcalca at the bafe of
the calyx, which are not blackened and abrupt at the tip, as
in perhaps every other Senecio." This fpecies vanes much
in the depth of the fegments of its leaves. The florets ol
the radius are not at firft revolute, but gradually become fo.
S. fyhatkus. Mountain Groundfel. Lnin. Sp. PI. 1 2 1 7 .
Engl. Bot. t. 748. " Fl. Dan. t. 869." — Radius revo-
lute. Leaves pinnatifid, lobed, toothed. Scales of the
calyx (hort. Stem ereft, llraight, corymbofe.— Comtr.c..i
in buihy fpots upon gravelly or fandy heaths, flowering in
July. Root annual. Stem three feet liigh, leafy, fur-
rowed, rather hairy, many-flowered. Leaves numerous,
fcattered, with an unpleafant fmell, and flightly v.fcid.
Flowers yellow, but paler and fmaller than in fyl-vatuus, of
which fome authors have conlidercd this as a variety, but
from which it is perfedly diifinft.

The remaining fpecies of Willdenow m this fettion are,
S. triflorus, ,?gypthis, miJIraUs, lautus, cmjifolius, humilis, leu-
cnnthemif alius, auritiis, gi^anteus, tekphifolius, Irilobus, c'meraj-
cens,javanicus, coronopif alius, multifidus, nebrodenfis, glaucus,
and varicofus.

Seft. 3. Florihus rtiJiiilis, radio patenle ; foliis pinnati-
fdis. Flowers with a fpreading radius and piiinatilid leaves.
S. hnjlatus. Spleen -wort-k-aved Groundfel. Willd. n. 4J.
(Jacobaa afra perennis vifcofa lutea, afplenii foliis ; Dili.
Elth. 183. t. 152. f. 184.) — Radius fpreading. Leaf-
ftalks embracing the ftem. Flower-ilalk thrice as long as
the leaf. Leaves hallate, fiiiuated. — Native of the Cape of
Good Hope, flowering molt part of the fumnier. Stem
herbaceous, perennial, about two feet high, branched at the
bottom. Leaves italked, narrow, feven or eight inches
long, very glutinous. Flo-wers terminal, yellow, two or
three on ezchjla/i.

S. elegans. Elegant Groundfel, or Piirpb Jacobaea.
Linn.Sp. Fl. 1218. WiUd. n.58. Curt. Mag. t. 238.—
Radius fpreading. Leaves hairy, vifcid, piiiLatifid, equal,
much-fpreadiiig. Common llalk narrowed below. Calyx
hairy. — Native alfo of the Capo, flowering from June to
autumn. Linnseua gave to this mniual the name of elegans,
becaufe of the beauty of hs^owers, their radius being of a
moft brilliant purple, and their dilk bright yellow ; colours
peculiar to this and S. venuflus, Willd. n. 57. — 'Yhejlem is
abcut eighteen inches high, eredt, branched, furrowed.
Leaves at the llem-joints, bright green. Tlie figure of
Curtis exhibits a beautiful variety of this fpecies, with double
flowers, whofe colours are equally brilliant as when iingle.
It occafionally produces white flowers.

S.fqualidus. Inelegant Ragwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 12 18.
Engl. Bot. t. 600. — Radius fpreading, longer than the
calyx ; its florets elliptical and entire. Leaves pinnatifid j
their legmentsdiltant, fomewliat hnear. Plentiful on almoit
every wall in and about Oxford, flowering from June to
Odober. Root annual or biennial. Stem ereft, branched,
much ipreadiiig, fometimes a little hairy. Leaves feflile,
deeply pinnatifid, narrow, fmooth, flat, rather flefhy, often
purplilh beneath. Flowers folitary, of a bright golden
yellow, on terminal, folitary, brafteated, corvmbofe ilalks.
The whole herb has a peculiar fmell, fomewliat like Tanfy
or Mug wort,

S. abi-otamf alius. Southern-woud leaved Groundf 1.
Linn, Sp. PI. 1219. Jacq. Aultr. t. 79. — Radius fpread-
ing. Leaves pinnatifid, jagijed ; leaflets hnear, naked, acute.
Stalks moltly two-flowtred. — Native of the Auftrian Alps,
flowering from July t(i Oc/tober. Root perennial, com-
■pofed of many, long, (lender fibres, ftriking deep, and
fpreading 011 all fides. Stem from one to two feet hi"-h,

ilriated upwards. Lower leaves bipinnutifid, flalked ; tpper
pinnatifid, feUile ; all d.irk green above, glaucous beneath.
Flowers large and handfome, lemon-coloured, in ttrniii.zl

bu::ches. t- ,

S. tenuifolius. Hoary Ragwort. ^Vllld. n. 75. Eng..
Bot. t. 574. Jacq. Auftr. t. 278.— Radius fpreading.
Leaves pinnatifid, fomewliat revolute ; paler and ftiaggy be-
neath. Stem creft, cottony.— Found occafionally iu woodt,
on hedges, and by road fuics, chiefly in a calcareous foil,
flowering in July and AuguU. Rool perennial, rather
creeping. Stem ereft, wand-like, furrowed, leaty, ton-m-
bofc at the top. Leaves numerous, altern ite, embracing the
ilem, more or lefs cottony beneath, and otien white with
down. Flowers corymbole, bright yellow. This n cer-
tainly dittiaft from S. erucifolius of Liimxus, fays the author
of Enghfh Botany, who is inclined to think it may rather be
a variety oi fylvaticus whicli it more nearly refemblei.

S. JaeoUd. Common Ragwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 12 19.
Engl. Bot. t. 1 130. Mart. Rufl. t. 85. — Radius fpreading.
Leaves doubly pinnatifid, foinewhat lyrate, divaricated,
toothed, fmooth. Stem ereft. — Abundant in all kinds of
walle ground,* flowering in the height and drought of
fummer, when " it forms a contrail with the furrounding
fcorched and withered herbage." Root perennial, fibrou.<.
Stem ereft, branched, ilriattd, fmootliilli, leafy, curymbofe,
many-flowered. Leaves molUy fmooth, dark green, cut into
various, fpreading, toothed legmentf. Flowers very nu-
merous, of a bright, golden yellow, terminal, corymbofc.
A cottony web, more or lefs denfe, frequently invells the
flower-ftalks and calyx.

S. aquaticus. Marfli Ragwort. Willd. n. 77. Sm. Fl.
Brit. SS5. Engl. Bot. t. 1131. Fl. Dan. t. 784.— Radiu«
fpreading ; florets elliptical. I>eavcs lyrate, lerrated '; the
lowermoil obovate and undivided. Seeds fmooth. — Very
common in moill meadows and ditched, where it flowers
from July to the end of autumn. The herbage of ihis^f-
rennial is moftly fmooth, except when it grows in dry
fituations, and then it is fonutimes a little woolly. Stem
erect, branched, purplilh at the bafe, like the lalt fpecies.
Leaves variable in fliape, from ovate to deeply pinnatifid, of
a much lighter ereen than in Jacobea. The flowers are
larger, fewtr in number, and of a brighter colour ; but the
entire fmoothnefs of its feeds conllitutes the moft ftriking
mark of fpecific diltinftion between thus and the lilt, ot
which Linnxus confidered it oily as a variety. " In having
the feeds both of the dilk and radius quite fmooth, it differs
(fays fir J, E. Smith) from every other Semcio we have bctri
able to examine."

The remaining fpecies of Willdenow in this feftion are,
S.fquamofm, incifus, camofus, abruptus, lyratus, fpirteifoliut,
pubigerus, vernalit, montanus, rup^Jlris, dentalus, vcnujius, eruci-
folms, fpeciojus, erofus, uaifiorut, iiicanus, camiolicus, parvi-
florus, vmricatus, titvigatiij, grandifi'^nss, myrrhifolius, dij-
fufus, canadeiijis, elelpliinijo.'ius, auriculatus, aureus, Bal'
famiu, obovatiis, and umbellaJus.

Seft. 4. Floribus riidiatis ; foliis inJivifis. Flowers with
a radius. Leaves undivided.

S. pnludofus. Great Fen Ragwort. Bird's-tongue.
Linn. Sp. Pi. J 220. Engl. Bot. t. 650. Fl. Dan. t. 3S5.
— Radius fpreading. Leaves fword-ftiaped, iharply ler-
rated, fomewhat woolly beneath. Stem perteftly llraight.
— Native of Europe 111 fens and marlhe>, but very rare in
Britain. It flowers in Jnne and July. Root perennial, of
many long, fimple fibres. Stems crcft, from three to fix
feet in height, fimple, leafy, round, ftriated, hollow, clothed
with a loole down. Leavei feflile, fcatlexcd, narrowed al

the

SEN

SEN

the bafe, fraooth above, paler and downy beneath. Floviers
above an inch in diameter, bright yellow ; in a kind of ter-
minal corymb, the Xowetmo^Jlalks arifing from the boforas
of the upper leaves.

S. nemorenfts. Branching Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PI.
I22I. Jacq. Auitr. t. 184. — Radius nearly i-evolutc.
Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ferrated, fringed at the margin,
ver^^ nightly downy beneath, feflile, unequal at the bafe. —
Native of Auilria and Switzerland ; flowering in July and
Auguft. Root perennial, fibrous, not creeping. Stems ge-
nerally fingle, two or three feet high, ereift, (lightly an-
gular or grooved towards the top, pale green, purplilh here
and there. Leaves alternate or fcattered, five or fix inches
long, pointed, fmooth above, hairy beneath. Flaivers very
numerous, yellow, in terminal compound corymbs.

S. faracenicus. Broad-leaved Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PI.
T23I. Engl. Bot. t. 22 1 1. Jacq. Auftr. t. 186. — Ra-
dius fpreading. Flowers corymbofe. Leaves lanceolate,
ferrated, nearly fmooth. — Native of the fouth of Europe,
and occafionaliy though very rarely found in Britain. It
flowers in July and Auguft. Root perennial, creeping.
Stems ereft, from three to five feet high, angular, leafy,
fmooth, corymbofe at the top. Leaves alternate, feflile,
lanceolate, (lightly downy. Fktuers bright yellow, in a
large, terminal corymb, with narrow, lanceolate, pointed
braHeas, and rather downy Jlalis. — This is one of our rareft
Britifh plants. The fpecific name alludes to its being ufed
by the Saracens as a vulnerary. Its qualities are aftringent,
with confiderable acrimony.

S. Doria. Broad-leaved Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 221.

Willd. n. 97. Jacq. Aullr. t. 185 Radius fpreading.

Outer fcales of the calyx fpreading. Leaves fomewhat
decurrent, oblong-lanceolate, glaucous, fmooth, ferrated. —
Native of Auitria, flowering from July to September. —
7^00/ perennial, brownifh, bitter, with long white fibres.
Stem from two to five feet in height, much branched up-
wards, ftriated. Leaves alternate, lower ones ftalked ; upper
feflile ; all of them extremely glaucous and ribbed. Flowers
rather fmall, numerous, paliih yellow, in terminal, com-
pound corymbs.

S. Doronieum. Alpine Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PI. 1222.
Willd. n. 100. Jacq. Auftr. t. 45. App — Radius fpread-
ing. Stem fimple, moftly fingle-flowered. Leaves undi-
vided, ferrated ; radical ones ovate, hairy beneath. — Native
of the fouth of Europe, flowering from July to September.
— Root perennial, fibrous. Stem perfectly fimple, hairy.
Radical leaves ftalked, thickifti, plain or ftriated on either
fide of the mid-rib ; Jlem-leaves fmall, lanceolate, nearly awl-
fhaped. Flowers large, terminal, moftly folitary, of a
deep yellow or orange-colour, on longifti, thick, hairy
ftalks.

S. lanceus. Spear-leaved Groundfel. Willd. n. 102.

Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. ,* -'04 Radius fpreading. Leaves

lanceolate, heart-ftiapei embracing the Item at the

bafe, fmooth, deeply fe\ Stem flirubby. — Native of

the Cape of Good Hope, flowering from July to OAobcr.
— Root perennial, fibrous. Stems numerous, annual, round,
fmooth ; from four to iix feet high, ftreaked with purple.
Lea'ues alternate, fomewhat leathery, fmooth, glaucous,
pointed, veined with purple. Flowers in terminal, thick,
compound corymbs, bright yellow ; the dijk turning
brown.

The remaining fpecies of this laft and fourth feftion
defcribed by Willdenow, are the fallowing.— 5. linifolitts,
juniperinus, rofmarinlfoUus, a/per, Jlriatus, cruciatus, rlgefcens,
pinnulatus, hadienfis, ovatus, coriaceus, orienlalts, Barrelieri,
arenarius, glafiifolius, eporinus, loniifolius, undiilatus, bvzan-

VoL. XXXII.

t'lnus, heterophyllus, halimifolius, marginatus, marttimus, lanatus,
mollis, quercifolius, ilicifolius, crifpus, crenatus, angulatus, cor-
difolius, repandus, rigidus, 3.nA folidaginoides .

Senecio, in Gardening, contains plants of the herbaceous,
annual, and perennial kinds, of which the fpecies cultivated
are; the hieracium-leaved groundfel (S. hieracifolius) ; the
Chinefe groundfel (S. pfeudo-china) ; the fpleenwort-
leaved groundfel (S. haftatus) ; and the elegant groundfel,
or purple jacobaea (S. elegans).

In the fourth fpecies thtre are varieties with very double
purple, and with equally double white flowers. The former
is now chiefly cultivated.

And there are other fpecies that may be cultivated for
variety.

Method of Culture. — The firlt and two laft forts are
readily increafed by planting cuttings of the branches in
pots filled with fine mould in the fummer feafon, ftiading
them till they have taken root ; and, as the winter ap-
proaches, removing them under the proteftion of the green-
houfe, where they fhould remain till May, when they may
be planted out in the borders or clumps. They may like-
wife be raifed from feed, which ftiould be fown in the fpring
in pots, and placed in a gentle hot-bed.

The fecond fort ftiould be more carefully attended to,
being raifed from offsets, which fliould be planted in pots in
the fpring feafon, and be plunged in the hot-bed of the
ftove, where the plants Ihould be conftantly kept.

The firft and two laft forts afford variety in the borders,
and among potted plants ; and the fecond in ftove col-
ledlions.

SENECTA Anguium, the exuvis, or (loughs of fer-
pents. The fnakes call their whole fltin, and with it were
fuppofed to call off their age, and be born anew ; whence
the name of thefe catl fldns. A decoftion, or infufion of
thefe, is recommended by medical writers againft pains of
the ears and eyes, and fome fuperllitious people recom-
mended it to women to tie about their waifts, to prevent
mifcarriages, and about their thighs, in time of labour to
hallen delivery.

SENEFFE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Jemappe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diitrift of Charleroy ; 13 miles N.W. of Charleroy. The
place contains 2531, and the canton 12,063 inhabitants,
on a territory of 1675 kiliometres, in 13 communes.

SENEGA. See Gum Senega.

SENEGAL, or Senecambia, in Geography, a country
of Africa, fituated between the rivers Senegal and Gambia,
and including many kingdoms and ftates. It derives the
former name from the river Senegal, and the latter from
that of Gambia. According to Bruns, all the coaft ex-
tending from Cape Blanco to the mountains to the N. of
Senegal, has been called Upper Senegambia. It is fre-
quented by the Moors, wandering (hepherds in the defert of
Zaara or Sahara. They acknowledge the fupremacy of
the emperor of Morocco ; but only obey him as they find
it to be their intereft. The Europeans trade with thefe
people in gum ; and the eftablifhment of Portendeck,
formed by the Dutch, and that of Arguin, have been dif-
puted by feveral European nations, with inconceivable
eagernefs. The dreadful portrait which Mungo Park has
given us of the foolifh pride, perfidy, and barbarity of the
Moors of the environs of Tombu6loo, perfeftly agrees
with that given by Briflbn of thofe who inhabit the coafts.
The whole country watered by the rivers of Senegal and
Gambia has been called Senegambia, and extends, according
to firuns, from the northern (hores of Senegal to the
northern (horee of Sierra Leone.

H h Senegal,

SENEGAL

Senegal, a river of Africa, which rifes in the interior of
the country, and runs, after a winding courfe, into the
Atlantic. It tikes its rife by various ftreams in a chain ot
mountains, fituated, according to Mr. Park's difcovenes,
between the sth and 9th dc^rrees of weft longitude, and
direAs its courfe toward, the N.W. Withm the fame
fpace a-e the fources of the Gambia, which runs to the
W.N.W., and thofe of the JoUba or Niger flowing towards
the E.N.E. A large portion of the tracl bordering on the
northern foot of the mountains, whence the branches of the
Senegal river iffue, is covered with thick forcfts. One part
of this traa is denominated the Jallonka wildernefs, in which
no habitations are to bo leen during nine days of forced
marching. Tiie head of the principal branch of the Sene-
gal is about 80 geographical miles W. of that of the Joliba ;
and the head of the Gambia is about 100 miles W. of the
Senegal. The branches of the latter are very numeiou-;,
and interfeft the country for about 200 miles from E. to W.,
in the line of the caravan route. In Mr. Park's judgment,
the Senegal river, below the falls of F'low, or Feloe,a3
Labat calls it, was about the bulk of the Tweed at Melrofs
in fummer ; but this was in the dry feafon, or Chriftmas ;
and as tiie river docs not fwell periodically, till many months
after that, Mr. Park did not fee it at its loweft pitch.
And yet this was the affemblage of all the rivers, the
Faleme excepted, which was itfelf about three feet deep
at the fame feafon. But the Senegal is even fordable in
fome places before the conflux of the Faleme, according to
Labat ; for the Moors crofs it in the dry feafon, and commit
depredations on fome of the lands to the fouth. However,
almoft all the towns and villages are placed on the fouth
fide, with a view of being in fecurity for the longeft poflible
term. The Senegal river is then by no means a very capital
ftream, except in the rainy feafon ; when, like all the other
tropical rivers, its bed is filled, and it very commonly over-
flows. Mr. Park obferved, by the mark of the higheft
point of fwelhng of the river Kokaro, or eatlern branch of
the Senegal, that it had been twenty feet higher than when
)ie croffed it, in the line of the fouthern route. The main
branch of this river, the Ba-fing, or Black river, was not
fordable, and was croffed over a temporary bridge of a very
fnigular conltruftion. Alligators and crocodiles are found
in all thefe rivers, at the height at which Mr. Park palled
them. The Faleme river has a remote fource, and drains
a great extent of country. The great body of the river
Senegal is precipitated from the upper level, containing the
political divifions of Manding, Jallonkadu, Fooladu, Kaflbn,
Gadon, and fome other fmaller ftates, to the intermediate
one ; thus forming the falls of Govinea. The intermediate
level contains Bambouk, Konkadoo, Satadoo, Dentila, and
fome others, and is bounded on the S.W. by the great flope
of country at Kirwanney, when the waters firfl. begin to flow
towards tiie W. On the N.W. it is bounded by the great
defcent which forms the fccond or lower fall of the Senegal
river, named F'low. This fall is about 30 miles below
Govinea, 48 above fort St. Joleph ; and here the river,
being arrived at the loweft level of the country, continues
navigable, with little interruption, to the fea. The Faleme
river, of courfe, mull run on a far lower level than the other
heads of the Senegal river. The diftance between Koonia-
karry in Kalfon, lat. 14'^ 34', and the Senegal river, 13
miles, pointstoaW.N.W. courfe, or thereabouts, of the river
between the falls ; not much diff^erent from its general courfe,
lower down. But as the Ba-fing, or principal arm of the
river, muft run almoft direftly to the N. from the place
where Mr. Park crofled it, in Jallonkadu, it is highly pro-
bable that the two great branches unite at no great diftance

above the upper fall : the fame ridge of mountains that oc-
cafion the fall, may, perhaps, occafion ajuMdion of the dif-
ferent ftreams above it. Thefe falls are faid by Labat tc
be from 30 to 40 toifes perpendicular, or 180 to 240 French
feet. The Senegal, in its courfe, feparates the two coun-
tries of Kajaaga and Kaffon.

Within fix "miles of the fea, the river in its courfe takes a
fudden turn to the fouth, and for the remainder of its paf-
fage is divided from the fea only by a natural ridge of fand,
fometimes not icra toifes over. By this curve it prolongs
its courfe for 75 miles farther, from north to fouth, till at
length it difcharges itfelf into the ocean, in N. lat. 15° 50'
This great river feparates the country of the Negroes from
the Moors of Sahara, or the Defert, ftretching by a number
of windings to a prodigious length, from eaft to weft. The
extreme rapidity of this river is attributed to the fpace pafled
through bv fo large a body of water, confined within fo
narrow a channel ; the mouth of it being no more than a
mile and a half over, and that choaked up with fand, called
a bar, which renders the pafl'age exceedingly difficult and
dangerous This bar is doubly dangerous, on account not
only of the fhallownefs of the water at all times, but the
(hiftir.tr of the bar, and the change of its fituation after
floods and heavy rains, by which the channels are loft, and
new foundings requifite to difcover them ; indeed the Sene-
gal would be quite fhut up, but for one channel of 200
toifes in breadth, and two fathoms depth, which has long
kept its fituation immoveable, amidft the floods and over-
flowings of the river. This bar prevents fliips of 500
tons from entering the river, and mooring under the fort ;
an inconvenience that obliged the French company to keep
a veil'el conftantly at anchor in the chatinel, for no other
purpofe than to keep an account of the foundings. The
moft commodious time of the year for crofting the bar, is
from the month of January till Auguft, the winds being
then variable, the river fmooth, and the bar fixed till the
enfuing rainy feafon, when the prodigious fwell of the
river, and fouth-weft winds, oppofed to its rapid courfe,
raife waves of fo prodigious height at the b.ir, that their
clafliing refembles the ftiock of mountains, and fo furious,
as to daih in pieces the ftouteft ftiip. After crofting the
bar, it becomes a beautiful, fmooth, and gently ghding
river, at four fathoms depth. In advancing three miles
higher, the country on the fouth fide is clothed wi'h a
beautiful verdure, the trees in perpetual bloom, than which
nothing can form a more agreeable contraft to the dry,
fandy, and barren points of land, that firft prefent themfelves
to the ftiipping. All around it lie a great number of
iflands, pleafantly flocked with trees, fruits, herbage, and
birds, but appropriated to no ufe, except the ifland of
Senegal.

Fort St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal river, accord-
ing to the obfervations and refults of M. D'Anville and M.
Fleurieu, is placed in lat. 16' 5' (by D'Anville), long. 16° 8'
by Fleurieu : and Cape Verd in lat. 14° 48', long. 17" 34'
W. of Greenwich. By the treaty of 1783, the river of
Senegal and its dependencies were left in the poflfeflTion of
the French, who had extended their fadories above 500
miles from the ftiore. In 17S4 was founded the company
of the gum of Senegal, which obtained an exclufive privilege
of trading in gum, flaves, gold-duft, ivory, wax, and other
produfts of the river Senegal, and dependencies, from Cape
Blanco to Cape Verd. Goree was chofen as the refideiice
of the adminiftrators. In 1 791 this company was fupprefl'ed
by the national affembly, and the trade with Senegal 'was
declared free.

The Moors chiefly gather the gum in the three forefts of
10 Sokel,

SEN

Sokel, Eliabar, and Alfectak, fituated on the north of the
jfland St. Louis. The feafon is the month of March, and
the confumption in Europe is eftimated at a thoufand tons,
each of 20OO pounds. In 1788, different ports in France
employed in this trade 105 fliips, the tonnage exceeding
55,000. The French fettlement on the coall of Africa,
according to Herbin, is Arguin, a little ifle granted to the
company of Senegal in 1727. A confiderable trade in
gum was maintained with the river St. Juan, which is not
far dillant ; and by the treaty of 1783 the Englifh obtained
the right of trading with this river. On the river Senegal
there were fevcral French fettlements, particularly in the ifle
of St. Louis at the mouth of that river, which is a great feat
of the gum trade. The white population may be about
400; but in 1 80 1 the whole, including captives, was com-
puted at 10,000.

Senegal, an ifland of Africa, in the river fo called, about
one mile and a quarter in length, from north to fouth, and
almofl; half a mile in breadth, from caft to weil. It is
compofed of a bed of loofe fand, produftivc of nothing but
what is forced by art and the richell manure, notwithltand-
ing which it contains 3000 inhabitants, vvhofe principal
food is fi(h and maize. This fort of corn grows in great
plenty almolt all over the whole country. It may feem
furprifing, that a part of the world fo very unhealthy as
this, (hould yet be fo populous, but the wonder will ceafe
when we come to underftand, that the greateft pride among
the men confifls in the number of their wives ; fo that every
one takes as many as he is able to maintain ; fome fix, others
eight, and others twelve at a time. In the year 175S, this
ifland was taken from the French by the Britifli tuops, and
by the peace of 1763 it was ceded to Great Britain. N. lat.
16° 5'.

SENEGALIA, or Senegallus, in Ornithology, the
Loxiaajlrill. See LoxiA. See alfo Fkingilla j'^wcfa/a.

SENEKA, Rattlesnake-root. This is a root lately
brought into ufe among us, and which feems to defcrve
very great regard. It is the root of a fpecies of polygala,
or milk-wort, (fee Polygala Senega,) diftinguirtied by
Gronovius, in his Flora Virginica, under the name of the
ereft polygala, witha fimple italk, with oval leaves, pointed at
the end, and with an eredl duller of flowers. We generally
call it the rattlefnake-root, and the French, from the place
whence it comes, Seneka. The plant is a native of Vir-
ginia, Pennfylvania, and Maryland, and is cultivated in fome
of our gardens.

The root is perennial ; the thicknefs of it is generally
about that of a man's little finger. It is four or five inches,
or more, in length, and is varioufly contorted and twilled,
and divides into many branches, furniflied with fmall fibres,
and with a membranaceous rim running all along it. It is
yellowifli on the outfide, and white within, very acrid, and
fomewhat bitter to the tafte, and has fomewhat of an aro-
matic flavour. From this root arife numerous ftalks, all
fimple, and without branches ; fome lie on the ground,
others Hand ere£l. Thefe are ten or twelve inches high,
when full grown. The leaves ftand alternately on the
Ikalks, and the flowers are white, and perfeftly like thofe
of our own kinds of polygala. This root, which is
brought from Virginia in bales, each containing from two
to four hundred weight, is of no remarkable fmell, but
has a peculiar kind of fubtile, pungent, penetrating talle.
Its virtue is extrafted both by water and fpirit.

Dr. Tennent, who brought over a large quantity of this
root from America fome years ago, and took great pains
to introduce it into praftice, praifes- it very largely as a
diuretic, a diaphoretic, and an alexipharmic, and a very

SEN

powerful attenuant and refolvent. He fays it will fome-
times vomit and purge.

The Senegaw Indians firft taught the ufe of it to the Eu-
ropeans ; they elteem it a fovereign remedy againll the bite
of the rattlefnake ; and Dr. Tennent aflTures us, that he
faw two perfons, who had been bitten by this creature in
the month of July, when its poifon is mod fatal, perfeftly
reftored to health by it. The powder, or a decoftion of
the root, is taken internally ; and either the powder or
cataplafms made with it applied to the wound.

He afterwards gave it in pleurifies and peripneumonies
with great fuccefs, and in all other cafes where the blood
is infpiflated. The effedt of this medicine was found to
be, that it made the fizy blood fluid, (which is contradifted
by a ftrong faft adduced by De Haen, ) procured a plenti-
ful fpitting, increafed perfpiration and urine, and fome-
times purged or vomited. If the firfl; dofes of it provoke
a vomiting, it is not at all the worfe, except in cafes in
which the patient is very weak ; and in fuch this effeft is
eafily prevented, by giving fome of the teftaceous powders
with it.

In pleurifies it is bell to take away ten ounces of blood,
before the entering on the ufe of the medicine ; in other
cafes no precaution is required, but it is to be given in
powder, or tindlure, in white wine, particularly Madeira
wine ; and the ordinary drink, during the ufe of it, fliould
be marflimallow tea. Its good effeds in pleurifies have
been atteiled by feveral of the French academicians and
others. But repeated bleeding is not to be negledled.

This medicine may be given either in powder or decoc-
tion, and combined with aromatics, opium, or camphor,
which check its naufeating quahties ; but Dr. Tennent
prefers the decoftion, having obferved it to give relief
fooner than the powder does. The dofe of the powder is
thirty-five grains, and he gives at once three fpoonfuls of
the decoAion, prepared by boiling three ounces of the root
bruifed in a quart of water to nearly the half. The dofe ia
repeated every fix hours. He is alfo fond of this root in
the rheumatifm, dropfy, and gout, in which laft difeafe,
he fays, he has given it with fuccefs. See his Letter con-
cerning the Seneka, or rattlefnake-root. The extratt of it
in combination with carbonate of ammonia has been found
by Dr. Brandreth, of Liverpool, to be efficacious in fome
cafes of lethargy ; and in America the decoftion given in
divided dofes, at fliort intervals till it vomits or purges, hai
been employed with feeming fuccefs in croup ; it has alfo
been lately ufed as a ftimulating gargle in the fame difeafe.
The ufual dofe, fays Woodville, is from one fcruple to
two of the powder, or two or three fpoonfuls of a decoftion
prepared by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint and a
half of water till it is reduced to a pint.

Meffrs. Lemery, Du Hamel, and Juflieu, vouch for the
good elTefts of the Seneka-root in pleurifies, and other in-
flammatory difeafes. Mem. de I'Acad. des Scienc. 1739.

SENEMBI, in Zoology, a name given by Marcgrave to
the Lacerta iguana. See LiZARD.

SENESCHAL, Senescallus, a name anciently ufed
for a ftcward or majordomo ; formed from the German Jtnd,
houfe ox family, zndfcalc, fcrvant.

Thus riic feneichal of a lord, or a baron, is his rtcward
or bailifi^, who holds his courts, and manages his demefne
lands ; and the fub-fenefchal, his under-flcward.

High fenefchal of England is the high-ileward of Eng-
land ; high fenefchal del hotel du roi, is the ftcward of the
king's houfehold.

The office of fenefchal was at all times a great ofEce ;

but the jurifdiAion of it increafed much, when the grand

H h 0! julliciary's

SEN

iufticiary's was diminifhed ; which did not happen till after
the deceafe of king Henry II. Indeed thefe offices could not
poffibly have fubfilled together, in the height of their power ;
the fuiiftions and dignity appertaining to each of them having
been nearly the fame. But m the reign of Henry II. that of
fenefchal was much inferior to the other ; and the authority
of it feems to have been not very different from that of
the lord fteward of the houfehold at prefect.

The ancients ufed the term fene/callus indifferently with
that of Japifer ; whence we are fure it lignifies/^iyar^/.

SENESCHALLO et marejhallo quod non teneant plac'ita
de libera tenemento, in Law, a writ direfted to the fteward
and marftial of England, inhibiting them to take cognizance
of an aftion in their court that concerns freehold.

SENESINO, Francesco Bernardo, Detto, in Biogra-
phy, cAled Senefino, from being a native of Siena, one of the
greateft fingers and the beft aftor who performed in Han-
del's operas during the Royal Academy of Mufic, efta-
bhfhed in the year 1720, and diffolved in 1729. He con-
tinued finging in England till the year 1735; but in an
opera elliibhihed by the nobility and gentry in oppofition
to Handel.

We have converfed with feveral good judges of mufic,
who had been conftant in their attendance at the operas of
thofe times, who always fpoke of Senefino's voice, llyle of
linging, figure, and a(iion, in the higheft terms of admira-
tion. In early youth his voice had been a foprano, but it
had dcfcendcd into the fulleil, moft melifluous, and moll
flexible contralto, that was ever heard in this country. He
had not more than fix or feven notes in his compafs ; but
thefe were fo mellow and powerful, and his execution of
diviCons fo granito, or diftinft, that, without the rapidity
of a bravura finger, he feemed poflefled of every folid and
latting charm of a great performer. Quantz, who lieard
him at Drefden in 17 19, gives him the following charafter.
" Francefco Bernardo, called Senefino, had a powerful,
clear, equal, and fweet contralto voice, with a perfeft in-
tonation, and an excellent fhake ; his manner of tinging
was mafterly, and his elocution unrivalled ; though he never
loaded adagios with too many ornaments, yet he delivered
the original and eliential notes with the utmoft refinement.
He fung allegros with great fire, and marked rapid divifions,
from the chert, in an articulate and pleafing manner ; his
countenance was well calculated for the ilage, and his
aftion was natural and noble : to thefe he joined a figure
that was truly majeftic, but more fuited to the part of a
hero than a lover."

When he returned to his own country, he fung no more
on a ftage ; but retired to Siena, the place of his nativity,
where he built himfelf a magnificent manfion, called there
a palazzo, and ended his days in fplendid tranquillity.

SENETOSO, in Geography, a cape on the S.W. coail
of the ifland of Corfica ; 20 miles W. of Sarcena.

SENEZ, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Caftellane, before the revolution the fee of a bilhop, fuf-
fragan of Embrun ; 6 miles N.W. of Caftellane. The
place contains 768, and the canton 2081 inhabitants, on a
territory of 180 kiliometres, in 4 communes.

SENFTENBERG, a town of Auftria ; 3 rtiles N. of
Stais. — Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz ; 3 miles N. of Geyerft)erg. — Alfo, a town of
Saxony, in the marggravate of MeilTen, containing about
300 houfes, furrounded with ramparts and ditches ; 32 miles
N.E. of Meifien. N. lat. 51° 31'. E. long. 14° i'.

SENGANA, a town of Hindoottan, in the Mewat
country ; 95 miles S.W. of Delhi.

SEN

SENGBEST, a town of PerCa, in the province of
Khorafan ; 25 miles S.E. of Mefghid.

SENGEN, or Sensen, a river of Switzerland, which
joins the Sanen river, near Laupen, in the canton of
Berne.

SE-NGEN, or Sen-guen, a city of China, of the firft.
rank, in Quang-fi. N. lat. 23^ 24'. E. long. 107= 34'.

SENGERSHASARA, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Ghilan ; 69 miles N.W. of Relhd.

SE-NGIN, or Se-ngi EN, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Quang-fi ; 25 miles N.W. of King-yuen.

SENGLEA, a town of the ifland of Malta, divided by
a canal from Vittoriofa ; and containing about 4000 in-
habitants.

SENGMA, a town of Africa, tn the country of Cal-
bari ; 5 miles N. of Cape Formofa.

SENGOA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan or Axcrbijan ; 48 miles S.E. of Tauris or Ta-
breez.

SENGREEN, in Botany. See Saxifraga.

SENG WARDEN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the lordftiip of Kniphaufen ; 6 miles E. of Jever.

SENJEN, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near th» coaft
of Norway. N. lat. 69" 15'.

SENIGAGLIA. See Sisigaglia.

SENINGHEM, a town of France, in the department
of the Straits of Calais ; 9 miles W. of St. Oraer.

SENIONITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 6 miles N. of Konigingratz.

SENIORE, a town of Algiers ; 22 miles W. of Tif-
feih.

SENITO, a river of Naples, which runs into the
Sibari.

SENITZ, a town of Hungary ; 25 miles W. of To-
poltzan.

SENKE', a town of Thibet ; 24 miles E. of Toud-
fong.

SENLIS, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrid, in the department of the Oife, before the revolu-
tion the fee of a biftiop, fuffragan of Rheims ; 5^ polls
N.E. of Paris. The place contains 4312, and the canton
1 1,690 inhabitants, on a territory of 222^ kiliometres, in
18 communes. N. lat. 49° 12'. E. long. 2° 40'.

SENN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government
of Moful, on the Tigris ; 80 miles S.S.E. of Moful.

SENNA, or Sesnah, a moft romantic and flourifliiiig
little town of Perfia, in the province of Ardelan, fccluded in
the bofom of a deep valley, well cultivated and interfperfed
with orchards of peach, apricot, pear, apple, and cherry trees.
Its population amounts to about Sooo perfons, of which
number 2000 are Jews, Armenians, and Neftorianf, who trade
to Moful, Bagdad, and Ifpahan. The Wallea, who feldom
quits this place, refides in a fumptuous palace, built on the
top of a fmall hill in the centre of the town, where he
maintains a degree of ftate and fplendour fuperior to any
thing in Perfia, except at court. His houfe is ever open
for the entertainment of ftrangers, and he always retains
about his perfon a body of horfe. The mountains to the
W. of Senna are covered with forefts of oak, which pro-
duce fine timber and abundance of gall-nuts. The former
is made into rafts and floated down the Tab into the Tigris;
the latter is an article of trade, and exported to India. A
fmall river of the fame name flows about one mile and a half
or two miles from it. The route from Tabreez by way of
Maraga to Sennah is 223 miles; that from Senna by Ker-
manihaw to Bagdad is 303 miles ; and that from Senna to
Hamadan is 89 miles.

Senna,
t

I

SEN

SEN

Senna, in Botany. See Cassia.
Senna, Bladder. See Colutea.
Senna, Scorpion. See Emerus.
Senna, in the Materia Medica. See SenA.
SENNAAR, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, in
the country of Nubia, fituated on the banks of the Nile,
between Egypt and Abyflinia. At the beginning of the
l6th cent-ury, the whole country from the frontiers cf Egypt
to thofe of Abyflinia, though nominally fubjtA to Egypt
for the fake of trade, had its own prince of the race of
Beni Koreiih, whofe title was Welled Ageeb,yo« of the good;
and he was alfo called All, or Mahomet Welled Ageeb.
This prince was, neverthelefs, only the ftieikh of all the
Arabs, to whom they paid a tribute for the fupport of his
dignity and authority. The refidence of this Arab prince
was at Gerri, a town fituated on the ferry which leads
acrofs the Nile to the defert of Bakiouda, and the road to
Dongola and Egypt, joining the great defert of Selima. In
the year 1504, a black nation, hitherto unknown, inhabit-
ing the weftern banks of the Bahar El Abiad, in about
lat. 13°, made a defcent, in a multitude of canoes or boats,
upon the Arab provinces, and in a battle near Herbagi, de-
feated Welled Ageeb, and forced hini to a capitulation, in
confequence of which the Arabs became tributaries to their
conquerors, and Welled Ageeb was allowed to retain his
place and dignity, on condition tliat he fhould be always
ready to ufe coercion in favour of ti;e victors, in cafe any
of the Arabs, who were to enjoy their tormer poffeflions
unmolefted, rcfufed payment ; and thus he became, as it
were, their lieutenant. This race of Negroes were called
in their own country Shillook. It was in the year 1 504
that Amru, fon of Adelan, the firll of their fovereigns on
the E. fide of the Nile, founded this monarchy, and built
Sennaar, which has ever fince been the capital. From this
period to that in wliich Biuce vifited the country, 266 years
had elapfed, and 20 kings had reigned, that is, from Amru
the firtt to Ifmain, who was king at the time of Bruce's
being at Sennaar. At the eitablifhment of this monarchy,
the king, and the whole nation of Shillook, were Pagans.
But they were foon after converted to Mahometanifm, for
the fake of trading with Cairo, and took the name of
Funge, which they interpret fometimes lords, or conquerors,
and at other times, free citizens ; though Bruce fays, that
titles and dignities are under-valued, and that flavery in Sen-
naar is the only true nobility. Mr. Bruce has given a lid
of the kings, with their names and the years of their reign,
from 1504 to 1772. Upon the death of a king of Sennaar,
his eldell fon fucceeds by right ; and immediately after-
wards, as many of the brothers of the reigning prince as can
be apprehended are put to death. This pradlice of mur-
dering all the collaterals of the royal family is fimilar to
that which prevails in Abyflinia, of confining the princes
all their lives upon a mountain. In Sennaar, as is alfo the
cafe in Abyflinia, women do not fucceed to fovereignty.
The royal family were originally Negroes, and remain fo
ftill, when their mothers have been black like themfelves ;
- but when the king has liappened to marry an Arab woman,
as he often does, the black colour of the father cedes to
the white of the mother, and the child is white. In and
near the metropolis of Sennaar there is a conllant mortality
among the children, fo that the people would probably be
extinft, if they were not fupplied by a number of flaves,
brought from all the different countries to the fouthward.
Hence it is concluded, that the climate mult have under-
gone a ftrange revolution, as Sennaar is but a fmall diftance
from the territory where the ancients placed the Macrobii,
fo called from the remarkable length of their lives. Al-

though thefe people are Mahometans, they are fo brutal
with regard to their women, that they fell their flaves after
having lived with them, and even after having had children
by them. The king himfelf, it is faid, is often guilty of
this unnatural praftice, utterly unknown in any other Ma-
hometan country. Once in his reign the king is obliged,
with his own hand, to plow and fow a piece of land. From
this operation he is called Baady, the countryman or pea-
fant ; and this name is common to the whale race of kings,
as Cxfar was among the Romans.

No horfe, mule, afs, or any beall of burden, will breed
or even live at Sennaar, or many miles about it. Poultry
does not live there. Neither dog nor cat, fheep nor bul-
lock, can be preferved there for a feafon. All of them
mufl be removed every half year to the fands. Though
all poflible care be taken of them, they die in every place
where the fat earth is about the town during the firft
feafon of the rains. Hence, it appears that the foil of
Sennaar is very unfavourable both to man and beaft, and
particularly adverfe to their propagation. This circum-
ftance is aicribed by Bruce to fomc noxious quality of the
fat earth ; for this noxious quality is not known in the
fands. Aira, between three and four miles from Sennaar,
which has no water near it but the Nile, furrounded with
white barren fand, agrees perfeftly with all animals. Never-
thelefs this foil contributes very abundantly to the nourifh-
ment of man and beaft. It is faid to render 300 for I :
though this muft be an exaggeration ; it is fown with
dora or millet, which is the principal food of the natives.
The fait ufed at Sennaar is wholly extrafted from the earth
about it, efpecially at Halfaia, in lat. 15° 45' 54". E. long.
32° 49' 15", fo flrongly is the foil impregnated with this
ufeful fofTil. Halfaia is a large, handfome, and pleafant
town, though built with clay. The houies are terrafl'ed at
the tops. This town is the limit of the rains, and is fitu-
ated upon a large circular peninfula, furrounded by the Nile
from S.W. to N.W. about half a mile from the river. It
confifls of about 300 houfes, and derives its principal gain
from 3 manufafture of very coarfc cotton cloth, called
Deinour, which ferves for fmall money through all the
lower parts of Atbara. The people here eat cats, and alfo
the river-horfe and the crocodile, which are very plentiful.

About tvifelve miles from Sennaar, nearly to the N.W. is
a colledlion of villages called Shaddly, from a great faint,
who in his time directed large pits to be dug, and plaltered
clofely within with clay, into which a quantity of grain was
put when it was .it the cheapell, asd thefe were covered up,
and plaftered again at the top, which they cdM/ealiitg, and
the hole itM{^?nalamore. Thefe matamores are in gieat
number all over the plain, and, on any profpeft of corn
growing dearer, they are opened, and corn fold at a low
price both to the town and country.

To the north of Sliaddly, about twenty-four miles, is
another foundation of this fort, called Wed Aboud, ftill
greater than Shaddly. Upon thefe two charities tlie chief
fubfiftcnce of the Arabs depends ; for as there is continual
war among thefe people, and tfieir violence being alv/ays
direfted againfl the crops rather than the perfons of their
enemies, the dellruttion of each tribe would follow the
lofs of its harvelt, was it not for the extraordinary fupplies
furnifhcd at fiich times by thefe granaries.

The fmall villages of foldiers are fcattercd up and down
through this immeiifc plain to watch the grain that is fown,
which is dora only, and it is faid that here the ground will
produce no other grain. Prodigious excavations are made
at proper diflances, which fill with water in the rainy fea-
fon, and are a great relief to the Arabs in their paiiage be-
1 1 twcen

SENNAAR.

Hveen the cultivated country and the fands. The fly, that
inexorable perfecutor of the Arabs, never purfues them to
the north of Shaddly. The knowledge of this circumftance
was what, perhaps, determhied the firft builders of Sennaar
to place their capital here ; this too, probably, induced the
two faints, Shaddly and Wed Aboud, to make here thefe
valt excavations for corn and water. This is the firft reft-
ing-phce the Arabs find, where, having all things neceflary
for fubli (fence, they can at leifure tranfad their affairs with
government.

To the weilward of Shaddly and Aboud, as far as the
river Abiad, or El-aice, the country is full of trees, which
make it a favourite llation for camels. As Shaddly is not
above three hours ride on horfeback from Sennaar, there
could not be chofeii a fituation more convenient for levying
the tribute ; for though Gerri, from the favourable fitua-
tion of the ground, being mountainous and rocky, and juft
on the extremity of the rains, was a place properly chofen
for this purpofe by the Arab prince before the conqueft: of
the Funge, (for his troops there cut them oft, either from
the fands, or the fertile country, as he pleafed), yet many
of them might have i-emained behmd at Shaddly, and to the
weftward, free from the terror of the fly, and confcquently
without any neceffity of advancing fo far north as Gerri,
and there fubjecling themfelves to contribution.

In this extenfivc plain, near Shaddly, arife two moun-
tainous diftricls, the one called Jibbel Moia, or the Moun-
tain of Water, which is a ridge of confidcrable hills nearly
of the fame height, clofely united ; and the other Jibbel
Segud, or the Gold Mountain, a broken ridge compofed of
parts, fome high and fome low, without any regular form.
Both thefe enjoy a fine climate, and are full of inhabitants,
but of no confidcrable extent. They fervc for a proteftion
to the Daheera, or farms of Shaddly and Wed Aboud.
They are alfo fortrefles in the way of the Arabs, to detain
and force them to payment in their flight from the cultivated
country and rains to the dry lands of Atbara. Each of
thefe dillriAs is governed by the defcendant of their ancient
and native princes, who long refilled all the power of the
Arabs, having both horfe and foot. They continued to be
Pagans till the conqueit of the Funge. Bloody and un-
natural facrifices were faid to have been in ufe in thefe
mountainous fl;ates, with horrid circumllances of cruelty,
till Abdelcader, fon of Amru, the third of the kings of
Sennaar, about the year 15,-4, befieged firll the one and
then the other of thefe princes in their mountain, and forced
them to furrender ; and, having faftened a chain of gold to
each of their ears, he expofed them in the public market-
place at Sennaar in that fituation, and fold them to the
highelt bidder, at the vile price of fomething like a farthing
each. After this degradation, being circumcifed, and con-
verted to the Mahometan religion, they were reftored each
to their government, as flaves of Sennaar, upon very eafy
conditions of tribute, and have been faithful ever fince.

Nothing is more pleafant than the country around Sen-
naar, in the end of Augull and beginning of September, I
mean (fays Bruce) fo far as the eye is concerned ; inftead of
that barren, bare walte, which it appeared on our arrival in
May, the corn now fprung up, and covering the ground, made
the whole of this immenfe plain appear a level, green land,
interfperfed with great lakes of water, and ornamented at
certain intervals with groups of villages, the conical tops of
the houfes prefenting, at a diftance, the appearance of fmall
encampments. Through this immenfe, extenfive plain, winds
the Nile, a delightful river there, above a mile broad, full
to the very brim, but never overflowing. Every where on
thefe banks are feen numerous herds of the molt beautiful

cattle of various kinds, the tribute recenrfy extorted from
the Arabs, who, freed from all their vexations, return home
with the remainder of their flocks in peace, at as great a
diftance from the town, country, and their opppcflort, as
they poflibly can.

The banks of the Nile about Sennaar referable the plea-
fanteft parts of Holland in the fummtr feafon ; but foon
after, when the rains ceafe, and the fun exerts his utmoft
influence, the dora begins to ripen, the leaves to turn yel-
low and to rot, the lakes to putrefy, fmell, aoil be full of
vermin, all this beauty fuddenly difappears ; bare, fcorchcd
Nubia returns, and all its terrors of poifonous winds and
moving fands, glowing and rcntilated with fultry blalls,
which are followed by a troop of terrible attendants,
epilepfics, apoplexies, violent fevers, ubilinate agues, and
lingering, painful dyfenteries. Hill more obftinate and
mortal.

War and treafoii feem to be the only employment of this
horrid people, whom heaven has feparatcd, by almoft im-
paflable deferts, from the reft of mankind, confining them
to an accurfed fpot, feemingly to give them earneli in time
(as Mr. Bruce forebodes) of the only other worfe whicl) he
has referved to them for an eternal hereafter.

The drefs of Sennaar is vtry fimple. It coDfifts of a long
(Kirt of blue Surat cloth called Mirowty, which covers
tkem from the lower part of the neck down to their feet,
but docs not conceal the neck ilfelf ; and this is the only
difference between the men's and the women's drefs ; tlial
of the women covers their neck altugcthcr, being buttoned
like ours. The men have fometimcs a fafli tied about their
middle ; and both men and women go bare-footed m the
houfe, even thofe of the better fort orpcoplc. Their floors
are covered with Perlian carpets, efpecially the women's
apartments. In fair weather, they wear fandals ; and with-
out doors they ufe a kind of wooden patten, very neatly
ornamented with Ihells. In the greatcft heat at noon, they
order buckets of water to be thrown upon them inilead of
bathing. Both men and women anoint themfelves, at lealt
once a day, with camels' grcafe mixed with civet, which
they imagine foftens their flcin, and prefcrvcs them from cu-
taneous eruptions, of which they are fo fearful, that the
fmalleft pimple in any vifiblc part of their body keeps tliem
in the houfe till it disappears : for the fame reafon, though
they have a clean fliirt every day, they ufe one dipt in
greafe to lie in all night, as they have no covering but this,
and lie upon a bull's hide, tanned, and very moch foftened
by this conftant greafing, and at the fame time very cool,
though it occafions a fmell that no wafliing can free them
from.

The principal diet of the poorer fort is millet, made into
bread or flour. The rich make a pudding of this, toafling
the flour before the fire, and pouring milk and butter into
it ; bcfides which, they eat beef, partly roailed and partly
raw. Their horned cattle arc the largcft and fattcll in the
world, 'and are exceedingly fine; but the common meat
fold in the market is camel's flefli. The liver of the animal,
and the fpare rib, are always eaten raw through the whole
country-. Bruce never faw one inftance where it was drefled
with fire ; it is not then true that eating raw flefh is peculiar
to AbyfTinia ; it is praAifed in this inftance of cameU' flefli
in all the black countries to the weftward.

Hogs' flefh is not fold in the market ; but all the people
of Sennaar eat it publicly : men in office, who pretend to
be Mahometans, eat theirs in fecrct.

There are three principal governments in the kingdom of
Sennaar. The firfl is at El-aicc, the capital of that coun-
try, from which the Shillook came. The Bahar el Abiad

fpread*

SENNAAR.

ipreads itfelf all over the territory, and, divided into a quan-
tity of fmall channels, (vs'hether by art or nature we know
not,) furrounds a number of little iflands, upon each of
which is a village, and this colleftion of villages is called
the town of El-aice. The inhabitants are all fifliermen,
and have a number of boats, like canoes, in which they fail
jp and down to the catarafts. With incredible fleets of
;hefe their invafion was made when they undertook the con-
queft of the Arabs, who had not the fmalleft warning of the
attempt. They had, at that time, no weapons of iron :
their fwords and lances were of a hard wood called Dengui-
Sibber. It muft be a relation of the Mek of Sennaar that
commands at El-aice ; and he is never fuffered to leave that
poft, or come to Sennaar.

The fecond government, next to this in importance, is
Jvordofan. The revenue confifts chiefly in flaves procured
from Dyre and Tegla. It feems this fituation is the moft
convenient for invading thofe mountains, either from its
having water in the way, or from fome other circumftance
that is not known. Mahomet Abou Kalec had this govern-
ment, and witli him about looo black horfe, armed with
coats of mail, with whom he maintained himfelf at this time
independent of the king. It is a frontier neareft to Dar-
Fowr, a black ftate itill more barbarous, if poffible, than
Sennaar, and by them it often has been taken from Sennaar,
.ind again retaken.

The third government is Fazuclo, bounded by the river
El-aice on the vveit, and the Nile on the eaft, and the moun-
tains of Fazuclo, where are the great catarafts, on the
louth. Thefe are part of the large chain of mountains of
Dyre and Tegla, which reach fo far weltward into the con-
tinent, from whence comes the chief fupply both of gold
iind flaves which conilitute the riches of this country ; for
the greateil part of the revenue of Fazuclo is gold ; and
;lie perfon that comvr.ands it is not a Funge, but the fame
native prince from whom the army of Sennaar conquered it.
This ieems to be a very remarkable piece of policy in this
bai'barous nation, which mull have fucceeded, as they con-
Itantly adhei-e to it, of making the pi-ince of the ftate they
have conquered their lieutenant in the government of his
own country afterwards. Such was the cafe with Dongola,
whofe Mek they continue ; alfo with Wed Ageeb, prince
of the Arabs, whom they fubdued ; and fuch was the cafe
with Fazuclo, Wed Aboud, Jibbel Moia, and other petty
ftatcs, all of which they conquered, but did not change
their prince.

The forces at Sennaar, immediately around the capital,
confift ot about 14,000 Nuba, who tight naked, having no
other armour but a (liort javehn and a round (hield, very
bad troops, as Bruce fuppoles ; about 1800 horfe, all black,
mounted by black flaves, armed witli coats of mail, and
without any other weapon but a broad Sclavonian fword.
Thefe, he fuppofes, by the weight and power of man and
horfe, would bear down, or break through double the num-
ber of any other troops in the world : nobody, that has
not feen this cavalry, can have any idea to what perfeftion
the horfe rifes here. The Mek has not one mulket in his
whole army. Befules thefe horfe, there is a great, but un-
certam number of Arabs, who pay their tribute immediately
to the Mek and to the great men in government, and live
under their proteftion clofe by the town, and thereby have
the advantage of trading with it, of fupplying it with pro-
vifions, and, no doubt, mull contribute in part to its ftrength
and defence in time of need.

The difeafes of Sennaar are the dyfentery, or bloody flux,
fatal in proportion as it begins with the firil of the rains, or
the end of them, and return of the fair weather. Intermit.

ting fevers accompany this complaint very frequently, which
often ends in them. Bark is a fovereign remedy in this
country, and feems to be by fo much the (iirer, that it
purges on taking the firll dofe, and this it does almoil with-
out exception. Epilepfies and fchirrous livers are likewife
very frequent, owing, as is fuppofed, to their defeatino or
diminifliing perfpiration, or flopping the pores by cc nftant
unftion, as alfo by the quantity of water they deli' ire them-
felveswith at the time they are hottefl;.

The elephantiafis, fo common in Abyflinia, is not known
here. The fmall-pox is a difeafe not endemial in the coun-
try of Sennaar, It is fometimes twelve or fifteen years
without its being known, notwithftanding the conftaiit ir-
tercourfe they have with, and merchandizes they bring from
Arabia. It is likewife faid this difeafe never broke out in
Sennaar, unlefs in the rainy feafon. However, when it
comes, it fweeps away a vail proportion of thofe that are
infefted : the women, both blacks and Arabs, thofe of the
former that live in plains, like the Shillook, or inhabitants
of El-aice, thofe of the Nuba and Guba, that live in moun-
tains, all the various fpecies of flaves that come from Dyre
and Tegla, from time immemorial have known a fpecies of
inoculation which they call Tifliteree el Jidderee, or, " the
buying of the fmall-pox." The women are the conduftors
of this operation in the fairell and drieft feafon of the year,
but never at other times. Upon the lirlt hearing of the
fmall-pox any where, thefe people go to the infefted place,
and, wrapping a fillet of cotton cloth about the arm of
the perfon infefted, they let it remain there till they bargain
with the mother how many flie is to fell them. It is necef-
fary that the terms be difcuflcd judicially, and that the bar-
gain be not made coUufively or gratuitoufly, but that one
piece of filver, or more, be paid for the number. This
being concluded, they go home, and tie the fillet about
their own child's arm ; certain, as they fay, from long ex-
perience, that the child infefted is to do well, and not to
have one more than the number of puftules that were
agreed and paid for. There is no example, as far as Bruce
could learn, either here or in Abyflinia, of this difeafe
returning, that is, attacking any one perfon more thau
once.

The trade of Sennaar is not great ; they have no m.anu-
faftures, but the principal article of confumption is blue
cotton cloth from Surat. Formerl)', when the ways were
open, and merchants went in caravans with fafety, Indian
goods were brought in quantities to Sennaar from Jidda,
and tlien difperfed over the black country. The return
was made in gold, in powder called Tibbar, civet, rhinoce-
ros's horns, ivory, ollrich feathers, and, above all, in flaves
or glafs, more of which was exported from Sennaar than all
the eafl; of Africa together. But this trade is almoll de-
flroyed, fo is that of the gold and ivory. However, the
gold ftill keeps up its reputation of being the pureft and
bell in Africa, and therefore bought at Mocha to be car-
ried to India, where it all at lail centers. If the wakea of
Abyflinian gold fells at 16 patakas, the Sennaar gold fells
at the fame place for 22 patakas. The ivory fells at i^oz.
per rotol at Cairo, which is about 25 per cent, lighter tliaa
the rotol of Mocha. Men-flaves, at a medium, may be
about a wakea per head at Sennaar. There are women,
however, who fell for 13 or 14 wakeas. What their pecu-
liar excellencies may be, which fo far alters the price,
Bruce could not tell, only they are preferred by rich peo-
ple, both Turks and Moors, to the Arab, Circaflian, and
Georgian women, during the warm months in fummer.

The Daveina Arabs, who are great hunters, carry the
ivory to Abyflinia, where they are not in fear. But no

caravan

SEN

caravan comes now from Sudan (Nigritia) to Sennaar, nor
from AbyfTmia or Cairo. The violence of the Arabs, and
the faithlefinefs of the government of Sennaar, have Ihut
them up on every fide but that of Jidda, whither they go
once a-yearby Suakem. ,., , , ,, ,, _

The wakea of Sennaar, by which they fell gold, civet,
fcentedoils, &c. confifts of lo drachms ; lO of thefe wakeas
make a rotol. This wakea at Sennaar is accounted the
fame as that of Mafuah and Cairo. It is equal to 7
drachms 57 grains troy weight.

I Rotol = 10 Wakeas.
I Wakea = 10 Drachms.

But there is another wakea ufed by the merchants called
the Atareys.

I Rotol = 1 2 Wakeas.

I Wakea = 1 2 Drachms.

But this is only ufed for coarfe goods. There is but one
Jong meafure in Sennaar, called the Draa, whicli is the
peek, or cubit, and is meafured from the centre of the
elbow-joint to the point of the middle finger. This is pro-
bably the ancient cubit of Egypt, and of the holy fcripture.
Brace's Travels, vol. iv.

Sennaar, a city of Africa, and capital of the kingdom
of the fame name, fituated on the W. fide of the Nile, and
clofe upon its banks. The ground on which it itaods rifes
juft enough to prevent the river from entering the town,
even in the height of the inundation, when it comes to be
even with the itreet. Poncet fays, that when he was at this
city, his companion, father Brevedent, a Jefuit, an able
mathematician, on the 21ft of March 1699, determined the
latitude of Sennaar to be 13° 4' N. the difference there-
fore will be about half a degree. The reader however may
implicitly rely upon the fituation given it by Poncet, being
the mean refult of above fifty obfervations, made both night
and day, on the moll favourable occafions, by a quadrant
of three feet radius, and telefcopes of two, and fometimes
of three feet focal length, both refleftors and refrattors
made by the beft matters.

The town of Sennaar is very populous, there being in it
many good houfes after the falhion of the country. Poncet
fays, in his time they were all of one itory high ; but now
the great officers have all houfes of two. They have para-
pet roofs, which is a fingular conftruftion ; tor in other
places, within the rains, the roofs are all conical. The
houfes are all built of clay, with very little llraw mixed
with it, which fuf&ciently (liews the rains here muil be lels
violent than to the fouthward, probably from the diftance
of the mountains. However, when PoHcet was there, a week
of conftant rain happened, and on the 30th of July the
Nile increafed violently, after loud thunder, and a great
darknefs to the fouth. The whole ftream was covered with
wrecks of houfes, canes, wooden bowls, and platters, living
camels and cattle, and feveral dead ones pafled Sennaar,
hurried along by the current with great velocity. A hvsena,
endeavouring to crols before the town, was furrounded and
killed by the inhabitants. The water got into the houfes
that ftand upon its banks, and, by rifing feveral feet hitjh,
the walls melted, being clay, which occafioned feveral of
them to fall. It feemed, by the floating wreck of houfes
that appeared in the flream, to have deftroyed a great many
villages to the fouthward towards Fazuclo.

It will not be thought furprifing, confidering the latitude
of Sennaar, that the heats fhould be excciTive. The ther-
mometer rifes in the (hade to 1 19°. Neverthelefs, from 70-'
to 78° Fahrenheit's thermometer, the air is cool ; from 79°

SEN

to 92° temperate ; at 92° it begins to be warm. N. lat, 1 3°
34' 36". E. long. 33° 30' 30". For further particulars re-
lating to this city fee the preceding article.

SENNE, a river of France, which enters the Demer, a
little below Mal'nes.

SENNECEY, Grand. See Senecey.
SENNERAT, an ifland near the W. coaft of Weft
Greenland. N. lat. 61^ 28'. W. long. 47° 35'.

SENNERTUS, Daniel, in Biography, an able and
learned phyfician, was born at Brellaw, i; Silefia, on the
25th of November, 1572, where his father was a flioe-
maker, and died in his childhood. He received his early
education in his native city, under the direftion of his mo-
ther, and was then fent to the univerfity of Wittemberg, in
the year 1593, where he exhibited fuch proofs of acuteneCe
of mind and folidity of judgment, that every opportunity
was afl"orded him, by vifiting the other celebrated univerfities
of Girmany, efpecially thofe of Leipfic, Jena, Francfort
on tile Oder, and Berlin, of cultivating his talents. He
returned to AVittemberg in 1601, and received the degree of
doftor in September of that year, and in the fame month of
the foUowinij year was appointed to a profeflbrfhip of medi-
cine. In this office his eloquence and knowledge were cal-
culated to raife him to a high reputation, and his luminous
method of teaching brought crowds of pupils to his lec-
tures. He alfo endeavoured, by means of various publi-
cations with which he enriched the profeffion among his con-
temporaries, to affill them in cultivating the Icience of medi-
cine. By thefe means his reputation became fo extenfive,
that patients came to him from all parts of the world, and
he. rcfufcd his affiilance to nobody. He took what was
offered for his trouble, but demanded nothing, and even re-
turned to the poor what they gave him. The plague pre-
vailed fevcn times at Wittemberg, while he was profeflbr
there ; but he never retired, nor was ever known to refufc
to vifit tiie pooreft fick. George I., eledor of Saxony,
whom he had cured of a dangerous illnefs in 1626, appointed
him one of his phyficians in ordinary ; but with the permif-
fion to remain at Wittemberg, that the world might continue
to derive the benefit of his public inftru£tions. He was
three times married, and had feven children by his firll wife,
three of whom furvived him. He was at length carried off
by an attack of the plague, which was raging in Wittem-
berg, in the month of July 1637, in the fixty-fifth year of
his age.

Sennertus was a voluminous writer, and has been charac-
terized, by fome critics, as a mere compiler from the works
of the ancients. It is true that his writines contain an epi-
tome, but, it muft be added, a mod comprehenfive, clear, and
judicious epitome, of the learning of the Greeks and Ara-
bians, which renders them, even at this day, of confiderable
value as books of reference, and which are highly creditable,
confidering the age in which they were compofed, to his
learning and difcrimination. The freedom, indeed, with
which he impugned many of the doftrincs of the ancients,
called up many opponents, and led him into much contro-
verfy. He was the firfl to introduce the ftudy of chemiftry
into the univerfity of Wittemberg, and demj)nllrated his
freedom from the (hackles of ancient opinion, by combining
much of the chemical with the Galenical doftrines ; an union
which the mere advocates of antiquity (Irongly deprecated,
as well as the introduftion of chemical medicines. His
treatife " De Confentu et Difleufu Galenicorum et Peripa-
teticorumcum Chymicis," 1619, may be faid to have intro-
duced a new feft into Germany by this union. His various
works have been collefted together, and publi(hed at dif-
ferent times and places, under the title of « Opera omnia ;"

but

SEN

SEN

but they were principally promulgated by himfelf under the
following; titles : •' Quxltionum Medicarum controverfarum
Liber ;" 1 609. " Inititutiones Medicse, et de Origine ani-
marum in Brutis ;" 161 1. " Epitome Scientia Natu-
ralis ;" 1618. " De Febribus Libri quatuor ;" 1619.
" De Scorbuto Traftatusf;" 1624. " Praftica: Medicinae
Liber primus ;" 1628. Five other books of the fame work
were fucceflively publifhed. " Traftatus de Arthritide ;"
163 1. " Epitome Iiiftitutionum Medicarum difputationibus
l8 comprehenfa ;" 1631. " Epitome Inft. Med. et Librorum
de Febribus;" 1634. " Hypomnemata phyfica;" 1635;
and one or two fmall works of lefs note. Almoft all thefe
works have paded through many editions and tranflations.
See Eloy D'Ct. Hift. de la Med. Vita Dan. Sennerti, pre-
fixed to hh " Opera omnia."

SENNIT, [of fiven md knit,) a fort of flat, braided
cordage, formed by platting five or feven rope-yarns toge-
ther. This is beaten fmooth and flat with a hammer,
and fervts to keep the ropes to which it is applied from
galling.

SENNONE, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Medi-
terranean, near the coalt ot Naples. N. lat. 41° 3'. E.
long. 1 1 °.

SENO, a river which rifes in the N. part of Etruria,
crofles the department of the Amone, in Italy, and runs
into the S. branch of tlie Po, between Ferrara and the
Adriatic.

SENOGU, a town of New Navarre ; 270 miles S.S.E.
of Cafa Grande.

SENOMALY, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Ra-
koaitz ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Rakoritz.

SENONCA, a town of Naples, m Lavora; 43 miles
W. of Ctima.

SENONCHES, a town of France, in the department
of the Eure and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftritl of Dreux ; 9 miles W. of Chateauneuf. The place
contains 1856, and the canton 7541 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 205 kihometres, in 12 communes.

SENONE, a river of France, which runs into the
Meurte, 5 miles S.E. of Nancy.

SENONES, a town of France, in the department of
the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
St. Die ; 9 miles S.W. of Salem. The place contains
1589, and the canton 10,997 inhabitants, on a territory of
215 kiliometres, in 19 communes.

Senones, in indent Geography, a people of Gallia Cel-
tica, who occupied nearly the whole extent of the diocefeof
Sens and that of Auxerre, according to the ancient divifions
of France. According to Caefar, they were confined to
Belgica. This author fays of them : " eft civitas in primis
firma, et magna apud Gallos auftoritatis." — Alfo, a peo-
ple of Italy, in Gallia Cifpadana, upon the borders of the
Adriatic fea. Their arrival in Italy may be fixed in the year
before the vulgar era 397. Having jomed a leader named
Aruus, who wifhed to avenge himfelf of one of the Leuce-
mons in Etruria, they pafled tlie Alps in a numerous body,
and traverfed the plains watered by the Po, where other
Gauls were already eltablifhed, and arrived on the other fide
of the river, in Umbria, (till occupied by its ancient inha-
bitants. They ellablirtied themfelves from the Utis as far
as the CEfis, having the Adriatic fea to the N.E. and the
Apennines to the S.W. After having fpent about fix years
in forming their eftablifhments, Aruns condudled them to
Clufium, to befiege that place, where his wife and her ra-
viftier were. The Romans, whofe mediation was refufed,
took part with the inhabitants of Clufium, and joined the
Sroops of that city. The Senones were indignant, and de-

VoL. XXXII.

termiaed to do themfelvej juftice. Accordingly they marched
towards Rome, and penetrated into the city, in defiance
of the army that was oppofed to them. The Capitol made
a vigorous refiftance j till at length Camillus arrived, de-
feated the Senones, and refcued Rome. About 100 years
after this expedition they engaged in a war, and were over-
powered in the year of Rome 463, by M. Curius Gentalus
and P. Cornelius Rufinus. They were afterwards driven
from the whole country which they occupied, from the CEfis
to the Rubicon. A colony was fent into their country,
which affumed the name of " Sena Gallia." Seven years
afterwards they were almoft entirely exterminated by Dola-
bella. '

SENOPLE. See Sinople.

SENORA, in Geography. See Sonora.

SENORIiE, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the banana-tree, or mufafruau breviore.

SENOSAD, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of C'zaflau ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Czaflau.

SENOSECZ, or Senosetch, a town of Carniola ; 8
miles S.W. of Cirknitz.

SENRA, SENRa:A, or Serra, in Botany, a genus of
Cavanilles, upon which diff'erent authors have beftowed the
above appellations. None of thefe, however, feem fatif-
faftory, for it has been fuggefted, that Serrea would be a
preferable name to any of the foregoing. We are ignorant
of its derivation — Cavan. Difl". 2. 83. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3.
69J. Juir. 274. — Clafs and order, Monaddphia Decandria.
Nat. Ord. Mahacea, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth double, permanent ; outer of
three, heart-fhaped, roundifli leaves ; inner very fmall, of
one leaf, cloven half way down into five fegments. Cor.
of five petals, malvaceous, tubular. Stam. Filaments com-
monly ten, united, placed on the upper fuperficies of the
tube ; anthers kidney-fhaped. P'tfl. Germen ovate, con-
cealed in the tube, furrounded by four membranes, or ratJier
by a fingle four-toothed membrane ; ftyle fimple, five-cleft.
Stigma globofe. Perlc. Fruit ovate, downy. Seeds ten,
oblong, kidney-ftiaped.

Eft". Ch. Calyx double ; outer of three leaves ; inner
five-toothed. Petals five. Style five-cleft. " Capfule
five-ceUed ?"

I. S. incana. Cavan. Diff. 2. t. 35. f. 3. IVilld. — Na.
tive of Arabia, oppofite the ifland Socotora. The whole
plant is white with down, whence its fpecific name. Stem
fcarcely three inches high, ftiffifti, folitary. Leaves alter-
nate, ftalked, heart-fhaped, ovate, truncated, terminating
with three notches. Flowers axillary, folitary, nearly fel-
file, probably yellowifli.

Defcribed by Cavanilles from a dried fpecimen, which
was communicated to him by fir Jofeph Banks. It appears
to be allied both to Malva and Gojfypitim.

SENS, in Geography, a town ot France, and principal
place of a diftrift, in the department of the Yonne, fituate
on the Yonne. Before the revolution it was the fee of aa
archbifliop, and contained i6 parifli churches, and I4abbies
and convents. In the reign of Edward III. and Henry V.
Sens was taken by the Engltfh ; 24 pofts N.N.W. of Dijon.
The place contains 10,600, and the canton 21,847 '"ha-
bitants, on a territory of 257^ kilioraL-tres, in 23 com-
munes. N. lat. 4^° 12'. E. long. 3^21'. — Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine ; 14
miles N.N. E. of Rennes. — Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Saone and Loire; 7 miles N.N.E. of
Louhans.

SENSABARY, a town of Bengal; 20 miles N. of
Nulftii.

I i SENSAON.

SEN

SENSAON, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez,
near a mountain of the fame name ; 25 miles S. of Tetuan.

SENSATION, in Phyliology, a general term denoting
the cffeft produced in the mind by the impreffions of exter-
nal bodies on our organs of fenfe, by various changes in the
internal organs, and by affeftions of any paits of the body
which poffefs nerves. The appropriate external objefts,
being prefented to the eyes, ears, nofe, tongue, or ikin,
give us the fenfations of which thofe parts are refpedively
the organs: hunger and thirlt, naufea and ficknefs, griping,
fainting, agitation, &c. are the refults of particular ftates
of internal organs ; fatigue is caufed by exertion of the
mufcular fyftem ; mechanical or chemical applications to any
parts pofleffing nerves caufe pains of all kinds and degrees.
Thus feeing, hearing, fmelling, tailing, and touching ;
hunger and thirlt, ficknefs, fainting, &c. ; and all the
agreeable or difagreeable effefts produced by external ob-
jefts afting on our frame, are fo many modea of fenfation,
fo many tlates of exiftence, accompanied each with a peculiar
feeling or aft of confcioufnefs.

In the five fenfes, fenfation requires a healthy condition
of the external organs of the brain, and of the nerves which
pafs between the organs and the brain. The abfence of
either of thofe conditions deltroys fenfations : if the optic
nerve be divided there is no feeing, although the eye and
brain be healthy ; if the brain be comprefTed, the nerve and
the eye remaining unafFefted ; or if the eye be difeafed, the
nerve and the brain being found, vifion is deltroyed. The
fame is the cafe with the general feeling of the frame : if
the nerves of a limb be divided, or the brain be compreflcd,
there is no fenfation ; a pin might be thruft into the part
without being felt. The dependance of the internal feelings
on the brain is not fo clearly made out in every inftance. On
the whole, however, phyfiologills confider it as eftablifhed,
that fenfation is the funftion of the nervous fyltem. On this
fubjeft, as well as on the phenomena of fenfation exhibited
by the brain and nerves, we refer to Brain, Phyfwlogy of
the, to Life, and Nervous Syjiem.

As there are fo many different phenomena included under
the common term of fenfation, what is the point in which
they agree ? What is the charafter by which they are all re-
cognized as fenfations ? It is the feehng excited, the con-
fcioufnefs of a new mode of exiltence, the modification
which the fentient being experiences. Senfation ia (hort is
feeling.

This is the only point in which the various fenfations agree ;
independently of this there is httle lefemblance, or even ana-
logy between them. Hearing is no more hke feeing, and
either of thefe is no more like hunger or thirft, than a
inufcle is to a nerve or the fl{in.

Senfations may be reproduced without any external ob-
jefts, by an aftive ftate of the brain : thus in dreams we
pafs through fcenes, and experience feebngs, which are not
diftinguifhable from real occurrences.

Senfation, according to Dr. Reid, is a name given by phi-
lofophers to an aft of mind, which may be diftinguilhed from
all others by this, that it hath no objeft dilliuft from the
aft itfelf. Pain of every kind is an uneafy fenfation. The
pain and the feeling, he fays, are one and the fame thing ;
and cannot be disjoined even in imagination. Pain, when
it is not felt, has no exiltence. The fame obfervation may
be applied to every other fenfation. This author adds, that
when we have acquired a diftinft notion of that fimple aft
of the mind called fenfation, we ftiall be able the more
eafily to diftinguidi it from every external objeft that
accompanies it, and from every other aft of the mind that
may be conjoined with it. Hence it is of importance, that

SEN

the name of fenfation fhould, in philofophical writings, fie
appropriated to fignify this fimple aft of the mind, wicnout
including any thing more in its fignification, or being ap-
plied to other purpofes. The word feeling, which figmfies
the perceptions we have of external objefts by the fenfe of
touch, is alfo uied to denote the fame thing as fenlation r in
wliich fenfe it has no objeft, the feeling and the thing felt
being one and the fame. He acknowledges, howe/er, that
betwixt feeling, taken in this lall fenfe, and fenlation, thifre
may be this faall difference ; that fenfation is moft com-
monly ufed to fignify thofe feelings which refult from our
external fenfes and bodily appetites, and all onr bodily
pains and pleafures. But there are feelings of a noblrr iia-
ture, accompanying our affeftions, our moral judgments,
and our determinations in matters of talte, to which the
word fenfation is lefs properly applied.

Dr. Reid, in another place, obferves, that almolt all our
perceptions have correfponding fenfations, which conftantly
accompany them, and, on that account, are very apt to be
confounded with them. Hence the names of moll of our
fenfations become ambiguous, and this ambiguity hath
very much perplexed philofophers. He alleges feveral
fafts that ferve to illuflrate and evince this ambiguity, in re-
ference to the names we have for fmells, taftes, founds, and
for the various degrees of heat and cold, which names denote
both a fenfation, and a quality perceived by means of that
fenfation. The caufe is the fame with refpeft to many ope-
rations of mind to which we give one name, and which we
always confider as one thing ; and yet they are complex in
their nature, and made up of feveral more fimple ingredients ;
of which ingredients fenfation ver^* often reck<ins one. In-
deed, the number of our fenfations and feelings is prodi-
gious ; and the molt general and important divilion of them
is into the agreeable, the difagreeable, and the indifferent.

The preceding remarks ferve to evince the importance of
diftinguifhing carefully between our fenfations and that jjer-
ception of external objefts which is conllantly conjoined
with them. Senfation, fays this author, taken by itfelf, im-
plies neither the conception nor belief of any external ob-
jeft. It_ fuppofes a fentient being, and a certain manner in
which that being is affefted, but it fuppofes no more. But
perception, in his view of it, implies an immediate convic-
tion and belief of fomething external ; fomething different
both from the mind that perceives and from the aft of per-
ception. Things fo different in their nature ought to be
dillinguifhed ; but by our conltitution they are always united.
Every different perception is conjoined with 3 fenfation that
is proper to it. The one is the fign, the other the thing
fignified. They coalefce in our imagination ; they are fig-
nitied by one name, and are confidered as one fimple ope-
ration. To the philofopher it belongs to dillinguifh between
them.

Our author elfewhere obferves, that when certain impref-
fions are made upon our organs, nerves, and brain, certain
correfponding fenfations are felt, and certain objefts are
both conceived and believed to exift. But wc can neither dif-
cover the caufe of any one of thefe operations, nor any ne-
ceiiary conneftion of one with another.

On the fubjeft of this article, in its conneftion with meta-
phyfics, or the philofophy of the human mind, we refer to
Idea, Perception, ilf«i/a/ Philosoi'HV, Vi oration, and
other terms of a fimilar import, or in any degree connefted
with them, occurring in various parts of the Cyclopedia.

SENSBURG, in Geography, a town of PruiTia, in the
province of Bartenland ; 14 miles S. of Raftenburg. N.
lat. 53°44'. E. long. zi° 23'.

SENSE. Senses, in Phj/fiole^y and jinatomy, the or-
gans

SENSE.

gans by wliich we become acquainted with furrounding
objeAs, by which external bodies imprefs our frame, fo as
to communicate to us a knowledge of their properties.
They are five in number, viz. the eyes, ears, nofe, tongue,
and fliin ; for the anatomical and phyfiological account of
which, we refer to thefe articles. Thefe are often called
the external fenfes ; while the internal organs, the parts of
the brain which are concerned in knowing and reflefting,
have fometimes been called the internal fenfes. See Mental

PHILOSOPHy.

Dr. Hutchefon gives us a more extenfive and philo-
fophical notion of feiife. On his principle, fenfe is defined,
a power of perception, or a power of perceiving ideas ; at
leaft if what is abfolutely pallive may be properly called a
power.

On fome occafions, inflead of power, he chufes to call it
a determination of the mind to receive ideas ; and the ideas
thus perceived, or raifed in the mind, he calls fenfatiotis.

Senfe, he confiders, either as natural or moral ; and the
natural, either as external or internal : though the diftribu-
tion is chiefly founded on the common ways of conceiving ;
for, in reality, they appear to be all natural and neceflary.
Some reafons, however, for the diflinftion, will be (hewn
under the feveral articles of it.

External fenfes, then, are povvers of perceiving ideas,
upon the prefence of external objefts. On fuch occafions,
we find the mind is merely paffive, and has not power di-
reftly to prevent the perception, or idea, or to vary it at its
reception ; as long as the body is continued in a Hate fit to
be afted upon by the external objeft.

When two perceptions are entirely different from each
other, or agree in nothing but the general idea of fenfation,
the powers of receiving thofe different perceptions are called
different fenfes. Thus, fc 'ng and hearing denote the dif-
ferent powers of receivingl le ideas of colours and foands.
And though colours, as wed as founds, have vaft differences
amongll themfelves ; yet is there a greater agreement among
the moil oppofite colours, than between any colour and a
found ; and hence all colours are deemed perceptions of the
fame fenfe.

All the feveral fenfes feem to have their diftinfl organs,
except feeling, which is, in fome degree, diffufed over the
whole body. Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of
Beauty and Virtue, p. 2. 8vo. 1726.

In another place, the fame writer defines the external
fenfes to be thofe determinations of nature, by which certain
perceptions conftantly arife in the mind, when certain im-
prefiions are made upon the organs of the body, or motions
raifed in them. Some of thefe perceptions are received folely
by one fenfe ; others may be received by two or more. Of
the former clafs are thefe five forts ; vis. colours, founds,
taftes, fmells, cold, or heat. Some ingenious authors
reckon more : thefe we may call the proper ideas of fenfa-
tion. Syftem of Moral Philofophy, vol. i. p. 4.

Internal fenfes are powers or determinations of the mind
to be pleafed with certain forms and ideas, which occur to
our obfervation, in objefts perceived by the external fenfes.
Of thefe there are two different fpecies, diftinguiflied by the
different objeds of pleafure, tiiz. pleafurable or beautiful
forms of natural things, and pleafurable or beautiful ac-
tions, or charafters of rational agents : whence the internal
fenfes become divifible into natural and moral ; though what
others call the internal natural fenfe, our author calls fimply,
and by way of eminence, the internal fenfe.

In reflefting on our external fenfes, we plainly fee, that
our perceptions of pleafure and pain do not depend direAly
on our will. Objefts do not pleaie us, according as we iii>

clme they (hould : the prefence of fome objeds neceffarily
pleafes us, and the prefence of others as neceffarily difpleafes
us ; nor can we by our will any otherwife procure pleafure,
or avoid pain, than by procuring the former kind of objeas,
and avoidmg the latter. By the very frame of our nature,
the one is made the occafion of delight, and the other of dif-
fatisfadion. In effed, our fenfitive perceptions, are plea-
fant, and painful, immediately, and without any knowledge
of the caule of this pleafure and pain, or of the manner how
they exeite it, or are occafions of it, or without our feeing
to what farther advantage, or detriment, the ufe of fuch
objefts might tend. Nor would the mod accurate know-
ledge of thefe things vary either the pleafure, or the pain,
of the perception : however it might give a rational pleafure,
diftihdl from the fenfible ; or might raife a dilUnft joy, from
profped of farther advantage in the objeft, or another aver-
fion, from apprehenfion of evil. There is fcarcely any objeft
which our minds are employed about, but is conllituted the
neceilary occafion of fome pleafure or pain. Thus, we Ihall
find ourlelves pleafed with a regular form, a piece of archi-
tefture, or painting, a compofition of notes, a theorem, an
aftion, an affedion, a charafter ; and we are confcious, that
this pleafure naturally arifes from the contemplation of the
idea then prefcnt to the mind, with all its circumftances,
though fome of thofe ideas have nothing of what we call
fenfible perception in them ; and in thofe which have, the
pleafure arifes from fome uniformity, order, arrangement,
and imitation ; and not from the fimple ideas of colour, 01
found, or mode of extenfion, feparately confidered.

It feems hence to follow, that when initruftion, educa-
tion, or prejudice of any kind, raife any defire or averfion
towards an objeft ; this defire, or averfion, is founded on
an opinion of fome perfection, or deficiency, in thofe qua-
lities, for perception of which we have the proper fenfes.
Thus, if beauty be defired by one who has not the fenfe of
fight ; the defire mull be raifed by fome apprehended regu-
larity of figure, fweetnefs of voice, fmoothnefs, foftnefs, or
fome other quality, perceivable by the other fenfes, without
relation to the ideas of colour.

The only pleafure of fenfe, which our philofophers feem
to confioer, is that which accompanies the fimple ideas of
fenfation ; but there are vaftly greater pleafures in thofe
complex ideas of objefts, which obtain the names of beau-
tiful and harmonious. The power, then, by which we re-
ceive ideas of beauty and harmony, has all the charafters of
a fenfe. It is no matter, whether we call thefe ideas of
beauty and harmony, perceptions of the external fenfes of
feeing and hearing, or not : we (hoald rather choofe to call
thefe ideas an internal fenfe, were it only for the convenience
of diftinguifhing them from other fenfations of feeing and
hearing, which men may have without perception of beauty
and harmony. Hutchefon's Inquiry, &c. Preface, and
p. 3, &c.

For the general maaner in which our i'enfes ad, or, more
properly, the manner in which we become fenilble, that is,
perceive external objefts, fee Se\sation.

For the particular fenfes, or, more properly, the parti-
cular manner in which we become fenfible, by the parti-
cular organs of fenfe, fee Hearing, Seeing, Smelling,
&c.

For the feveral organs of fenfe, miniftering to the feveral
manners of fenfation, fee Evk, Ear, Nose, &c.

Pliny obferves, that of all the fenfes, feeling and tailing
are thofe whi^h man enjoys in the greateft perfedion. As
to feeing, he fayi, he is excelled by the eagle, &c. ; as to
fmelling, by the vulture, &c. ; and as to hearing, by the
mole, even when hid under ground.

li * The

SENSE.

The fcnfes have been fometiraes feund greatly (harpened
and improved by difeafes. Mr. Boyle mentions a gentle-
man, who, during a diftemper he had in his eyes, had his
organs of fight brought to be fo fenfible, that when he
waked in the night, he could, for a while, plainly fee and
diftinguifh colours, and other objefts ; and the fame author
gives an inilance of another perfon, who, after getting half-
fuddled with claret, if he waked in the night, could fee for
fome time to read a moderate print.

Grimaldi tells us, that fome women of Megara were able
by their eyes alone to diltinguifh between eggs laid by
black hens, and thofe by white ones. Grimald. de Lum.
& Col.

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 312, we have an
account of Dan. Frafer, who continued deaf and dumb from
his birth to the feventeenth year of his age ; when, upon
recovering from a fever, he perceived an uneafy motion in
his brain, after which he began to hear, and by degrees to
fpeak.

Dr. Reid, in his fecond Effay, fuggeds a variety of
methods, by which our fenfes may be improved, as they
give us information of things that concern us. Our original
powers of perceiving objefts by our fenfes admit of great
improvement by ufe and habit ; but, befides, there are
various ways in which our fenfes may be improved, or their
defefts remedied by art ; as by a due care of the organs of
fenfe, that they be in a found and natural ilate ; by accurate
attention to the objeAs of fenfe ; by additional organs or
inltruments contrived by art ; and by difcovering the con-
ncAion which nature has eftablifhed between the fenfible
qualities of objefts, and their more latent quahties.

Dr. Reid fuggelts, that the fallacy of the fenfes has
been a common complaint among philofophers, both ancient
and modern ; and this, he thinks, is founded on a common
error, to which another has been added, that our ufe of
reafon is to detedt the fallacies of fenfe. In his opinion,
there is no more reafon to account our fenfes fallacious,
than our reafon, our memory, or any other faculty of
judging which nature hath given us. They are all limited
and imperfeft, but wifely fuited to the prefent condition of
man. We are liable to error and wrong judgment in the
ufe of them all, but as Uttle in the information of fenfe as in
the deduftions of rcafoning ; and the errors we fall into,
with regard to objeCls of fenfe, are not corrected by reafon,
but by more accurate attention to the information we may
receive by our fenfes themfelves.

Sense, Moral, is a determination of the mind to be
plealed with the contemplation of thofe affeftions, aftions,
or charafters, of rational agents, which we call good or
•virtuous.

This moral fenfe of beauty in aAions and afieftiont, may
appear ftrange at firft view ; fome of our morahfts them-
felves are offended at it in lord Shafte(bur)-, as being accuf-
tomed to deduce every approbation, or averCon, from ra-
tional views of interell. Our gentlem-n of good talte can
tell us of a great many fenfes, talles, and rc\i(hes for beauty,
harmony, imitation in painting and poetry ; a. id nay we not
find, too, in mankind a rtlilh for a beauty in ch:ir-ders, in
manners ? The truth is, imman nature does not feen- to have
been left quite indifferent in the affair of virtue, to turm to
itfelf obfervations concerning the advantage or difadvan-
tage of aftions, and accordingly to regulate its conduft.
The weaknefs of our reafon, and the avocations anfing from
the infirmities and neceilities of our nature, are fo great,
that very few of mankind could have framed thofe long
dednftions of reafon, which may (hew fome adions to be,
in the whole, advantageous, and their contraries pernicious.
S

The Author of nature has much better furnifhed us for i
virtuous conduA than our moralills fccm to imagine ; by
almoft as quick and powerful inllruftions, as wc have for the
prefervation of our bodies : he has made \'irtue a lovely
form, to excite our purfuit of it ; and has gi»tn us ftrong
affeftions, to be the fprings of each virtuous aftion. Hut-
chefon's Inquiry, &c. ubi fupra. Effay on tlic Nature and
Conduct of the Paflions, p. 5, &c. See Mental and Moral
Philosophy, and alfo Virtue.

Sense, Public, is defined by the fame author to be our
determination to be pleafed with the happinefs of other?,
and to be uneafy at their mifery. Thi', he fays, is found
in fome degree in all men, and was fometimes called wi-
>oronu«rvvT!, or ftnfus communis, by fome of the ancients.

Sense, Common, is a term that has been varioufly ufcd
both by ancient and modern writers. With fome it has
been fynonimous with public fenfe ; with others it haa de-
noted prudence ; in certain inllances it has been confounded
with fome of the powers of talle ; and, accordingly, thofe
who commit egregious blunders with regard to decorum,
faying and doing what is offeniive to their compariy, and
inconfiftent with their own character, have been charged
with a defeftin common fenfe. Some men aredillinguifhed
by an uncommon acutenefs in difcovering the characters of
others ; and this talent has been fometimcs called common
fenfe: fimilar to which is that ufe of the term, which makes it
to fignify that experience and knowledge of life which is ac-
quired by living in fociety. Hor. lib. i. fat. 3. lin. 66. To
this meaning Quintilian refers, fpeaking of the advantages
of a pubhc education: " Senfumipfum qui communi-;dicitur,
ubi difcet, cum fe a congreilu, qui non hominibus folum,
fed mutis quoque animalibus naturalis ell, fegrcgarit i"
Lib. i. cap. I.

Dr. Reid obferves, in his 6th Effay, " of Common
Senfe," that, in common language, fenle always implies
judgment, nor is the popular meaning of the word fenfe
pecuhar to the Englilh language : the correfponding words
in Greek, Latin, and probably in all the European languages,
have the fame latitude. The Latin words fenlere, J'entenlia,
fcnfa, fcnjus, from the lall of which the Englilh word fenfe is
borrowed, exprefi! judgment or opinion, and are applied in-
differently to objects of external fenfe, of talte, of morals,
and of underttanding.

Tills is the meaning which Mr. Pope has given to it ; and
in his epiftle to the carl of Burlington he has thus defcantcd
upon it :

" Oft have you hinted to your brother peer,
A certain truth, which many buy too dear ;
Something there is more needful than expcnce.
And fomething previous ev'n to tafte — 'tis Senfe.
Good fenfe, which only is »he gift of Heaves ;
And though no fcience, fairly »vorth the feven :
A hght, which in yourfelf you mull perceive,
Jones and Le Notke have it not to give. "

Having (hewn that fenfe, in its mofl common, and there-
fore molt proper meaning, fignilies judgment, our author
infers that common feufe Ihould mean common judgment ;
as it really does.

Lord Shaftelbury has given to one of his treatifes the title
of <' Senfus Communis ;" and he has introduced fome cri-
ticifm upon this word in Juvenal, Horace, and Seneca :
after (hewing in his facetious manner, that the fundamental
principles of morals, of politics, of criticilm, and of every
branch of knowledge, arc the dldates of common fenfe, he
lums up the whole in thefe words ; '< that fome moral and
philofophical truths are fo evident in themfelves, that it

would

SENSE.

V?Duld be eafier to imagine half mankind run mad, and joined
precifely in the fame fpecies of folly, than to admit any
thing as truth, which (hould be advanced againft fuch natural
knowledge, fundamental reafon, and common fenfe ;" and
on taking leave he adds ; " and now, my friend, (hould you
find I had moralifed in any tolerable manner, according to
common fenfe, and without canting, I fhall be fatisfied with
my performance." After citing other numerous teftimonies
in vindication of common fenfe, as a principle of knowledge,
our author concludes with obferving, that it is abfurd to
conceive that there can be any oppolition between reafon
and common fenfe. To reafon we afcribe two offices, or
two degrees. The firlt is to judge of things felf-evident ; the
fecond to draw conclufions that are not felf-evident from
thofe that are : the firft of thefe is the province, and the
fole province, of common fenfe ; and therefore it coincides
■witli reafon in its whole extent, and is only another name for
one branch or degree of reafon. The firli is purely the gift
of heaven ; the fecond is learned by practice and rules, when
the firft is not wanting.

Our author further obferves, that the province of com-
mon fenfe is more extenfive in refutation than in confirmation.
A conclufion drawn by a train of juil reafoning from true
principles, cannot poffibly contradift any decifion of common
fenfe, becaufe truth will always be confiftent with itfelf.
Neither can fuch a conclufion receive any confirmation from
common fenfe, becaufe it is not within its jurifdiftion. But
it is poflible that, by fetting out from falfe principles, or by
an error in reafoning, a man may be led to a conclufion that
contradifts the decifions of common fenfe. In this cafe, the
conclufion is'within the jurifdiftion of common fenfe, though
the reafoning on which it was grounded be not ; and a man
of common fenfe may fairly rejeft the conclufion, without
being able to (hew the error of the reafoning that led to it.
After thefe preliminary remarks, we obferve that the term
common fenfe hath in modern times been ufed to fignify
that power of the mind which perceives truth, or com-
mands belief, not by progreflive argumentation, but by
an inllantaneous, inftuiftive, and irrefiitible impiilfe ; derived
neither from education nor from habit, but from nature ;
afting independently of our will, whenever its objeft is pre-
fented, according to an eftabli(hed law, and, therefore,
called y}n/f; and afting in a fimilar manner upon all, or at
leaft upon a great majority of mankind, and, therefore,
called common fenfe. The firft among the moderns who took
notice of this principle as one of the fprings of our know-
ledge, was Biiffier, a French philofopher of the lalt cen-
tury, in a book entitled " Traite des Premieres Veritez ;"
and this doftrine hath lately, in our own country, been illuf-
trated and maintained by Drs. Reid, Beattie, Ofwald, and
Campbell.

In order to evince that there is a real and effential dif-
ference between this faculty and that of reafon, it is ob-
ferved, that we are confcious, from internal feeling, that the
energy of underftanding, which perceives intuitive truth,
is different from that other energy which unites a conclnfion
with a firft principle, i)y a gradual chain of intermediate
relations ; that we cannot difcern any neceflary conneftion
between reafon and common fenfe ; that the one is more in
our power than the other ; the faculty of reafoning being
improveable by culture, whereas common fenfe, like other
inftinfts, arnves at maturity with almoft no care of ours,
and it is impofhble to teach common fenfe to one who wants
it ; though this, hke otlier inftinfts, may languifh for want
of exercife ; and that a diftinftion, fimilar to that which is
here maintained, is acknowledged by the vulgar, who fpeak
ef mother-wit as fomething different from the deduftions of

reafon, and the refinements of fcience. All found reafoning,
it is faid, mud ultimately reft on the principles of common
fenfe ; that is, on principles intuitively certain, or intuitively
probable ; and, confequently, common fenfe is the uhimate
judge of truth, to which reafon muft continually aft in
fubordination. Thus the advocates for this faculty, as an
original and diftinft power of the human mind, alTign to it
a very extenfive empire, and an authority that is fupreme and
abfolute. And they have proceeded fo far as to fubftitute,
in the room of Mr. Locke's abftraftion, this faculty as the
charafteriftic of rationahty. To this they refer the evidence
of mathematical truth, of external and internal fenfe, of
memory, of reafoning from the effeft to the caufe, of pro-
bable or experimental reafoning, of analogical reafoning, of
faith in teftimony, and, indeed, of all primary truths. To
common fenfe, therefore, all truth muft be conformable :
this, they fay, is its fixed and invariable ftandard. And
whatever contradifts common fenfe, or is inconfiftent with
that ftandard, though fupported by arguments that are
deemed unanfwerable, and by names that are celebrated by
all the critics, academics, and potentates on earth, is not
truth, but falfehood. In a word, the diftates of common
fenfe are, in refpeft to human knowledge in general, what
the axioms of geometry are in refpeft to mathematics : on
the fuppofition that thefe axioms are falfe or dubious, all
mathematical reafoning falls to the ground ; and on the
fuppofition that the diftates of common fenfe are erroneous
or deceitful, all truth, virtue, and fcience, are vain. And
hence it appears, that, according to this fyftem, common
fenfe is not only the teft of truth, but the ftandard of moral
obligation.

Dr. Prieftley, in his attack upon this fyftem, has charged
the abettors of it with an unnecedary innovation in the re-
ceived ufe of a term ; as no perfon ever denied that there are
felf-evident truths, and that thefe muft be aifumed as the
foundation of all reafoning. But they alfo recommend par-
ticular pofitions as axioms, not as being founded on the per-
ception of the agreement or difagreement of any ideas,
which is the great doftrine of Mr. Locke, and which makes
truth to depend upon the necelfary nature of things, to be
abfolute, unchangeable, and everlafting ; but merely fome
unaccountable inftinftive perfuaiions, depending upon the
arbitrary conftitution of our nature, which makes all truth
to be a thing that is relative to ourfelves only, and confe-
quently to be infinitely vague and precarious. This fyltem,
he fays, admits of no appeal to reafon, properly confidered,
which any perfon might be at liberty to examine and difcufs ;
but, on the contrary, every man is taught to think himfelf
authorized to pronounce decifively upon every queftion,
according to his prefent feeling and perfuafion ; under the
notion of its being fomething original, inftinftive, ultimate,
and incontrovertible, though, if llriftly analyfed, it might
appear to' be a mere prejudice, the offspring of iniftake.
Some of the maxims which they have adopted as felf-evident
truths, and which they have multiplied without neceflity,
are fo far from being felf-evident, that, in the judgment of
many fober and candid enquirers after truth, they are not
true, but capable of a fatisfaftory refutation.

At the fame time, fince no man can pretend to any natural
right to fix the principles of faith for another, they teach un-
believMS, and by their example authorize them, to rejeft
the principles of religion by the fame fummary and fup^r-
ficial procefs, as what appear to them to be, at iirlt fight,
too abfurd and ridiculous to be admitted as true and divine.

Dr. Prieftley apprehends, that the inconveniences above-
mentioned, may attend even the calling of that faculty by
which we difcern truth by the name oi fenfe. By this terra,

philofophera

SEN

philofophers in general have denominated thofe faculties, in
confequence of which we are liable to feelings relatively to
ourfelves only, and from which they have not pretended to
draw any conclufions concerning the nature of thmgs ;
whereas truth is a thing not relative, but abfolute and real,
independent of any relatioH to this or that particular being,
or this or that order of beings. Befides, if the determi-
nations of this new principle of common fenfe befo initanta-
neous, irrefillible, and mfallible, as Dr. Reid, Dr. Beattie,
and Dr. Ofwald reprefent, how can we account for all- the
error there is in the world ? Not to add, that this fyltem,
in its pradical influence, tends to prevent the exercife of
fi-ee and unreftrifted enquiry, with regard either to truth or
duty ; and to promote, in many cafes, the extravagancies of
credulity, enthufiafm, and myfticifm. Dr. PrielHey alfo
obferves, that Dr. Price (in his Review of the Principal
QueRions and Difficulties in Morals, 8vo.) though un-
noticed by the writers above cited, by maintaining that the
underitanding is the fource of many of our meil important
fimple ideas (fee Idea), has fecured all the flattering ad-
rantages of the new doArine of common fenfe, without the
capital inconveniences attending it. Like this fyllem, his
fcbeme cuts off, if it be admitted, all objections to primary
moral truths, reding them on a Umple appeal to the faculty
of intuition ; and refufing to reafon upon a fubjeft, which is
maintained to be as evident as the truth of the geometrical
axiom, that if equal things be taken from equal things, the
remainders will be equal.

If the ideas of moral right and wrong, &c. be perceived
by a fenfe, it depends upon our arbitrary conftitution, that
we conceive of them as we do, or whether we perceive them
at all ; and we have no method whatever of inveftigating,
whether they have any foundation in the abfolute nature of
things ; whereas by making moral ideas the objeft of the
underftanding as fuch, the principles of morality become
part of this fyftem of neceflary, eternal, and unalterable
truth, perceived by the divine Being as by ourfelves, but
altogether independent of his will, as well as of all other
beings and things whatfoever ; as much fo as the truth of
the axiom above-mentioned, or of the propofition, that two
and two make four.

It is added, that thefe writers feem even to have bor-
rowed their language, as well as their ideas, from Dr. Price,
who alfo ufes the term common fenfe, though applied in a
different manner. Reid's Enquiry into the Human Mind
on the Principles of Common Senfe, 8vo. ed. 2. 1765.
Reid's Efl'ays, above cited. Beattie's Eflay on the Nature
and Immutability of Truth, 8vo. cd. 2. 1771. Ofvvald's
Appeal to Common Senfe in behalf of Religion, 8vo. ed. 2.
1768. Campbell's Philofophy of Rhetoric, 8vo. 1776,
vol. i. p. 109, &c. Prieltley's Examination of Reid,
Beattie, and Ofwald, Sec. 8vo. 1774. For a farther ac-
count of this fyftem, fee Abstraction and Idea.

SENSEN, in Geography. See Sengen.

SENSIBILITY, in Phjjiolagy, the power of receiving
an imprefiion, and tranfmitting it to the brain, fo as to caufe
fenfation or feeling. The queftion whether any part be fen-
fible is, therefore, whether by afting on it in any way, feel.
ing can be excited. SenfibJity in this, its common accepta-
tion, obvioufly refers to the internal feeling or aft of con-
fcioufnefs relultliig from its exercife. Some phyfiologifts
have ufed the word in a more extenfive fenfe, Vj denote all
impreflions produced on our organs, even thofe which are
not felt ; as that of the blood on the heart, the food on the
alimentary canal, &c. They call the former animal fen-
fibility, becaufe it is peculiar to living beings ; and they dif-
tinguilh the latter by the name erguiiic, as it belongs to thofe

SEN

parts where motions are involuntary, and which conltitute
the automatic or organic life. See Life.

Rouffeau has given the word fenfibility a place among
French mnfical technica. The foul of the compofer Ihould
furnifh ideas, the perfomier (hould be gifted with feehng in
their expreflion, and the audience (hould be capable of being
imprefled with the beauties and defeAs of the mufic which is
executed for their amufement.

SENSIBLE Horizon, Point, and Qualitleu See the
fubftantives.

Sensible Note. See Note, Senftble.

SENSITIVE Fluid. Some have imagined a feniitiYe
fluid as the principle that preferves animals from corruption,
and to which we owe our fenfation and motion. This animal
fluid, pafles in the proper nervous tubes to the organs of
motion ; but is contained in the fibrous coats of the nerves to
become an organ of fenfation. This fenfitive fluid is, ac-
cording to M. Le Cat, capable of thinking, and is fo mo-
dified by the ganglions, that what is lodged in each part, is
capable of being impreffed by the objeA proper to each
organ. And from tlie doctrine concerning this animal fluid,
he endeavours to account for moft operations, which are
generally faid to depend on the foul. (Med. Elf. Edinb.
Abridg. vol. ii. p. 481.) But all thefe attempts to account
for fenfation and thoughi, from the properties of matter,
feem to be very defperatc undertakings, not to fay abfurd.

Sensitive Plant, in Botany. See Mimosa.

The lenfitive plant is fufliciently known to the world for
its remarkable property of recediiig from the touch, and
giving figns, as it were, of animal Lfe. Philafophers in
general have, however, contented ihemfelves with admiring
the fact, without giving themfelvet any trouble about the
caufe. See Leaf.

Mr. Hook, iodced, has made fome conjectures about it ;
but the greateft liglit that has been given into the thing, is
from the inquiries which Meffrs. Du Fay and Du Hamel,
gentlemen of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, concerted
together, and afterwards made feparately on different Ihrubs,
or at different times, that each might be able to correA the
errors of the other.

Botanic writers mention many kinds of fenfitive plants,
fome of which contraA at a touch, others with heat, others
with cold. The truth is, many, if not moft, vegetables ex-
pand their flowers, down, &c. in warm fun-fhiny weather,
and again clofe them towards evening, or in rain, &c. efpe-
cially at the beginning of flowering, or after the flowers are
fallen, whilft the feed is yet young and tender ; as is very
evident in the down of dandelion, &c. and in the flower of
the pimpernel, the opening and Ihuiting of which are the
countryman's weatherwifer ; by which, Gerarde fays he
foretels what weather (hall follow the next day ; for if the
flowers be clofe fhut up, it betokens rain and foul weather ;
if they be fpread abroad, fair weather.

The ftiuAure of the fenfitive plant is this ; from the large
Items, or main branches of the whole, there part off fevcral
other lefler ones, and from thefe there go off others (till lefs,
which, by way of diftinAion, may be called the ribs of the
leaves, as they ferve to fupport a number of leaves arranged
on each fide, and (landing on (hort pedicles in pairs, over
againil one another. Several other plants have this fort of
compound leaves, as the caflia, colutea, and the hke ; and
all thefe (hut their leaves together at night, and open them
again in the morninj,, in the fame manner as the fenfitive
plant does. This periodical opening and (hutting of the
leaves are therefore common to many plants, not peculiar to
the fenfitive plant; but the wonder in this is, that beCde
having this motion periodical aad regular, it is to be brought

SEN

r^n at other times, and by accidents, there requiring no more
•han the touching of the plant to make it clofe its leaves at any
time of the day, which it foon afterwards naturally opens
ao-ain. This is pecuHar to this plant, and refembles the
lAion of an animal which had been injured or frighted. A
clofe obfervation alfo of the manner in which this is per-
formed, will give many hints towards the finding of its caufe.

It is a very difficult thing to touch the leaf of a vigorous
fenfitive plant fo lightly, as not to make it clofe ; its fenfation
is extremely delicate, and its large rib or nerve, which runs
along its middle, is as it were a hinge, on which the two
halves of the leaf move when they turn upon being touched,
till they (land ereft, and by that means meet one another.

The flightell touch imaginable gives this motion to the
fide of the leaf which is touched, which is communicated
immediately to the other fide, or half, and they move to-
gether ; and if the touch has been a very little rougher, the
oppofite leaf on the fame rib receives the imprefiion, and
clofes up in the fame manner with that which was actually
touched.

Nor is this all, for when the two fides of each of thefe
leaves move upwards, the pedicle of each half moves up-
wards at the fame time, and by this means they, in fome
meafure, approach towards each other, and make the angles
of their pedicles with the mam rib, or italk of the compofite
ieaf, lefs than before ; and the total motion of each leaf is
compofed of .hefe two nKnions.

If tlie touf-h be ilill rougher, the whole arrangement of
leaves on the fame rib feeis its influence on each fide, and all
dole in the fame manner with the fingle pair in the preceding
IP fiance ; and if the touch be yet ftronger than this, the r:b
itfelf feels it, and attempts to clofe in its way ; moving itfelf
upwards towards the branch from which it is produced, juft
as the fingle pedicles of the leaves did towards it : and if the
touch be yet more hard and rough, the very branches have
the fenfation propagated to tliem, and apply themfelves to
the main ftera, or trunk of the (hrub, as the fimple leaves did
before to their rib, and that rib to the branch ; fo that the
whole plant in this ftate forms itf.-lf from a very complexly
branched figure, into a fort of ftraight cylindric one. That
motion which has, of all others, the greatelt effett upon this
plant, is a (baking one.

Thefe three motions of the plant are performed by means
of three diitinft and fenCble articulations ; the firft that of
the fingle leaf to its pedicle, the fecond that of the pedicle to
its branch, the third that of the bi-anch to the trunk. The
primary motion of all which, is the clofing of tlie two halves
of the leaf upon their rib, which ought alfo to be per-
formed in a fimilar manner, and by a fimiiar articulation ;
this, however, is much lefs vifible than the others.

Thefe motions are wholly independent of one another, as
may be proved by experiment. It Ihould appear, that if
the ftalks are moved, and coUapfe towards the branches, or
thefe towards the trunk, that the leaves, whole motion is
•ufiially primary to thefe, (hould be alfeded alfo ; ye; expe-
riment proves, that it is poffiblc to touch the branches in
fuch a manner, as to affoft them only, and make th'm .ipp'y
themfelvi's to the trunk, while the leaves feel nothip<; of the
touch ; but this cannot be, unlefs the branches are (o dif-
pofcd, as that they can fall to the trunk without fuffering
their leaves to touch any other part of the plant in their pa(-
fagc-, becaufe, if they do, they immcdiatily become afleftcd.

Winds and heavy rains caufe the fenfitive plants to (hut
up their leaves, while eafy (bowers do not at all affect them ;
it IS plain hence, that the agitation of the plant by the wind,
and the ftrokcs given by the large and halty drops of rain,
are what caufe the contradtion.

SEN

By whatever accident the plant has been made to clofe its
leaves, it always regularly opens them again afterwards.
This, however, requires diiferent times, according to feveral
tircumitances, as the time of the day, the feafon of the year,
and the more and lefs vigorous and healthy (late of the plant ;
fometimes this is done in ten minutes, fometimes it requires
half an hour ; and the manner is not lefs different than the
time, for fometimes the leaves unfold themfelves firft, and
fometimes the branches, whereas fometimes all is done at
once, and the whole plant feems in motion at a time.

In endeavouring to account for the motions of this plant,
the gentlemen above named have conjeftured that they are
performed by means of a fort of very nice and fine hinges,
which communicate one with another by means of very
minute and (lender cords, which occafion them to aft as we
fee when the plant is fufiiciently difturbed, and thefe cords
fliaken ; and what gives a (trong probability to this con-
jefture is, that the decayed and dying leaves of the plant
perform this motion as regularly and vigoroufly, as thofe
which are frefh and full of juice.

It feems plain, that while the juices are evaporating, and
the parenchymatous fubitance of the leaves drying up, thefe
more folid parts, the lines and cordages, retain their figure ;
and, confequently, if it is by means of thefe that the motion
is always performed, it will be as well performed in thefe as
in the frelher leaves, which could not be the cafe were it
owing to the juices.

The natural opening and fliutting of the leaves of this plant
at night and morning, are not fo fixed but that they are
variable alfo, according to circumitances of place, tempe-
rature, &c.

In the month of Auguft, a fenfitive plant was carried in
a pot out of its ufual place into a dark cave, the motion that
it received in the carriage fliut up its leaves, and they did not
open till twenty-four hours afterwards ; at this time they be-
came moderately open, but were afterwards fubjeft to no
changes at night or morning, but remained three days and
nights with their leaves in the fame moderately open itate.
At the end of this time they were brought out again in the
air, and then recovered their natural periodical motions, (hut-
ting every night and opening every morning, as naturally
and as ilrongly, as if it had not been in this forced ftate ; and
while in the cave, it was obferved to be very little lefs af-
fefted with the touch than when abroad in the open air.

Repeated experiments have proved, fay thefe philofopliers,
that it is not the light of the day that opens the leaves of this
plant, nor the darknefs of the night that doles them ; neither
is it the alternate warmth of the day and cold of the night,
tliat have this effeft, fince it (huts in nights which are much
warmer than the days often are in which it opens ; and the
increafihg the heat of the place in which it is kept, and mark-
ing the increafe ur decreafe on the thermometer, have been
found to have not the le:ift effeft, as to its fooner or later
opening or (hutting its leaves.

The m )it proDabt ■ conjefture feems, that it is not great
heat, or ^'reat ccld, fuch as it can bear, that bring on
this I ff <S, but the fudden change from one to the other, and
thi", is ci nhrmed by this experiment, that if one of thefe
plants be raifed under a glafs bell, or cafe, and the bell or
covering be takei: otl, It immediately clofes, even though it
be in the middle of the day ; and this is alfo obferved, that
the m'-re open or expofed the plant ftands, the more (trong
and lively are its (hutting and opening ; and that they are
mo.l obfervable in furamer, and much lefs fo when it is kept
in a clofe (love in winter.

The great heats of fummer, when there is open fun(hine at
noon, allcct the plant in fome degree like cold, caufing it to

2 (hut

SEN

(hut up its leaves a little, but never in any very great decree.
The plant, however, is kail of all afFefted about nine o'clock;
in the morning, and that is confequently the propereft time
to make experiments on it. A branch of the fenfmve piant
cut off, and laid by, retains yet its property of fhuttmg up
and opening in the morning for fome days ; and it holds it
longer if kept with one end in water than if left to dry more

fuddenly. • . • u

The leaves only of the fenfitive plant Ihut up in the night,
not the branches ; and if it be touched at this time, the
branches are affefted in the fame manner as in the day, Ihut-
tiag up, or approaching to the ftalk or trunk, in the fame
manner, and often with more force. It is of no confe-
quence what the fubltance is vfith which the plant is touched,
it anfwers alike to all ; but there may be obferved a little
fpot, ditlinguifhable by its paler colour in the articulations of
its leaves, where the greateft and niceft fenfibility is evidently
placed.

The fenfitive plant plunged into water immediately clofes
its leaves, which is partly owing to the touch, partly to the
coldnefs of the water ; afterwards the leaves expand again,
and if they are then touched, clofe again as before, as if in the
open air, only that they do it with lefs force.

If the end of one of the leaves be burning with the flame
of a candle, or by a burning glafs, or touching it with hot
iron, it clofes up in a moment, and the oppofite leaf does the
fame, and after that the whole feries of leaves on each of the
rib, then the rib itfelf, then the branch, all do the fame, if
the burning has been in a fufficient degree. This proves
that there is a very nice communication between all the parts
of the plant, by means of which the burning, which only is
applied to the extremity of one leaf, diffufes its influence
through every part of the (hrub.

If a drop of aqua fortis be carefully laid upon a leaf of the
fenfitive plant, fo as not to (hake it in the leaft, the leaf does
not begin to move till the acid liquor corrodes the fubftance
of i\ ; but at that time, not only that particular leaf, but all
the leaves placed on the fame rib, clofe themfelves up. The
vapour of burning fulphur has alfo this efFeft on many leaves
at once, according as they are more or lefs expofed to it ;
but a bottle of very acrid and fulphureous fpirit of vitriol,
placed under the branches unftopped, produces no fuch
effcd.

The wetting of the leaves with fpirit of wine has been ob-
ferved alfo to have no effeft, nor the rubbing oil of almonds
over them ; though this laft application deftroys many
plants.

A branch of the plant was cut away longitudinally, till
only a third part of the fubllance remained, yet it commu-
nicated the effeAs of the touch, in the fame manner as be-
fore, to thofe branches which arofe lower on the (hrub.
The tranfjjiration of the plant being retarded, is of no effeft
as to its periodical opening and clofing ; for one kept under
a clofe glafs bell (huts and opens as regularly night and
morning, as wlien it (lands in an open green-houfe. A
brancli of it put into the exhaulled receiver of an air-pump,
is found lo have its force of opening and clofing up much
impaired, but not wholly taken off. Mem. de I'Acad. des
Scienc. Par. 1736.

Dr. Hill, notwithllanding the experiments and obferva-
dons above recited, confiders the phenomenon of the fen-
fitive plant as the effeft of hght, and in an exprefs difl'ertation
on this fubjeft, endeavours to a<:count for it from this prin-
ciple ; afcribing that other phenomenon, which is called the
fleep of plants, to the abfence of light. Hill's Sleep of
Plants, and the Caufe of Motion in the Senfuive Plant ex-
plained, i2mo.

SEN

Mr. Ellis has de fcribed a fenfitive plant, which is a TiatiTe
of tiiL- fwamps in North Carolina, called dionsa mu/cipula, or
Venus' s fy-trap, (feeDiON^A,) and which, from his ac-
count of It, appears to be the moll animated of the whole
fenfitive tribe of vegetables. Its fenfibility exids in iu
leaves, each of which exhibits, in miniature, the figure of a
rat-trap with ttcth clofing on every fly or other infeft that it
tempted to talle the fweet liquor which is fuppofed to be
fecreted in certain minute red glands that cover its inner fur-
face ; but before it has had time to talle it, the lobes of the
leaves rife up, and inclofe and grafp the invader, and he is
foon deprived of his life by the aftion of three (mall ereft
fpines, fixed near the middle of each lobe ; nor do the leave*
open again while the dead animal continues there. The
fame efFeft is produced by a (Iraw or pin.

Mr. Ellis conjeftures, that in the conftruftion and motive
powers of this plant, nature may have had fome view to Jt»
nouri(hment, by forming the upper joint of each leaf like a
machine to catch food, and by having laid a bait upon the
middle of it, to entice the unhappy infeft that becomes it*
prey. But, perhaps, it may be equally probable, that
nature has armed and animated this plant for the prefervation
of its juices againd the depredation of infefts. Ellis's Di-
reftions for bringing over Seeds and Plants, &c. 1770.
Sensitive Plant, Bajlard. See jEscuyno.mene.
Sensitive Poiver. See Mental Philosophy.
Sensitive or Senfible fiid, the foul of brutes, or that
which man is fuppofed to have in common with brutes.
See Brute.

It is thus called, either as intimating its utmod faculty to
be that of fenfation ; or, perhap?, becaufe it is fuppofed to
be material, and to come under our fenfes.

Lord Bacon all'erts, that the fenfible or brute foul is
plainly no more than a corporeal fubllance, attenuated by
heat, and thus rendered indivifible ; or a kind of aura or
vapour, partly of an aerial, and partly of a fiery nature, en-
dued with the foftnefii of air, to be fit to receive imprelTions,
and with the vigour of fire to communicate its aftion ; fed
partly with oily matters, and partly with aqueous ones in-
clofed in the body, and, in the more perfeft animals, prin-
cipally in the head, moving along the nerves, and reftored
and repaired by the fpirituous blood of the arteries. Bac.
de Augment. Scient. lib. v. See Life.

SENSKOWA, in Geography, a town of Pruflia, in the
palatinate of Culm ; 15 miles N.E. of Thorn.

SENSORIUM, in Phyfwlogy, the part which feels and
perceives, the common centre, to wliich fenfations are con-
veyed, and from which volition emanates ; in other words,
the brain. In medical and phyfiological writings, this ex-
pre(rion is ufed as fynonimous with brain ; thus we read of
affeftions of the fenforium ; of fenforial power and influence,
&c. Senforium commune, is the imaginary point of the
brain, the refidence of the metaphyfical foul, to which
every fenfation is brought, and from which all determi-
nations of the will proceed. The fpeculations on this fub-
jeft have been founded in the aflumed unity of the foul.
Phyfiologically fpeaking, there is not the flighted ground
for fuppofing fuch a part to exid in the brain. Our re-
marks on the funftions of the brain and parts connefted with
it, will be found under the articles Brain, Life, and Ner-
vors Syjlem. See alfo Mental Philosophy.

Sir Ilaac Newton confiders the univerfe as the fenforiuia
of the godhead.

SENTELIUS, Lodovicus, in Biography, a difciple of
Henry Ifaac, and in 1530 appointed chapel-mader to the
duke of Bavaria. Many of his compofitions are inferted in
the Dodecachordon of Glareanus, with great encomiums.

He

SEN

SEN

He was in high favour with Martin Luther, a good judge
of mufic ; and Sebaldus Hayden, in 1540, calls him the
prince of German muficians.

SENTENCE, in Laiu, doom; a judgment pafled in
court by the judge upon lome proccfs either civil or cri-
minal.

Sentences iLve e\t\\tr definitive, which put an end to the
fuit and controverfy, and regard the principal matter in
queftion ; or interlocutory, which determine only fome inci-
dental matter ; contradihory. Sec.

There are Sentences of abfolution, excommunication, &c.

Superior judges may either confirm or annul the fentences
of inferior ones.

Every fentence muft be in writing, on a flamp, and it
muft be pronounced in the prefence of both parties ; other-
wife fentence given in abfence nf one of the parties is void.

Sentences, Three conformable, tres fententta: conformes.
In the Romiih Ecclejiajlical Laiu, it is allowed to appeal
three times ; fo that there mull be three conformable fentences
before the decifions of the judges can take effeft. The firit
degree of jurifdiftion is in the bifhop's official ; from him
an appeal lies to the metropohtan, from the metropolitan to
the primate, or immediately to the pope. If the appeal
. come from the metropolitan to the pope, the pope is obliged
to delegate judges in partibus ; and then if the three fen-
tences pafled in thefe three ft ages be conformable, there is no
farther appeal; but if one of them annul another, new
judges are to be required of the pope for a fourth fentence ;
and thus they fometimes proceed to a iixth or feventh fen-
tence.

This number of jurifdiftions is found infinitely preju-
dicial to the public, and vexatious to private perfons.

Sentence, in Grammar, denotes a period, or a fet of
words comprehending fome perfeft fenfe or fentiment of
mind.

Every fentence comprehends at lead two words.

Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, p. 17, &c, confidering that
the leading powers of the foul are thofe of perception and
volition, obferves, that every fentence, in reference to thefe
powers, will be either a fentence of affertion, or a fentence
of volition : and he defcribes it as a compound quantity of
found fignificant, of which certain parts are themfelves alfo
fignificant. Thus he diltinguifhes a fentence from a word,
which is a found fignificant, of which no part is of itfelf
fignificant.

The bufinefs of pointing is, to diftinguilh the feveral
parts and members of fentences, fo as to render the fenfe of
it the cleareft, apteft, and fuUeft poflible. See Punctua-
tion.

In every fentence there are two parts neceffarily required ;
a noun for the fubjeft, and a definite verb ; whatever is
found more than thefe two, affefts one of them, either im-
mediately, or by the intervention of fome other, by which
the firlt is affefked.

Again, every fentence is either fimple or conjunft : a
ftmple fentence is that confiding of one fingle fiibjeft, and
one finite verb. A conjunS, or compounded fentence, con-
tains feveral fubjefts, and finite verbs, either exprcfsly or
implicitly ; or it confids of two or more fimple fentences
connefted together.

A fimple fentence needs no point or didinftion, only a pe-
riod 10 clofe it ; as, A good man loves virtue for itfelf. In fuch
a fentence, the feveral adjundls affcft either tlie fubjeft, or
the verb, in a different manner. Thus the word good ex-
prefles the quality of the lubjeft, virtue the objcd of the
aftion, and, for itfelf, the end of it. Now none of thefe
adjunfts can be feparaicd from the red of tlie fcntcnoe ; for
Vol. XXXII.

if one be, why (hould not all the red ? And if all be, the
fentence will be minced into almoft as many parts as there
are words.

But if feveral adjunfts be attributed in- the fame manner
either to the fubjeft, or the verb ; the fentence becomes
conjunft, and is to be divided into parts.

In every conjunft fentence, as many fubjefts, or as many
finite verbs as there are, either expreffed or implied, fo
many diftinftions may there be. Thus, My hopes, fears,
joys, pains, all centre in you ; and thus Cicero, Catilina, abiit,
excejftt, evajit, erupit. The reaion of which pointing is ob-
vious ; for as many fubjefts or finite verbs as there are in
a fentence, fo many members does it really contain ; when-
ever, therefore, there occur more nouns than verbs, or con-
trariwife, they are to be conceived as equal ; fince, as every
fubjeft requires its verb, fo every verb requires its fubjeft,
with which it may agree, excepting, perhaps, in fome
figurative expreffions.

Indeed there are fome othei kinds of fentences which
may be ranked amongd the conjunft kind, particularly the
abfolute ablative, as it is called. Thus, Phyjicians, the
difeafe once difcovered, think the cure half lurought ; where the
words, difeafe once difcovered, are equivalent to, ivhen the
caufe of the difeafe is difcovered. — So alfo in nouns added by
appofition, as. The Scots, an hardy people, endured it all ; fo
alfo in vocative cafes and interjeftions, as. This, my friend,
you mufl allow me ; and. What, for heaven's fake ! ivould he
beat?

The cafe is much the fame when feveral adjunfts affeft
either the fubjeft of the fentence or the verb in the fame
manner, or at lead iomething by which one of them is
affefted, as, A good, luife, learned man is an ornament to the
commonivealth : where the feveral adjeftives, denoting fo
many qualities of the fubjeft, are to be feparated from one
another. Again, when I_ fay. Tour voice, countenance,
geflure, terrified him, the feveral nominative cafes denote fo
many modes of the verb, which are likewife to be didin-
guidied from each other. The cafe is the fame in ad-
verbs, as. He behaved hhnfelf modeftly, prudently, virtuoufly.
In the firll example, the adjunfts immediately affeft the
fubjeft ; in the third, the verb ; in the following one,
another adjunft, as, I fatu a man loaden "with age, Jicknefs,
•wounds.

Now, as many fuch adjunfts as there are, fo many feveral
members does the fentence contain ; which are to be didin-
guifhed from each other, as much as feveral fubjefts or finite
verbs ; and that this is the cafe in all conjunft lentences,
appears hence, that all thefe adjunfts, whether they be
verbs or nouns, &c. will admit of a conjunftion copulative,
by which they may be joined together. And wherever
there is a copulative, or room for it, there a new member of
a fentence begins. For the other partitions, &c. of fen-
tences, fee Colon, Semicolon, and Period.

Sentence is alfo ufed, in Rhetoric and Poetry, for a fhort
pithy remark, or refleftion, containing fome fentiment of ufe
in the condiift of life.

Such are Difcite jitftitinm moniti, £3" non temnere divos ; or,
A teneris affuefcere multum efl, &c.

Sentences, father Bollu obferves, render poems ufeful ;
and, befides, add I know not what ludre and fpirit, whicli
pleafes. Bll^ there is no virtue which is not accompanied
with fome dangerous vice. Too many fentences give a
poem too philolophical an air, and fink it into a kind of
gravity ; this is lefs fit for the majedy of a poem than the
dudy of a learned man, and the quaintnefs of a dogmatid.
Such thoughts not only contain, but infpire a certain calm
wifdom, which is direftly oppofite to tlie pafliuns, and cools
K k them

SEN

them both in the hearers and in the fpeaker. Laftly, the
afFeaation of fpcaking fentences leads a perfoii to trifling
and impertinent ones, inllances of which we have an abun-
dance in Seneca's tragedies. Petronius recommends it to
authors to difguife their fentences, that they may not Hand
glaring above the thread or ground of the difcourfe.

SENTER Harbour, in Geography, a cove in the N.W.
part of lake Winnipifcogec.

SENTHENHEIM, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine ; lo miles N.E. of Befort.

SENTICA, in Jncienl Geography, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragoneniis, afligned by Ptolemy to the Vaccseans.

SENTICE, a country of Macedonia, according to Livy.

SENTII, a people of the Maritime Alps, S.E. of the
Bodiantici, mentioned by Ptolemy, who affigns to them
the town of Dinia.

SENTIMENTS, in Poetry, and particularly dramatic,
are the thoughts which the feveral perfons exprefs, whether
they relate to matters of opinion, paflion, bufmefs, or the
like.

The manners form the tragic aftion, and the fentiments
explain it, difcovering its caufes, motives, &c. The fenti-
ments are to the manners, what thefe are to the fable. In
the fentiments, regard is to be had to nature and pro-
bability ; a madman, for inftance, mull fpeak as a madman ;
a lover, as a lover ; a hero, as a hero. The fentiments, in
great meafure, are to fultain the charafter. The word fen-
timent, in its true and old Englifh fenfe, fignifies a formed
Opinion, notion, or principle; but of late years it has been
much ufed by fome writers to denote an internal impulfe of
paflion, afleftion, fancy, or intelleft, which is to be con-
sidered rather as the caufe or occafion of our forming an
opinion, than as the real opinion itfelf.

SENTINEL, Great, in Geography, an ifland in the
Ealt Indian fea, about lo miles in circumference ; 20 miles
S.W. from tlie Greater Andaman. N. lat. 11° 36'. E.
long. 92° 40'.

Sentinel, Little, a fmall ifland in the Ealt Indian fea,
about 8 miles from the Little Andaman. N. lat. io° 59'.
E. long. 92° 23'.

Sentinel, Cenlry, or Sentry, in War, a private foldier
placed in fome poft to watch any approach of the enemy,
to prevent furprifes, and to (lop fuch as would pafs without
orders, or without difcovering who they are. They are
placed before the arms of all guards, at the tents and doors
of general officers, colonels of regiments, &c.

The word is modern ; it is not long fince they faid. To
be on the fcout, in the fame fenfe as we now fay. To Jiand
fentry, ^c. Menage derives the word a fentiendo, from
pcrceivin-r.

Sentinel perdue, is a fentinel placed at fome very advanced
and dangerous poll, whence it is odds that he never returns.
See Perdue.

The fentiiiel's word, when he challenges, is. Who is there?
Qui vive, or Q^ui va la ! Stand! Demure la !

SENTINUM, i;i Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Umbria, according to Strabo and Ptolemy. — Alfo, a town
of Italy, belonging to the Senones, S.W. of Suafa.

SENTINUS, a river of Italy, in Picenum.

SENTO, in Geography, a river uf Naples, which runs
into the Adriatic j 3 miles S.E. of Lanciano.

SENTOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Se-tchuen, on the river Kincha ; 22 miles N.E. of Pei.

SENTUR, a town of Egypt; 9 miles N.W. of
Fayoum.

SENURIS, a town of Egypt, near the Birket il Kerun ;
9 miles N.W. of Fayoum.

SEP

SENUS, in /Indent Geography, a river of Hibernia, ac.
cording to Ptolemy, who places its mouth on the weftem
coaft, between the mouths of the Aufoba and of the Dur. —
Alfo, a river of India, in the country of the Sines, according
to Ptolemy, who fays, that it was connected with the
Cotiaria, at a great dittance from its mouth.

SENZA, an Italian prepohtion, implying, in Mufic,
without : as in Handel's organ concertos, when palfages
are to be wholly left to the violins, fen%a organo implies,
without the organ ; fen'z.a viola, without the tenor ; fenz^
baffh, without the bafe, &c.

SENZARSKAIA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruflia, in
the government of ToboUk ; 80 miles S. of Yalutorovfli.

SEODA, a fea-port of Japan, on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Niphon ; 105 miles E. of Meaco. N. lat. 37° 20'.
E. long. 139^ 10'.

SEGN, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in the
tribe of Iflachar, according lo Jofliua. Eufebius fays,
that in his time there was a place of this name at the foot
of mount Tabor.

Seon St. Henry, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mouths, of the Rhone ; 4 miles N. of
Marfeilles.

SEOUJI KiAMEN, a poft of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of the Monguls ; 23 miles S.W. of Kara Hotun.

SEPARABLE Modes. See Mode.

SEPARATE Affection. See Affection.

Separate, Penultimate of the. See Penultimate.

Separate IJland, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
Chinefe fea. N. lat. f 6'. E. long. 107° 4J'.

SEPARATED Flowers, in Botany, are fo called when
the ftamens and pillils are fituated in different flowers of the
fame fpecies. Hence it appears that feparated flowers are
confined to fuch plants as are either monoecious, dioecious,
or polygamous. They are termed by Liniiasus, Diclines.

SEPARATERS, among Horfes, the teeth ufually caDed
incifors, by which the animal feparates or bites off^ a portion
of his food for chewing. See Teeth.

SEPARATION, in Navigation, the fame with what
we more ufuaUy call departure.

Separation of Man and Wife. See Ditorce.

Separ.\tion, Waters of. See Water.

Separation Bay, in Geography, a bay in the Straits of
Magellan, on the coaft of Terra del Fuego ; 10 miles S.E.
of Cape Pillar.

SEPARATISTS, in Eccleftajlicai Hiftory, a religious
feft in England, fo denominated from their fetting up a
feparate church, different from that eftabliflied by law.
See Dissenters, &c.

At prefent, Separatifts is rather the name of a colIeAion
of fefts than of any particular one ; but nearer their original,
there was that agreement among them, that one name fcrved
them all.

Their divifion into Preftjyterians, Anabaptifts, Inde-
pendents, &c. is a more modern thing.

The Separatifts, Hornius tells us, Hift. Eccl. are fuch as
under Edward VI. Ehzabeth, and James I. refufed to con-
form to the church of England, and who were firft called
Puritans, then Separatifts, and laftly, Nonconformifts.

The firft leader of the Separatifts was Bolton, who, upon
quitting the party he had formed, was fucceeded by Robert
Brown, from whom the Separatifts were called Brownids.

SEPARATORIUM, the name of a furgical inftrument
ufed for feparating the pericranium from the flcuU.

SEPARATRIX, in Arithmetic, denotes the point, or
comma, which fepaiates and diftinguifhes decimals from in-
tegers ; thus, 465,32 or 465.32.

SEPARI,

SEP

SEPARI, in Ancient Geography, a people who inhabited
an ifland on the coail of Liburnia, according to Phny.

SEPAUNAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in the circar of Bopal ; 30 miles W. of Hulfingabad.

SEPAUX, a town of France, m the dijpartment of the
Yonne ; 9 miles W. of Joigny.

SEPELACUS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Spain,
upon the route from Tarragon to Carthage, between Ildua
and Saguntum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SEPHAAT, or Zephat, a town of Paleftine, in the
tribe of Simeon, according to the book of Judges.

SEPHALITES. See Moatazalites.

SEPHAMA, in ylndent Geography, a town of Afia, in
Syria, which ferved as a limit to the land of promife, ac-
cording to the book of Numbers.

SEPHAR, a mountain of the Eaft, probably about
Armenia. (See Gen. x. 30.) This mountain fcems to have
been the habitation of the Sepharvaim and of the Sufpires,
mentioned by geographers.

SEPHARVAIM, a people who were brought by Shal-
manafer into Paleftine, to fupply the place of the Ifraelites,
whom he carried away from Samaria to a country be-
yond the Euphrates (2 Kings, xvii. 24. 31.) A.M. 32S3,
B. C. 1721. Their former habitations feem to have been on
the mountains of Sephar, and the Sofpires or Sufpires, who,
according to Herodotus (bb. i. iii. vii.) were the only peo-
ple that inhabited between the Colchians and the Medes, were
probably the Sepharvaim. The Scripture fpeaks (Ifaiah,
xxxvii. 13. 2 Kings, xix. 13.) of the city of Sepharvaim,
which was probably the capital of thefe people, and the
king of Sepharvaim was the god of thefe people. See
2 Kings, xviii. 34. If. xxxvii. 13. 2 Kings, xix. 13.

SEPHIROS, a word ufed by Paracelfus and his fol-
lowers, to exprefs a fort of dry and hard impolthume, or
kind of fpurious fcirrhus.

SEPHIROTH, a Hebrew word fignifying brlghtnejes ;
and the cabalifts give the name of fephiroth to the moft fecret
parts of their fcience.

SEPHORIS, in Ancient Geography, a famous city of
Zebulun, and the capital of Galilee ; afterwards named
Diocxfarea ; 18 according to fome, and according to others
19 miles from Tiberias. It was not far from Tabor and the
great plain. Jofephus reprefents it as the largeft and beft
city in Judea, and ftates, that it became the capital of it,
after Nero had given Galilee to the younger Agrippa. The
firft city of Galilee in going from Ptolemais was Sephoris.
Jofeph. de Bello, 1. ii. c. 23. 1. iii. c. I.

SEPHOURY, or Safpure, in Geography, a town or
village of Paleftine, anciently Sephor or Sephoris, which wai
once the ftrongeit town of the country, and capital of Ga-
lilee, before Tiberias; called alfoDiocsefarea. Here was
held one of the five judicatures of Paleftine. It was forti-
fied by Herod, and deftroyed in the time of Conftantius, on
an infurredion of the Jews. It was once much venerated as
the habitation of Joachim and Anna, parents of theblefled
Virgin ; 12 miles N.W. of Tabaria;

SEPIA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of the Pe-
loponnefus, in Arcadia, to the left of mount Geronte, near
a place called Tricene, upon which iEgyptus, the fon of
Elatus, died from the fting of a ferpent, and where he was
buried, according to Paufanias.

S£PiA, in Natural Hiftory, the Cuttle-fjh, a genus of the
Vermes-MoUufca clafs and order, of which the generic cha-
rafter is as follows ; the body is flefhy, receiving the breaft
iin a (heath, with a tubular aperture at its bafe ; it has eight
arras, befet with numerous warts or fuckeri, and in moft

SEP

fpecies two pedunculated tentacula ; the head is fhort ; the
eyes large ; the mouth refembling a parrot's beak.
. Thefe animals inhabit various feas, and in hot climates
fome of them grow to an enormous fize : they are armed
with a dreadful apparatus of holders furniftied with fuckers,
by which they faften upon and convey their prey to the
mouth ; they have the power of fquirting out a black fluid
refembling ink, and which is faid to be an ingredient in the
compoCtion of Indian ink ; the bone in the back is con-
verted into pounce : the eggs are depofited upon fea-weed,
and exaftly refemble a bunch of grapes ; at the moment the
female depofits them they are white, but the males pafs over
them to impregnate them, and they then become black ;
they are round, with a httle point at the end, and in each of
them is enclofed a living cuttle-fifh, furrounded by a gela-
tmous fluid. There are eight fpecies, of which five are na-
tives of this country.

Species.

* Octopus. The fpecific charafter of this fpecies is, that
the body has no tail or appendage ; it has no pedunculated ten-
tacula, or longer arms. It is found in the Mediterranean and
Indian feas, in the latter of which it fometimes grows to a vaft
fize ; the arras are faid to be eight or nine fathoms long.
In thefe feas the Indians never venture out without hatchets
in their boats, to cut off the arms, fliould it attempt to
faften upon them under water. This fpecies is charafterized
by the (hortnefs of the body, which is rounded behind ; the
arms taper to a point, joined at the bafe by a membrane or
web, and covered within with two rows of alternate fuckers.
When opened this animal is faid to exhibit fo brilliant a
light as to illuminate a large room.

* Officinalis. Body without tail or appendage, and
furrounded by a margin ; it has two tentacula, or longer
arms. This is found on our own coafts, and alfo in other
oceans, and is frequently the prey of the whale tribe, and
of piaife ; its arms are frequently eaten by the conger-eel,
and are reproduced ; the bony fcale on the back is that
which is fold in the fliops ; and the black matter which it
fquirts out to darken the waters round it, and elude the pur-
fuit of its enemies, is fometimes ufed as ink. The body
was eaten by the ancients, and it is even now ufed as food
by the Italians. The body of this fpecies is ovate, the
margin crenate, and interrupted at the bottom ; eight of
the arms are (hort and pointed ; the two tentacula are four
times as long as the others ; they are rounded, and the tip»
are very broad, and furniftied within with numerous fuckers.

Unguiculata. The body of this is without a tail or
appendage ; the arms are furniftied with hooks, and it it
found in the Pacific ocean. The body is rounded behind ;
the arms are furniftied with hooks, which are retraftile
within their proper ftieaths inftead of fuckers.

Hkxapus. The body of this is tailed, four or five-
jointed ; arms only fix in number. This alfo is found in the
Pacific ocean. The body is about half a foot long, and
the thicknefs of a finger ; arms furniftied with very minute
fuckers, which ftick faft to whatever it fixes on.

* Media. Body long, flender, cylindrical ; the tail it
finned, pointed, and carinate on each fide ; it has two long
arms. It inhabits the ocean, and in fome refpefts it re-
fembles the S. officinalis. The body ends in a point, and
is furniftied with a membrane on each fide, commencing
about the middle of the body.

* LoLiGO ; the Calamary. The body of this is fubcy-
lindrical, fubulate, and furniftied with a flattifti fliarp-edged •
rhombic membraHe at the tail on each fide. This is found
in divers part* of the ocean, and is from nine to twelve

K k 2 ischM

SEP

inches long.^ The body is of a reddifh-brown, with two
longer arms or tentaciih ; the eyes are of a fine blue ; the
cartilaginous plate or bone in the back is long, lance-fhaped,
and tranfparent ; it has fometimes been placed as a fpccies
of the pennatula.

* Sepiola. The body of this fpecies has two rounded
wings or procefles behnid. It is found in the Mediterranean
and European feas, and is very fmall. The body ii> fhort,
rounded behind, with a round membrane or fin at the lower
extremity ; it has two long arms.

Tbnicata. -The body of this fpecies is entirely enclofed
in a black pellucid raombrane, with two femicircular wings
or proceffes behind. This is an inhabitant of the Pacific
ocean. The body is very large, and is faid fometimes to
weigh one hundred and fifty pounds, and is convertible into
palatable and pleafant food.

SEPIACE, in Ilrilian Mufic, fignifies that the part it is
joined to nay be repeated or not, at pleafure.

SEPIAS, m Ancient Geography, a promontory of Thef-
faly, m M-.gnefia, at the entrance of the Pelafgic gulf, ac-
cording to Ptolemy. Cape Sepias is now the promontory
of St. George's.

SEPIUSSA, an idand fituated on the coaft of Afia
Minor, in the Ceramic gulf, according to Pliny.

SEPOORY, in Geography, a fortrefs of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Gohud ; 18 miles S.W. of Narwa.

SEPOU, a town of Hindooftan; 12 miles S.W. of
Agra.

SEPRA, or SiPPRA, a river of Hindooftan, which rifes
near Indore, joins the Callifind in the circar of Kitchwara,
and, united with other ftreams, forms the Chumbul.

SEPRIO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Olona ; 20 miles N.W. of Milan.

SEPS, in Zoology, the name of a very peculiar animal of
the lizard or lacerta kind, but feeming as if of a middle
nature between that genus and the fnakes, and appearing
rather a ferpent with feet than a lizard.

It is a fmall fpecies ; its body is rounded, and its back
variegated with longitudinal fines of black ; its eyes are
black ; it has ears, and a fmall and very flender tail. What
appears moft fingular in it is, that it has four legs, with feet
divided into toes ; the firft pair are placed very near the
head, the other by the anus ; the fcales are laid in a reticu-
lated manner, they are of an oblong figure, approaching to
a rhomboides, and laid longitudinally ; its belly is white,
with a flight caft of blue, and it has noftrils near the end of
the fnout. Columna took five living young ones out of
the body of one of this fpecies, fome of which were in-
cluded in membranes, and others loofe, as is the cafe in the
foetus found in the viper.

The bite of the feps is faid to occafion an inilant putre-
faftion of the flefli of the whole body.

SEPT MoNCEL, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Jura ; 2 miles E. of St. Claude.

SEPTA, in Antiquity, were inclofures, or rails made of
boards, through which perfons went in to give their votes in
the aliemblies of the Romans.

The word alfo fignifies divifions, and, in that fenfe, is
ufed to exprefs the plates of ipar, wliicli feparate or divide
the tali of the Indus Helmontii, thence called by Dr. Hill,
feptartjs ; which fee.

SEPTALIUS, or Settala, Louis, ia Biography, an

Itahan phyfician of celebrity, was born at Milan, in Fe-

_ bruary, 1552. He evinced from his early childhood, a

ftrong inclination to the purfuits of literature, and at the

age of fixteen defended fome thefes on the fubjeft of natural

10*

SEP

philofophy with an acutenefs of reafoning far above his
years, and which excited the furprife of the audience, among
wliom was the archbifhop of Milan. It was now fuppofed
that he would follow the fteps of his anceftors, both ma-
ternal and paternal, who had been much diltinguifhed at
the bar ; but his inclination led him to the medical profef-
fion, and he accordingly repaired to Pavia, for the purpofe
of commencing the ftudy of it. Here he proceeded with
the fame fuccefs, and obtained the degree of doftor in his
2 1 ft year, and was even appointed to a chair in this cele-
brated univerfity in his 23d year. In his profelForial capa-
city, though fo young, he gave fo many demonllrations of
his talents and acquirements, that he foon became known to
the moll diftinguifhed men of his time. Neverthelefs, at
the end of four years from the time of his appointment, he
determined to relinquifh the profeflbrial dignity, for the
purpofe of exercifing his medical llvill in his native city.
Wliile he was engaged in the praftice of his art at Milan,
Philip III., king of Spain, felefted him for his hiftorio-
grapher. But though fully fenfible of the value of this
compliment, yet neither this, nor many other more con-
genial honours, that were offered to him, could induce him
to quit his native city, to which he was ardently attached.
He was invited by the eleftor of Bavaria to a profeflbrfhip
in the univerfity of Ingoldftadt ; by the grand duke of Pifa,
to a chair at that place ; and by the city of Bologna to a
fimilar appointment in their fchools ; and the fenate of
Venice, by ftill more confiderable offers both of honour and
reward, laboured afliduoufly to bring him to the univerfity
of Padua. But he declined all thefe opportunities of eleva-
tion, content with the efteem and affcftion of his fellow-
citizens, which he amply obtained ; and with the domeftic
felicity, which the fociety and education of his family, con-
fiding of feven fons and fix daughters, conftantly afforded
him. The only honour which he accepted was tile ap-
pointment of chief phyfician to the ftate of Milan, which
Pliihp IV. conferred upon him in 1627, as a reward for
his virtues and talents. In the year 1628, the plague vifited
Milan. Septalius gave all the aid in his power to his fellow-
citizens, and in the midft of his labours to alleviate the
diftrefles occafioned by this fatal calamity, he was himfelf
feized with the difeafe. He had fcarcely recovered from
this attack, when he was fuddenly furprifed by a fit of
apoplexy, which left him fpeechlefs, and paralytic on one
fide. From this, however, he in a great meafure recovered,
and lived feveral years afterwards, but in a ftate of feeble-
nefs and imperfect health. He died in September 1633, in
confequence of an attack of dyfentery, at the age of 81.
Septalius was a man of acute powers, and folid judgment,
and was reputed extremely fuccefsful in his praftice. He
was warmly attached to the doftrines of Hippocrates, whofe
works he never ceafed to ftudy. He was author of the fol-
lowing works :. " In Librum Hippocratis Coi, de Aeribus,
Aquis, et Locis, Commentarii quinque," 1590; "In
Ariftotelis Problemata Commentaria Latina," torn. i. 1602,
ii. 1607 ; " De Nxvis Liber," 1606. In this work Sep-
talius has not difplayed his ufual judgment ; for he afcribes
the ntvi, or mother-fpots, to the imagination of the preg-
nant mother, and deduces from their appearances many
praftical inferences, which are as unfounded as the notion
of their origin. " Animadverfionum et Cautionum Medi-
carum Libri duo, feptem aliis additi," 1629. This is a
valuable work, the refult of 40 years of praiftice, and equal
to any of its contemporanes of the 17th century. " De
Margaritis Judicium," 1618 ; " De Pefte et Peftiferis Af-
fedtibus Libri V." 1622 ; " Analyticarum et Animafti.
carum Dillertationum Libri II." 1626; " De Morbis ex

mucronata

SEP

SEP

mucronata Cartilagine evenientibus, Liber unus," 1632,
&c. See Eloy Dift. Hill, de la Medecine.

SEPTANA, a word ufed by the ancient phyficians for
a feptenary fever, or one that performs its regular period
in feven days.

SEPTARIjE, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a large
clafs of foflils, called by feme ludus Helmont'il, and by others
the luaxen veins. They are defined to be foihle bodies not
inflammable, nor fuliible in water, naturally found in loofe
detached mades of a moderately firm texture and dufky
hue, divided by feveral fepta, or thin partitions, and com-
poied of a fparry matter greatly dcbafed by earth, not giv-
ing fire with fteel, fermenting with acids, and in great part
diflolved by them, and calcining in a moderate fire.

Of this clafs there are two diltinft orders of bodies, and
under thofe fix genera. The feptarije of the fird order are
thofe which are ufnaliy found in large mafieS of fimple uni-
form conilruftion, but divided by large fepta, either into
larger or more irregular portions, or into fmaller and more
equal ones, called talc.

Thofe of the fecond order are fuch as are nfually found in
fmaller mafles of a cruftated Itrufture, formed by various
incruftations round a central nucleus, and divided by very
thin fepta.

SEP TAS, in Botany, a name indicative of the number
feven, feptem, fo prevalent in its parts of fruftification. —
Linn. Gen. 184. Schreb. 246. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 292.
Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 338.
Juff. Gen. 30S. Lamarck lUullr. t. 276. — Clafs and or-
der, Hepiandria Heptagynia. Nat. Ord. Succukntie, Linn.
Sempcrvivit, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, permanent,
cloven into feven, fpreading, acute fegments. Cor. Petals
feven, oblong, equal, twice as long as the calyx. Stam.
Filaments feven, awl-fhaped, the length of the calyx ; an-
thers nearly ovate, ereft. P'tfl. Germens feven, fuperior,
terminating in awl-fhaped tlyles, the length of the itamens ;
ftigmas fomewhat obtufe. Per'ic. Capfules feven, oblong,
acute, parallel, of one valve. Seeds numerous.

Ed". Ch. Calyx feven-cleft. Petals feven. Germens
feven. Capfules feven, many-feeded.

I. S. capenjis. Cape Septas. Linn. Sp. PI. 489. Amoen.
Acad. V. 6. 87. Andrews Repof. t. 90. — Native of the
Cape of Good Hope. Introduced at Kew in 1774, where
it flowers in Auguft and September. Root perennial,
tuberous, fibrous. Stem fhort, fimple, crowned with a tuft
of about four, oppofite, blunt, naked, notched, fucculent
leaiifs ; the lower ones larger, flightly ftalked, roundifh ;
iippcr oval, feflile, narrower. Floiver-Jlalk llender, fome-
what wavy, naked, terminated by a fimple umbel, com-
pofed of feven or eight elegant, drooping ^owi-n, of a deep
pink colour on ihe sutfide, fleih-coloured and white within-
fide. BraSeas in paira, lanceolate.

The peculiarity of charaftcr in Septas, with regard to the
prevalence of the number feven, in the parts of fruttifica-
tion, is not fo coiillant as Linnaeus feems to have imagined ;
hence Thunberg was induced to refer this genus to Craf-
fula.

Loureiro has given the name of Septas to a plant in Duly-
namia Angiofpertma, which, according to profeflbr Martyn,
is aUied to Thunhergia.

SEPTE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Phrygia, according to l^tolemy.

SEPTEM AcjujK, a town of the Sabines, fituatcd on
an eminence, and commanding the Rura rofea, or the fine
Rofiean valley. It is fuppofcd by the abbe Chaupi to be the
prefcnt Pont Grifpoldi.

Septem Ars, Arronches, a place of Hifpania, betweei
Matufarum and Budua, according to Antonine's Itinerary.
It was fituated towards the N.W. of Emeritan Augulta.

Septem Fratres, a mountain of Africa, in Mauritania
Tingitana. Ptolemy calls it Heptadelphus Mons, and
places it on the Northern coaft, between ExihfTa and
Abyla.

Septem Maria, a name given, according to Herodian,
to the marflies which were formed by the feven branches of
the Eridanus, before its difcharge into the Adriatic fea.

Septem Pag'i, the name of a plain of Italy, on the bank
of the Tiber, in the cofir.try of the Veians, according to
Dionyfius of HalicarnaiTus.

Septem Pxda, a town of Italy, in the Picenum, accord-
ing to Strabo. Frontinus makes it a Roman colony, and
gives it the title of Oppidum.

SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, reckoned
from January, and the feventh from March, whence its
name, t/z. from feptimus, feventh.

The Roman lenate would have given this month the
name of Tiberius, but thaf emperor oppofed it ; the emperor
Domitian gave it his own name Germanicus ; the ienate
under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus
gave it his furname Herculeus, and the emperor Tacitus his
own name Tacitus. But tiiefe appellations are all gone into
difufe.

SEPTEMES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere ; 9 miles E. of Vienne.

SEPTEMVIR, in Antiquity. See QuiNQUEVIR.

The Germans fometimes ule the word feptcmvirate, for
the feven eledlors of the empire. See Elector.

SEPTENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Lydia.

SEPTENTRIO, or Septentriones, in AJlronomy, a
northern conllellation of liars, more ulually called tfrfa
Minor, or the Little Bear; and by the people, Charles's
IVain : though the feven ftars in the Great Bear have been
of late fo denominated.

The word is formed from the Latin feptem, feven ; and
triones, bullocks, which, in the ancient conllellation, were
yoked to the plough.

Septentrio. in Cofmography, the fame with nor/A ; thus
called from the ancient contlellation Septentrio, one of
whofe ftars is the pole-ftar. Hence alfo,

SEPTENTRIONAL, Septentrionalis, fomething
belonging to the north; 2l% feptentrional Jigns, feptentrional
parallels, &c. are thofe on the northern fide of the equator.

SEPTERION, SsTrln^.ov, in Antiquity, a Delphic fef-
tival, celebrated every ninth year, in memory of Apollo's
viAory over Python. The chief part of the folemiuty was
a reprefentation of Python purfued by Apollo.

SEPTEUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine and Oife ; 9 miles N.W. of
Montfort.

SEPTFOIL, in Botany. See ToRMEN TIL.

SEPTFONS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lot ; 16 miles N.E. of Montanban.

SEPTICOLLIS, in Ancient Geography, a name, or
rather an epithet, given to the city of Rome.

SEPTICS, among Phyficians, an appellation given to
all fuch fubdances as promote putrefadion.

From the many curious experiments made by Dr. Pringle
to afcertain the feptic and antileptic virtues of natural
bodies, it appears that there are very few fubdances of a
truly feptic nature. Thofe commonly reputed fuch by
authors, as the alkaline and volatile falts, he found to be no
wife feptic. However, he difcovered fome, where it feemed

lead

SEP

leait likely to find any fuch quality ; thefe were chalk, com-
raon fait, and teftaceous powders. He mixed twenty grains
of crab's eyes, prepared with fix drachms of ox's gall, and
an equal quantity of water. Into another phial he put an
equal quantity of gall and water, but no crab's eyes. Both
thefe mixtures being placed in the furnace, the putrefaftion
began much fooner where the powder was, than in the other
phial. On making a like experiment with chalk, its feptic
virtue was found to be much greater than that of the crab's
eyes : nay, what the doftor had never met with before, in
a mixture of two drachms of flefli, with two ounces of water
and thirty grains of prepared chalk, the flefh was refolved
into a perfeft mucus in a few days.

To try whether the teiluceous powders would alfo didblve
vegetable fubftances, the doAor mixed them with barley and
water, and compared this mixture with another of barley
and water alone. After a long maceration by a fire, the
plain water was found to fwell the barley, and turn mucila-
ginous and four ; but that with the powder kept the grain
to its natural fize, and though it foftened it, yet made no
mucilage, and remained fweet.

Nothing could be more unexpefted, than to find fea-falt
a haftener of putrefaftion ; but the faft is this : one drachm
of fait preferves two drachms of frefli beef in two ounces of
water, above thirty hours uncorruptcd, in a heat equal to
that of the human body ; or, which is the fame thing, this
quantity of fait keeps fleih fweet twenty hours longer than
pure water ; but then half a drachm of fait does not preferve
it above two hours longer. Twenty-five grains have little
or no antifeptic virtue, and ten, fifteen, or even twenty
grains, manifeftly both halten and heighten the corruption.
The quantity which had the moll putrefying quality, was
found to be about ten grains to the above proportion of fle(h
and water.

Many inferences might be drawn from this experiment :
one is, that fince fait is never taken in aUment beyond the
proportion of the corrupting qualities, it would appear that
it is fubfervient to digeftion, chiefly by its feptic virtue,
that is, by foftening and refolving meats ; an aftion very
different from what is commonly believed.

It is to be obferved, that the above experiments were
made with the fait kept for domellic ufes. See Pringle's
Obferv. on the Difeafes of the Army, p. 348, feq. See
Salt and Scurvy.

From fome experiments of Mr. Canton, it appears like-
wife, that the quantity of fait contained in fea-water haftens
putrefaftion ; but fince that precife quantity of fait which
promotes putrefaftion the moft, is lefs than that which is
found in fea-water, he concludes it probable, that if the fea
were lefs fait, it would be more luminous. See Luminouf-
nejs of the Sea-

SEPTIEME, Yr.Septima, Lat. Settima, Ital. the feventh.
Broffard has been the guide of all fubfequent mufical lexico-
graphers. He has been very awkwardly tranflated by
Gradineau ; Graflineau has been followed in the laft foho
edition of Chambers ; and Rouffeau, who writes clearly and
elegantly, has retained the mixture of theory, ratios, and
the ufelefs jargon of major and minor tones and femi-tones,
with praftice, fo much, as to render tlie ufeful knowledge of
this important interval totally unintelligible to young Undents
in harmony ; to whom we fliall addrels all we have to offer on
the fubjeft of the prefent article, referring fcientific eiiqui-
rers to Harmonics, Riit'tos, and the definitions of major and
minor tones and femi-tones.

The 7th in mufic, is one of the principal difcords ; forae
fay the only original difcord, as all the reft are derived from
it. The 2d and the 9th are only inverfions of the 7th. The

SEP

4th in itfelf is a concord, and only made a difcord by
another difcord being ftruck upon it ; but the 2d and
the oth, however derived from inverfion, are difcords to the
ear at all times and in all places.

There are three kinds of 7ths ufed in pradical har.
mony ; the minor, or flat 7th, ten femi-tones, or half notei,
above the bafe ; the major, or Iharp 7th, eleven femitonic
intervals above the bafe ; and the extreme flat 7th, only nine

half notes above the bafe or loweft note, as ^ , ^ , and

Fb

In counterpoint and thorough- bafe, the 7th is accompa-
nied by the ', or common chord, from which its harmony

only differs by the addition of that fingle found from the
triad. And as a bafe, in praftice, is called fundamental,
by being accompanied only with the common chord, the ad-
dition of the 7th to this common chord docs not rob the bafe
figured with a 7th of its title of fundamental.

The 7th in binding notes is prepared in the 3d, 5th, 6th,
and 8th, and refolved on the 6th, 3d, and 5th.

Dr. Pepufch has given an excellent chapter on 7ths pre-
pared and refolved in the treble ; but to his inltrud^ions for
7ths prepared and refolved in the bafe, p. 37 of the text, we
cannot fubfcribc. See Pepusch, and Analyfisjof his Treatife
on Harmony.

The 7th is the only difcord which need not be always
prepared.

The (harp 7th, which the French call la nolefmfible, till
about the middle of the lafl centur)-, was only ufed in re-
citative ; but fince that time it hat been rapidly increafingin
favour ; firfl in German fymphonies, and afterwards in fongs,
and every fpecies of elegant mufic. Its chord is frequently
indicated by a ^i a fharp 7th ; but different mailers fre-
quently ufe the following numerical expreffions of this

■J ' ...

chord : ;, ;, ••, and \. Its origin is an appoggiatura or-

ganized.

The extreme flat 7th gives what.has been termed byJRouf-
feau the enharmonic chord, confifling entirely of flat 3d8,
whence twelve modulations may be acquired, by making
each note of the chord the fharp 7 th, or leading note to a

new key ; by which means thefe three chords A ^1 2 ^»

B «' ^"^ 36 modulations. See Muftc Plates, and Inter-
vals, Chords:, Modulation, and Counterpoint.

SEPTIER, or Setier, a French meafure, differing ac-
cording to the fuecies of the things meafured.

For dry meaiure, the feptier is very different in different
places and different commodities ; as not being any vefl'el of
meafure, but only an eftimation of feveral other meafures.

At Paris, the feptier of wheat confifls of two mines, the
mine of two minots, and the minot of three bufhels or boif-
feaux, and 12 fcptiersare a muid. The boiffeau contains 16
htrons. A muid of wheat weighs about 288olbs. poids dc
marc ; and a feptier, 24olbs. But a muid of oats contain*
24 feptiers. The boifleau is a cylinder 8 inches 25 lines in
height, and 10 inches in diameter : its contents are, there-
fore, 644 French cubic inches, or 780 Enghfli ditto ; hence
1 1 feptiers of Paris are = 6 EngUfh quarters, and 1 1 boif-
feaux — 4 Englifh bufhels. A muid of fait contains alfo 12
feptiers, and a feptier, 4 minots, 16 boifleaux, 256 litrous,
or 4096 mefurettes, weighing about 40olbs. poids de marc,
or 432lbs. avoirdupois. At Abbeville 18.87 feptiers are
equal to 10 Englifh quarters, and each feptier is 9364 cubic

inches.

t

SEP

SEP

inches. At Amiens, 8579 feptiers = 10 Englifti quarters,
and each feptier — 2005 cubic inches. At Aries, 47.40
feptiers =10 Enghfh quarters, and each feptier = 3628 cu-
bic inches. At Boulogne, 16.32 feptiers = 10 Enghfh
quarters, and each feptier = 10,535 cubic inches. At Calais,
16.95 feptiers =: 10 Englifh quarters, and each feptier =
10, 144 cubic inches. At Cette, 42.98 feptiers — 10 Enghfh
quarters, and each feptier = 4002 cubic inches. At Liege,
94.14 feptiers =^ 10 Enghfh quarters, and each feptier =z
1827 cubic inches. At Montpellier, 53.21 feptiers = 10
Enghfh quarters, and each feptier = 3232 cubic inches.
At Nantes, 19.68 feptiers := 10 Englifh quarters, and
each feptier = 8739 cubic inches. At Paris, 18.38 fep-
tiers = 10 Englifh quarters, and each feptier = 936ocubic
inches. At Rouen, 15.75 feptiers = 10 Englifh quarters,
and each feptier = 10,920 cubic inches. At St. Valery,
18.38 feptiers = 10 Englifli quarters, and each feptier ^
9356 cubic inches.

The feptier is alfo a liquid meafure at Paris and in other
parts of France, and at Geneva. A muid of wine at Paris and
in fome other parts of France, contains 36 feptiers, 144 quarts
or pots, or 288 pintes, and 280 pintes without the lees. The
pinte contains 2 chopines, 4 demi-feptiers, or 8 poifl'ons, in
31147! French cubic inches, or 575 Englifh ditto; fo that a
French pinte is nearly equal to an Englifh quart ; and a muid
of wine contains 714 Englifh gallons.

At Geneva, the char, wine meafure, contains 1 2 feptiers ;
the feptier, 24 quarterons, or 48 pots ; and the feptier is =
about 12 Englifh gallons ; 8.37 feptiers are = 100 Englifh
gallons wine meaiure, and each feptier = 2760 cubic inches.
SEPTIMANCA, Simancas, in Jndent Geography, a
town in the interior of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the
Vaccians. / In the Itinerary of Antonineit is marked on the
route from Emerita to Saragoffa, between Amallobrica and
Nivaria. It was fituated on the Durias, S. of Pallentia.
SEPTIMENI. See Septumani.
SEPTIMINICTA, a town of Africa Propria, upon the
route from Thenae to Afi'uras, between Madaflama and Ta-
blata, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SEPTIMONTIUM, among the Romans, a feflival ce-
lebrated in December, on all the feven hills of Rome ;
whence alfo it had this name, being otherwife called Ago-
naha.

SEPTIZON, Septizonium, in the Ancient ArchiteHure,
a term almofl appropriated to a famous maufoleum of the
family of the Antonines, which, Aur. Vidlor tells ns,
was built in the tenth region of the city of Rome, being
a large infulated building, with feven ftages or ftories of
columns.

The plan was fquare, and the upper ilories of columns
falling back much, rendered the pile of a pyramidical form,
terminated at top with the Itatue of the emperor Septimius
Severus, who built it.

It had its K3.me /eptic!.on, feptizonium, irom feflem and zona,
q. d. feven zones or girdles, by reafon of its being girt with
feven rows of columns.

Hiftorians make mention of another feptizon, more an-
cient than that of Severus, built near the Thermae of An-
toninus.

SEPTUAGESIMA, in the Calendar, denotes the
third Sunday before Lent, or before quadragefima ; and
quinquagefima is the next before quadragefima, then
fexagefima and feptuagefima : thefe were all days appro-
priated by the church to afts of penance and mortification,
by way of preparing for the devotion of the lent enfuing.

It is fuppofed by fome to take its name from its being
about feventy days before Eafter : pope Telefphorus lirft

10

made it a feaft day, and appointed Lent to commence
from it.

The laws of king Canutus ordained a vacation from judi-
cature, from feptuagefima to quindena pafchx. (SeeQuiN-
QUAGESIMA.) From feptuagefima to the ottaves after
Ealler, marriage is forbidden by the canon law.

SEPTUAGINT, LXX, or the Seventy, a term famous
among divines and critics, for a verfion of the Old Teftament
out of Hebrew into Greek, faid to have been performed by
feventy-two Jewifh interpreters, in obedience to an order of
Ptolemy Philadelphus.

The ancients, till Jerom's time, univerfally believed, that
the Seventy were infpired perfons, not mere tranflators,
grounding their belief on a fabulous hiftory of this verfion
given by Ariileas ; who tells us, that the high-prielt Eleazar
chofe fix doftors out of each tribe for this office, which
made the number of feventy-two ; and that thefe being fhut
up each in his feveral cell, each tranflated the whole ; and
without feeing what any of the reft had done, they were found
to agree to a letter.

The learned Dr. Hody, " De Bibliorum Textibus Ori-
ginalibus," &c. who feems to have ftudied the origin of the
Greek verfion more accurately than any critic before him,
has laboured very fuccefsfuUy in detefting the falfe itory of
Arifleas ; and he has hkewife proved, that this verfion was
made by the Jews living at Alexandria, for the ufe of them-
lelves and many thoufands of their brethren, who were then
fettled in Egypt, and who, living among the Greeks, gene-
rally ufed the Greek language. And he has alfo proved,
that the whole Hebrew bible was not tranflated into Greek
at once, but that different parts were tranflated at different
times : that the Pentateuch was tranflated firft, about 285
years before Chrift ; that only the Pentateuch was read in
the fynagogues till about 170 years before Chrift, when
Antiochus Epiphanes, their cruel perfecutor, forbad them
to recite any part of the law ; that foon after this prohibi-
tion, the Jews tranflated into Greek Ifaiah, and the follow-
ing prophets, for the ufe of the temple at HeliopoUs and
the Alexandrian fynagogues ; and that the other books were
tranflated afterwards, with different degrees of fkill and
care, at various times, and by various perfons. See alfo on
this fubjeft Prideaux's Conneft. vol. iii. p. 38, &c. Brett's
Diflertation on the ancient Verfion of the Bible, publifhed
in Bifliop Watfon's CoUeftion of Trafts ; Dupin's Canon,
Walton's Prolegomena, &c. &c. See Alexandrian
Copy, and Greek Bible.

Septuagint, Chronology of the, or Seventy, is an ac-
count of the years of the world, very different from
what is found in the Hebrew text, and the Vulgate ;
making the world 1466 years older than it is found in thefe
latter.

The critics are much divided as to the point of preference.
Baronius prefers the account of the Seventy ; and If. Voflius
makes an apology for it. The two lateft and moll ftre-
nuous advocates in this difpute, are father Pezron, a Ber-
nardine, and father Le Quien, a Dominican ; the firft of
whom defends the chronology of the Septuagint, and
the latter that of the Hebrew text. See Sacred Chrono-
logy.

SEPTUM, in Anatomy, a name applied to various parts
of the body ; generally fuch as feparate contiguous ca-
vities.

The Septum Auricularum in the heart is placed between
the two auricles. See Heart.

Septum Cerebri and CerebelH, the falciform proccfles of
the dura mater. See Brain.

Septum

SEP

Septum Cordis or Ventriculorum, the partition between
the ventricles of the heart. See Heart.

Septum Lucidum, the part interpofed between the two
lateral ventricles of the brain. See Brain.

Septum Narlum, the partition between the noftrils. See
Nose.

Septum PeSiniforme Penis. See the defcription of the
penis under Generation'.

Septum Scroti. See Generation.

Sbftvm Thoracis, the mediaftinum, which forms the par-
tition between the two fides of the chelt. See LuNG.

Septum Tranfver/um, or Mufculare, the diaphragm. See
Diaphragm.

SEPTUMANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, who inhabited the town of Bitterae, according
to Pliny. In procefs of time a province of their territory-
was denominated Septimania.

SEPU, m Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Sivas ; 40 miles S.E. of Sivas.

SEPULCHRAL, Sepulchralis, fomething belong-
ing to fepulchres or tombs.

Sepulchral Column. See Column.

Sepulchral Infcriptions, are the furett monuments we
have of antiquity.

Sepulchral Lamps. See Lamp.

Sepulchral, or Sepulchralis, is alfo the appellation of a
feft ; thus called from their fuppofed principal error, which
was, that by the word hell, whither the Scripture tells us
Jefus Chrift defcended after his death, they underllood no
more than his grave or fepulchre. See Hell.

Sepulchralis Pecunia. See Pecunia.

SEPULCHRE, Sepulchrum, a tomb, or place, def-
tined for the interment of the dead.

The term is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the burying-
places of the ancients ; thofe of the moderns we ufually
call tombs.

Befides the ufual fepulchres for the interment, either of
the whole body, or of the a{hes of the burnt, the ancients
had a pecuUar kind, called ccnoto/ii/a, being empty fepulchres
made in honour of feme perfons, who, perhaps, had no
burial at all ; from a fuperftitious opinion, that the fouls of
thofe who wanted burial wandered a hundred years before
they were admitted to pafs into the Elyfian fields. See Bu-
rial and Cenotaph.

The pyramids are fuppofed to have been built as fepulchres
for the kings of Egypt. And the obelHlis had generally
the fame intention.

Sepulchres were held facred and inviolable, and the care
taken of them was deemed a religious duty, grounded on
the fear of God, and the belief of the foul's immortality.
Thofe w'ho fearched or violated them, have been odious to
all nations, and always feverely punilhed.

The Egyptians call their fepulchres eternal houfes, in con-
tradiftinAion to their houfes and palaces, which they called
Inns ; by reafon of the Ihort fojourn we have in the one, in
comparifon of our long ftay in the other. The eallern pil-
grimages are all made with defign to vifit the holy fepulchre,
that is, the tomb of Jefus Chriit. Nobody enters here but
bare-footed, and with abundance of ceremonies. The Turks
exaft twenty-four crowns of each pilgrim, whom devotion
carries to the holy fepulchre.

Sepulchre, St., or tht Holy Sepulchre, gives the deno-
mination to an order of regular canons, anciently inllituted
in Jerufalem, in honour of the holy fepulchre.

They afcribe their inftitution to Godfrey of Boulogne,
who, they fay, upon his taking Jerulalem in the year 1009,
placed canons in the patriarchal church of the Holy Sepul-

S E P

chre, which indeed is true, but then they were not regulars.
Ineffeft, it was Arnoul, who, of arclideacon of the church,
of Jerufalem, got himfelf elcAed patriarch of it, that, in
II 14, firll obliged his canons to live in community, and to
follow the rule of St. Auguftine.

From the Holy Land numbers of tliefe canons were
brought into Europe, particularly into France by Louis the
Younger ; into England by king Henry ; into Poland by
Jaxa, a PoU(h gentleman ; and into Flanders by its counts.

But the order was afterwards fupprelFed by Innocent
VIII., and its effefts given to that of Our Lady of Bethle-
hem, which itfelf ceafing, they were bellowed, in 1484, on
that of the knights of St. John of Jerufalem ; but the fup-
prefTion did not take place in Poland, nor in feveral pro-
vinces of Germany, where they ftill fubfill : their general is
in Poland: their habit, father Heliot obferves, has been
different in different places.

Sei'ulchre, St., or the Holy Sepulchre, is alfo the name
of a military order, cftablirtied in PaU-lline, as fome fay, by
Godfrey of Boulogne, but according to others by his fuc-
cedor, Baldwin.

However, it is certain there were none but canons in the
church of St. Sepulchre till the year 1114; and it is no
more than probable, the knights were only inllituted upon
the ruins of the canons, four hundred years after, and that
by pope Alexander VI. in order to excite rich and noble
perfons to vifit the holy places, by giving them the title of
knights of the Holy Sepulchre, and to this end, inllituting an
order under that name, of which he referved the qualiiy of
mailer to himfelf and his fuccclfors.

Leo X. and Clement VII. granted to the guardian of the
religious of St. Francis, in the Holy Land, the power of
making tbefe knights ; which power, firll granted viva voce,
was afterwards confirmed by a bull of Pius IV. In 1558,
the knights of this order in Flanders, chofe Philip II. king
of Spain, their mailer, and afterwards his fon ; but the
grand mailer of the order of Malta prevailed on him to re-
fign ; and when afterwards the duke Nevers aflumed the
fame quality in France, the fame grand mailer, by his in-
tereft. and credit, procured a like renunciation of him,
and a confirmation of the union of this order to that of
Malta.

SEPULCHRI Pretium. See Pketium.

SEPULVEDA, John Genesius, in Biography, an emi-
nent Spanilh divine, born in the dioccfc of Cordova in 149 1.
He became diltinguilhed for his knowledge of law, philofo-
phy, and divinity, and was, on account of his great learning,
nominated by the emperor Charles V. hilloriographer
and theologian. His fame was chiefly owing to his verfion
of Arillotle into the Latin language. When in the height
of his reputation, he was engaged in a controverfy from
which he derived no honour. It is thus related :

At the time that the celebrated Las Cafas, bilhop of
Chiapa, was pleading thecaufeof the oppreflcd Indians be-
fore the court ef Spain, Sepulveda, induced by fome Spa-
niards who had tyrannized over that people, wrote a book in
the Latin language, by way of dialogue, in which he un-
dertook to prove, that the wars of the Spaniards in the In-
dies were jutt, and founded on their right to fubdue the
people of that new world ; that it was.the duty of the In-
dians to fubmit to be governed by the Spaniards, on account
of their own inferiority in knowledge and wifdom ; and that
if they would not voluntarily acquiefce in the Spanifk domi-
nion, they might and ought to be compelled by force of
arms. Sepulveda, to add weight to his argument, declared
that his whole objed was to eftablilh the right of the kings
of Caftille and Leon to take potl'ellion of their domain in

the

I

(

♦

S E Q

the Indies. He prefented his work to the royal council, and
earnellly requefted permiffion to print it. He was refufed,
and applied to feme friends in the emperor's court. Las
Cafas, who was returned from the Indies, perfuaded that
the book, would encourage the cruelties of which he com-
plained, oppofcd the printing. The royal council, regard-
ing the fubjed; as of a theological rather than as of a poli-
tical nature, referred it to the univerfities of Alcala and Sa-
lamanca, both of which pronounced that it ouglit not to be
committed to the prefs. The author, dctermnied if poffible
to carry his point, fent his book to Rome, where it was
printed. The emperor, informed of his intention, fent ex-
prels orders to prohibit its circulation, and caufed the copies
to be feized : fome of them, however, had already readied
Spain. Las Cafas thought it npceffary to make a reply in
defence of the poor Indians. The emperor at length cited
the parties before the council of the Indies, and fent Domi-
nic Soto to arbitrate between them. He heard the argu-
ments on both fides, and made a report in favour of Las
Cafas. The matter, however, remained undecided ; and
the good bifhop had not the fatisfadlioii to fee ihe Indiann
freed from their tyrants. Sepulveda died at Salamanca, of
which he was a canon, in 1572. Befides the works above-
mentioned, he was author of various tracts, theological
and controverfial, which were printed coUeftively at Cologne
in 1602.

Sepulveda, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old
Catlile, on the river Duraton ; 28 miles N.E. of Se-
govia.

SEPYRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria, upon
mount Amanus, of which Cicero made himfelf mailer.
I SEQUANA, a river which feparated the country of

the Gauls from that of the Belgae, according to Cafar.
It is the prelent Seine.

SEQUANI, a people of Gaul. In the time of Csefar
they were in Celtica, but Augullus places them in Bel-
gica.

SEQUATUR fub fuo periculo, in Latv, a writ that
lies, when a fummons ad warrantizandtim is awarded, and
the (heriff returns that the party hath nothing by which
he may be fummoned ; then goes forth an alias and a
pluries ; and if he comes not on the pliiries, this writ
(hall iflue.

SEQUEANG, in Geography, a town of Pegu, on the
Irawaddy, 20 miles N. of Rangoon.

SEQUEL, Sequela, in Logic, a confequence drawn
from fome preceding propofition.

As if I fay. Tie human foul is immaterial, and therefore im-
mortal; the lall member of the fentence is z fequel of the
firlt.

SEQUENCE, French, from yjjaor, I follow, in Gaming,
a feries or fet of cards immediately following each other in
the fame fuit or colour.

We fay, a fequence of four cards, of five, &c. At
piquet, thefe are called tierces, quarts, quints, &c.

SEQUESTRATION, Sequestratio, in Common
Laiu, the aft of feparating a thing in controverfy, from
the pofl'eflion of both parties, till the right be determined
by courfe of law.

This is of two forts, voluntary and necejfary : voluntary,
when it is done by confent of both parties : and necejfary,
being that which the judge doth by his authority, whether
the parties will or not.

Sequestration, in the Ci-vil Laiu, is the aft of the
ordinary, difpofing of the goods and chattels of one de-
L-eafed, whofe eftate no man will meddle v«th.

A widow is alfo faid to fequejtcr, when Ihc difclaims
VoL.XXXII.

S E Q

having any thing to do with the eftate of her deccafed
hurt) and.

Among the Romanifts, in queltions of marriage, where
the wife complains of impotency in the hufband, (he is to
be fequeitered into a convent, or into the hands of matrons,
till the procefs be determined.

Sequestratio?) is alfo ufed for the aft of gathering
the fruits of a benefice void, to the ufe of the next in-
cumbent.

Sometimes a benefice is kept under fequeftration for many
years, when it is of fo fmall value, that no clergyman fit
to ferve the cure, will be at the charge of taking it by in-
Ititution ; in which cafe the feqifsllration is committed
either to the curate alone, or to the curate and church-
wardens jointly. Sometimes the profits of a living in con-
troverfy, either by the confent of the parties, or the
judge's authority, are fequeftered and placed for fafety in
a third hand, till the fuit is determined, a minifter being
appointed by the judge to ferve the cure, and allowed a
certain falary out of the profits. Sometimes the profits of
a living are fequcltered for iiegleft of duty, for dilapida-
tions, or for fatisfying the debts of the incumbent. And
this is, where a judgment hath been obtained againft 31
clergyman, and upon a fieri facias direfted to the (heriff to
deny the debt and damages, he returns, that the defendant
is a clerk beneficed having no lay fee. Whereupon a levari
facias (fee Levari) is direfted to the bilhop to levy the
fame of his ecclefiallical goods, and by virtue thereof the
tithes (hall be lequedered. (Watfon. c. 15. ) In this cafe
the bifhop may name the fequeftrators himfelf, or grant the
fequeftration to fuch perfons as (hall be named by the party
who obtained the writ. If the fequeftration be laid and
executed before the day of the return of the writ, the mean
profits may be taken by virtue of the fequeftration after
the writ is made returnable, otherwife not. If an appeal
be made againft a fentence of fequeftration, and lawfully
prefented, the party fequeftered (hall enjoy the profits pend-
ing the appeal. (Lind. 104.) It is ufual for the eccle-
fiallicaljudge to take bondof the fequeftrators, welland truly
to gather and receive the tithes, fruits, and other profits,
and to render a juft account (Watfon. c. 30.) : and thofe
to whom the fequeftration is committed are to caufe the
fame to be publilhed in the refpeftive churches, in the
time of divine fervice.

The fequeftrators cannot maintain an aftion for tithes in
their own name at the common law, nor in any of the
king's courts ; but only in the fpiritual court, or before the
juftices of the peace where they have power by law to take
cognizance. When the fequeftrators have performed the
duty required, the fequeftration is to be taken off, and the
profits applied according to the direftion of the ordinary,
and they (hall be allowed out of the profits a recompence
for their trouble, and alfo for the fupply of the cure, and
alfo for the maintenance of the incumbent and his family,
if they need it. Sequeftrators refufing to deliver up their
charge, may be compelled to do it by the ecclefiaftical
judge. If the incumient be not fatisfied with the conduft
of the fequeftrators in the execution of their charge, his
proper remedy is by application to the fpiritual judge ; and
if he be not fatisfied with his determination, he may appeal
to a fuperior jurifdiftion.

In the time of the civil wars, fequeftration was ufed for
a feizing of the eftates of delinquents, for the ufe of the
commonwealth.

Sequestration, in Chancery, is a commiffion ufually
direfted to feven perfons therein named, empowering them
to feiase the defendant's perfonal eftate and the profits of

LI \m

S E Q

his real, and to detain them, fubjeft to the order of the
court. It ifTues on the return of the ferjeant at arms,
in which it was certified that the defendant had fecreted
hinifelf.

Sequeftrations were firft introduced by fir Nicholas
Bacon, lord keeper, in the reign of queen Elizabeth ;
before which the court found fome difficulty in enforc-
ing its procefs and decrees: and they do not feem to be
in the nature of procefs to bring in the defendant, but
only intended to enforce the performance of the court's
decree.

Sequestration, in London, is made upon an adlion of
debt : in which cafe, the aftion being entered, the officer
goes to the rtiop or warehoufe of the defendant, when
there is nobody within, and puts a padlock upon the door,
&c. ufing thefe words, " I do fequefler this warehoufe,
and the goods and mercliandifes therein of the defendant
in the adion, to the ufe of the plaintiff," &c. and having
put on his feal, makes return of it to the compter ; and
after four court days, the pla-ntifF may have judgment to
open the doors, and appraife the goods by a ferjeant, who
takes a bill of appraifenient, having two freemen to appraife
them, for which they are to be fworn at the next court
holden for that compter ; and then the officer puts his hand
to the bill of appraifement, and the court giveth judgment.
However, the defendant in the adlion may put in bail be-
fore fatisfaftion, and io dilTolve tiie fequeftration ; and
after fatisfaftion may put in bail ad difprobandum debtlum,
&c.

Sequestration, Sequejiratlo-, in Chsmtjiry, a term ufed
by fome writers to expreis feparation.

SEQUESTRO HABENno, in La-w, a writ judicial
for the dilcharging a fequeftration of the profits of a
church-benefice, granted by the bifhop at the king's com-
mandment, in order to compel the parfou to appear at the
fuit of another. The parfon, upon his appearance, may
have this writ for the releafc of the fequeftration.

SEQUIN, Zecain, Zecchino, a gold coin ftruck at
Venice, Genoa, Rome, Milan, Piedmont, and Tufcany,
and in feveral parts of the grand fignior's ftates.

Ablancourt derives the word from Cizicum, or C'tztceni-
cum; as fuppofiog the feqnin firlt (truck at Cizicum : Me-
nage, from the- Italian -zecchino, of sfrca, the name of the
mint at Venice. At Florence, pieces of 3 fequins are called
Rufponi (fee Rusroxo) ; zecchini or fequins, called Gig-
liati, weigh 2 d.nari 23 grani, and are worth 13' lire or
20 paoli. The Roman and Genoa fequins circulated here
are valued at 13 lire; Venetian fequins at 13' lire. The
fequin Gigliato weighs 53J- En.;h(h grains, and the gold is
23^ carats fine : it is therefore worth 9^. (>d. fterling. At
Rome 100 francefconi, or 50 zecchini, are exchanged for
100 fcudi Romani, more or lefs. At Genoa, the fequins
are valued at 13 lire 10 foldi. In 1807 the Roman fequins
were valued here at 14/., and the Venetian at 14/. loi.
The weight of the fequin at Genoa is 76 grai s of gold
23^ carats fine, and its value is ()s. ^d. At Leghorn the
fequin is current for 13 lire 6 foldi 8 denari, of moneta
buona, and fur 13 lire 18 foldi 3 denari of moneta langa.
At Lucca in Italy the fequin palTes for 14-' lire: Venetian
fequins arc taken at the fame as other Italian fequins, and
German ducats at 14 lire 6 foldi. In tiic ifland of Malta,
Venetian fequins pafs for 6 fcudi : the fciido current money
being worth lQ\d. fterling. At Marfeilles, Itahan fequins
■pafs for 1 1 livres 2 fous, more or lels. At Milan, fequins,
weighing 2 denari 20,^ grani, are valued at 15 lire 4 foldi.
At Parma the fequin is valued at 45 lire, the lira being
worth 7.ld. nearly.

S E Q

At Rome, the zecchini or fequins are current at 21^
paoli, with their doubles and halves in proportion. The
fequin is to weigh 2 denari 21 \^s grains, or 52 V Englilh
grains, and the gold is 234^ carats fine ; fo that it contains
little more than 52 grains of pure gold, and is therefore
worth gs. ^d. fterling. At Tunis, a Venetian fequin palies
for 2 piaftres, 32 afpers, more or lefs. At Venice, the
gold coins of the old republic are zecchini or fequins,
with halves and quarters. The fequin is commonly reckon-
ed at 22 lire, but it bears a fludluating agio, which in the
year 1805 was "i,"] pir cent.: 68^ zecchini or fequms are
to contain a Venetian mark of fine gold ; and are laid to
have no alloy ; the quantity of alloy, however, is fmall and
uncertain. The Venetian iequin weighs 54 Englifli grains
nearly, and it is therefore worth Cjs. (>d. fterling.

The aftay of the Genoa fequin is better than the Englifh
ftandard of 22 carats, and its value, &c. according to the
mint price of gold in England, i)/i. 3/. \']s. \o)jd. per oz.
is as follows : v'fz. the aflay 1 carat 3i grains, weight
2 dwt. 5I grs., contents in pure gold 53.4 grs., and value in
fterling 9/. ^\d. The iequin of Milan is better than the
Englifh ftandard ; its alTay is i car. 3 grs., its weight
2 dwt. jf grs., its contents in pure gold 53.2 grs., and its
flerling value is 9/. ^d. The fequin, or two-ducat piece
of Naples, of 1762, is v/orfe than Eng. ftand. ; its aflay
is I car. 2J grs., weight i dwt. 2oJgr., contents in pure
gold 37.4 grs., and fterling value l^d. The fequin of
Piedmont (and half fequin in proportion) is better than
Eng. ftand. ; its aflay is I car. 25grs., weight 2 dwt. sfgrs.,
contents in pure gold 52.9 grs., and value 91. 4^^/. The
fequin of Rome, coined before 1760, is better than Eng.
ftand. ; its aflay is 1 car. 2 grs., weight 2 dwt. 4^ grs.
contents in pure gold 51.4 grs., and value 9/. i\d. The
aflay of the fequin coined fince 1760 is I car. 35 grs.,
weight 2 dwt. 4^ grs., contents in pure gold 52.2 grs., and
value 9f. 3(/.

The zecchino, or fequin of Tufcany, is better than the
Englifli ftandard ; its aflay is I car. 3|- grs., its weight
2 dwt. 5f grs., its contents iu pure gold 53.6 grs., and
its value <)s. l\d. The zecchino or fequin (the half and
quarter in proportion) of Venice is better than the Eng-
lish ftandard ; its an"ay is i car. 3^ grs., its weight 2 dwts.
6 grs., its contents in pure gold 53.6 grs., and its value
9.. 5</.

The impreffions on the Italian fequins are as follow :
on that of Genoa, St. John the Baptift holding a crofs ;
legend, NON KL'RREXiT MAJOR, ». e. a greater has not
arifen, and the date ; reverfe, the arms of Genoa with a
crown ; legend. Dux et Gub. Reipub. Genu. i. e. doge and
governor of the republic of Genoa. On that of Milan,
the head of the reigning emperor of Germany, with name
and title thus ; jo.sep. ii. d. g. r. imp. s. aug. g. h. et b.
REX. A. A. i.e. Jofeph the fecond, by the grace of God, em-
peror of Rome, ever auguft, king of Germany, Hungary,
and Bohemia, archduke of Auftria ; reverfe, arms of Milan ;
legend, mediolam et mantu^ dux, duke of Milan and
Mantua. On that of Venice, a man holding a crofs, and
another kneeling before him with the doge's name, as ALOY.
Moc. (Aloyfius Mocenigo,) and the letters s. m. v. e. n. e.
one above the other near the edge of the piece, /. e. SanSus
Marcus Venetus ; alio the letters D. v. x. Dux, duke or
doge, placed in the fame manner above the kneeling figure :
reverfe, a whole length figure of St. Mark, holding a book,
and furrounded with ftarg ; legend, siT T. XPE. DAT. Q.
tu regj.5 istb duca, fuppofed by Muratori in his " An-
tiquitates Italicae Medii ^vi," to denote. Sit tibi Chrijle
datum, ^uod (vel quia) tu regis Jfte ducat urn, u e. To thee,

O Chritt,

S E Q

OClirift, be it (this coin) given, becaufe thou governeft (uni-
vcrfally;. He, St. Mark, governs the duchy. Muratori
doubts tliis interpretation, and fuppofes that ijle might
have been originally tpfe. The legend, however, is curious,
as being both an hexameter verfe and a monkifh rhyme.
The half and quarter fequins bear the fame impreflions,
but the legend on the reverfe is. Ego fum lux miiiidi, i. e.
I am the light of the world.

At Cochin, on the Malabar coaft, Venetian fequins are
worth 72 fanams, of which 20 are reckoned for a rupee.
At Goa, Venetian fequins are worth 16 good tangas, each
of which is worth about ']\d. fterling. At Surat, the
weight of a Venetian fequin is reckoned at <^\ vails, of
which 82^ make i oz. troy.

The gold coins of Turkey are the fequin or chequeen,
called the fequin fonducli, coined in the year 1764; 100
of thefe weigh no Turkifh drachms, or 5415 Englifli
grains, and they are about 23 carats fine. The fequin
fonducli at Conftantinople pafled at firfi; for 3I piaftres, or
440 afpers ; but its price was gradually raifed to 4 piallres.
In 1 769 molt of them were called in for a new coinage.
There is another fequin, called mahbub, or zermahbub, or
gingerly ; the nisfie, or half mahbub ; and the roubbie,
or one-third ditto: 100 mahbubs, 200 nisfies, or 300
roubbies, were to weigh 82^ Turkifh drachms, or 4061
Englifh grains : they were at firll 22 carats fine, but in 1781
were reduced to 19I: carats; and in fubfequent coinages
they have been ftill more debafed. Venetian fequins pafs at
prelent for gi piallres. At Alexandria in Egypt the fe-
quin, called funduclee, is worth 146 medini ; that called
zumabob is valued at 120 medini, 40 medini being = a
piaflre. At Grand Cairo in Egypt, contrafts are made in
funducli and mahbub fequins ; the former are reckoned at
146 medini, and 3 mahbubs are equal to 4 pataccas, fo
that the mahbub is worth 120 medini. The only coins al-
lowed by the Turkiih government to be ftruck at Cairo are
the mahbub (or zermahbub) fequins, and medini : 40 me-
dini arc valued at \()}^d. fterling, fo that the mahbub is
worth 4j. ()\d. fterling. Mahbubs, however, of inferior
value, are coined by the Beys in Egypt, and generally pafs
for 1 10 medini. The Turkifh coins are currt-nt at Patras
in the Morea. Some European gold ducats and fequins cir-
culate in Perfia. Tlie fequin fonducli of Conftantinople of
1773 is worfe than the Englifh ftandard : its affay is 2 car.
25 gr. ; its weight 2 du-t. 5|- gr. ; its contents in pure gold
43.4 gr., and its fterling value is. %\d. The fequin fon-
ducli of 1789 is alfo worfe than the Englifh flandard : its
aflay is 2 car. 3^ gr. ; its weight 2 dwt. 5f gr. ; its contents
in pure gold 42.9 gr., and its value 7^. l\d. The double
fequin mahbub of Conftantinople of 1773 is better than the
Englifli ftandard : its aflay is I car. ; its weight 3 dwt.
4:j gr. ; its contents in pure gold 73.1 gr., and its value
I2J. il\d. The fequin mahbub of 1 789 is worfe than the
Englifh ftandard : its aflay is 2 car. 3 gr. ; its weight i dwt.
12 gr.; its conti-nts in pure gold 28.9 gr., and its value
5^. I -If/. The fequin of Cairo of 1773 is alfo worfe than
the Englifh ftandard : its aftay is 3 car. 05 gr. ; its weight
I dwt. 15:5: gr.; its contents in pure gold 31 gr., and its
value Jj-. 55^. The fequin of Cairo of 1789 is alfo worfe
than the Englifli ftandard : its aflay is 5 car. 2^ gr. ; its
weight I dwt. 15^ gr. ; its contents in pure gold 26.9 gr.,
and its value 4^. ()^d.

As the repreiViitation of men and animals is forbidden by
the Mahometan law, the Turkifh coins have no other im-
preflions than infcriptions Haling the names, titles, defcent,
&c. of their fultans, with the date of the liegira, or Ma-
hometan era. They are in the Arabic language, and the

S E R

following tranflations from the principal coins of lultan
Selim ( 1789) may ferve as a fpecimen, as there is but little
variety in the form or ftyle of thefe compofitions.

The fequin mahb\ib has on one fide, " Sultan Selim, fon
of Muftafa Khan, may he be victorious, and his valour be
bleft, ftruck at Slambul (Conftantinople) in the year
1203 '" and on the reverfe, " S.iltan of the two lands, and
fovereign of the two feas, fultan by inheritance, fon of a
fultan." The words, " May he be viftorious, and his
valour be bleft," arc nccafionally ufed by the Turks at the
end of their prayers. By the " two lands," are meant
Europe and Afia ; and by the " two feas," the Black fea
and the Archipelago. The latter is alfo called here the
White fea.

The fequin fonducli has on one fide, " Sultan Selim, fon
of Muftafa Khan ;" and on the reverfe, " Struck at Slam-
bul, in the year i 203."

The impreflions of fequins of difl'erent periods moftly
anfwer to either of the foregoing defcriptions ; but the fe-
quins coined at Cairo, under fultan Abdulhamid in 1773,
have their infcriptions as follows : " Sultan Abdulhamid,
fon of Ahmed Khan, may his valour be bleft, ftruck in
Egypt in the year 1187 ;" and on the reverfe, the titles as
on the fequin mahbub of Selim.

The pieces of two, three, four, and five fequins bear the
fame infcriptions as the fingle fequin, and they are fomc-
times alfo encircled with ornaments.

The fequins of the Barbary itates are coined in the name
of the grand feignior, and are only diftinguiflied by the
words, " Struck at Tunis, Tripoli," &c. They bear on
the reverfe the titles as on the fequin mahbub of Selim.
Kelly's Un. Cambift.

SERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Serica, which
had the title of metropohs, according to Ptolemy.

Seua, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, and capital
of a diftrift, once a confiderable fubah, conquered by Hyder
Ali ; taken from the dominions of his fon Tippoo, and
given to the Nizam in the year 1800; 58 miles N.W. of
Bangalore. N. lat. 13° 28'. E. long. 75° 54'.— Alfo, a
town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 24 miles S. of Dunger-
pour.

Sera Capriola, a town of Naples, in the province of
Capitanata ; 14 miles S.S.E. of Terniola.

SERAB, a diltria of Adirbeitzan, or Azerbijan, and
a town, 15 miles E. of Tabris.

SERABIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Hifpania,
in the Tarragonenfis. Ptolemy.

SERACH, in the Turiijh Military Orders, an officer
who holds the llirrup of the caia of the janizaries in charge,
attends him when he goes out on horfeback, and ferves him
as a mefi'enger on all occafions. After this office he has the
title of chous ; and after he has pafled through this, he has
the fame office under the aga of the janizaries. Pococke's
Egypt, p. 168.

SERACONYA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 38
miles E.S.E. of Iflamabad.

SERACORRO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra ; 80
miles W.N.W. of Sego.

SERAES, or Serkas, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Khorafan ; 180 miles N.N.W. of Herat, The
Tedzen has its fource near this place.

SERAFINI, in Biography, an Italian finger with a
feeble foprano voice, but fo good an after, that in 1754,
when Metallafio's " Attilio Regolo," fet by Halfe, was
performed in London, in tlie lall icene of this opera, which
ends with an accompanied recitative, without an air, he
was coiiftautly encored : but perhaps it was the poet who
L 1 2 was

S E R

was encored ; for the addio of Regulus, returning to Car-
thage to certain torture and death, in fpite of the prayers
and intreaties of his family and all Rome, is fo charaaeriihc
and truly Roman, that it mull have itruck every one who
had the lealt knowledge of the Italian language, and the in-
flexible virtue of Regulus.

SERAGANORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the Carnatic ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Ootatore.

SERAGE, in Ornithology, an Enghlh name for a bn-dof
the larus, or gull-kind, more ufualiy called the fea-fiualloiu,
and by authors Jierna.

SERAGIO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cor-
fica ; 6 miles S. of Corve.

SERAGLIO, a diftria of Italy, fouth of Mantua, in
which Auguftus had fome pofleffions ; called alfo " Vir-
ginian Fields."

Seraglio, formed of the Turkifii word feral, which is
borrowed from the Vevdinferaw, fignifying a houfe, among
the Levantines denotes the palace of a prince or lord.

At Conftantinople they fay, the feraglio of the ambaffador
of England, of France, &c.

The feraglio is ufed, by way of eminence, for the palace
of the grand feignior at Conftantinople, where he keeps his
court, and where his concubines are lodged, and where the
youth are trained up for the chief pofts of the empire.

It is a triangle about three Italian miles round, wholly
within the city, at the end of the promontory Chryfoceras,
now called the Seraglio Point. The buildings run back to
the top of the hill, and from thence are gardens that reach
to the edge of the fea. It is inclofed with a very high and
ftrong wall, upon which there are feveral watch towers : and
it has many gates, fome of which open towards the fea-fide,
and the reft into the city : but the chief gate is one of the
latter, which is conltantly guarded by a company of ca-
poochees, or porters ; and in the night it is well guarded
towards the fea.

The outward appearance, du Loir tells us, is not beauti-
ful, in regard the architefture is irregular, being cantoned
put into feparate edifices and apartments, in manner of
pavilions and domes. No itranger, it is faid, has ever yet
been admitted to the inmoft parts of the feraglio. See
Sultana.

The old feraglio is the place where the emperor's old
miftreftes, who have died or who have been depofed, and
the fultanas that have belonged to the deceafed grand
feigniors, are kept.

They are here fed and maintained with fome luxury, and
lerved with much attention, but they can no lone;er go out
of this place of retirement ; for it would not bedecent, in
the eftimation of the Muftulmans, that a flave, fuppofed to
have enjoyed the favours of a fultan, ihould pafs into the
arms of another man.

The harem is that quarter of the feraglio in which the
females are kept. This is foon replenifhed, becaufe traders
come from all parts to offer young flaves, and the pachas
and great men are eager to prefent beauties capable of
fixing the attention of the fovereign ; thus hoping to obtain
inftantly his good graces, and place about his perfon the
women who at fome future lime may be ufeful to them.

It is very difficult, and perhaps iinpoffible, to learn ex-
aftly the manner in which the female flaves are treated in
the harem of the grand feignior : never has the eye of the
obferver penetrated into this abode of hatred, jealoufy, and
pride ; into this abode where pleafure and love have fo
feldom refided. But, according to the account of the wo-
men, whofe profefTion calls them thither, the reader may
reprefent to himfelf three or four hundred black eunuchs,

S E R

malicious, peevifti, tormented by their impotence, rBrfing
their nullity, endeavouring to counteract the female flaves
intrufted to their charge ; then a confiderable number of
young women, whofe hearts would willingly expand, whofe
fenfes are moved at the idea of the pleafures which they wiih
in vain to know, jealous of the happinefs which they are
perfuaded that their rivals enjoy, curfing the overfcers who
perplex them, folely taken up with their toilet, with their
dref?, and with all the nonfenfe which idlcnefs ar.d ignorance
can fuggcft to them ; fecking, rather from vanity than from
love, every means of plealiiig a mafter, too frequeiitly Jif-
dainful. We may reprefent to ourfelves, in fhort, a fultan
young or old, maftered by ridiculous prejudices, without
delicacy, often whimfical or capriciou=;, alone in the midit
of five or fix hundred women, all equally beautiful, in whom
he gives birth to defires which he is unable to gratify, who
enjoys with them no pleafures but fuch as are too eafy and
witiiout prelude, in which the heart has no fhare, and we
(hall have a true idea of what pades in the harem of the
grand feignior.

Tlie charge of the women is intrufted only to black
eunuchs, whofe mutilation is fuch, that there remains no
trace of their fex. Oriental jealoufy has very rightly
judged, that fuch creatures were rather capable of infpiring
fentiments of hatred and contempt, than thofe of affeftion
and frienddiip, whicli would not have failed to take birth,
if the charge of the harem had been intrufted to women. It
was not enough to condemn thefe unfortunate females to
long privations, never to let them know of love only what
was to excite in them defires, it was even neccftary to de-
prive them of the conlolation of opening their heart in the
bofom of friendfhip.

The chief of the black eunuchs, called lijlar-aga, n one
of the greateft perlonages of the empire : he it is who carries
to the female flaves the will of his mafter ; he it is who an-
nounces to them the happincls which they have to pleafe
him. Independently of the authority wliich he exercifes in
the harem, he has the fuperintendance of all the imperial
mofques ; he is charged with the general admiiiiftration of
all the pious foundations which relate to them ; he has the
pre-eminence over the chief of the white eunuchs, and, what
is more flattering to a flave, he more frequently approaches
his mafter, and more commonly enjoys his confidence. His
income is very confidcrable.

The thafne-vekili is the fecond eunuch of the feraglio : he
replaces the hjlar-aga, when he dies, or is turned out of
office. He has the general adminiftration of the interior
imperial treafure, which muft be diftinguiflied from the pri-
vate treafure of the grand feignior, adminiftered by the
khajnadar-aga, one of the pages of confidence. Tiicre are
fome other eunuchs raifed in dignity, fuch as he who belongs
to the queen-mother, he to whom the care of the princes is
intrufted, thofe who ferve the royal mofque of the fultana
Validai, whither the flaves of tlie grand feignior go to fay
their prayer: ; he who has the particular fiperintendance of
the apartment of the hajfekee ; and a few others whofe func-
tions are lefs important.

The white eunuchs do not approach the women : they
are employed out of the harem, and in the particular fervice
of the fultan. They have the charge of the gates of the
feraglio ; they fuperintend and inftruft the pages. Their
chief IS called f.-jjftou-rt^a^. ( See Capi-aga.) For an ac-
count of other officers of the feraglio, fee BosTANGI-baschi,
IciioGLANs, and Capigi.

Balzac obferves, that the feraglio at Conftantinople is
only a copy of that which Solomon anciently built at Jeru-
falem, for his wives and concubines. For a particular

defcriptioB

S E R

delcription of the feraglio, fee Gieave's Works, vol. ii.
p. 591, &c.

SERAI, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia ; 24 miles E. of Caftamena. — Alfo, a town of the
dcfcrt of Syria ; 30 miles E. of Aleppo. — Alfo, a town of
Hindooftaii, iu the circar of Naderbar ; 20 miles S.S.W.
of Naderbar.

SERAING, a town of France, in the department of
the Ourte, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Liege. The place contains 2503, and the canton 6400 in-
habitants, on a territory of 925 kiliometres, in 7 com-
munes.

SERA JO, or BosNA See A JO, a town of European Tur-
key, in Bofnia, fitualed on the river Bofna, and the refidence
of a fanjiac. It is large, rich, and commercial, and the fee
of a Catholic bidiop, appointed by the king of Hungary ;
118 miles W. of Belgrade. N. lat. 44° 26''. E. long. 18^.

SERAKINO, a fmall Greek ifland, which, together
with Dromi, afford a place of fhelter to navigators.

SERAMICA, a river of Surinam, which runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 5° 54'. W. long. 55° 38'.

SERAMPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, near the river
Hoogly ; 12 miles N. of Calcutta. — Alio, a town of Hin-
doodan, m the country of Baliar ; 75 miles S.S.E. of Bahar.
— Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 40 miles S. of Dacca. N. lat.
23° 4'. E. long. 90° 40'. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 20
miles S.S.E. of Curruckdeah. N. lat. 24° 6'. E. long.
86^ 28'. — Alfo, a town of Bengal; 37 miles N.W. of
Burdwan.

SE RANG AN, a duller of three fmall iflands in the
Eall Lidian fea ; one of them about ij miles long and
3 broad, and the other two fmallcr. N. lat. 5" 25'. E.
long. 12;" 20'.

SERANGODES, a word ufed originally as an epithet
for the pumice-ilone, and exprefFing cavernous, fpungy, or
full of holes. It has been hence applied to finuous ulcers,
and to all forts of things that are cavernous, or of a fpungy
texture.

SERAPGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
28 miles N. of Mauldah.

SERAPH, or Seraphim, in the Hierarchy of ./Ingeh,
a fpirit fuppofed to be of the firit or highell rank.

The feraphs, or rather ferapbini, make that clafs of an-
gels, fuppofed to be the moil inflamed with divine love, by
their nearer and more immediate attendance on the throne,
and to communicate their heat to the interior and remoter
orders : hence their name, winch is formed from the He-
brew root ri~IJi?, lo burn, inflame.

Sekai'H is alfo laid to be the name of a Turkifli gold
coin, worth about ^s. ilcrling.

Seraph's Head, in Heraldry, is ufed to denote a child's
head, with three pair of wings, v/z. two in chief, two in
felle, and two in bafe.

SERAPHIC, lomething belonging to the ferapliim.

Mr. Boyle has a treatife of (crapltic love, i. e. of divine
love, or the love of God.

In the fchools, St. Bonaventure is called the Serapliic
Doctor, from his abundant zeal and fervour.

St. Francis, founder of the Cordeliers and Francifcans,
is called the Seraphic Father, ni memory of a vifion he faw
on mount Alverna.

SERAPHm. See Seiiapii.

Seuapiiim, Order of, in Heraldry, otherwifc fnrnamed of
Jefus, was indituted in Sweden, in 1334, by Magnus II.
king of Sweden, iu memory of tiie fiege of the metropolitan
city of Upfal ; and not, as fome authors fay, by Eric the
Great, called Smeek ; nor by Gullavus I., as others ima-

S E R

gine. Upon the change of religion which happened in
Sweden, under Charles IX., this order was abolilhed ; but
it was revived, February the 1 1 th, in the year 1 748, by-
Frederic I., king of Sweden. The habit of the order is a
white fattin jacket, trimmed with black lace, and lined
with black ; with white breeches, flioes, and ilockings,
trimmed with black, and black ribbons ; a black fattin (hort
cloak, lined with white, the cape being white, trimmed with
black lace ; a hat of black fattin, bound with white, having
on the left fide four white oftrich feathers, and in the middle
of them one black feather. Upon the left bread of the
cloak is a ftar of eight points, emliroidered in filver ; and
upon the jacket, on the fame fide, is the like dar, but fome-
what lefs in fize. The collar of the order is compofed of
eleven golden heads of feraphs, with wings expanded, and
eleven blue patriarchal erodes, enamelled on gold, all joined
with chains of the lad. To the collar is fufpended the erifgn
of the order, viz. a dar of eight points, enamelled white,
the centre blue, with the arms of Sweden, and the initial
letters, I.H.S. ; over the H. a crofs ; the arms inclofed
with four feraphs' heads, as in the collar ; in the arms,
under the bottom crown, the padion-nails. N.B. The fe-
raphs' heads are between the double points of the dar; and
over the upward points is the royal crown of Sweden, by
which it is pendant to the collar. The enfign alfo is pendant
to a broad flcy-blue watered ribbon, worn fcarf-wife, and
brought over the right fhoulder, and under the left arm.
. SERAPIy\S, in Botany, one of the poetic names, de-
rived from Serapis, the Egyptian idol. The Sernpias of
Pliny was evidently, from his defcription, a plant of the
Orchis tribe, witii globular roots, and fuppofed to have aji
aphrodiliacal quality. Hence Linnaeus retains the above
name for a genus of the fame natural order, which, accord-
ing to his charadlers and idea^, was more ample than bo-
tanids at prefent make it, including many fpecies of our
Epipactis. (See that article.) — Linn. Gen. 462. Schreb.
603. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 70. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4.
Swartz Aft. Holm, for 1800. 223. t. ^. f. H. Schrad.
New .Tourn. v. I. 47. t. I. f. H. Juif. 6j. Brown in
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 194. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
V. 2. 218. — Clafs and order, Gynandria Monandria. Nat.
Ord. Orchidea.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fupcrior, of three ovate,
pointed, concave, converging, equal leaves. Cor. Petals
two, lanceolate, acute, Imaller than the calyx, and con-
cealed within it. Nectary a lip, without a fpur; concave
at the bafe ; its terminal lobe largcd, undivided, pointed,
dependent. Stam. Filament none ; anther obh)ng, crcd,
attached in a parallel manner to the fore part of the dyle,
of two cilh, opening m front ; the malfes of pollen club-
Ihaped, attaciiing themfelves, each by its taper bafe, to 2
glind bv the iligma, in one and the fame pouch ; Broavn.
Pijl. Germen inferior, obovate, furrowed ; dyle elongated,
ereft, with a taper point extended above tlie anther ; Uigma
in front, below the anther, concave. Peric. Capfule obo-
vate, of one cell, with three ribs, burding longitudinally
between tlie ribs. Seeds very numerous, minute, roundilh,
each witli a chaffy tunic.

Eff. Cii. Calyx converging. Neftary a lip without a
fpur ; concave at the bafe ; its terminal lobe very large, de-
pendent, undivided. Anther parallel to the dyle, fur-
mounted by a point.

I. S. Lingua. Tongue-lipped Serapias. Linn. Sp. PI.
1344. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
t. 931, unpublifbcd. (Orchis n. 1267; Hall. Hill. v. 2.
135. O. Uiacrophylla ; Colun.n. Ecplir. 321. t. 322. O.
montana italica, lingua oblonga, altera ; alio lingua trifida ;

Rudb.

S E R

Rudb. Elyf. V. 2. 204. Orchides Etruriae ; Petiv. Ga-
zoph. t. 128. f. 1 — 3? Telticuli fpecies tertia ; Matth.
Valgr. V. 2. 233. f. I. Dalech. Hill. 1551-) — Lateral
fegmeiits of the lip ereft ; middle one ovate, imootli Na-
tive of open mountainous fituations in the fouth of Europe.
Dr. Sibthorp gathered it in Zantc, as well as in Greece,
and we readily affent to the opinion of a learned German
writer, in the Allgemeine Literatur-z.eitung, for June
1807, n. 133. 1060, that this plant, and not Iris tukrofa,
is probably the true Aoy^'''^" °'^ Diofcorides. The root cou-
fills of two ftalked, roundirti knobs, like others of this
tribe, but rather fmaller. Stem a foot high, clothed in the
lower part with lanceolate, (heathing, fmooth lea-ves. Spike
of from two to eight Jlowers, with a large, concave, pur-
plilh-grey bralfea to each. Calyx ribbed, of the fame colour
as the brafteas, and pointed hke them, three quarters of an
inch long. Lip twice that length ; its dilk whitifli, with a
dark red, oblong, undivided elevation at the bale, and two
rounded, ereft, lateral lobes, of the fame colour ; the
central lobe dependent, ovate, pointed, undulated, purplifh,
veiny, fmooth. Haller juftly refers both the above fy-
nonyms of Rudbeck to this fpecies.

2. S. cordigera. Heart-lipped Serapias. Linn. Sp. PI.
1345. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Grasc. Sibth.
t. 932, unpublilhed. Andr.. Repof. t. 475^. (Orchis
montana italica, flore ferrugineo, lingua oblonga ; Rudb.
Elyf. v. 2. 203. f. 18. O. Etrurioe, lingua ferruginea pi-
lofa ; Petiv. Gazoph. t. 128. f. 4.) — Lateral fegmcnts of
the lip erecl ; middle one heart-lhaped, hairy. — More fre-
quent than the foregoing in the fouth of Europe, and north
of Africa, in the fame kind of iituations. We gathered it
in July 1787, in paitures at St. Orfefe, near Genoa. The
whole plant, efpecially the bulbs and Jloiuers, are larger than
in 5. Lingua, and the whole fpike is of a more dingy hue.
The colour, however, of the different parts is variable in
both. The broad hairy Up of corSgera, with a divided
glandular elevation at its bafe, is fufficiently charafteriftic.
We truft we are right in the citation of Rudbeck, and that
he mifquotes Matthiolus.

Willdcnow's S. oxyglottis, founded folely on Petiver's
t. 128. f. 5 & 6, appears to us too uncertain to be adopted,
though we doubt not that fome diftinft fpecie? of this
order, and perhaps of this genus, are (till latent in Italy.

Sf.rapias, in the Materia Medica, the officinal name of
the dried root, called falep.

SERAPION, of Alexandria, in Biography, lived about
the year 280 before Chrilt, or in the 125th Olympiad, and
i:, affirmed by Celfus to have been the founder of the em-
piric fed of phyficians, and accufed by Galen of vaunting
himfelf, and of maltreating the charafter of Hippocrates.
(See Empiric.) He was probably a contemporary of
Philinus, to whom alfo the origin of the fame fedt has been
attributed. See Celfus, Prxf.

Serapion, JoiiN, or JoH.v, the Son of Serapion, an
Arabian phyfician, lived between the time of Mefue and
Rhazes, and was probably the firft writer on phyfic in the
Arabic language ; for it appears that Mefue, like his pre-
decelibr Aaron, or Ahrun, wrote in the Syriac tongue.
Haly Abbas, when giving an account of the works of his
countrymen, defcribes the writings of Serapion, as con-
taining only an account of the cure'of difeafes, without any
precepts concerning the prefervation of health, or relating
to furgery ; and he makes many critical obfervations, which.
Dr. Freind obferves, are fufficient proofs of the genuine
exillence of the works afcribed to Serapion, from then- truth
and correftnefs. Rhazes alfo quotes them frequently in
his " Continent." Serapion muil have lived towards the

S E R

middle of the ninth century, and not in the reign of Leo
Ifaurus, about the year 730, as fome have ftated. One
circumltance remarkable in Serapion, Dr. Freind obferves,
is, that he often tranfcribes the writings of Alexander
Trallian, an author with whom few of the other Arabians
appear to be much acquainted. This work of Serapion has
been pubhflied, in tranflations, by Gerard of Cremona,
under the title of " Prattica, Difta Brcviarum ;" and by
Torinus, under that of " Therapeutica Methodus." Sec
Freind's Hiftory of Phyfic, and Sprengcl Gefchichte dcr
Arzneykunde, ii. 365.

Some confufion appears to exilt refpcfting another Se-
rapion, whom Sprengel calls the younger, and places 1 80
years later than the former, and who was probably the
author of a work on the materia medica, entitled " De
Medicamentis tarn fimplicibus, quam compofitis." This
work bears intrinlic evidence of being produced at a much
later period, fince authors are quoted who lived much pof-
teiior to Rhazes. It is probable that this work, which
mult obvioufly liave been compofcd \n the latter part of the
eleventh century, (for Avenzoar, who wrote in that cen-
tury, is quoted in it,) is the lame with that which is often
cited by Conttantinc, the African, under the name of
Joannes Damafccnus, a name which fome authors have er-
roneoufly given to the elder Serapion, indead if the fubjedl
of the prefent article ; and fome to Mefue ; to the latter of
whom Freind has (hewn that it could not belong. See
Freind and Sprengel, as above quoted.

SERAPIONIS Partus et Promontorium, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a port and promontory of Ethiopia, between Eflina
emporium and Tonice emporium, according to Ptolemy.

SERAPIS, in Mythology, an Egyptian deity, who was
worlhipped under various names and attributes, as the tute-
lary god of Egypt in general, and as the patron of feveral
of their principal cities.

Tacitus informs us, that he was worfliipped as a kind of
univerfal deity that reprefented Efculapius, Ofiris, Jupiter,
and Pluto ; and he was fometimes taken for Jupiter Am-
mon, the Sun, and Neptune ; and the honours that were
rendered to him at Alexandria were more folemn and extra-
ordinary than thofe of any other place.

Learned writers have differed in opinion as to the time of
the introduftion of this deity into Egypt : fome have fup-
pofed that he was known and worfhipped in this country
long before the time of the Firft Ptolemy, and that he was
the fame with their Apis ; Serapis being no other than Apis
IV Soji', i. e. Apis in his cojffin. Accordingly, they fay, that
while the facred bull, which the Egyptians worlhipped for
their great god, was alive, he was called Apis ; and that
when he was dead and buried in his coffin, he was called
Serapis, that is, Apis in foro, and thus they derive his name
by corruption from foroapis : and fome have even imagined
that the patriarch Jofeph was worfhipped under this title ;
but to this etymology it has been objefted, that as the
Ptolemies firft bi-ought the Greek language into Egypt, if
Serapis had been an ancient god worfhipped in that country
before the Ptolemies reigned there, his name could not have
had a Greek etymology.

According to the learned Mr. Bryant, far fignilied any
thing noble ; and Ofiris, the great hufbandman, who had
been expofed in an ark, was ftyled far-apis, which fignifies
illuflris genitor, the great father of mankind. But, he ob-
ferves, that there was likewife the term for, from whence
came the C7050; of the Greeks, which fignified a bier or coffin,
and alfo a place of interment. Hence the temple where the
dead Apis was depofued, had the name of Sor-apis, rendered
inaccurately farapis.

Plutarch,

SERAPIS.

Plutarch, who did not know this diftiiiftion, fancied that
fome people in Egypt would not allow forapis to have been
a pod : the dilpute was about the found of a word : no
Egyptian could deny the divinity of the god Serapis, but
Sor-apls had another meaninir ; and tliis was the term in de-
bate. Upon the whole he concludes, that the daemon, or
deitied man, was Sar-apis, and that for-apis was the tomb
of Apis. Analyfis ot Ancient Mythology, vol. ii. p. 428.

Others have maintained, tliat Serapis was not originally
an Egyptian deity, anciently worlhipped in that country,
but an adventitious god brought thither from abroad. The
ancient place of his llation, according to Polybius, was on
the coalt of the Propontis, on the Thracian fide, over-
againft Hieras ; and there Jafon, when he went on the Ar-
gonautic expedition, facrificed to him. Thence his image
was brought to Sinope in Pontus ; and from Sinope, Pto-
lemy, the lirllof that name, in obedience, as it is faid, to a
fupernatural direClion, brought it to Alexandria, and fet it
up in one of the fuburbs of that city, called Rhacotls, where
it was worlhipped by the name of Serapis: and this new
god had in that place, fooii after, a very famous temple
erected to him, called the Serapeiim. This temple, fays
Ammianus Marcellinus, did, in tiie magnificence and orna-
ments of its buildings, exceed all other edifices in the world,
next to that of the Capitol at Rome. Hence Serapis be-
came the god of the court, and led the Egyptians almoft to
forget their ancient gods. The provinces vied with each
other in building temples to him, and burning incenfe on his
altars. The molt ancient temple, according to Paufanias,
was that at Memphis.

And this, fay the advocates of this opinion, was the firtl
time that this deity was either worlhipped or known in

Egypt-
Ptolemy found great difficulty in obtaining this image ;
but the inhabitants of Sinope, being opprell'ed with a
grievous famine, were relieved by Ptolemy with a fleet of
corn, and in return they confentcd to part with the image
of their god.

The ftatue of Serapis, according to Macrobius, was of a
human form, with a balket or bulhel on his head, refembling
plenty, and referring, as fome fay, to the hifto'y of Jofeph's
Inpplying the Egyptians with corn ; or, according to
others, to the relief of Sinope by Ptolemy : his right hand
leaned on the head of a ferpent, whofe body was wound
round a figure with three heads, of a dog, a lion, and a
wolf; in his left he iield a meafure of a cubit length, as it
were to take the height of the waters of the Nile.

Thofe who maintain that Serapis was a foreign god, un-
known to the Egyptians before the time of the Ptolemies,
argue, that Herodotus, who dilutes in his account of the
Egyptian gods, makes no mention of Serapis ; which he
probably would have done, if he had been one of the great
gods of that people. Moreover, the Ifiac table, upon
which fo many Egyptian deities appear, prefents us with
nothing that refen.bles Serapis. Befides, Tacitus relates,
that Serapis appeared in a dream to Ptolemy, under the
figure of an cxquifitely beautiful young man, and ordered
him to fend two of his molt faithful Iriends to Sinope, a
city of Pontus, where he was worlhipped, and to bring his
ftatue from thence. Ptolemy, having communicated this
vifion, deputed a felefl embafly to Sinope, and from thence
the llatue of that god was brought. Hence it is concluded
that he was unknown in Egypt before this event.

On tiie other hand, thofe who contend that Serapis was
one of the great gods of Egypt, where he was worlhipped
before the time of the Ptolemies, allege, that before the tef-
timony of Tacitus can be admitted, it muft be proved

that Serapis was the deity aftually worlhipped at Sinope,
whereiis, they fay, that the god to whom that city paid
adoration was Pluto ; and that the name Serapis was not
given to him till his Itatue was brought into Egypt. Plu-
tarch teftifies, that he had not that name when he came into
Egypt ; but upon his arrival at Alexandria, he took the
name which the Egyptians gave to Pluto, which was Se-
rapis. When Paufanias relates, that the Alexandrians re-
ceived from Ptolemy the worfliip of Serapis, he fays, at the
fame time, that there was already at Alexandria a very
magnificent temple of that god ; and another, not fo grand,
but of great antiquity, in the city of Memphis. Tacitus
himfelf, when he lays that Ptolemy, after Serapis was
brought into Egypt, built a ftately temple to him in the
place named Rhacotis, afierts alfo, that there was another
fmailer one, confecrated to the fame god, and to Ifis ; which
proves, not that Serapis was not worlhipped in Egypt till
the time of the embalTy to Sinope, but only that the vvor-
fhip of that god, perhaps neglected for a long time, was re-
eltablifhed there with folemnity. Tlie filence of Hero-
dotus, and the omillion in the Ifiac table, may be accounted
for by the following confiderations. Though it is true
that Herodotus fet apart his fecond book for the hillory of
the Egyptian religion, yet we cannot be fuie that he has
omitted none of their gods. Befides, having fpoken fully
of Ofiris, who was perhaps the fame with Serapis, he might
think it needlefs to fay anv thing particularly of the latter.
The fame obferva ion is applicable to the Ifiac tabl.'. Al-
though a great number of the Egyptian gods may be found
there, yet it cannot be affirmed that they are all there, and
much lefs that they can all be dlllinguilhed by their parti-
cular fvmbol?;. The proof drawn from the diverfity of re-
prefentations is yet lefs conclufive. The Egyptians varied
exceedingly with refpeft to the figures of their gods, and
the fymbols annexed to them. Tlie figures frequently bore
a valt number of attributes, which could not agree to a
fing'e divinity. Thefe are what have been called the Pan-
theon figures, which reprefented feveral deities ; as any one
may be convinced by viewing fome of thofe of Ifis, of
Harpocrates, and others. From thefe and fome other con-
fiderations, many learned men have inferred that Serapis
was an Egyptian god, known and worlhipped by that
people long before the time of the Ptolemies ; and that he
was the fame with Pluto; and though the tellimonies of
Tacitus and Plutarch, above cited, were lefs conclufive
than they are, yet one of the ilneft llatucs of that god, at
whofe feet we fee the three-headed Cerberus, would leave
no room to doubt. See ?. print of this figure in Moiit-
faucon's Antiquity, tom. ii. p. 185. Antiquarians have
furnilhed us with feveral other figures, always known to be
thofe of Serapis by the caiatluis, or a kind of bonnet which
he wore upon his head. Sometimes he is joined with Ifis,
and reprefented like a young man, and then he is taken for
Ofiris ov the Sun : frequently like a bearded old man, very
much refembling Jupiter, whofe name he alfo bore ; at lealt,
from the time that the Greeks became mailers of Egypt,
Varro fays, that there was a law which forbade faying,
under pain of death, that Serapis had been a mortal man.

We (hall here add, that Ofiris was varioufly reprefented,
fometimcs by a fceptre and eye, to exprcfs his power and
providence ; at other times, by the image of a hawk, be-
caufe of its fharp fight, fwiftnefs, and other qualities ; and
in later times, in a human form, in a pollure not very decent,
fignifying his generative and nutrilive faculty ; but the
greatelk adoration was paid to his living image, the bull.

The image of Ifis was ufually in the form of a woman,
with cow's horns on her head, reprefenting the appearance

of

S E R

of the moon in her increafe and decreafe, and holding the fif-
trum (a ki::d of cymbal) in lier right hand, and a pitcher in her
left ; the former fignifying the perpetual motion there is in
nature, and the other the fecundity of the Nile. But fome-
times fhe.was reprefented as Cybele, havmg her body full of
brealls, to exprefi her nourilhing of all things.

It is obferved, that when Serapis was introduced into
Egypt, at the period above-mentioned, as writers have in-
ferred from the filence of Herodotus, and of other authors
who wrote before the times of the Ptolemies, he brought in
with him among the Egyptians, a new way of worfhip ; for
till the time of the Ptolemies, the Egyptians never offered
any bloody lacrihces to their gods, but wordiipped them
merely with their prayers and frankiacenfe ; but the tyranny
of thefe princes having forced upon them the worfliip of two
foreign gods, viz. Saturn and Serapis, they in this worlhip
firll introduced the ufe of bloody facriikes among that peo-
ple. And fo averfe were the Egyptians to this mode of
worfliip, tiiat they would never fufFer any temple to be
built to either of theie gods within any of the walls of their
cities, but they were always creded m their fuburbs : and
they fcem to be only Egyptians of the Greek original who
conformed to tiiis praftice, and not thofe of the old race.
See Exod. viii. 26, 27. Prid. Conn. vol. iii. p. 15, &c.

The famous temple of Serapis at Alexandria was deltroy-
ed by order of Theodofius ; and the celebrated ilatue of this
deity was broken m pieces, and its limbs carried firft in
triumph by the Chrillians tlnough the city, and then thrown
into a tierce hre, kindled for that purpole in the amphitheatre.
As tiie Egyptians afcribed the overflowing of the Nile, to
which was owing tiie fertility of that country, to the be-
nign influence of their god Serapis, they concluded, that,
now he was deltroyed, the river would no longer overflow,
and that a general famine would enfuc ; but when they ob-
ferved, on the contrary, that the Nile fwelled to a greater
height than had been known in the memory of man, and
thereby produced an imnienfe plenty of all kinds of provi-
fions, many of the pagans, renouncing the worfliip of idols,
adored the God of the Chrillians. Ancient Univ. Hid.
vol. vi. p. 417.

The figure of Serapis is found on many ancient medals.

SERAPIU, in Ancient Geography, a place of Egypt,
beyond the Nile, between Hero and Clifmo, according to
the Itinerary of Antoinne.

SERAQUINO, in Geography, an ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago; Smiles N.E. of Scopelo.

SERARIUS, Nicholas, in Bisgraphy, a learned Je-
fuit, was born at Rambervilhers, in Lorraine, in ifCC.
He Itudied at Cologne, where he entered into the fociety of
the Jefuits, and afterwards was for twenty-four years a pro-
fefl'or of the languages of philofophy and theology at
Wurtzbnrg. He died at Mentz in 1609, having, befides
his employment in teaching, occupied himfelf in the compo-
fition of a vail number of works, which were printed col-
leaively at Ment/, in 3 vols, folio. Of thefe, the molt
elleemed were " Commentaries on feveral Books of Scrip-
ture:" "Prolegomena on the Holy Scriptures :" " Tri-
lia;refium, feu de celeberrimis tribus, apud Judxos, Pha-
rifseorum, Sadducaeorum, et Edenorum Sedtis." This laft
work was afterivards printed at Delft, with the addition of
the treatifes of Drufius and Scaliger on the fame fubjeft.
.■■ierarius was a ilrenuous defender of the church of Rome
againit the reformers, and wrote feveral works againlt Lu-
ther and his followers. Cardinal Baronius gives him the
litle " of the luminary of the Germanic church." Dupin
)ays, that the Prolegomena of Serarius have a great deal of
rrudition, but that he liandlcs his queltions in too fcholaftic

S E R

a manner, and mixes up too much controverfy in them : lit
thus fums up the literary charadler of this author : " Sera-
rius," fays he, " was very learned, and well verfed in the
languages, and in topics relating to the Holy Scriptures :
he is not equally exa£t in ecclcfiallical hiltory, nor equally
powerfiil in controverfy. He wrote with cafe, but without
politenels. In treating on a fubject, he often defcends to
impertinent and tedious trifling, and fometimes wanders from
the point to attack the Proteltant^;, and difcufs controverfial
queftione."

SERASAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
llan, in Bahar ; 18 miles W. of Bahar.

SERASKER, a Turkifli word, compofed of fer, which
in Perfian fignifies heaJ, and ajker, i. e. Jo/Jiers. Tiii:". is a
military degree, that admits of no fuperior, fomewhat like
generalifBmo, and is a title given to thofe who command on
the frontiers, or are detached with a confiderable body of
troops.

SERASPARE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the Lefier Armenia, and in the prefefture of Rhanena,
according to Ptolemy.

SERASS, in Ornilhology, a bird of the fame genus with
the co'.um, which comes yearly to Surat in the Eail Indies,
from mount Caucafus, and diilinguifhed by a plication of the
afperia arteria ; which is defigned to anfwer fimilar purpofes
with that of the colum.

SERAT, Sered, or Sfered, in Geography, a town of
Hungary, on tlie river Waag ; 27 miles E. of Prelburg.

SERATZ, a town of Sclavonia; 28 miles N.W. of
Pofzega.

SERA VAN, in Ornilhology, the name given by Bufifon
to the LoxiA yljlrild, which fee.

SERAUCOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of thoAifne; 6 miles S. of St. Quintcn.

SERAVI, a town of Egypt, on the E. branch of the
Nile ; 21 miles N. of Cairo.

SERAUSTEH, a town of Candahar ; 50 miles S.W.
of Cabul.

SERAY, a town of Hindooilan, in Bahar; 12 miles
N. of Chuprah. N. lat. 25° 18'. E. long. 84° 53'.—
Alfo, a town of Hindooilan, in Boggilcund ; 20 miles \V.
of Rewah.

SERAYA, a town of Hindooilan, on the right bank
of the Jumnah ; 42 miles S.E. of Agra.— Alfo, a town of
Hindooilan, in Bahar; 20 miles S. of Bettiah. N. lat.
26° 28'. E. long. 84° 53'.

SERBADJE, a town of Egypt, on the E. bank of the
Nile ; 20 miles N. of Cairo.

SERBAJEE, in the Enjlern Military Orders, is a cap-
tain in the horfe in the fervice of the grand feignior.

SERBAR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Mekran ; 50 miles N.N.W. of Kidge.

SERBATIS, YlssER, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Africa, in the eallern part of Mauritania Csefarienfis, which
difcharged itfelf into the Mediterranean, to the E. of Ruf-
guniae colonia. Ptolemy places its mouth between Modunga
and Cifla.

SERBI, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, who dwelled
with the Orinxi and Vali, between the Ceraunian mountains

and the river Rha, according to Ptolemy Alfo, a people

called likewife Scythians, who inhabited a territory towards
Dalmatia.

SERBINUM, a town of Lower Pannonia, along the
Danube.

SERBONIS Lacus, or Serbonite late, a lake which
was fituated between Egypt and Palelline, near mount Caf-

fius;

S E R

S E R

{ius ; and which by different authors has been afligned to
Ejjypt, Syria, Paleftine, or Judea.

Pliny fays that it was 150 miles long. Strabo affigns to
:t 200 ftadiaof lenorth, and 50 of breadth. It had commu-
nicated with the Mediterranean by an opening which was
'died up in the time of Strabo. The fable fays that Ty-
.^hoalay at the bottom of this lake, and the Egyptians
called its opening the breathing-hole of Typhon.

SERBORA. See Scherbro.

SERBORI Lake. See Dead 5<-<7.

SERBURA, the name of a dog, afligned by the my-
thological legends of the Hindoos, as an attendant on
Yama, the rec/ent of their infernal regions. The name means
varied, or fpotted, and reminds us of the three-headed Cer-
berus of vvellern fable. It might as well be written Cerbura;
and when we add that another of his names is Triliras, or
three-headed, and that he is fo reprefented, we can no longer
doubt of their identity, and of the fable of one nation being
borrowed from the other, or both from a common fource.
See Trisiras, and Yama.

SERCELLI, in Geography. See Shershell.

SERCHIO, a river which rifes in the duchy of Modcna,
and after traverfing the if ate of Lucca, runs into the Medi-
terranean, 4 miles N.N. W. of Pifa.

SERD, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adirbeit-
2an ; ij miles N. of Tabris.

SERD AN, a town of Perfia, on the Kerman ; 83 miles
S.S.W. of Km.

SERDAO, O, town of Portugal, in the province of
Alentejo ; 30 miles W.N. W. of Ourique.

SERDAPOL, a town of Hungary ; 2 miles S. of
Serat.

SERDOB, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Saratov, on the Donetz, near its fource ; 72 miles N.W.
of Saratov. N. lat. 52° 30'. E. long. 54° 44'.

SERDOBOL, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Viborg, on the lake Ladoga; 60 miles N N.E. of Viborg.
N. lat. 61"= 45'. E. long. 30° 14'.

SERDZE Kamen, a cape on the N.E. coall of Ruflia,
in the Frozen fca, fo called from its fuppofed refemblance to
a heart. N. lat. 67° 3'. E. long. 170° 25'.

SERE, in Falconry, the yellow between the beak and eyes
of a hawk.

Sere, in Geography, a river of Spain, which runs into
the fea, 6 miles S. of Penifcola.

SEREA, a town of Abyflinia, near lake Dembea ; 90
miles E. N.E. 'of Mine.

SEREBRIANKA, a gulf of Ruflia, on the W. coaft
cf NovaZembla. N lat. 75° 25', E. long. 52'' 14'.

SERECH, a town of Pcrlia, in the province of Segef-
tan, or Seillan ; 84 miles S.S.W. of Kin.

SERED, Sert, or Sahert, a town of Curdiftan, on the
Tigris, S. of Zok, fuppofed to be the ancient Tigrano-
certa, a city built by Tigranes, and intended by him for the
capital of Armenia, and peopled with inhabitants colkfted
from all parts of Alia. It was taken and plundered by the
Romans under LuculUis in the year 69 B.C. It is now
peopled by 5000 Curds, Syrians, and Chalda;ans, and go-
verned by a prince fubjeft to that of Zok ; 75 miles S.E.
of Diarbekir.

Sered. See Serat.

SEREEK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Mekran,
and the refidence of the chief of Jam ; it contains a large
mud fort, and 600 huts, filuated four miles from the fea,
and fix from the hills. The country between .Talk and this
place contains numerous plantations of palms, and abundance
of wheat. Jafk is tributary to the Imam of Mufcat, and
pays 2500 rupees a-year. It lies two milts from the fea,

Vol. XXXII.

and eight from the hills, and the town confifta of 250 hut»,
defended by a mud fort.

SEREGIPPE. See Sergipe.

SEREGNAN, a town of Tyrol ; 8 miles N.N.E. of
Trent.

SEREGNO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan ;
10 miles N. of Milan.

SEREIL Feathers of a Hawh, the name which anfwers to
pinions in any other fowls.

SEREJON, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Ellramadura ; 20 miles S. of Plafencia.

SERENA, La, a town of Spain, in the province of
Eltramadura ; 18 miles E.S.E. of Merida.

Serena, a river of Ctiili, which runs into the South
Pacific ocean, near Coqulmbo ; which fee.

Serena, Gutta, in Medicine, the fame as amaurofis. See
Gutta Serena.

SERENADE, an evening concert, given by a lover
under the window of his miltrefs. It generally confills of
inftrumental mufic ; fometimes, however, vocal is added.
Thefe pieces in Italy are alfo called ferenate. The mode
of ferenades, fays RouHeau, has been long difcontinued,
unlefs by the common people ; and its difcontinuance is to
be lamented. The filence of the night, which banilhes all
diltraftion, gives mufic additional charms, and renders it
more delicious. In the fummer of 1770, this was not the
cafe at Venice, fix years after Roufleau's Diftionary wa»
written ; as we find in our journal, during the month of
Augull of that year, the following memoranda. " The
people here (at Venice) during fummer, feem to begin to
live only at midnight. Then the canals are crowded with
gondolas, and St. Mark's fquare with company ; the banks
too of the canals are all peopled, and harmony prevails in
every part. If two of the common people walk together
arm in arm, they feem to converfe in long ; if there is com-
pany on the water, in a gondola, it is the fame ; a mere
melody, unaccompanied with a fecond part, is not to be
heard in the city : all the ballads in the ftreets are fung in
duo. Luckily for us, this night, Augull 7th, a barge,
in which there was an excellent band of mufic, confifting of
violins, flutes, horns, bafes, and a kettle-drum, with a pretty
good tenor voice, was on the great canal, and llopt very
near the houfe where we lodged ; it was a piece of gallantry,
at the expence of an inamorato in order to ferenade his
miftrefs. Shakfpeare fays of nofturnal mufic,

" Methinks it founds much fweeter than by day.
Silence beftows the virtue on it — I think
The nightingale, if file fhould fiiig by day.
When every goofe is cackling, would be thought
No better a mufician than the wren."

Whether the time, place, and manner of performing this
mufic, gave it adventitious and collateral charms, we will
not pretend to fay ; but all we know is, that the fympho-
nies fecmcd to us to be admirable, full of fancy, full of
fire ; the paflages well contralled ; fometimes the graceful,
fometimes the pathetic prevailed ; and fometimes, however
ftrange it may be thought, even noife and fury had their efleft.

SERENE, Sehenus, a quality or title of honour given
to certain princes, and chief magiitrates of republics.

The king of England is ftyled, the mofi fcrene ; the fame
term is alfo applied to the doge of Venice. The pope
and the facred college, writing to tlie emperor, to kings,
or the doge, give them no other title but that of moji
fereue. Indeed the Venetians fet the title of ferenity above
that of highncfs.

In 1646, Wicquefort obferves, there was a clafhing be.

tween the courts of France and Vienna, becaufe the emperor

M m refufed

S E R

refufed the king of France any other title than that of
ferenc. Bilhops alfo were anciently addreli'ed under the title

of fercne.

The kings of France, of the firft and fecond race, fpeak-
mg of themfelves, ufe no other quality but notre feremti.

The emperor gives no other title to the king of England,
nor even to any other king, excepting the king of France.

The king of Poland, and other kings, give it to the eleftors.
The emperor, writing to the eleftors, or other princes of the
empire, only ufes the term dileUion ; but in treating with
them he ufes eledoi-al ferenity to the eledlors, and ducal ferenify
to the other princes.

Serene, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Red fea.
N. lat. 19° 30'. E. long. 39° 50'.

SERENT, a town of France, in the department of the
Morbihan ; 13 miles N.E. of Vannes.

SERENUS, Sammonicus, Quintus, in Biography, a
Roman phyfician in the reigns of Severus and Caracalla,
who was aflaflinated at a banquet by the order of the lall
mentioned emperor. He left an immenfe library, faid to
contain twenty thoufand volumes, to his fon, who was pre-
ceptor to the younger Gordian, to whom he prefented this
valuable bequeil. Serenus was the author of feveral works
on hiltory and the produfts of nature ; and alfo of a medical
work in verfe, which has palled through a multitude of
editions, under the title of " Carmen de Medicina." He
was fuperftitious in the choice of his remedies, and efpecially
in that which he propofed for the Semitsriian fiver, which
confided in wearing about the neck, fufpended by a linen
thread, a piece of paper, on which was written the viord
Abracadabra in the form of a triangle. Eloy Dift. Hitt.
de la Med.

SERENZ, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 9 miles
W. of Tokay.

SERERES, a people of Africa, in the vicinity of Cape
Verd, difperfed into feveral fmall republics, which unite
into one body againft a common enemy. Their laws are
merely thofe of nature. They wear no clothing, and they
have little or no idea of a Supreme Being or future life :
neverthelefs they feem to be inoffenfive, unacquainted with
ftrong liquors, induftrious, and hofpitable to (Irangers.

SERES, in Ancient Geography, a name given to thofe
people who were fituated to the eatl of India, and who,
by the inveftigations and difcoveries of the moderns, are fup-
pofed to have inhabited Serica. They were renowned for
their juftice, according to Mela, and for their longevity of
200 years, according to Strabo. They had an infedl which
produced filk, fays Paufanias. (See Serica.) People of
the fame name were alfo eftablifhed in the northern part of
Taprobana.

SERET, in Geography. See Siret.

SERETIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Dalma-
tia. Dion CafTius reports, that Tiberius was obliged to raife
the fiege of this town, but that it was afterwards taken by
the Romans.

SERETKINA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of [rkutfli, on the Angara ; 24 miles E.S.E.
of Balaganfl<oi.

SERGA, a town of Ruffia, on the Volga ; 40 miles S. of
Aftracan.

SERGAG, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Niznei Novgorod ; 48 miles S. of Niznei Novgorod. N.
lat. ,-6° 51'. E. long. 45= 20'.

SERGE, in Comm^ra-, a woollen quilted (luff, manufac-
tured on a loom with four treddles, after the manner of ra-
teens, and other fluffs that have the whale.

The goodnefs of fergcs is known by the quilting, as that
of cloths by the fpinning.

S E R

Of ferges there are yarious kinds, denominated cither from
the different qualities of them, or from the places where they
are wrought. The molt confiderablc is the London ferge,
now highly valued abroad, particularly in France, where a
manufafture has been carried on with good fuccefs, under
the title oi J'erge fagon de Londres.

Serge, ManufaSure of London. For wool, the longeft
is chofen for the warp, and the (horteft for the woof. Be-
fore either kind is ufed, it is firft fcoured, by putting it in
a copper of liquor, fomewhat more than lukewarm, com-
pofed of three parts of fair water and one of unne. After
havin"- flaid long enough therein for the liquor to diflolve,
and take off the greafe, &c. it is (lirred brilkly about with
a wooden peel ; taken out of the liquor, drained, and wafhed
in a running water, dried in the (hade, beaten with fticks on
a wooden rack, to drive out the coarfer dirt and filth, and
then picked clean with the hands. Thus far prepared, it is
grcafed with oil of olives, and the longeft part, dcftinedfor
the warp, is combed with large combs, heated in a little
furnace for the purpofe. To clear off the oil again, the
wool is put in ?. liquor compofcd of hot water, with foap
melted in it : whence being taken out, wrung, and dried,
it is fpun on the wheel.

As to the (hortcr wool, intended for the woof, it is only
carded on the knee with fmall cards, and then fpun on the
wheel, without being fcoured of its oil. Note, the thread
for the warp is always to be fpun much finer, and better
twiiled than that of the woof.

The wool both for the warp and the woof being fpun, and
the thread divided into fkains, that of the woof is put
on fpools (unlefs it have been fpun upon them) fit for the
cavity or eye of the fhuttle ; and that for the warp is wound
on a kind of wooden bobbins to fit it for warping. When
warped it is ftiffened with a kind of fize, of which that made
of the fhreds of parchment is held the belt ; juid when dry
is put on the loom.

AVhen mounted on the loom, the workman raifmg and
falling the threads (which are pafied through a reed), by
means of four treddles placed underneath the loom, which
he makes to aft tranfverfely, equally and alternately, one
after another, with his feet, in proportion as the threads are
raifed and lowered, throws the fhuttle acrofs from one fide
to the other ; and each time that the fhuttle is thrown, and
the thread of the woof is crofled between thofe of the warp,
ftrikes it with the frame to which the reed is faftened,
through whofe teeth the threads of the warp pafs ; and this
ftroke he repeats twice or thrice, or even more, till he
judges the croffing of the ferge fufBciently clofe : thus he
proceeds till the warp is all filled with woof.

The ferge now taken off the loom is carried to the fuller,
who fulls, or fcours it in the trough of his mill, with a kind
of fat earth, called fullers-earth, firft purged of all ftones
and filth. After three or four hours fcouring, the fullers-
earth is wafhed out in fair water, brought by little and little
into the trough, out of which it is taken when all the earth
is cleared ; then, with a kind of iron pincers, or plyers, they
pull off all the knots, ends, ftraws, &c. ftickingout oh the
furface on either fide ; and then returning it to the fulling
trough, where it is worked with water fomewhat more
than lukewarm, with foap diffolved therein for near two
hours : it is then wafhed out till fuch time as the water be-
comes quite clear, and there be no figns of foap left ; then
it is taken out of the trough, the knots, &c. again pulled
off, and then put on the tenter to dry, taking care as faft as
it dries to ftretch it out both in length and breadth till it be
brought to its juft dimenfions. When well dried, it is taken
off the tenter, and dyed, fhorn, and preffed.

SERGEANT. See Serjeant.

10 SERGEN-

S E R

S E R

SERGENTIUM, m Ancient Geography, a town fituated
in the interior of Sicily. Ptolemy.

SE RGIEV, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobollk, on the Enifei ; 72 miles N. of Enifeiflc.

SERGIEVSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Upha ; 1 80 miles W. of Upha. N. lat. 54°. E. long. 54"' 44'.

SERGIEVSKAIA Nova, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the
{rovernment of Upha, on the Samara ; 56 miles N.W. of
Orenburg.

SERGIEVSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the province of
Uftiug, on the Vim ; 52 miles N.E. of Yarenfl<. — Alfo, a
town of Ruffia, in the province of Ekaterinburg ; 48 miles
S.W. of Ekaterinburg.

SERGILUS, in Botany, a genus formed by Gsertner,
T. 2. 409. t. 174. f. 6, of the Linnsean Calen fcoparia, Chry-
focoma n. 2, Browne Jam. 316. t. 34. f. 4, by the following
charafter.

Calyx fomewhat turbinate, imbricated with clofe-prefled,
unequal, (lightly membranous fcales. Flowers all perfeft
and fertile, live-cleft. Receptacle naked. Down capillary,
tufted at the fummit.

The above author remarks that this plant " differs in its
receptacle, as well zi feed-doivn, from Calea, but from Chry-
focoma in x\\e feed-doiun only, fo that it is neareft akin to the
latter. The leaves feem to be fometimes oppofite, but are
generally very remote, as well as extremely minute." The
only fpecies known is

I. S./coparius. Native of the coldeft mountains of Ja-
maica. Browne fays it has the habit of our European
broom, being the only tree of the fame appearance, obferved
by him in that country. Swartz has not noticed this plant.
See Calea and Chrysocoma.

SERGINES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diilritt of Sens ; 9 miles N. of Sens. The place contains
1484, and the canton 10,094 inhabitants, on a territory of
260 kiliometres, in 18 communes.

SERGIPE del Conde, a river of Brazil, which runs
into the bay of All Saints.

Sergipe, or Sergippe, a captaincy or province of Brazil,
which chiefly produces cattle, grain, and tobacco, for
which lalt Brazil is particularly celebrated Alfo, the ca-
pital of the diltriil, fituated near the coall of the Atlantic,
on a river of the fame name, which runs into the Atlantic,
S. lat. 1 2°. The town is diftant 140 miles from St. Salvador.
S. lat. 11° 42'. W. long. 38° 36.

SERGIUS I., pope, in Biography, was defcended from a
family at Antioch, but was himfelf born, and brought up
at Palermo. He came to Rome in the time of pope Adeo-
datus, and entering among the clergy of that capital, was
ordained pricll by Leo II. On the death of Conon, in the
year 687, there was a great fchifm refpefting his fucceflor,
one party efpoufing the caufe of Theodore the archpriell,
and the other that of Pafchal the archdeacon. The principal
perfons of Rome, not being able to bring them to an agree-
ment, concurred in the choice of Sergius, and put him in
pofleffinn by force. Theodore inftantly refigned his claim,
but Pafchal did not give up his pretenfions for a confiderable
time. He at length, however, fubmitted. The fecond
year of the pontificate of Sergius was rendered memorable
by the arrival at Rome of Ceadwalla, king of the Wcft-
Saxons, who came to receive baptifm from his hand?, and
who died fbon after he had fubmitted to that rite. In 691 the
emperor Juftinian II. adembled a council at Conflantinople,
in which a number of canons were pafTed. Five of thefe
were oppofcd by the pope, among which was one condemn-
ing a former canon of the church, that forbad ccclefiaftical
perfons to have any conneftion with their wives after ordina-

tion. Sergius not only rejefted thefe canons, but on their
account invalidated all tlie proceedings of this council, which
fo much exafperated the emperor, that he fent his fword-
bearer with an order to apprehend the pope, and bring
him to Conftantinople. The foldiery in Italy, however,
ftanding in fo much awe of his holinefs, not only refufed to
fuffer violence to be offered to him, but intimidated the
fword-bearer, that he dared not execute his commiffion, and
was glad to quit Rome in fafety. In 696 Sergius confe-
crated Willibrod bifhop of the Frifians, recommended to him
by Pepin the elder, as a perfon every way adapted to undertake
the converfion of that heathen people. Sergius died in the
year 701, in the 14th year of his pontificate. He had the
reputation of much learning and virtue, and is faid to have
repaired and enriched feveral churches, which added, in theft
times, very much to his celebrity.

Sergius II., pope, a Roman, was elefted in 844, on
the death of Gregory IV. He had a competitor in John,
deacon of the Roman church, who took pofleffion of the
Lateran, but was expelled by the nobility. Sergius was con-
fecrated immediately after his eleftion, without waiting for
the imperial confirmation. Lothaire, the emperor, fo mucli
refented this feeming hoftility, that he fent into Italy his
fon Lewis, whom he had declared king of Lombardy, with
a powerful army, attended by his uncle Drogo, archbifhop
of Metz. This prince, after cruelly ravaging the ecclefi-
aftical ftate, marched to Rome, and entered the city amidft
the acclamations of the people. He proceeded to the
Vatican church, in great folemnity, with the pope, and
was afterwards crowned by the latter as king of Italy.
Sergius now gladly took the accuflomed oath of allegiance
to the emperor, and received a confirmation of his eleftion.
This pontificate, fhort as it was, is marked by the predatory
incurfions of the Saracens, who failing up the Tiber, burnt
the fuburbs of Rome, and pillaged the churches of St.
Peter and St. Paul without the walls. Sergius died in 847.
The famous fcala-fanna, or holy flair-cafe at Rome, was
erefted during the pontificate of Sergius II.

Sergius III., pope, a prefbyter of the church, though
elefted by a party, in 898, after the death of Theodore II.,
was not able to enter upon the duties of his office. A
more powerful party fupported John IX., and Sergius was
glad to feek his fafety by flight from the city. He lay in
concealment for feven years, during which he contrived to
engage in his interelt his relation Adelbert, marquis of
Tufcany, by whofe affiflancc he was enabled to expel
Chriltopher, who had forcibly intruded into the pontifical
feat, and placed himfelf there in the year 904. Sergius,
who is termed by Baronius, and apparently with good rea-
fon, " one of the mofl wicked of men," had a fcandalous
conneftion with the infamous Marozia, who with her mother
Theodora, and her filler of the fame name, at that time
almoft entirely governed Rome, and difpofed of the holy-
fee. Marozia, who had already been miflrels of the mar-
quis Adelbert, bore a fon to the pope, who was afterwards
raifed to the papal throne under the name of John XL,
fuch is the purity of the holy bifhops of the Roman church.
Sergius received a folemn embafiy from Leo, emperor of
the Eail, on account of the refufal of the patriarch Nicholas
to confirm the fourth marriage of Leo, as forbidden by the
Greek church. Sergius, as there was no limitation to the
number of fucceffive marriages in the Roman church, not
only approved the marriage of Leo, but fent legates to
Conftantinople to confirm it. The patriarch, however,
could not be prevailed upon to admit its legality. Sergius
died in 911. He rebuilt the Lateran church.

Skrgius IV., pope, a native of Rome, whofe family

name is faid to have been Peter Buccaporci, or in Englifli,

M m 2 Hog'*-

S E R

Hog's-fnout, was bifliop of Albano at the time of his elec-
tion to the papal fee in 1009, after the death of John XVIII.
Little is recorded of the traiifaftions of this pontiff : he fent
a legate into France to confecrate a monailery in the diocefe
of Tours, which the archbifhop of that fee regarded as an
encroachment upon his junfdidion : he alfo determined a
difpnte between the archbilhop of Hamburgh and the
bilhop of Verden. He was greatly refpedled for the mild-
nefs of his difpofition, and his liberality to the poor. He
died in 1012.

Sergius I., patriarch of Conftantinople, is well known in
eccleliallical hiltory for the fuoport which he gave to the doc-
trine of the Monothehtes. He was a Syrian by birth, and
born of parents who adhered to the herefy, as it was deno-
minated, of the Monophyfifs. He was railed to the pa-
triarchal dignity in the year 610. The emperor Heraclius,
being defirous of re-uniting the prrfecuted Nellorians to the
Greek church, and having held conferences with perfons of
influence in that (eft, was allured by them, that there
would be no difBculty in terminating the controverly, pro-
vided the Greeks would afTent to the following propofition,
" that in Jefus Chritt there was, after the union of the two
natures, but one will, and one operation." Sergius thought
this proportion might be adopted without the fmalleft injury
to the truth; snd without derogating from the authority of the
council of Clialcedon, which had condemned the doftrine
of a fingle nature : in confequence of this decifion, the
emperor ifiued an edift in the year 630 in favour of the
doftrine of thejlngle-zvi/l. This hope of concord was foon
frultrated, by the violent oppofition of Sophronius, a monk,
and patriarch of the fee of Jerufalem, who alf > endeavoured
to gain pope Honorius to his party, but Sergius was before-
hand with him, and had pcrfuaded his holinefs to approve
the doftnne in quellion. In order to quiet the c»mmotions
in the church, Heraclius, in 6^9 ilfued an cdift compofed
by Sergius, which was entitled " Edhefis," or an expofition
of the faith in which all controverfies on the quellion
" whether in Chrift there were one or two operations,"
were prohibited, though the edift plainly inculcated the
doftrine of one will. Sergius died in the fame year, and
his memory was afterwards anathematized in feveral
councils.

SERGODE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bednore ; 8 miles S.W. of Sacrapatam.

SERGOM, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; 25
miles N. of Bafi'een.

SERGOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bednore; 25
miles W. of Sacrapatam.

SERJAN. See Sirgian and Kermax.
SERIANA, in Botany, could hardly be fuppofed to
have been defigned to commemorate a perfon of the name of
Sergeant ; yet fuch was the intention of Phimier. " The
Rev. father Philip Sergeant, a native of Calais, of the order
of Minims, in Provence, an able botanilt, but more able
phyiician, praftifed medicine at Rome for 25 years, with fo
much fuccefs, as to gain the high elleem of all ranks of
people. His departure from that city caufed the decpell
regret, but he was welcomed at Paris with no lefs exulta-
tion." Plumier, from whom we take this account, named
the genus Serjania ; but Liiinsus, who united it to Paul-
lima, by accident, as it feems, altered the word, as he
adopted it for a fpecific name, to Senana. So it now re-
mains, the genus having been reflored by recent authors :
nor do the botanical claims of the reverend father appear
fufficiently great, to make us folicitous about the precife
mode of Ipelling the name of his plant. — Plum. Gen. 34.
t. 35. " Schumacher in Aft. Hill. Nat. Hafn. v. 3. p. 2."
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 464. (PauUinia; Lamarck lUullr.

S E R

t. 318. f. I, 2, 3.) — Clafs and order, OSandria Trigynia,
Nat. Ord. Trihilata, Lir.n. Sapindi, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of live orate, concaye,
fpreading, permanent, unequal leaves. Cor. Petals four,
obovate-oblong, twice the length of the calyx, furnidied
with claws ; two of them more dillant than the reft. Nec-
taries two ; one of four oblong fcales, inferted into the claws
of the petals ; the utiicr of four glands at the bale of the
petals. Stam. Filaments eight, fimple, (hortifh ; anthers
fmall, ovate, two-lobed. Pift. Germen fupenor, (lalked,
obovatc, with three furrows ; tlylcs three, combined at the
bafe, recurved ; iligmas fimple, obtufe. Perlc. Capfules
three, globofe, combined l.ingitudinally, eatli of one cell,
not burlling, dilated at the bafe into a hilf-ovate mem-
branous wing. S((ds folitary, ovate.

Elf. Ch. Calyx of five unequal leaves. Petals four,
Neftaries of four fcales and four glands. Capfules three,
globofe, combined, not burlling, each with a dilated wing
at the bafe. Seeds folitary.

Obf. The fruit fufficiently diftinguilhes this geiius from
Paullisia, fee that article, however Itmibr the flowers,
and habits of the plants.

1. Si.fiitujta. WiUd. n. I. " Schumacher, as above,
t. 12. f. I." (S. fcandens, triphylla et racemofa ; Plum.
Gen. 34. Ic. t. 113. t. 2. PauUinia Seriana ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 524. Jacq. Obf. fafc. 3. 11. t. 61. f. 2.) — Wings of
the capfules dilated below their infertion. Leaves ternate ;
leaflets ovato- lanceolate, fiiniated and toothed. — Native of
South America. Neither this, nor any oilier of the genua,
is known in our garden>. The Jlem is angular, furrowed
and downy, climbing by means of tendrils. Lea-on alter-
nate, llalkcd ; leaflets about two inches long, veiny, tai)er-
ing at the bafe ; roughifh to the touch, though fomewhat
(hining, above ; paler beneath. Floweri fmall, in coin-
pound downy clullers. Wing of each cipfule iicar an inch
long.

2. S. divaricala. Willd. n. 2. " Schumach. t. 12. f. 2."
(PauUinia divaricata ; Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 2. 696.) —
Leaves twice ternate ; leaflets ovate, acute, entire, lialked,
Ihining. Common footftalks without wings. — Native of
the woods of Jamaica. Sum climbing to a great height,
zigzag, with a few dillant flight prickles, angular, fmooth.
Fooljlalks two inches long, furrowed, fmooth. Leajlels
ftalked, the llalk of the middle one winged. Tendrils axil-
lary, divided at the extremity. Panicles from the fame
point, on long llalks, their branches racemofe, alternate,
fpreading. Flowers white.

3. S. raracafana. Willd. n. 3. (PauUinia caracafana ;
Jacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. i. 52. t. 99.) — Wings of the cap-
fules not dilated below their infertion. Leaves twice ter-
nate, leaflets oblong, acute at each end, dillantly toothed.
Common ftalks without wings. — Native of the Caraccas,
from whence we prefume it was fent by Dr. Maerter to the
ftoves at Vienna, where it flowers in the fummer. The nu-
mcrousjlems climb by tendrils to a great height. Leaves
fmooth ; leaflets elliptic-oblong, two or three inclics in
length. Flowers white, in compound cylindrical rliijlers,
each duller on a long llalk, accompanied by two llrong rc-
volute tendrils at thctop of the llalk.

4. S. racemofa. Willd. n. 4. «< Schumach. t. 1 2. f. 3."
— " Wings of the capfules dilated below their bale, fome-
what finuated in front. Leaves twice ternate ; leaflets ovate,
deeply ferrated. — Native of Vera Cruz. Leaves acute.
Fooljlalks fcarcely bordered. Panicle (or compound cliijler)
with two tendrils." Schumacher.

5. S./peaabi/is. Willd. n.5. " Schumach. t. 12. f. 4."
—Wings of the capfules dilated below their bafe. Leaves
twice ternate; leaflets obovatc; the terminal one abrupt.

^ Tool.

S E R

S E R

Footftalks wingecl. — Native of the Weft Indies. Commu-
nicated by fir J. Banks, from Miller's herbarium. This
has much of the habit of .S. caracafana, but the winged
footjlalks, and obtufe leaflets, diitinguifh it elTentially. We
do not find any tendrils under the Jiowers, a.^ Schumacher
defcribes them, nor are the leaflets, aa Willdeiiow fays, quite
entire.

6. S. mexkana. Willd. n. 6. (PauUinia mexicana ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 525, excluding Plumicr's and Hernandez
fynonyms. " Scliumach. t. 11. f. 3.") — Leaves twice ter-
rate ; leaflets obovate, entire, all emarginate. Footftalks
winged. Clufters aggregate. — Native of Mexico. Akin
to the laft, but the entire leaflets, and compound injlo-
refcence diftinguifti it. The clujters, each of which is fimple,
are ranged alternately, in one Xzx'g'i panicle. Willdenow fays
Schumacher's figure is taken from the fpecimen in the Lin-
nxan herbarium. With this Linnxus at one time con-
founded the true PauUinia citraflavica, to which the figure of
Hernandez better anfwers. The Linnaean fpecimen wants
fruit, and yet its habit, colour, and leading characters, are
fo near the Seriana we have juft been dcfcribing, that there
can fcarcely be a doubt of its belonging to this genus.

7. S. angujlifolia. Willd. n. 7. (S. fcandens, ennea-
phylla et racemofa ; Plum. Gen. 34. Ic. t. 113. f. i.) —
Leaves twice ternate ; leaflets linear-lanceolate, acute, en-
tire. Footftalks winged. — Native of South America.

Nothing can be lels like the laft, with which Linnsus
confounds this narrow-leaved fpccies, whole cluflers moreover
are folitary. We know it only from Plumicr's figure.

8. S. lupulina. Willd. n. 8. " Schumach. t. IZ. f. 5."
— " Wings of the capfules half-oval. Leaves twice ter-
nate, crenate, rufty beneath ; the terminal leaflets nearly
rhomboid ; the lateral ones ovate. Footftalks flightly
winged." — Native of South America. Chillers alnioft
fimple, the length of the leaves, and accompanied^ by two
tendrils. Schumacher.

9. S. lucicla. Soland. MSS. Willd. n. 9. " Scliu-
mach. as above, p. 128." — Wings of the ciplules half-
oval. Leaves twice ternate ; leaflets ovate, acute, ferrated.
Footftalks fcarcely winged. — Native of Santa Cruz. The
upper furface of the lea-ves is highly poliftied, and ftrongly
veined. Chiflers in fome meafure compound, accompanied
by two fpiral tendrils. Communicated by fir J. Banks, to
the younger Linnxus.

10. S. tritcrnata. Willd. n. 10. (S. fcandens, poly-
phylla et racemofa; Plum. Gen. 34. Ic. t. 112. Paul-
linia triternata ; Linn. Mant. 236. Jacq. Obf. fafc. 3. 11.
t. 62. f. II ? Amer. no. t. 180. f. 32 ? P. polyphylla ;
Jacq. Obf. ibid. t. 61. f. 10.) — Leaves thrice ternate;
leaflets ovate, obtufe, wavy. Footftalks winged. Clufters
aggregate. — Native of South America, or the Weft Indies.
The chiflers are not accompanied by tendrils, but form a fort
oi panicle, as in S. mexicana. See Paullinia, n. 8.

There leem to be more fpccies, ot which incomplete fpe-
cimens or defcriptions exift, but with which we are not lutli-
ciently acquainted to reduce them to order. Nor is the
genus, in every cafe, to be afcertained, for want of the
fruit, fo effential in diftinguifhing Seriana and Paullinia.

SERIANE, Skicii, or Efrich, in Ancient Gcnnraphy,
a town of Afia, in Syria, fituated in the mountains S.E. of
Chalcis, about the 35th degree of latitude. It appears by
its ruins £0 have been formerly a large town.

SERIATE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Serio ; 3 miles E.S.E. of Bergamo.

SERICA, in Ancient Geography, an oriental country, the
pofuron of which was indicated very vaguely by tlic writers ot
antiquity, but which has been, it mull be acknowledged, more
prccifely afcertained by Ptolemy. Its fituation and hiftory,

however, have been more accurately delineated by M. d'An-
ville, in an interefting memoir entitled " Recherches Geogra-
phiques et Hiltoriques fur la Serique des Anciens." M.
d'Anville refutes the opinion of thole who apprehended that
the Serica defcribed by Ptolemy correfponded to the northern
part of China ; and he adopts tiie opinion of M. de Guignes,
in his Hiftory of the Huns, that it belonged to the conquefts
of the Chinefe towards the weft. M. d'Anville adds, that
with the exception of a fmall angular territory at the ex-
tremity of the province of Chen-fi, towards the N.W., China
formed no part of Serica. In ipeaking of Scythia, on the
other fide of the Imaus, Ptolemy mention? a paffage in this
mountain, which was the ftation of merchants that traded
with the Seres. Contiguous to this ftation, according to
Ptolemy, is a country called Cafia, which M. d'Anville
fuppoies to be the fame with Cafhgar, called by the Chinefe
Kin-tfe. In proof of their identity it may be alleged that
the tables of Nafir-Uddin and Ulugh-beigh affign to Cafh-
gar 44° of latitude, and that Ptolemy makes the latitude of
Cafia 43°, differing only by one degree. Ptolemy men-
tions the river Oechardes, which M. d'Anville fuppofes to be
Yerghien. Another river near the limits of Serica, men-
tioned by Ptolemy, is that called Bautes, which, in its courfe
towards the N., is joined by the lateral branch of another
river purfuing the fame du-ettion ; and thefe circumitanccs
correfpond with thole of the prefent Etziue. The Bautes,
as M. d'Anville apprehends, lofes itfelf in certain laguna»,
at the entrance of tiie defert called by the Tartars Cobi, and
by the Chinefe Sha-ono. Duly informed concerning the
Bautes of Ptolemy, M. d'Anville was able to fettle the
pofition of Sera, the metropolis of Serica. For according
to tiie ancient geographers, this town is very near the point
where the laft branch of the Bautes feparates from it, and a
town is actually found at the ealtern branch of the Etzine,
tow.irds its fource. This town muft therefore correfpond
to the Sera of Ptolemy, and bear the name of Can-tcheou.
It IS the firft confiderable town that occurs at the entrance
of the Chinefe province of Chen-fi. This town belongs to a
particular country known to tiie Orientals under the name
of Tangut. Tangut may therefore probably be the country
anciently inhabited by the Seres, of which Sera was the
capital. Another decifive proof that Can-tcheou is the
Sera metropolis of Ptolemy, is deduced from the circum-
ftance that this town, according to the Greek geographer,
is 38'^ 35' of latitude, and that" the latitude of Can-tcheou,
according to the Jefuit aftronomers, is 39°, the difference
being only 25'. Ptolemy places the Eiledones in Serica.
But Efledum or Eiledo fignifying a chariot, and fome of
the Scythians, called by the Greeks Hamaxobii, or perfons
living in chariots, it has been inferred, that the people who
bore the name of Eliedone"-, in the Serica of Ptolemy, were
merely thole whofe habitation was in chariots, and it is alfo
added, that a part of the country of the Seres had borne the
name of Eygur, and that the nation who occupied a part of
this country 13 called by the Chinefe Kao-tchc, a word which
ilgnifics high chariots.

Serica, according to Ptolemy, is bounded to the W. by
Scythia, on the other fide of the Imaus ; to the S. by un-
known territories, and by a part of India beyond the Ganges
and the Sines ; the other boundaries are unknown. Its
principal mountaiin; are the Annibi, which encompafs the
Seres to the N. ; the Auxacii, which extend to the Seres by
their eaftern parts; the Al'mirxi in the country; the eaflern
part of the Cafiian mountains ; mount Thagurus, called alfo
Ithagurus ; the mountains Emodi and Sericus. The chief
rivers are the Oichardes or Oechardes, which rifes in the
Auxacian mountains ; and the Bautes, which fprings from
mount Caflius, The north of Serica was inhabited by An-

thropo'

S E R

thropophagi ; below thefe were the Annibi, bearing the
name of thefe mountains ; the Axacii and the Sizyges, be-
low whom were the Damnx ; the Piaddx extended them-
felves to the river Oechardes. The Garinaei and the Nab-
bana: lay more to the eaft than the Annibi. To the S. was
the country called Afmiraea, where were the mountains of the
fame name ; the IfledoneSjOrEHedones, werefituatedto theS.,
and extended themfelves to mount Caflius ; and thefe fonned
a powerful nation ; the Throani lay to the E., and below them
the Ithaguri ; the Afpacarae lay to the S. of tlie IfTedones,
and below them the Batge ; the Ottorochorrse were fituated
to the S. The principal towns were the Damnae, Piada,
Abmirasa or Almiroea, Tharrana or Throana, IfTedon, Se-
ricae, Afpacara, Drofache, Paliana, Abfagana, Thogara,
Daxata, Orofana, Ottorochorrha or Ottorocorras, Solana,
and Sera Metropolis. It appears from the article Little
BuCHARiA, to which we refer the reader, that no region but
this can correfpond to Ptolemy's Serica.

SERICH, the name of a feed ufed in the food of the
Egyptian Coptics. It is produced by an herb called
fimjtm, and is pounded and put into oil. In this they dip
their bread, which is always new, being baked as often as
they eat, in fmall flat cakes ; thefe they eat dipped in this
oil with raw onions, or elfe they break the cakes to pieces,
and put them into a fyrup of fugar, made when the canes are
green. Pococke's Egypt, p. 183.

SERICOIIA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Mazanderan ; 15 miles N.E. of Aiterabat.
SERICUM, Silk. See Silk.

Sekicum is alfo a name given by feveral chemical writers
to the flowers of zinc raifed by fubhmation in an inclined
open crucible. Thefe flowers are not reducible into zinc
again, and are of a fibrous texture, and a beautiful bright
white colour. This has made them be called alfo thi: phi/o-
fophic cotton, and others have named them the aqua/icca philo-
fophorum.

SERIDIA, in Botany, a generic name given by Juflieu to
thofe fpecies of Centaurea which are included under the fixth
fedion iStcebit) of that genus. Jud'. 173. See Centaurea.
SERJEANT, or Sergeant, a term in our LaiLt, ap-
plied to fundry offices. Serjeant at la'zv, or of the coif, is
the highell degree taken in the common law, as that of
doftor is in the civil law.

The firft mention which judge Blackflone has met with
of ferjeants, or countors, is in the flat, of Weih i. 3 Edw. I.
c. 29. But M. Paris, in his life of John II. abbot of St.
Alban's, which he wrote in 1255, 39 Hen. III. fpeaks of
advocates at the common law, or countors (quos band nar-
ratores vulgariter appeUamxts ) as of an order of men well
known ; and the antiquity of the coif appears from the fame
author's Hill, of England, A.D. 1259. Serjeants were an-
ciently called fervientes ad legem, and fervientes narratores ;
Mr. Selden adds, that they were alfo called doBores legis ;
though others are of opinion that the judges are more pro-
perly the doBores legis, and ferjeants, the bachelors of law.

Spclman obferves, that however a ferjeant may be richer
than all the doftors of the Commons, yet a doftor is fuperior
in degree tp a ferjeant, for the very name of a doftor is ma-
gifterial, but that of a ferjeant minifterial. Hence, the
doftors are feated and covered when they plead, but the fer-
jeants (land uncovered at the bar, excepting for their coif.

As thefe are fuppofed the moit learned and experienced,
there is one court appropriated for them to plead in by
themfelves, which is tlie Common Pleas, where the common
law of England is moft ftriftly obferved ; but they are not
prohibited pleading in other courts ; and all judges, who, by
euflom, mult firft be ferjeants, call them brothers.

Serjeants at law are bound by a folemn oath to do their

S E R

duty to their clients ; andby cuftom the judgea of the courts
of Weftminlter are always admitted into this venerable order,
before they are advanced to the bench ; the original of which
was probably to qualify the puifne barons of the exchequer
to become juftices of aflife, according to the exigence of
the ftatute of 14 Edw. HI. c. 16.

They are called by the king's mandate, or writ, direfted
to them, commanding them to take upon them that degree,
by a day affigned. See Barrister.

Out of thefe, fome are made the king's ferjeants to plead
for him in all caufes, efpecially in cafes of treafon ; and one
is ufually appointed, czWeA premier ferjeant. See Counsel
and Precedence.

Serjeants at Arms, are officers appointed to attend the
perfon of the king, to arreft traitors, and perfons of quality
offending, and to attend the lord high fteward when he fits
in judgment on any traitor, &c.

Thefe officers were firft inftituted by king Richard I. in
imitation of a corps of the fame name, formed by Philip Au-
guftus, king of France, when on a crufade, to guard him
againft the fubjefts of the old man of the mountain, famous
for their daring afTaffinations. Of thefe by ttatute (13 Ric.ll.
c. 6. ) there are not to be above 30 in the realm.

The duty of thefe ferjeants originally was to watch round
the king's tent in complete armour, with a mace, a bow,
arrows, and a fword, and occafionally to arreft traitors, and
other offenders, about the court, for which the mace was
deemed a fufficient authority. They were called the va-
lourous force of the king's errand, in the execution of juf-
tice ; they held their place; for life ; their number was ori-
ginally twenty-four, all perfons of approved worth, and not
under the degree of the fon of a knight ; but afterwards the
fons of gentlemen were admitted into the body. In the
reign of Edward I. the ferjeants at arms were allowed two
marks for winter, and the fame for fummer robes.; their
pay in that of Edward II. was 12^. per diem, when they
attended on horfcback, and 8(/. when they attended with-
out a horfe. Their allowance, when abfent from court, on
the king's aff^airs, was i2(/. each by the day ; and under
another head they appear charged at 26s. Sd. each for
winter, and 20s. for fummer. They were befides entitled
to certain fees from perlons arrelted, in proportion to their
rank and degree. According to the orders given by Thomas
of Lancaftcr, conftable at the fiegeof Caen, Sept. 3d. 1417,
a ferjeant at arms was to appear in the king's prefence, with
his head bare, his body armed to the feet with the arms of a
knight riding, wearing a gold chain with a medal, bearing all
the king's coats, with a peon royal, or mace of filvcr, in his
right hand, and in his left hand a truncheon. In the 7th
of Hen. VII. they were ordered to attend the army. The
number of this corps has varied exceedingly. In the reign of
Edw. IV. they were reduced to four ; in that of Edw. VI.
they were increafed to twenty-two, and in the fucceeding
reign to twenty-three ; but by king James I. retrenched to
fixteen, and afterwards to eight.

Such is the number now at court, at lool. per annum falary
each ; they are called the king's ferjeants at arms, to dif-
tingnidi them from others ; they are created with great cere-
mony, the perfon kneeling before the king, his majefty lays
the mace on his right fhoulder, and {ays,RiJ'e up ferjeant at
arms, and efquire for ever. They have, befides, a patent for
the office, which they hold for life.

They have their attendance in the prefence-chamber, where
the band of gentlemen-penfioners wait ; and receiving the
king at the door, they carry the maces before him to the
chapel door, whilft the band of penfioners ft and foremoft,
and make a lane for the king, as they alfo do when the king
goes to the houfe of lords.

They

S E R

S E R

They have a confiderable (hare of the fees of honour, and
travelling charges allowed them when in waiting, viz. five
fliiUings pur day when the court is within ten miles of Lon-
don, and ten (hiUings when twenty miles from London.
The places are in the lord chamberlain's gift.

There are four other ferjeants at arms, created in the fame
manner ; one who attends the lord chancellor ; a fecond,
the lord treafurer ; a third, the fpeaker of the houfe of
commons ; and a fourth, the lord mayor of London on
folemn occafions.

There are alfo ferjeants of the mace of an inferior kind,
who attend the mayor, or other head officer of a corpora-
tion.

Serjeant, Common, an officer in the city of London,
who attends the lord mayor and court of aldermen on court
days, and is in council with them on all occafions, within
and without the precinAs, or liberties of the city. He was
to take care of orphans' eftates, either by taking account of
them, or by figning their indentures, before their pafling the
lord mayor and court of aldermen ; and he was likewife to
let and manage the orphans' ellatcs, according to his judg-
ment to their bed advantage. Sec Recorder.

Serjeants of the Houfiold, are officers who execute
leveral funftions within the king's houlhold, mentioned in
the flat. 33 Hen. VIIL c. 12.

Serjeant, or Sergeant, in JVar, is a non-commiffioned
or inferior officer in a company of foot, or troop of dra-
goons ; armed with an halberd, and appointed to fee dif-
cipline obferved, to teach the foldiers their exercife and other
Juty. He receives the orders from the adjutant, which he
communicates to his officers.

Each company has generally two ferjeants.

Serjeant, Covering, a non-commiflioned officer, who,
during the exercife of a battalion, regularly ftands or moves
behind each officer, commanding or afting with a platoon
<ir company. When the ranks take open order, and the
officers move in front, the covering ferjeants replace their
leaders ; and when the ranks are clofed they fall back in
their rear.

Serjeant, Drill, an expert and aftive non-commiffioned
officer, who, under the immediate direftion of the ferjeant-
niajor, inftrucls the raw recruits of a regiment in the firlt prin-
ciples of military exercife. When awkward or ill-behaved
men are fent to drill, they are ufually placed imder the care
of the drill-ferjeant.

Serjeant, Lance, a corporal who afts as ferjcant in a
impany, but only receives the pay of corporal.

SERJEANT-Tl/a/or. See Major.

Serjeant, Pay, an honeft, fteady, non-commiffioned
officer, who is a good accountant, and write", well, that
is felected by the captain of a company in the infantry to
pay the men twice a-week, and to account weekly to him,
or to his fubalteni, for all diiburfements. He likewife
keeps a regular llatement of the neceli'arics of the men, and
affifts in making up the monthly abftraft for pay, allowances,
&c.

Serjeant, Qiiartcr-MaJIer, a non-commiffioned officer,
who acts under tlw quarter-mafter of a regiment : he
ought to be fteady, a good accountant, and well acquainted
with the refourcesof a country town or village.

SERJEANTY, or Seroeanty, in Law, a ferricc an-
ciently due to the king for lands held of him, and which
could not be due to any other lord.

It is divided into grand and petit ferjeanty.

Serjeanty, Grand, is where one holds lands of the king
by fervice which he ought to do in liis own pcrfon, as to
bekr the king's banner or fpear, afliit at his coronation, or
do fome office in his court.

It was in mod other refpefts like knight-fervice, ohiy
he was not bound to pay aid or efcuage ; and when tenant
by knight-fervice paid five pounds for a relief on every
knight's fee, tenant by grand-ferjeanty paid one year's
value of his land, whether it were much or little. Tenure
by cornage was a fpecies of grand-ferjeanty. See CoR-
nage. Litt. § 153. 158. 2 Inft. 233.

Serjeanty, Petit, is where a man holds land of the king
to yield him yearly fome fmall thing towards his wars, as
a fword, dagger, bow, fpurs, &c. in the manner of rent.

Coke, on Littleton, tells us, that fir Richard Rockefly
held lands at Seaton, by grand-ferjeanty, to be vantrarius
regis, i. e. the king's fore-footman, when he went into
Gafcogne, till he had worn out a pair of fhoes of the price
of four-pence.

By the ftatute 12 Car. II. all tenures of any honors,
manors, lands, &c. are turned into free and common focage :
but the honorary fervices of grand-ferjeanty ate thereby
continued.

SERIES, a continual fucceflion of things in the fame
order, and which have fome relation or connedlion with
each other.

Medals are formed mto fuites or feriefes, both with regard
to the metal and to the fubject. The different metals of
medals conftitute three different feriefes in the cabinets of
the curious, we mean, as to the order and arrangement of
the feveral metals.

The gold feries, for inftance, of imperials, amounts to
about 5000; that of filver may amount to 10,000; and
that of brafs to 30,000. See Medals.

With regard to the lubjeft, the feries of medals are
ufually formed from the fide called the head: in the firfl
clafs, is difpofed the feriefes of kings ; in the fecond, that of
Greek and Latin critics ; in the third, the Roman confular
families ; in the fourth, the imperial ; in the fifth, the
deities ; and to thefe may be added a fixth feries, confifting
of medals of illuitrious perfons. See Medals.

There are alfo feriefes of modern medals : that of the
popes only commences from Martin V. in 1430. From
that time we have a feries of papal medals, tolerably com-
plete, to the number of five or fix hundred.

We might likewife have a feries of emperors from Char-
lemagne, provided the current coins were admitted ; but in
pradiice they commonly commence with Frederic II. ia
1463.

The feries of the kings of France is moft numerous and
moil confiderable of all the modern kings. See Medals.

Series, in Analyjxs, is a fucceffion of terms, or progreffion
of quantities, connedled together by the figns plus and
minus, and proceeding according to fome law or determinate
relation. Such are the following.

Ill

■ + ^ + T + T" +
3 5 7

4- &c.

I I

'-T + T

Y + -/g + &-

The former being the reciprocals of the odd numbers, and
the terms of the latter a geometrical progreffion, of which
the ratio is \.

Series are of various forms, and arife in many different
ways, 33 from the expanfion of functions, the inverfe method
of fluxions, &c. But they very frequently arife inde-
pendent of any general derivation, and the objeil of en-
quiry is then to determine that funftion to whicii they are
c(]uivalent, and from the expanfion of whicli they may be
reproduced, or the numeral value of a certam 01 of an
infinite number of their tcims.

Thus,

SERIES.

Tims, of the former kind, we have

b b'

I

■ + ■ ,

a- a'

-1—- {a + i)- = — , +

a -i b a a

b

J + &c.

I I " b' b' ^

a - i ^ '■ a a- a' a*

and a variety of others. And of the latter.

a

+

a

-f Sec.

+

I I I » „

S:c. &c. &c.

Many of which are Hill irreducible to any equivalent finite
funftion.

Series alfo receive feveral different denominations ac-
cordiiii^ to certain circumftances attending their formation,
the law which they follow, the form of the fnnftion to
which they are reducible, S:c. Si.c. as arithmetical, geome-
trical, converging, diverging, reciprocal, &c. fcries.

Series, Converging, are thole in which the terms decreafe,
or become fucceflively lels and lef< ; as

are circular feries ; the former being equal to one-eighth of
the circumference of a circle whofe radius is i ; and the
latter equal to one-fixth of the fquare of the femi-circum-
ference to the fame radius.

Series, Logarithmic, are thofe whicli exprefs, or whofe
fums depend upon the logarithms of numbers ; as
(a-i)-l(a-iy + ^{a-iy-i(a- l)> + Scc.
which is equal to the hyperbolic logarithm of a.

SERrES, Arit'iimelical, are thofe whofe fucceflive terms dif.
fer from each other by a certain and determinate quantity ; as

a + (<j -I- </) -I- (a 4- 2J) -t- (a + 3J) -I- &c.
a -h (a — </) + (a — 2(/) + (a — 3</) -(- &c.

Series, Giometrical, are thofe whofe fucceflive terms are
fome multiple or fubmultiple of thofe immediately preceding
them ; as

a + ra + r' a + r^a + r' a + &c.

a + — +

r

- - -I- — -t- &c.
r ' r'

I I

1 + — + "i
5 S

Series, Diverging, are thofe in which the terms con-
tinually increafe ; as

Series, FraSioiuil, are thofe whofe terms arc all frac>
tional ; as

a a a

b{b ^ + {b + c)(i+2c) + (b+2c){b+y) "^ '"•

Series, Trigonometrical, are thofe which relate to trigo-
nometrical lines or quantities; as

fin. ' a ^ fin.* a

fin

i fin.* a i . c fin.'' a

a + — -i- -■' — -I- ^ ^^ -I- &c.

2. 3r' 2 . 4 . 5r' 2.4.6. yr

z + 2'

+ 2*

&c.

tan. a

tan. ' a

"7^

+ &c.

Series, Neutral, are thofe in which all the terms are ^hich are each expreffions for the length of a circular arc,

equal to each other ; as the former in terms of the fine, and the latter in terms of

the tangent.
'~' + '~'+ I — 1 + &c. Series, Exponential, are thofe which arife from the

This arifes from the divifion of 1 by i + i, and is there- <^M«"!>:-'n of. or whofe fum depends upon exponential

fore equal to i. qujnt.t.es ; as
Series, Indeterminate, is fometimes ufed to denote a

feries, whofe terms proceed according to the powers of fome
indeterminate letter or quantity ; as

I +

X

I

+ — + -
2 2

-3-^^

3-4

-H &c.

* +

+

+

+ - - .V

5

which is equal to e' , c being the number whofe hyperbolic
logarithm is i .
+ ^c. Series, Recurring, arc thofe in which each term has a

conllant relation to a certain number of the preceding terms.
Other writers, however, mean by this denomination thofe See Recur Ki NG 5f/-/«.

feries whofe fums are indeterminable in any finite form. Series, Law of a, is ufed to denote that relation which

Series are again either afcending or defcer.ding. fuhfills between the fucceflive terms of a feries and by

Series, Afcending, are thofe in which the powers of the which their general term may be denoted : thus the feries
indeterminate quantity continually increafe ; as

1 + flj: -I- b x"- -I- cx^ 4- dx* + &c.

I + - .V

3

'5

16

+ ' -v

35

'28 • ,

+ 3C' -I- &C.

3'5

Series, Defcemling, are tliofe in wliich thefe powers de- "^^y be put under the form

creafe in the numerator, or increafe in the denominator ; as

1 + as:

I +

-I- bx-

X

1 +

. 2.4

+ -- .r-

!•• + — ^ X* + So.

+

+ ex

H

+ dx
d

* + &c. or
+ &c.

2.4.6

3 3-5 3^5-7 3-5-7-9

where the law by which it may be indefinitely continued is
manifeit ; and from which we draw the general term, vii.

2.4.6.. . 2 (» - i)

Series, Circular, are thofe whofe fums depend upon the 3.5.7... (2n— i)"
qvadrature of the circle • thus, „ , , ■ r r, ■,

oeRIES, Interpolation of See INTERPOLATIOK.

I I I 1 Series, Revcr/ion of. See Reversion.

3^ 5 ~ 7^ "*^ ^^ ^ Series, Summation of, is the finding the fum of a feriet,

whether the number of its terms be finite or intii.ite ; the
I^JL^_I_^.J |.J jjp various methods of performing which is treated of in the

3'

fubfequent part of this article.

Mtthod

SERIES.

Method of fer'tes is ufed in a general fenle to denote the
principle upon which different authors have treated this fub-
jedt, as well with reference to the reverfion and interpolation
of feries, as to the finite and approximate fummation of
them.

The doSriiie of feries is certainly one of the mod important
fubjefts of mathematical inveftigation, and has been very
appropriately denominated by James Bernoulli the Jheet-
anchor of analyfis ; being our only hope and lall refort, in
a variety of difBcult problems, which bid defiance to every
other method of computation.

The fummation of feries, and the quadrature of a curvi-
linear ipace, are intimately connetted with each other, as
well in their origin as in their fubfequent progrefs. We have
dated under the article Quadbatuhe, that Archimedes was
the firft who found the area of a curvilinear fpace, which
he effefted by means of the fummation of an infinite feries
upon geometrical principles, and which is the firft inftance
on record of fuch an operation ; from which time, for nearly
two thoufand years, little or nothing was attempted relative
to this fubjeift ; but about the middle and the latter end of
the 17th century, it begun to attraft the general attention
of mathematicians, and has fince that time been purfued with
a degree of perfeverance and fuccefs commenfurate with its
great importance, and the general progrefs of analyfis
during the fame period.

Wallis, in his Arithmetic of Infinites, feems to have
been the firlt amongll the moderns who drew the attention
of mathematicians to the doftrine of feries. Lord Brounker,
fir Cliriilopher Wren, Mercator, and James Gregory, alfo
purfued the fubjeft with confiderable fuccefs, exhibiting the
quadrature and reftification of difierent curves under the
form of infinite feries.

In 1682, Leibnitz publifhed in the Lcipfic Aftsa memoir
entitled " De proportione circuli ad quadratum circum-
fcriptum, in numcris rationalibus," in which he gave feveral
numerical feries of a very novel kind, whofe fums were ex-
preflible in finite terms, without, however, accompanying
them with their demondrations ; amongll the molt curious
of which we may reckon the following : nih,.

+

I I

+ — + — +
15 24

+ ^ + ^'^'

+

I

+

+

5 -

+ &c.

which is equal to the area or fpace included between the
curve and afymptote of an equilateral hyperbola, or \ of the
hyp. log. 2.

Leibnitz alfo gave in the fame work for 1683, the fum-
mation of feveral other feries of a more difBcult kind, as

The fum of an infinite number of terras of which is equal
to \ ; the fum of its odd terms being equal to i, and the
fum of its even terms equal to ^ : that is

I -3
I

+

(

+

3 -5

I
-^6

+

5- 7

+

7 -9

+

h &c. = i, and

6. 8 "*" 8

10 . T2

+ &C.

I

— ?•

The fum of an infinite number of terms of the fame fe-
ries, omitting every three terms after the ill, the 5th, the
.9th, &c. as

I 1 III

+

+ r-

I . 3 5 . 7 9 . II 13 . 15 17-19
is equal to the area of a circle of which the infcribed fquare

IS I

But if we begin at the fecond term, and thence omit every
three terms, as above, we fhall have

+

4 6
Vol. XXXII.

8

+

+

12 14 . 16

+ &c.

I

. 10

+

I

—

I

+

2

I

. 10'

—

&c.

=

20

2

2

. 10^

2

.lO'

21

2

1

3

4

-j-

5

A-r

—

r°

3 6 10 15 . /2o\'
I 2 1 -\ ^ - — &c. =( — I

2.10 2.10^ 2.10' Z.IO" \2I,/

Thefe, as we have before obferved, were not demon,
ftrated by Leibnitz, but this was foon alter done, and many
other feries invelligated, by the brothers John and James
BernouUi; the latter in a fmall traft " DeSeriebusInfinitis,"
publiflied with the " Ars Conjeftandi ;" and the former in
vol. iv. of his " Opera Omnia."

From the preface to the former traft we learn, that James,
having turned his attention to the doftrine of feries, had
difcovered a few which were fummable, and which he pro-
pofed to his brother ; who having quickly demonftrated
them, propofed others to James ; this led to other propofi-
tions, and fo on, till in a (liort time they were not only
able to demonftrate all Leibnitz's feries, but had difcovered
two general principles, which* applied with great facility
to a variety of new cafes ; the one of which was the
refolution of an infinite feries into an infinite number of
other feries ; and the other, the method commonly called
the fuinmation by fuhtraaion. We fee here that fpirit of
emulation and rivalry with which thefe two brothers were
conllantly actuated, and to which they each probably owe
many of their finell difcoveries. It is only to be regretted
that it terminated in a manner fo unworthy of their talents
and charafter ; particularly with regard to John, who was
doubtlefs at firll much indebted to his brother's inllrudlion,
but who, notwithftanding, indulged his refcntment againft
him for many years after his death, ffieking every opportu-
nity of afperfing his methods, and of leffening his repu-
tation.

The Bernou/iis' Method of Series.— Tht principal dif-
ference between the methods of thefe two celebrated mathe-
maticians confifts in this, that James, in his " Traflatus de
Seriebus Infinitis," proceeds fynthetically j and John, in his
" Opera Omnia," analytically ; but the feries in both cafes
arc nearly of the fame kinds, and the fummation of them
depends upon the fame principles ; we fiiall, therefore, by
way of illuftration, abilraft one or two propofitions from
the former work, which will be fufficient for giving the
reader an idea of the fpirit of the two methods above al-
luded to.

Prop. To find the fum of an infinite number of fraftions,

whofe denominators increafe in any geometrical progreffion,
but whofe numerators proceed accordmg to the natural num-
bers, or polygonal or figurate numbers, of any denomi-
nation.

(jafe 1. — When the numerators proceed accordmg to the
natural numbers, that is, when they form an arithmetical
progreffion.

Let the propofed feries, whofe fum is required, be

a a -\- c a

Nn

+--±-li+.=.

This

SERIES.

This is obvioufly equal to

ad

a a a '^ _l o,

T^Vd'^bd^^Td^^^''-'" b'd-b

c c c_ __ c d

^U^bd'^bd>^id-i

In a fnnilar manner is found the fum of the t'eries, when
the numerators are fquares, cubes, &c. from which the
author draws the following refults ; viz..

c <^ o, _ ' ^

'^ n^'^ hl^'^ bd' - bd

bd^

bdi

+ &c.

+ occ.

bd'-bd'

: &C.

Each of which feries being geometrical, are found by the
known rules for fuch progrefiions ; and it is obvious that all
thefe fnms, except the fiilt, are alfo in geometrical progref-
fion ; the fum of which, vix. of

c d c d c d c d

Fd^^b ^ b~d^~^Jd "^ VeP^TJ' '^ blF^b d'

Nat. Num.
Trian. Num.
Fig. I ft order
Squares
Cubes

1234

— + -^ + -. + -.+ Sic. =z 2
2 2^ 2' 2'

1 ? 6 10 .

2 2 2' 2*

-^ + ^
2 2-

-- + — f- &c. = 8

2 2^ 2' 2*

8 27 64 .

2' 2' 2*

+ Sec. =
to wliich therefore adding

d

- b{d- i)'

ad

b{d- if '

have

ad

As an illuftration of the fecond method, that is, of
fummation by fubtraftion, we (hall give an abftraft of James
Bernoulli's fifteenth propofition, which is as follows.

Prop. — To find the fum of an infinite feries of fraclions,
whofe numerators conftitute a feries of equal numbers, and
denominators, a feries of triangular numbers, or of their
multiples.

b(d — I) From the feries

a a

— + —
c 2 c

+

— for the fum of the propofed feries.

a
3-^

a a

— + —
4<: SC

Hd-i)' f^^btraft

Cafe 2. — When the numerators of the fraftions proceed
according to the triangular numbers. Let

6 6- 10^ , we have

.- + T-rr + &c.

a a a a a „ a

— + — + — + - + >- = s

2 C 3^ 4f ^C Of C

?,<:

+

a a

2 c be

a a a

* ^.bd bd- ' bdi

30 c c

be the propofed feries. This may be refolved as follows : the double of which = 1 ■ + 2~ "i 1" — —

f^ '^ ' c 2 c OC IOC ICC c

12c
a

20c
a

c c c c c a

1 ^ b'd^ Vd'-^ TJ^ '^ rr^b

ZC 2c 2 C e, __ ^ '^

^bd+bd^^ rd^ ^ ^"^ ~ TT-i,

^ bd'^ bdi^ bd'-bd

which laft is a feries of fraftions of the form propofed, their
denominators forming the feries of triangular numbers, mul-
tiplied bv the conftant quantity c. Thus in numbers ; if
from the ieries

' I.I I

- +-+-+- + &c.

2. 3 4 5

4c

4^

J- -TL — 4_ &c. =

^ bd^ ^ bdi-bd'-

+ &c. = &c.

which fums, with the exception of the firft, conftitute a
feries agreeing in form with that folved above, and from

c d^

which we derive 7—-; ■ for the fum required.

b id — ly

Cor. — If we make a in the firft feries = o, the fum of that
feries will be to the fum of the latter, m d — 1 : d ; that is,

iLf. d ~ I : d' :: r,—. \, :^7-^ tt- -'^"^ when the

b{d— i)- b [d — ly

(without regarding what maybe the value of S), we take

I

2 ■ 3
we {hall have

1 I I I » n

- + - + + - + &c. = S
456

+

+

I

I

1.2 2.3 3.4
In the fame way we find
I I I

4-5

+ &c.

I.

1 • 3

■+-

+ 2 + &c. = ^.

3.54.6 4

On the fame principle, John Bernoulli demonttrated, that
the fum of the reciprocals of the natural numbers is in-
numcrators proceed according to tlie figurate numbers of finite. Let
the firlt order, viz. I, 4, 20, 35, then the fum of this 1 i i ] 1

feries will be to that of the latter, as d : d — 1 : that is, h - 4 1 H ■; + &c.

. , ^^' ^'^^ _ . ,' , 23456

as</- ^ •''■'• ^J-ZYj'' Tlin^iy ~ be changed into the equivalent form

f-'"i- + ;i+f^ + T5>i^+^"

I 2 2 4. C

26 la 20 30

and

SERIES.

r>nd let this laft be refolved into the infinite feries

1 I i I I .

-J 1 1- 1 h &c. — I

2 6 12 20 30

I I 1,1^ '

-{ u 1 +&C. = -

6 12 20 30 2

I I I „ I

+ — + — + — + &c. = -

12 20 30 3

II. I

+ - - + — + &C. = -
20 30 4

1 „ I

+ — + &c. = -
30 5

+ &c. = &c.

Whence it follows, that the fum of

1 I

— 4

2 3

+

I

+ — +

2

+

+ &c. ad irifinitum =

■A 1 L -— -|- &c. ad Infinitum

456

which equality can only have place when the firft fum is in-
finite.

John Bernoulh afterwards found the fum of the feries of
the reciprocals of the natural fquares, a problem mentioned
by his brother, in his fcholium to propofition 17, in which
he declared that the folution of it had evaded his induftry ;
and that whoever folved it fhould receive his warmefl:
thanks.

It (hould be obferved, however, that though James had
failed in finding the true fum, he had difcovered feveral cu,
rious properties of this feries ; viz. that the fum of the odd

terms, i H 7 -\ : + - ^, is to the fum of the even terms,

1

"2^

-^ ^, as 3 to 1. And generally, if we have a

8

feries of the reciprocals of any powers whatever, as — ^ 4-

. 1 1 4- &c. the fum of the terms in the odd

2" ^ 3" ^ 4- ^

places beginning at unity, is to the fum of the terms in the

even places, as n' — i is to i. Hence,

I I t „ II

I + - i + — +■ - - + &c. : -- + — 4-

3' r T 2' 4'

63

+ &C. :: 7:1.

John Bernoulli's folution of the above problem depends
upon the expreflion for the fine of an arc in terms of the
arc, the fame as that of Landen, of which we fliall fpeak in
the fubfequcnt part of this article, and fhall, therefore, only
give here the refults that Bernoulli drew from his folution ;
viz. he proved that

I I I ' I , 'r'

I I

? + "3 ■ ■ 4° ■ 5" ■ 945

&c. &c. &c.

denotes the femi-circumference {)f a circle whofe ra-

3^-^^-*-

— -f &c. = —
5' 90

I +

I I I -

where x
dius is (

Montucla has, by mirtake, attributed the firll

fummation of this feries to Euler, fee page 209, torn. iii.
" Hiftoire des Mathematiques."

We fhall only further obferve with regard to thefe au-
thors, that we here find the firft notice of continued expref-
fions of the form

^' ^ -t- •/ a -t-

+ .V a

&c.

+ b V a + b ^-J

+ b ^ a

+ &c.

with the method of fumming them by means of quadratic,
cubic, and biquadratic equations. See our articles Quadra-
tic, and Surds.

3. Montmort's Method of Series.— Th^ two methods above
illuftrated, by means of which the Bernoullis arrived at the
fummation of various feries, are both indirect, and are belter
fuited to finding fummable feries, than to the fummation
of any feries propofed ; they are moreover only applicable
to luch feries as continually decreafe ad infinitum.

In 17 12 another intcrelting correfpondence took place
on feries of a different kind, between M. Montmort, John
Bernoulh, and his nephew Nicholas Bernoulli. They were
led to thefc coufiderations, in confcquence of certain pro-
blems relating to the dodtrine of probabilities, which at that
time began to excite great interelt amongft both the Enghfh
and French mathematicians. The objeft here was not the
determination of the fum of an infinite number of dccreafing
terms, but tlie fummation of any finite number of terras,
either mcrcafing or decreafing ; and the formula of M.
Montmort, given at page 65 of his " EiFai d'Analyfe fur
les Jeux de Hazard," fecond edition, for this purpofe, is as
follows.

Let a + b + c -ir d + e + f ■^- &c. be the propofed
feries, and n the number of terms whofe fum is required ;
alfo, let D;, D", D'", D", &c. be the firll terms of the firft,
fecond, third, fourth, &c. dift'ci-eiices ; then will the fum of
the H terms be exprefled by

„a + "J'Ll-^ D' f "^"-') ("-^) D"
1.2 1.2.3

4-

("-3)

1.2.3.4

4- &c.

which feries will terminate in all cafes where any of the
order of differences become zero ; but in others it will only
give an approximation.

Let it be required, for example, to find the fum of n
terms of the natural feries of the fquares

Here
therefore

I' -r- 3' 4- 3' + 4' 4 5- . . . . »■■
a = I, D' = 3, D" = 2, D'" = o ;

n (n — l) n (n — l) (n - 2)

n 4 — ^ ' 3 -I- — i ^-i '-

1.2 1.2.3

is the fum required.

If it were the feries of triangular numbers,

I I- 3 4 6 4 10 -(- . . . . n -'

then we fhould have

a= I, D'= 2, D"= I, D"' = o;
therefore the fum of n terms will be expreffed by

1.2 1.2.3

N n 2

Fronr.

SERIES.

From this general formula are readily drawn the following particular expreffions for the fums of the different orders
of polygonal and figurate numbers ; as alfo for the fquares, cubes, and higher powers.

Figurste Numbers.

Series. General term. Sum of n terms.

« (n + I)
1 + 2+3+4+ " = I . 2

7i (n + i) « (n + l) (n + 2)

I + 3 + 6 + ,0 + -^-y- = — rr^-r^

« (n + I) (« + 2) _ n (« + l) {n + 2)
I + 4 + 10 + 20 + 1.2.3 ~ 1.2.3

1 + 5 + 15 + 35 + ^''- = ^'='

where the law of continuation is fufficiently obvious.

Polygonal Numbers.

Series. General term. Sum of n terms.

n (n- l)
1 + 2+3+4+ .... n = «-l- ^ ^

n' + n 2n (n— l) n (n— l) (n— 2)
I + 3 + 6 + 10 + .... — — = n + —7-7^- + 1.2.3

2n'' — on 3 » (n — I ) 2 n (« — l) (n — 2)

i-r'f-ryr I 1.2 1.2 1.2.3

3B^ — n 4«(n— l) 3n(«— i)(b— 2)

, + 5 + 12 + 22 + .... -— - = „ + —TTr~ + 1.2.3 —

, , , . (m — 2) n^ — (m — 4) n
univerfally ; the general term bemg — -—

(w- I) »(«- I) (m-2)« («- l) («-2)

The fum of n terms = n 4- -— — ■ — H ;

1 . z 1 . z . 3

Series. General term. Sum.

«' n' n
i^ + 2* + 3^ + 4^ + «= = 7 + T ^ "6

n* n' n'

1^ + a' 4- 3' + 4' + «' = :r + T + 7

424

n' n' n' n

I' + 2» + 3* + 4' + «' = — + — +

^ 523 30

I' + 2^ + 3^ + 4^ + «^ = 4. 4 ^ _ _

0 2 12 12

&C. &C. &C. = &C.

A variety of other feries fall under the above general The following formulae, all relating to the differential

formula of M. Montmort ; -viz. feries of which the fum method, will not be unacceptable to the reader,

may be exhibited in a finite form : and in all cafes where Let a + b -^c-^il-^e + f+ &c. be any feries ;

the fuccefTive differences decreafe, an approximation may be make

obtained by it, and that with a confiderable degree of fa- D' = i — a

cihty, when the terms are alternately 4- and — i, but -qv — ^ ~ 2b + c

when they are all plus, or all minus, except the firft, little, j)iii =: a — ib + ac — d

if any, advantage is gained by it. D'' = a — Ai + 6c — ±d + e

The above method of fummation is commonly called the
J(^f«n/w/w!rf;Jo(/,and wasiirllufedfori«/cr/iote/onbyBriggs,

in the conftruftion of his table of logarithms. Newton alfo £)(")_ a — nb + " ^"~ '' c — '"~ ^' v'~^J 4. &c.

applied it to a variety of interefting problems in his " Me- 1.2 1.2.3

thodus DifFerentialis ;" but Montmort, as far as we have been From which laft general formula the firft term of any order

able to trace, was the firft who employed it in the fumma- of differences may be found independent of all thofe which

tion of feries. precede it.

6 Again,

SERIES.

Again, let N reprefent the nth term, and S the fum of

N

a +

S = na -\-

I
« (h- l)

D'

+

(„- I) (n- 2)

D' +

n (n

I . 2

I) {n-2)

n terms ; then will

("- i) ("- 2) ("-3)
1.2.3

" ("— i) (" - 2) (« — 3)

D" +

which latter expreffion for the fum is, as we have above
obferved, due tc M. Montinort. The fame author alfo
publifhed in the Pliilofophical Tranfaftions for 1718, fome
other formulae for the fumm-tion of feries ; but as thefe are
nothing more than particular cafes of the method of incre-
ments, w ■ fliall not notice th m in this place ; but refer the
reader to ihe article Increments, for an illuftration of the
method of fummation as depending upon thofe principles,
firft pubh(hi 1 by Dr. Brooke Taylor, in his." Methodus
Inc'einentorum," 1715.

4. L- Moivre's Method of Series. The next author who
made any confiderable inrip'-ovement in this theory was De
Moivre, to whom we owe ti.j doftrineof Recuuring Series,
on the princ'ples of which we have fpoken at fome length
under that a; cle of the prefent work ; we fliall not there-
fore enter agau. upon the fubjeft in this place, but confine
ourfelves to an illuftration of his method for finding fum-
mable feries, which is not referred to in the article above
mentioned ; it was firft given by liim in his " Mifcellanea
Analytica," I??©.

Let there be affumed any feries, and let this be multiplied
by any binomial or trinomial faftor, fuch that the refulting
feries (hall have its powers of x recurring again in the fame
order ; then, by equating the refulting feries to o, and tranf-
pofing the negative terms, a new numerical feries will arife,
the (urn of which will be given.

Thus, let there be taken the feries

I + ix + ix
Multiplying this by x

I I

- I +

X* + &c. = S.

- X + —
2 2

Whence, making x

+

(x - 1) S.

&c. = I.

3 3-4
Again, aflume

1 + Ix + 5-.r' + ix' + &c.
Multiplying by x' — i, we have

2

1 . 2

- I x i A-'

2 1.3

+

2 . 4

= (.v'-l) S
where making again .r = i, we have

3-5

+ Sec.

m

2 2

+ occ. = -^,

2

1,1 I I

+ .— + - — r +

I 3

, r h &C. = -^.

'•3 2-4 3-5 4-f> 5-7 4
As another example, let the fame feries

I +

+ >* + ix' + ix' + &c. = S

be multiplied by

{2X- I) (3*- 1) =6x^- sx + I,

D'"-h &c.

D" +

and we have
9

X +

I . 2
= (2.r

where, by making .v
lowing feries :

23

•3-4

23
1.2.3 2

- I) (3-^--0S

D'"

&c.

«■ +

38

3 -4

.•c^ +

57

3-4- J

and X = J, we have the two fol-

1.2.

23

- +

38

3 4

+

•3-

38

8 +

3-4

— +-

27 3

i7_
.4.

57

4.5

I

I

81

&c. = -'

+ &c. =

1.2.3 9

The law of both which feries is obvious, the numerators
being in arithmetical progreffion. This method is not much
different in principle from the fecond method of Bernoulli
above explained.

5. Stirling's Method of Series. In the recurring feries of
De Moivre, each term is connefted with a certain number of
the preceding terms, by a conttant and invariable law, but in
the feries confidered by Stirling, in his " Methodus Differen-
tialis," 1730, each term is a certain function of the number of
terms from the beginning, or from fome determinate term of
the feries ; which funftion may therefore be confidered as
the general term, and the method of fummation depends on
the following principles.

Having firlt determined the general term of the feries in
fome funftion of x, its dillance from the beginning, or
fome determinate term of the feries ; it follows, tliat the
fum of all the terms to that place will alfo be fome fundion
of X. Therefore, if .r' is made to denote the diftance of any
other term from the fame point, the fum to that term will
be the fame funftion of x', as the other fum is of .v ; and
each term of the feries may be confidered to reprefent the
difference between two confecutive fums, or the difference
between two fimilar funftions, viz. of .v — i and .v ; and
the objeifl; of the author is to determine what thofe fums or
fundtions are from the difference between them being given.

To bc' a little more explicit, if there be any feries of
quantities

a, b, c, (I, . . . . t°, /, /', &c.

proceeding from the firft a, by any imiform law, either in-
creafing or dccrcafing ; and if x be taken to reprefent the
diftance of any term, as /, from the beginning of the feries,
or from any term in the fame, then will / be exprtffiblc by
fome funftion of x ; t' by the fame funftion of .r + i j
t" by the fame funftion of x -)- z, &c. : denoting therefore
this funftion by / {x), we fliall have

P=f{x-i),t =/ (.v), t' =f (x + I), &c.

Alfo if /S /,/',/", &c. denote the fums of all the
terms from the beginning to the terms t°, I, /', /", &c.
refpeftively, thefc Icvcral fums will alfo be fome funflion
of X — I, X, .V -f- I, jr + 2, &c. which we may denote by

r = 9 {x-i),f=<p (.v),/'=<f ix+ 1):

whence we draw immediately

/-/" = /, or 9 (.v) -. p (.r - I ) =/ (.. ).

Now

SERIES.

Now the funflion/(A:) is given, being the general term
of the feries and the objeft of enquiry is, from this given
fundlion to determine the two funAions p (x) and (^ [X — I),
of which it is the difference ; for the former of thefe, i? (x),
will then be the fum of the feries to the term / inclufive.

To iUiiltrate this by, a familiar example ; let the propofed
feries be

1+3 + 5 + 7 -I 9' &c.

the o-eneral term of which is 2 .r — i ; therefore,

Q («) - : (a:- 1) = 2.V- i;

whence we have obvioufly <p (x) == x\ for

,v- — (x — i)' = 2.V — 1 ;

therefore .v" is the fum of x terms of the above feries.

Again, let it be required to find the fum of x terms of
the (cries

I, 7. 19' 37' &e-

of which the general term

/(.r) = 3 .V--3 .v+ I,
therefore,

(?.«-? (.Y - I ) ^ 3 .1- — 3 A- + I ;

confequently ::■ {x) = .r , the fum of x terms of the feries.
In thefe two examples, the finding the fum C (.v) from
the diiTerence. is extremely fimple ; but in the generality
of cafes ir is far from being fo obvious, and even in fome,
it is inipoffible to exhibit the fum of the feries in any other
manner tiian by another feries ; but as in the latter cafe
the transformed feries may be made to poffefs almoit any
deeree of convergency we pleafe, this method of fumma-
tioii is ftill attended with important advantages, and even
more perhaps in the latter cafe, than in any other ; becaufe
moll, if not all, fummable feries, may be fummed on fome
other principles ; viz. either by the method of recurring ferks,
or by the differential me/hod, or by increments; wliile the
transformation of a flowly converging feries, into another
of rapid convergency, is frequently extremely difficult to
effeft on any other principle than that of Stirling's, or
fome other tantamount to it.

From vvliat is Hated above it appears, that the principal
objeft of enquiry is, in what manner we are to determine
a funftion from the difference between two ftates of it be-
ing given. In the examples we have chofen for illuftration,
the funftion whence the difference is derived is extremely
obvious ; but this in many cafes is, as we have before ob-
ferved, attended with fome difficulty. In this refpeft the
fummation of feries refembles in a great degree the inverfe
method of fluxions. There is little or no difficulty in any
cafe in fir.ding the fluxions of any propofed quantity ; but
the finding of a fluent of any given fluxion i« far from pof-
feffing the fame facility. So alfo in the prefent cafe, if the
queftion was to find the difference between two different
ftates of a given function, we ftiould find the operation di-
rect and fimple ; but the converfe, or the finding the func-
tion from the difference being known, is indirect, and fre-
quently difficult to be determined.

It is obvious alfo, that two different funftions, which
differ from each other only by fome conftant quantity, vi-ill
give the fame difference, and, confequently, a given differ-
ence may give rife to different funtlions, the fame as happen
in finding fluents, and it will therefore be neceffary in this
cafe, as in that, to have recourfe to a correSion, which will
be found in the fame manner as is praftifed in that calculus,

2

•viz. by finding the value of the feries, when the variable
quantity is made equal to zero, or fome determined magni-
tude.

0/ the general Term of a Series With regard to the gene-
ral term of a' feries, it is difficult, particularly within our
limits, to lay down any fixed or conilant rule for its deter,
mination ; it is befides feldom neceflary, as the law of the
feries is commonly prefented in the terms of tie feries Itfclf;
we fliall leave this determination, therefore, as in faft it
muft be in mofl; cafes, to the ingenuity of the analylt, and
fliall proceed immediately to the other fubjcfts of inveitiga-
tion.

It may not, however, be amifs to ftate ; that in fuch
feries as have any order of their differences vanifli, the gene-
ral term is always of the form

An'" + Bn"'^' + Cn"'-'' -|- Dm"-^ + Sec.

where m denotes the order of the differences that vanifli,
and .<j the number of terms from the beginning. The
values of A, B, C, D, &c. being found by making n fuc-
ceffively equal to I, 2, 3, &c., and equating the refults
with the lit, 2d, 3d, &c. terms of the feries.

Of the Transformation of a given FunSion to an equivalent
one.of a different Form. — Since we fliall confine ourinvelliga-
tion only to thole feries whofe terms are either integers or
rational fractions, it is obvious that the general term mult
alio be fome rational funftion either of the form,

a -\- bx + ex' -j- </.v' -f- &c. or

a + bx 'r ex' -f dx' + &c.
a' + b'x + c'x + d'x' + &c.

and our object is to transform eithrr of thofe general forms
into others, whence the general fui:ftion from which they
have been derived may be the more readily determined.
Different transformations may be emphiyed for this purpofe ;
but the moff general, and that, in fact, to which Stirling
principally confines himfelf, is to transform the above gene-
ral terms into other equivalent ones of the form

A -f B .V -f- C .r ( .v — 1 ) + D .1- {x — l)(x — 2) + Sec. or

A B C ______

.7(J+ 1) "^ X {x + l){x + 2) '^ X (x + 1) {x + 2) {x + z)

from either of which the general funftion whence they have
been derived may be readily determined. For it is obvious
that the firft is equal to the difference between the two
fimilar funftions

A X + i B (x + I) X + 4 C (x + i) X {x - i)
+ ^D {x + l) X {x — 1) {x — 2) + Sec.

and

A (;; - I) + 4 B .r (.V - I ) -I- 4 C x (x - 1) (x - 2) '
+ iH X (x - 1) (x - z) {x - z) + &c.

For by fubtracting thefe one from the other, we have

A + B X + C X (x — i) + !> X (x — i) {x - 2) + Sic.

And therefore, from what has been Rated, the firft of the
above formulas will be the general fum of that leries of
.which the general term is

A + B.-« + Cx{x- l) + Dx(x- I) {x-2) + &c.

And in a fimilar manner it may be Ihewn, that the fecond
general form is equal to the difference between the two
fimilar fundtions

SERIES.
A B^_ C D

X + 2X(X+ I) "^ ix(x + I) (x + 2) "^ 4.x (« + I) {x + 2) (.r + 3) "^ ^'''
and

_A_ B C D

I +.»• 2 (:l- -t- I) (4: i- 2) 3(.v+ l)(.Vi- 2) (4; + 3) 4(4;+!) . . . . (x-t-'4l + "^^

For by fubtraAing thefe one from the other, we have

A B ^ C

^•(ar+l) x{x+l}{x + 2) .v(.r+ I)(,r + 2)(jc+ 3)

and confequently the former is the fum of that feries whofe general term is

X {x + I) '^ X (x + I) (X + 2) x(x + I) (.V + 2) (x + 3) +

So that the whole difficulty is now reduced to that of tranf- x^ ::= x + ^x (x — 1) + x (x — i ) ( .* — 2 )

forming any propofed funftion, cxprtffing the general term x'< = x + T x(x - i) + 6x (x - i) ix - 2) + x ix - i)

of a feries into an equivalent function of one or other 01 f _ 2 W N

the above forms. ' ^ H

To transform a quantity of the form ^^' ^'^*

a + bx + ex' -\- dx^ + ex^ + &c. As an example, let

into another of the form i ^ 2 x + Ax''

A + B .V + C .V (.t — I ) + D A- {x - 1) (.!■ — 2) + &c. be the propofed general term. Here

By the aftual multiplication of the latter formula, we ix — 2 x

have , , ,

^- -^ therefore,
B.v = B.r

C.x(.v- i) =-C.v + C^'' ' +3.r + 44-=i +7.v + 4.v(.v- I)

D .V (.r — I ) ( .V — 2 ) = D .1- — 3 D .t " + D .V • which latter is of the "form required.
And equating the co-efficients of the like powers of x in ^^ ^'^'^'^^'^'^ ^"7 general term of the form

this and the original feries, we obtain a + i x -\- c x'^ -\- d x' + &c.

d=D 1 f D =d a' + b'x + c'x"- + d'x^ + &c.

c

\

S ~ l,D _ ( „r J C = f + 3 ^ i„to another of the form

a = A J

A ^a A , B

+ „-r-7-7TT— : +

Whence the values of A, B, C, D, &c. are determined by ^' ^•*' + ') " (•'" + ') ^'^ + ^) •»' (•»' + •) C^' + 2) t^' + 3)

means of the known co-efficients a, b, c, d, &c. And j^ &c.

the lame method may obvioufly be employed in any other

(Imilar cafe. The following tablet, however, will facili- . ^he moll general method of performing this transforma-

tate the operation ; -uiz. ^'"" '^' '^V '""Sual divifion to reduce it firlt to the form

x' = x+ x{x-i) 7^ "^ "^ ■'■ T^ "*" T'" "*" *^"

Now
I

, j o

x(x+\) _ a: (4: + I ) (.V + 2) •>; (^ + J ) (x + 2) (.V + 3) "^ .f (.V + 1 ) (.V 4. 4)

I _ I 3 II
r< ~ ^^(iT'l) {x + 2) ^ x(x-^ l)[x + 2){x^l) "^ .^C*+ 1) (a-)- 4! "^ **^"

I t

— = ■ 4- &c &c.

x^ xix-^ l){x-{- 2){x-t 3)

Or by making A = a.

B = a + ^

C = 2 =c + 3 ,9 4- ,.

D " 6 a 4- 1 1 ,S 4- 67-4- i

E= 24 a 4- 50/?+ 35) f, 0^4-1

F = 120 a 4- 274 ,3 4- 225 y 4- 85 ^ 4. 15 , 4- e

which

SERIES.

which values fubftituted for A, B, C, &c. will give the i. Let it be propofed to find the fum of the infinite

transformation fought, and which will terminate by one of feries,

thofe expreflions becoming zero, when the feries is fum-
mable, but when it is not the expreffion itfelf will become
an infinite feries, but fuch that we may give to it almoil
any degree of convcrgency at pleafure.

Let us now illuitrate what has been faid by a few ex-
amples, remembering that the fum of a feries, whofe
general term is

A + B X + C X (x - 1) + D .V (x - i) {x - 2), =
A A- + i B (.V + I ) .V + f C (.V + i) x{x — i) + Sec.
Let it be propofed to fum the feries of odd numbers,
' + 3 + 5 + 7 + &c.

Here the general term is 2 .r — i , or — i + 2 v ; fo that
a= — I and b =: z: whence A = — I, and B =^ 2, and
C = o ; whence A .->,■ + i B (.v + i ) .v = — x + x' — x

I

4

+

+

'3

+ &c

1.4.7 4 . 7 . 10
where the general term is
I

3--^-(3^'+ 3) (3« + 6)
X being fuccefTively §■, ly, z\, &c.

Now this is of the required form, A being

2']x{x -\- \) (x Jr 2)

o, and

B = — ; therefore the required fum is —

27

54 X (x + i)

24

, by taking x = \, its firft: value. If we took.v = ij,

we fhould have the fum of all the terms of the feries, except

the firft ; if.v::=2t, we fhould have the fum of all but the

= .\-% which is the known expreffion for the fum of .v terms two firlt terms, and fo on : and it is by this means that we

are enabled' to give fo great a degree of convergency in
thofe feries that are not fummable ; for we may affume any
one of the values of x, and by that means give almoft any
magnitude to the denominators of our converging fraftions ;
obferving only, that fuch of the leading terms of the feries

of the above feries.

Again, require the fum of the feries,

1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4+4.5-!- &c.

Here the general term is x (.v + i), or x' + x :
preceding tablet,

by the

* 1 / > {■ = 2 .V + .V (.V — I ).

X = a; + .V (.V — I ) 3 ^ ^ '

Therefore A = o, B = 2, and C = i ; whence we have

^ B (.r + 1 ) .V + ^ C (x + I ) .V (.r - I ) =

{x + l) .V + 5- (k + I) A- {x - I) =
T (■'*■"' + 3 ^' 4" ^ •*')> ^'^ ^""^ °^ •■*•" terms, as required.

as are not included muft be fummed by themfelves, and
added to the approximation found as above. As this is the
great charafteriitic of Stirling's method, we fliall confine
our futiue remarks to one or two examples, which are not
fummable, in order to illuftrate the nature of his approxi-
mations.

Let there be propofed the feries,

1 I I 1

+

3 • 4

+

+

r.^ -•- '"'■ ■'

But as there is no advantage gained by the application of wh'ch is that found by lord Brounker, for the quadrature
this method to feries of the above kind, nor indeed to any °' '"^ hyperbola,
fummable feries, as thefe are commonly more readily re- Here the general term is
folved by feme one of the preceding methods than by this,
we fhall pafs immediately to feries of the fecond kind, in
which it poffefles a facility of application, which is perhaps
unattpinable by any other principle at prefent known.

Here we mull obferve, that after the general term of any
feries is reduced to the form,

+

B

+

X {x + I) X (x + I) (« + 2) x(x + I) (.f + 2) [X + 3)

+ &c.

the fum of that feries is exprefied by
A B C

2a; (2.-C + I)
taking .v = •§, li,

I I

4 x^ + 2 X .4 X-
that is,
I

4
whence -

4.v(.v + i)
&c. Now

4 x' + 2x

3

i6.f+

3-S

32 .v^

+ &c.;

A = — , B =

C = -^^, D

3

16'

35

32

&c. ;

+

+

2x(x -\- I) 3.v(.v + l) (.v+ 2)

+ &c.

for

4 K -\- 2 X

when converted into the required

m, IS,

+

3

+

3-5

j^x (x+ 1) 8 *• (.r + 1) (x + 2) 16 X (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) ' 32 x{x + I) {x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4)

where the law of continuation is obvious, and the fum will be exprelfed by

I • 3 • 5

+ &e. ;

I 1 I . «

— + . + ?

4x l6.v(.i-+l) 48X (x + l) (x + 2)

+

128 .V {x + \) (.V + 2) (.V + 3)

+ &c. ;

in which the law is alfo obvious, the co-efEcients in the The original feries has, therefore, been converted into

denominator being 4= 2% 16 = 2^ x 2, 48 = 2' x 3, another infinite feries, but with this advantage attending the

128 = 2* X 4, &c. ; but the feries will not terminate, be- hitler, that we may give it almoft any degree of convergency

I .... at pleafure, according to the value we give to x. If we

4.1- (.7~+ i) ""^ u es t e ^(]■^,^J, ^, _ jjI^ which is its value in the 14th term, then

fraftion i. ^^^ preceding feries will exhibit the fum of the original

feries

eaufe the original general term

SERIES.

feries from that term, to which adding the fum of the firil
13 terms, we have, for the whole fum,

13 firll terms - - = .674285961

9 firll terms of the new feries = .018861219

Whole fum

= -693147180

This is true to nine places of decimals, which, if we had
ufed the original feries, would have required the fummation
of at leall one hundred million of its terms.

Hence the advantage of this transformation, which con-
Now, from what has been faid, it appears that
I I

fids in our being able, by the fummation of a few of
the leading terms of the original feries, to give any de-
gree of convergency to our transformed feries, and thereby
to perform the fame upon a few terms, as would require the
labour of ages to effe6i upon the feries in its original form.
As another example, let the feries,

I I I I I

77 + ^ + y. + ^ + ^ + Sec.

be propofed, in which the general term is — .

+

x' X (x + 1) ' X [x + 1) [x + 2)

and confequently the fum will be
I I

+

+

*• (^ + I) (* + 2) (^ + 3) « (* + I) (* + 2H« + 3) (* + 4)

+ &c. ;

2j: (* + l) 3 X {x + l) [x -r 2)

+

3

+ &c.

^x {x + l) {x + 2} (.V + 3)
indeterminate quantity enter ; all thofe which we haTC at

in which fubftituting 13 for x, -viz, its 13th value, we find,

by fumming 13 terms of the new feries, and adding tliat prefent confidered, having been wholly numerical. The

fum — .079957427, to the (urn of the firit 12 terms of the formula for this purpofe is as follows.

original feries, viz. 1.564976638, we Iiave 1.644934065 for If the terms of any feries be formed by writing any

the whole approximate fuin, true to nine places ot decimals, number, differing by unity, for z in the quantity.

Our limits will not allow of our entering farther upon c a h

this method, and we (hall therefore conclude our illuftration
of it, by merely giving tiie author's formula for the fum.

{1

— +

+

z (z 4- l) ' z (z -t- I) (z -)- 2)
raation of thofe feries, in which the fucceflive powers of an then the fum will be exprefled by

b - Kx f— 2B« d— iQ.x

\(r-l-

X)

+

(l-*)z(z4-l) il-j:)z(z + l)(z+ 2) ' (i-*)z(z4.l)(z+ 2)l.z + 3)

+ &c.|

where A, B, C, &c. reprefcnt the terms immediately pre-
ceding thofe in which they are found.

This latter expreflion, like thofe in the preceding pro-
pofitions, will terminate when the feries is fummable : in
othir cafes, it will be itfclf an infinite feries, but fuch that
we may give to it any degree of convergency required.

Simpfon^s Method of Series. — In I 743 Simpfon publifhed
his " Mathematical DifTcrtatioi-.s on a variety of Phyfical
and Analytical Suhjefts," and amongit other interefting re-
fearches in that work, there is one relating to the fummation
of feries, which is perhaps as general and complete as any
we Iiave yet noticed ; at Icail, if we except (with regard to
appr )xima'.ions) that of Stirling's, above explained. This
method confifts in deriving the fum of one feries from that
of another being given or known ; wliicli former fum is ex-
prefTed by a finite or infinite formula, according as the fuc-
ceflive differences of certain parts of its terms are of definite
or indefinite extent ; thus, if

a" -I- ba"-' X f f a"-\v^ + da"-' x' + &c.

be any power (n) of the binomial a + x, n being either in-
tegral, fraftional, pofitive, or negative ; and the terms of
it 'be refpeAively multiplied by any feries of quantities,
/) ?. r, r, &c. ; and we make q — p =z D', r — 2 q + p
= D", &c. viz. D', D", D'", &c. being the fird terms
of the fucceflive orders of differences, then will the fum of

differences, D', D", D'", &c. become zero ; but, m other
caics, the new feries will alfo be infinite, the fame as that
from which it is derived.

By giving to a, x, and n different values, and to the fe-
ries^, jr, r, s, &c. different laws, a great variety of parti-
cular cafes may be deduced, which our limits, however,
will not admit of detailing.

Again, reprefenting (a 4- x)", as before, by

a" + i a" + ' x + f a" + ' *•' + da"

+ &c.

if r be any pofitive number, and we make S = (j 4- *)"''■'
minus its firfl r terms, then will the fum of the feries

+

ba"-'

2 • .? • 4 •

1.2.3.
4- &c.

whether finite or infinite, be expreffed by

S

(r + i) 3. 4. 5. .(r 4- 2)

q + ca"-'^ x' r + da"

+ &c.

a'p 4- ia' -• x
be cxprcircd by

p(a + x)" + I)'bx(a + x)"' + D"fx' (a + x)
D"'dx' {a + x)"-' + &c. ;

which formula will obvioufly be finite, if any order of the
Vol. XXXII.

+

(« 4- i)(»4- 2) (n + 3)--- (» +'•)■■''
From which general formula a great variety of particular
cafes may be drawn, according to the different values that
are given to a, x, and n.

Again, let the fum of the feries

a a' + bx*^" 4fA-'^"' 4 dx'^'" + &c. =A

and the terms be refpcftively multiplied by the terms of the
arithmetical progrejfion r, r + n, r + 2 n, then will the
fum of the feries thence arifing (B), viz.

rax* 4- (r + n)**'*" + (r + in) ex'*'- + &C.

Oo be

SERIES.

be expreffed by the fluxional formula

where, becaufe it is given in finite terms, A will always
likewife be had in iinite terms, and confequently, alfo, the
value of B. And in the fame manner as we have

ax' + b a' + " + c x' + ''" + &c. = A

r<j;rf + (r + «) bx'^" 4- (r + 2 «)*•'■+=" + &c. =

.V A
{r-/)A+— -B;

fo alfo

riax + (r-f n) [s -\- n) b x' -^ " +(r+2n) {s + 2 n) c x^-^ '"
+ &c. =

(j — 6) B + - — = C &c. &c.

X

The three preceding cafes are the firft, fecond, and third
propofitions in tlie author's chapter on feries, which contains
four other propofitions equally general and important ; but
for thefe we mult refer the reader to the tradt itfelf.

Since the publication of Simplon's work above referred to,
a variety of other treatifes have appeared either wholly or in
part devoted to this fubjeft, betides numerous memoirs in all
the principal academies and learned focieties in Europe. It
will be impoflible to enter upon thefe at any confiderable
length within the limits of this article, and we (hall there-
fore merely felcdl two or three of the principal authors
whofe methods are the moft eligible for the purpofes of ge-
neral fummation.

Euler, in this, as in every other branch of analyfis, has
diftinguiihed himfelf by the many new lights he has thrown
upon this theory, and the general and elegant inveftigations
that he has given of many very interefting problems relating
to this doftrine. Thefe inveftigations are found in various
memoirs in the Afta Petrop. and in his " Inllitutiones calculi
differentialis," as alfo in the firll volume of his " Introduc-
tio in Analyfin Infinitorum ;" many of thefe, however, may
be referred to the Mi-z/jo^ 0/" Increments and Recurring
Series, which have been already treated of under thofe ar-
ticles ; the theory of circular feries is alio handled in his
ufually mafterly manner, but for our purpofe we (hall pre-
fer adopting the method employed by Landen in his " Ma-
thematical Lucubrations," and (hall therefore, in this place,
limit our obfervations to Euler's differential method.

Euler's Differential Method of Series. — Let there be pro-
pofed the general feries

S — a X + b x' + c s5 -I- (/ .f' -I- &c.

in which a, b, c, d, &c. are conftant and pofitive quantities,
.-c being indeterminate. This feries Euler transforms into the
following equivalent feries, ■y/'z.

a -H

+

A J -f

(I - .r)

- A3 (7 -I- &C,

(I - x)

A' a

'n which A a, A^ a, A^ a, denote the firft terms of the
firft, fecond, third, &c. differences of a, b, c, &c. obferving
that the leading term is always fuppofcd to be taken from
the following, fo that when the terms diminifli, this dif-
ference will hi negative. It is obvious here, as in the ether
differential feries we have had occafion to notice, that when

any order of differences vanilh, the transformed feries will be
finite, but in other cafes infinite, the fame as that whence it
is derived.

Let, for example, the feries

S = A- -h 2 .v" -(- 3 .V* + 4i* -I- &c.

be the one propofed. Here the firft differences are 1, i, i,
&c. and, confequently, the fecond differences are zero; that
it, we have a = i , and A a ^ 1 ; fo that we have

S = a -)-

1 — .V

A a

(I-.V)- (l-.r)'

Hence, by fubftituting .V = i, |, \, &c. we obtain

.i;i= i;S:=I-f 2 -t-3 + 4+&C.

X

~

I
T

s

I

2

+

1

4

+

3

8

+

4
16

+

&C

X

=

I
3

s

I
~3

&C.

+

2
9

+

27

&C

+

4
81

+
8

&c
cc.

(I

\

I)'

(I

I

\t

= 2

i^-W

Again, let the propofed feries be

S = .1- -I- 3 .r* + 5 aJ -}- 7 a' -(- &c.
Here a ■=. 1, A a = 2, A" a = o ; therefore

x' -^ X

a -I-

;Aa =

I — X { 1 — *)* ~ ( 1 _ ;f )'

Making therefore, as before, x = i, \, J-, &c. we have

1 + I

(1

-ir

k

+ 1

(I

-w

■5-

+ -J

= 3

.r = I ; S = I -i- 3 -t- 5 + 7 + &c. =

2 2 4 8 16

I T ^ C 7

* = -;S = --i--i-f-^-f-^-f- &c. = , ^_.

3 3 9 27 81 (i-O'

Without farther examples, it is obvious, that a moft ex-
tenfive clafs of fiimmable feries may be drawn from this one
fimple principle, by merely changing the values of x ; and
thofe of a, b, c, d, &c. being fo aflumed, that a certain or-
der of their difference may vanifh, which will always hap-
pen, if they be made to reprefent any order of polygonal or
figurate numbers, or any order of powers whatever. This
method, however, is not limited to finding fummable feries,
it may frequently be employed to great advantage in ap-
proximating towards the real value of (lowly converging fe-
ries that are not fummable in any finite form, as for exam-
ple, the feries

I ' I I o , ,

I 1 1 V &c. = hyp. log. 2 ;

putting this under the form

i

* +

+

we have a = I, A a = ~ -5,

3

A a 4-

-I- &c.

A3 a = - ^ &c.

AV -H «cc.
wiU

{i-x)

SERIES.

will become, by making :r = — I,

2.4 3-8 4- 16 5-32

I I I I „

I + + +&C.

2345

-&c. =

whence, by changing figns, we have

I I

'-V + 7

1 &c. = hyp. log. 2

4 5

+

I

+

+

16

+

5 • 32

+ &c.

— I

+ I

—

I +

I

—

I + &c.

=

I

— 2

' 3

—

4 +

5

—

6 -f- &c.

=

- 4

+ 9

—

16 +

25

—

&c.

=

0

- 3

+ 9

—

27 +

81

—

&c.

=

z

— I

. 2 +

I

2-3-

- I.

2

3.4+ 1.

2 ,

3

4-S

- &c.

= 0.5963473621237

Euler alfo employed other methods for fumraable feries»
which we have not referred to either in the above article, or
in the articles iNXUEMENTsor Recurring Series, one of the
moft general of which is by means of certain fluxional ope-
rations ; but as this has been carried to a greater extent by
Lorgna, in his traft " de Seriebus convergentibus," we
(hall defer any further mention of it till we come to an ex-
planation of Lorgna's method.

We ought to give here fome account of the differential
method of Maferes and Hutton, but our article having al-
ready been carried to a greater extent than is ufual for ma-
thematical fubjefts, we muft limit ourfelves to giving merely
the theorems, and leave the application of them to the inge-
nuity of the reader.

8. Maferes dtjjferenhal Formula for Jlov/ly converging Series

Let a -It- bx -y- c .v' -\- d x'^ ■{- &c.

reprefent any feries, and D', D", D'", &c. the firll terms
of tlie fuccL-flive order of differences of the co-efficients
a,b, c, d, &c. which arefuppofcd continually to diminifh, then
will the fumof the above feries be exprelled by the differen-
tial feries

D'

D" x^
(I + "Y

&c.

I -(- * ( I +• .*)*
which is necefiarily converging, provided x be equal to, or
greater than unity. By means of thij feries, the author
finds the circumference of the circle from the feries

I I

7 + 7

I

7 +

- &c.

true to feven places of decimals, by the fummation of ten
terms, whereas, in its original form, 10,000 of its terms will
only (jive two dec mals correal. For a further illuflration
of this method, the reader is referred to the Phil. Tranf. for
1775, or to the author's Trcatife on Converging Series.

9. Hulloii's AJelhfid for f lowly converging Scries. — This me-
thod applies only to thofe feries whole terms are alternately
plus and minus, a»a— b + c — d+ Sec. the total fum of
which feries is given alternately in exccfs and defeft.

by the fucceflive quantities

ja — * 7a — 4 & 4- c

2' 4 • 8

iSa -lib + ^c- d ^1 a - 26 b + i6c - 6d + c
16 ' p ►

&c.; each of thefe quantities, as we have ftated above, is an
approximation towards the whole fum ; the lird in excefs,
the fecond in defeft, the third in exccfs, and fo on ; but
each is a nearer approximation than the preceding. The
general formula for n terms is

~[(2' - i)a- iA-n)b-(B- "-^^)

which latter feries, though indefinite like the firft, is fo much
more conversjing, that 2j terms of it will give a refult as
true as 10,000 terms of the orif;inal feries.

The fame formula is alfo applicable to certain diverging
feries, but we can only give fome of the moft remarkable
refults, as

-(

Q _ "(n — i) (n — 2)

^)rf-&c.J

The method of applying this formula to computation,
however, is fuch, that we mufl refer the reader for an ex-
planation of it to the author's Mifcellaneous Trads, pub-
lifhcd in 4to. in 1778, or to the new edition of the fame m
3 vols. 8vo. pubhfhed in 1812.

10. Lorgna's Method of Series. — This confifls in multi-
plying the terms of the propofed feries by fuch powers of
an indeterminate quantity, that the fluxion of the whole
feries being taken, and then divided by x, there fhall refult
a known feries, from which the fum of the original one
may be readily derived. Thus, let there be propofed
the feries,

1,1 I

+ + -4- &C

p + q p + 2q p + 33
Multiply each term fucceffively by

X » > X » » « » , &C. J

and there refults

+ JL' + ±1

+ &c.

P + 9 P+2g p + iq

Make the fum of this feries = S, and then taking the
fluxion on both tides, we have

?S ' /_ + , r+i jt+j

—r ■= X g -If X t +jr« + X 1 + Scc.

X '

or -^— = I -j- ^. -}- x'- + .«•' -I- &C. = -1—:

I — X

whence S

7(1 -X)

; and confequently.

XI -I- * ' -1- * '

/> + 9 /> + 2 ? /+77

which, by making .v = i, become* the fame as the feries
originally propofed, viz.

— ; — H + 1- -*- &c.

/> + ? Z^+z? / + 3? /* + 4?

It mufl be obferved, liowevcr, that in all fuch exprclTions,
the fluent mull be fo taken, as to vanifh when * = o, and
to be pcrfedlly integral when x = I.

By a fimilar procefs, the author finds the fum of the
feries,

I I I

/> + ? P + '^q P + $9

Oo 2

/k-t-4?

+ Sec.

to

SERIES.

, ^ being equal to the co-efficient of the fecond term with its

to be equal to — / •^' ' -^ ; the fluent being taken under fign changed, we have
9-^ i + x

the fame reftriftioa as before. And in nearly the fame way
he finds the fum of n terms of the former to be

+ Z.II- + 2"" 4- &c.,

I

I I

"'" Zin ' 'Ziin. +

&c. = --;

and the latter,
2

tter,

,(■/>'. /^ ' + '".7

= _ J f X '> X _ f X n xK.

9 l->^ r+T- -^ I + 1 J

denoting by z", 2"', s"", &c., or — , -^,, -^, &c. the

fucceffive roots of the above equation.

But we know that the values of x, anfwering to the cafe
of fin. X = o, are rr, 2 ~, 377, 4-, &c. ; tt denoting the
femi-circumference : fubilituting, therefore, thefe fucceffive
values of .v, we have

In a fimilar manner, M. Lorgna finds for the infinite
fum of

I I

+ -r-i + —
3"'=- 4'^

+

+

(P + q)m - (p + 2q)m' if +39)'"'

S = — / JLIJ! ; and the fum of n terms,
?«^ m±x

&c.

+ &c. =

-if

and Z

("'" ~ -y") " ' ■*'. when the figns are all plus ;
m"( m — *)

(m — X ") X ^ x^ when alternately plut
m^'im + x)

and minus.

For a farther illuflration of this method, we refer the
reader to Clarke's tranflation of Lorgna's treatife, " De
Seriebus Convergentibus," 4to. 1779.

II. Circular Series. — We have ftated, when illuftrating
the methods of fummation employed by the BernouUis,
that James, although he had difcovered feveral curious pro-
perties of the feries,

I 1,1 I

— + + — +&c.

had not been able to find its fum ; but this his brother
John afterwards effefted, and the folution of it is publiftied
in the 4th volume of his " Opera Omnia." Bernoulli
found this fum to depend upon the reftification of the

or— + r^ + — + —
I- 2' 3' 4'

Landen's method depends upon exaAly the fame prin-
ciples ; but he has rendered it more general, and exhibits
feveral very remarkable feries of this kind. He firft de-
duces the formula; for expreffing the fums of the feveral
powers of the roots, a, b, c, &c. of any equation

X" + Ax"-' + Bx"-' + Cx"-^ 4- &c. = o;
viz. ifS'= a -^ b Jr c Jr &c.
S" = a" + b' + c- + &c.
S'" = a' ^ i' -f c'+ &.C.

then S' = - A

S" = - 2 B - A S'
S'" = - 3 C - B S' - A S"
S'- = - 4D - C S' - B S" - A S'"
&c. &c.

Then from the two feries for tlie fine and coCne of any
arc x, viz.

fin. X = X —

+

3-+-5

cof.

X'

— +

2

3-4

.6

••7
-f &c.

+ &c

circle, (hewing that it is equal to one-fixth of the fquare of he derives the fum of their roots, when fin. x = o, and

the femi-circuniference of a circle, whofe radius = i. This
refult he drew from the known feries, which exprefles the
fine of an arc in terms of the arc, viz.

fin. X =

+

+ &C.;

2.3 2.3.4.5 2-3---7
whicli, when fin. .v = o, becomes, after dividing by x,

x' -)- &c.

cof. X = o ; and then, from the preceding formula for the
fums of the fquares, cubes, &c. of the roots of an equation,
draws the values of the feveral powers of thofe quantities.
Thus in the feries for the cofine, when cof. .t- = o, we

have for the feveral roots, (denoting the quadrant or —

bye,)

0=1 X- -t

2.3 2

3-4-5

2.3,

Or writing x =

+

I I

3^ '^ Tr

+

I 1

0=1 —

7?^-

3-4-5^

,72°

+ &c.

Again, multiplying by 2'",
I - - 4-

2'"-* - &c.

2.3 2.3.4.5

Now the fum of the roots of every equation of this form

I I

3^ 5r

there being no fecond term, but the fum of thefe fquared,

I 1 1 I 1

II I

V "*" 3'f'-

5^ i''^

4-
4-

>

t<C'~ J

SERIES.

2

+

I

7

In a fimilar manner we have
I I

+ --- + -^ = S" =

I

— +

I-

5' '^ r ~ ^'

7T + 3. ,j,

+

and on the fame principle, the fum of the feries,

III.

I + ■ — + ■ — + - — + occ.

^ 3=" 5'" 7"
may be found, n being any pofitive number whatever.

Euler's method is ilill more general than Landfii's, but
It depends upon principles of very nearly the fame origin :
we muft, however, limit ourfelves to giving a lew of the
principal refults. Reprefenting by ^ the femi-circumference
to radius i, he (hews that

I 1

+ ? + ?

+

&c. —

I 1 I „ 2

I

2' "^ 3^ ^ 4' "^ '"^^ 1.2.3.

Ill 2'

•5

3
I

&c. &c. = &c.

•7

3

I 4-

where the law of the firft multiplier is obvious, but the co-
tfficicnts of -', X , &c. are not fo eafily feen : thofe for the

z c 6qi

following powers arc - -% - - rr", t", &c.

^ 5 3 loS

If each of thefe feries be multiplied by their firft fraftion,
they give

I

I I 1 „

— + — + >- + &c. =
2' 4" 5

I

&c.

4* "*" 6*

&c.

+ &c. = -

2'"
1.2.3

2'
7777.5
&c.;

3

and fubtraAing thefe from the firft, we have

I

+ &c.

+•

3'
&c.

+

5'

Sec.

&.C.

2' — I

2'
2'- 1

2'
&C.

2-3

• ■ >

I
I

I

3

Again, fubtrafting the firft from thefe lalt, we find the
fum of the powers under the alternate figns plus and minus,
and fo on, almoll in cndlefs variety.

Other feries, wliofe fums are found in nearly the fame
manner, are as follows, viz.

1

~ T

+

I

7

+

&c.

~ 4"

I

+

-7

I
^ 1

+

&c.

I

+

pf

I

+

&c.

I

+

r4

I

+ 7^

+

&c.

^4

" 96

kc.

&c.

= &c

For a great variety of other ferles of this kind, fee
Euler's " Introduftio in Analyfin Infinitorum," and his
" Inftitutiones Calculi Differcntalis." See alfo Spence's
" Effay on the Tlieory of the various Orders of Logarithmic
Tranfcendents," 410. 1809; in which feveral feries, fome-
what fimilar to the above, but which were not fummable by
Euler's method, are treated of, and inveftigated in a very
able manner.

We ought perhaps to apologize to fuch of our readers
who are not interefted in mathematical enquiries, for the
length to which we have extended this article ; but thofe
who are, will not, we prefume, be difpleafed to find in a con-
denfed form a general view of the firft introduftion, andluc-
cefiive improvements, which have been made in this import-
ant branch of analyfis. Wc have, of courfe, been obliged
to pafs over in filence many authors who have written on this
fubjeft ; but we have endeavoured to include all thofe who
have introduced into the dodrine any methods diftindlly dif-
ferent from thofe who preceded them, at lealt, if we except
Mr. Spence's method, publiftiedin his" Logarithmic Tranf-
cendents," and that of M. Arbogaft, given in his " Calcul des
Derivations." We had indeed, in the firft inilance, intended
to give an illuftration of the principles of thefe two authors ;
but the length to which the article has already extended, and
the nature of their notation, which render necell'ary a confider-
able degree of previous explanation, put it out of our power
to execute this part of our plan, and we can therefore do
nothing more than refer the reader for information to the
works themfelves ; we refer him alfo to the " Calcul des
Diflerences Fines," by La Croix, and to an ingenious me-
moir by profeftor Vince, in the 7 2d volume of the Pholofo-
phical Tranfaftions.

As the preceding article is arranged wholly with refer-
ence to the hiftorical order of the fubjeft, we intend, in coa-
clufion, to furnifh the reader with a general fynopfis of the
doftrme of frries for the advantages of pradical operations.
12. General Syntpfu for the Summation of Series. — In the
following tablet, S denotes the fum of a finite number of
terms (n), and S the fum of an infinite number.

1. To find whether the fum of any propofed feries be
finite or infinite ; let p, q, r, be any three equidiftant terms ;
then, if/> [q - r) > r (p — q), the fum is finite ; but if
P {q — r) <~. r (p — q), it is infinite.

2. The general term of a feries, when any order m of its
differences vanifti, is of the form,

T = A n "• + B n""-' -f C n™- ' + &c.

and its fum of the form,

X = A'n"' + ' + B'/i'" + dr-' + &c.

the values A, B, C, &c being found as ftated in art 5, and
thofe of A', B', C, Sec. in a limilar manner.

3 Simple arithmetical Series.
a +(«+</) + (<'+ 2r/) + (a + 3^) .... fl -t- (n - 1^ J

(v) Infinite (S) = - (2fl-|- (h - l)(!].
If the feries decreafc, then </ is negative, and

(S) ="^ (2 <,-(«- l)d).

4. Simple geometrical Seriet.

a -(-ra-f-r'a + r'a. . . . r' ' a

(.-) = -"- . (8) = .^::-^-

^ ' I — r ^ ' r — I

5. P»<wert

SERIES.

5- Po'wers of Arilhmetkals.
{m+pY + (m + 2p)' + {m + ^p)'' . . . . {m + np)'

+ _L >-(r-i) (r-2) (r-3) (r - 4) _, _ _l_ r(r-i) (r-2) . . . (r - 6) .

6 2.3.4.5.6.7 ^ 30 2.3....8

I r (r- l) (r-2) ... . (r~8)

+ ^ — i '- /.' n'--" - &c.

42 2 . 3 .... 9

?!!: _ "f"'" . r(r-l) (r-2) .„,_.,_

+ — ^^ '—^ 'p'^m'—'^— &C.

(r-fl)/. 2 3.4 2.3.4.5.6

continued till they terminate. The co-efficients are the fame as - , -t^-, Ike. N'' 11.

A 13

This form includes all the powers of the natural feries, of which we have given the particular forms to the fifth power,
under art. 3.

6. Series ofjigurate Numbers.

I + m + !!Lif!±l} 4. " (>" + l) {»' + i) m(m + l) (m + 2) (m + 3) ^^

1.2 1.2-3 1.2.3.4

-g _ n{n+ l) [n+ 2) (« + 3) to m terms,
1.2.3.4 torn terms.

See particular refults, art. 3.

7. Series of compound jlrithmeticals.

{m + e) ip + e) + (m + 2e) {p + 2e) + . . . . {m +■ ne) {p + ne)

(S) =nmp+"-^' (^ + ^), + L"+0(^" + i.)^,

8. Series of compound geometrical Numbers.
{b - m) (c -p) e^ + {b - 2 ,n) (r - 2/) f'*' + (b - ^ m) (c - ^p) f^" + &c.

(s) = -il- j i, _ ^^lif + iHi+U I
' I - ;- 1 I - (-^ ^ ( I - f -^j ' j

9. Series of compound Jigurate Numbers.

I + mx + l(^Jli) ^. , '"(w + l) {m + 2) _^, ffi (m+ 1) (m+ 2) (m-f 3)
1.2 1.2-3 1-2-3-4

10. Series of the Reciprocals ofjigurale Numbers.

^ I . 2 1.2.3 I-2-3.4

m OT (m + l) m (ot -f i) (m — 2) m (m + I) (m + 2) (ot + 3) ''"

(.) = ^H-'
m — 2

II. Reciprocals of the Powers of Arilhmeticals.

1,1 1 I I

a" (a±^)" (a+2rf)'" ^ ('»±3'^)"' ' ' ' {a±{n — \)dY"

^' {m—l)a'"-'d za" 2.A.a"'+' 2 . 3 . 4 . . . B a'" + ^

, (^"-^'oai) w(>H + i) (m + 2) . . . (m + 4)^'
"^ , 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . . . C «'« + s *'^'

where

I

SERIES.

a , , , - 1 I I

where the law of continuation is obvious, p being = - ,, and the values of ^, -^, -^, &c. being derived as follows,

■viz. denoting thefe refpeftively by — -, — , — » &c.

I _ I

^ij5 = &c. &c. and generally

« n + I (« + I ) » ^« - I) ^ («+ l) «(«- l) (/»-2) («- 3)

--0 = — '.5 — ■ ■- ■ - ■ — - tp — ■ " .. ..., „ ui etc*

2«+4 2 ' 2.3-4 2.3.4.5.6

12. Fraaional Series of the folloiv'ing Form.

m m (m + p) ^ m {m + p) (m +Jp) ^ m {m + p) . . . . (m + (n — 1) p)

(X) =

^ ■' y ^^(l3+p) '^ ^{^ +p)(i3 + 2p) ^ • ■ /3 (^ +/) (/3 4- (n - I) i>)

'-./>-

m

(^ ) .. , -^^■- , „^ ± .. , . „^, , , ,■> + ,.^,^,^^o., ± ^'^•

(/ + ?)('« + '•)(/+ 2 ?)(«+*'■) (/>+ 3?) ('"+ 30 - (p + qn){m + nr)

pq
(30 TT^'-Tli ± ,-rT-^ + :.^' .^7 + Sec

(/ + ?) /3 "^ (/- + 2?)/3' (/ + 3?)/S^ - ■ ■ ■ (/" + «?) (3"

(S) = -L r (^"-^"J^-'^ . (s) = _L r -^r ^

qJl3"(^ + «) q J J^

rhere /3 muft be affirmative, and not lefs than unity.

(4-) ^7^T-T^ + n. , .^ .a , . ■^ + /-ITT-T^TTrT^rX + &c-

. ^ a a 4- « a 4- 2 f

^^•■' 3 (A 4- 0 (* + 2 0 "^ (* + 0 {^ + 2.)(i + 30 "^ (i + 20(^4-30(^+40

+ &c. . . ^i^+_L)i

Ji+ («- 0^} (^ + «0 {^+ (" + 0^}

.„. _ {^Zah-\-ac — le')n-\- (a c + i e) ri^
^ > ~ 2b{b + c) [b + nc) (b+ (n+ .) c

4- &c. . .

(S) = 1 -

a 4- ^ a + zb

I 4-/5) ^ '(a 4. f ) (<j 4- I 4. i) (a 4- I -f 2 A)

a 4- (« - 0 *

(a. 4- I) (a4-~l 4- *) • • • (a + i + {n - x)b)
I

(a 4- 0 {a + I + b) ... (n + i + {n ~ l) b)
(7.) o . f 4- (a -I- ^) f 7 4 (a 4- 2 *) f 9' 4- (a 4- 3 i) <: y' 4- &c.
• CN _ a<^ (g* — I) -I- nbcq" _ beq (q" — i)

q-i iy-0'

(8.)

(S.)^

cq

S E R

cr

a + 3^

&c.

Ja(j- i) +^] (?"- i) - ni(?- 0

(S) = ■ cq"-'{q-l)'-

For a great variety of other fradlional feries, fee Clarke's
tranllatiofi of Lorgna's Series ; for the feveral differential
formulse, our articles 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9 ; for the fummat.on
of Recurring Series, fee that article ; for the moll uietul
logarithmic feries, fee Logarithms ; and for various trigo-
nometrical feries, fee the articles Sines, and Trigono-
metry. • .u

SERIGNAC, in Geography, a town of I'rancc, in the
department of the Finifterre ; 10 miles N. of Carhaix.

SERIGNAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Hcrault ; 6 miles S. of Beziers.

SERIGNI, a fea-port town of the ifland of Java, in the
ftraits of Sunda, belonging to the king of Bantam.

SERIGO. See Cerigo.

Serigo, a town of Italy, on the lake Como j 27 miles
N. of Como.

SER.IIHEYODOUC, a town of Chinefc Tartar,', in
the country of the Mor.guls. N. lat. 42" 15'. E. long.

■102° 34'- . . , ■ r

SERIKOTCHE, a town of Perfia, in the province of

Chorafan or Khoraffns ; 195 miles N. of Herat.

SERIMSAH, a town of Egypt; 16 miles S. of Da-

mietta.

SERIN, or Serain, a river of France, which runs into
the Yoniie, between Auxerre and Joigny.

Serin, or Ser'wus, in Ormlhology, the name of a fmall
bird ; a fpecies of the Fringilla in tlie Luinaean fyllem, com-
mon in Germany and Italy, and called by the Aullrians
haerngril, or hirngryl. Its back is of a reddifh-brown, and
its head yellow ; the colour being deeper in the male, and
paler in the female ; the rump is of a beaatitul yellowifh-
green, as is alfo the breall ; the belly is white, and the lidos
have fome oblong blackilh fpots ; the tail, and long feathers
of the wings, are black, and a little greenifli at tlieir extre-
mities ; the beak is very thick, Itrong, and fhort, and is
very fharp at the point. It is kept in cages, and lings very
fweetly.

Serin of Surinam. See Pipra Crlftata.
Serin of the Canaries. See Fringilla Canarla.
Serin of Jamaica. See Fringilla Cana.
SERINDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, the inhabitants of which paid
great refpeft to the emperor Juhan.

SERINE, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Macedonia ; 44 miles S.E. of Saloniki.

SERINEAH, a town of Bengal, 18 miles S. of Pur-
neah.

SERINETTE, a bird organ, faid in the Encyclopedic
to be an invention of Barbary. The pitch is very higli,
being in unifon with the larigot Hop in French organs, and
with our 15th. It is ufed to teach birds httle tunes, by
thofe unable to play on the flageolet. Its conipafs is only
an oftave, or 13 pipes, as no bafe is ever wanted.

SERINGAPATAM, in Geography, a city of Hindoof-
tan, and capital of My'ore, fituated on an idand in the Cau-
very, which is here about five feet deep, and runs over a rocky
channel, about 290 or :;oo miles from Madras. The length
of this ille is about four miles, and its breadth about four and
a half miles ; the weftern fide being allotted to the fortrefs,

S E R

which occupied 2000 yards, diftinguifhed by regular out-
works, magnificent palaces, and lofty mofl<s ; for Tippoo
and his father were both Mahometans, nor were they averfe
from the perfecution of the Hindoos and Chrillians. The
environs were decorated wita noble gardens ; and among
other mean-i of defence was the "bound hedge," as it was
called, confining of every thorny tree and cau'lic plant of the
climate, planted to the breadth of from 30 to 50 feet.
Covered on the north and fouth by the river, this fortrefs
was defended till the peace of 1792 by a fingb rampart;
the ea!l and weft faces being much weaker, were ftrengthened
by double walls and ditches, by outworks before the gates,
by a circular work upon the fouth-eaft angle, and by feveral
formidable cavaliers within and upon the fouthern rampart.
The rampart, which is thick and ftrong, varies in height
from 20 to 35 feet and upwards : the whole of the revSte-
ment, except the north-weft baftion, is compofed of granite
cut in large oblong pieces, laid in cement, tranfverfely
in the walls. The ditches are cut out of the folid rock ;
a ftone glacis extends along the north face. But the inte-
rior of the fort has few good buildings, and the town in
general is mean. The old Myfore palace being in a ruined
Rate, has been converted into a military ftorehoufe. The
fultan's palace is a magnificent edifice, in the Afiatic Ityle,
but much disfigured by a high wall, and a number of un-
finifhed buildings round it. The great mode is covered with
the finell chunam (or polifhed cement), and ornamented with
lofty mir.arets. In the year 1792, lord Cornwallis laid
fiege to this city, and compelled Tippoo, king of Myfore, to
a peace, by which he made a ceffion of great part of his
do.Tiinions, and agreed to pay three crores and thirty lacks
of rupees towards the expences of the war. In the year
1799, the Britifh troops, after a (hort fiege of a few days,
took it by affault. Thelofs of the befiegers amounted to 22
officers killed, and45 wounded, 181 Eiiropea:is rank and file
killed, 622 wounded, and 22 mifling ; 1 19 natives killed,
420 wounded, and 100 mifting. There were in the fort
13,739 regular i-.ifantry ; and without the fort and in the
intrenchmentsof the ifl-ind 8100. Tlie lofs muft have been
very great, as in the afl'ault only, 24 principal officers were
killed, and feven wounded, befides Tippoo hinifelf, who re-
ceived a (hot in his head. There were found in the forts
373 brafs guns, 60 mortars, 1 1 howitzers, 466 iron gans,
and 12 mortars, 424,400 round fhot, 520,000 lbs. of gun-
powder, and 99,000 mulkets, carbines, &c. Within the
fort there were II large powder magazines, 72 expence ma-
gazines, 1 1 armouries, two cannon founderies, three build-
ings with magazines for boring guns and mulkets, four large
arfenals, and 17 other ftorehoufes, containing accoutrements,
fwords, and other articles, befides many granaries abundantly
ftored with provifioiis of all kind?. Of treafure and jewels
the total value was 2,535,804 ilar pagodas, or 1,143,216/.
flerling. The fall ot this city put the whole kingdom of
Myfore, with all its refources, i.to the power of the Britilh
government. Tippoo's fons lurrendcred on the fall of
Seringapatam. When the ftrength of the fortifications of
all kinds of this place, and the number of Tippoo's troops
and artillery are confidered, our repeated fuccedes afford
a convincing proof that no climate or fortrefs can overcome
Britifti courage, condu A, and perfeverance. N. lat. 1 2° 3 1'
45". E. long. 76" 46' 45".

SERINGHAM, an ifland of Hindooftan, in the river
Cauvery, on which are two pagodas, much venerated by
the Hindoos, and one peciharly the objeft of devotion.
In 1751 the French took pofi'effion of this pagoda, and in
the following year it was taken by the EngUlh under major
Lawrence ; 4 miles N.E. of Tritchinopoli.

7 SERINHAEM,

S E R

S E R

SERINHAEM, a river of Brafil, which rum into the
Atlantic, S. lat. I z° 50'.

SERINO, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra ; 19
miles S.of Benevento.

SERINPALE, a town of Africa, in the country of
Cayor, on the left bank of the Senegal. N. lat. 16° 50'. W.
long. 15° 50'.

SERINPETA, an ifland in the river Senegal, where the
canoes of tiie country are conftriifted.

SERIO, a river of Italy, which runs into the Adda, at
Pizzighitone. — Alfo, a department of Italy, compofed of
part of the Bergamafco : it contains 195,803 inhabitants,
who eleft ! 5 deputies. Its capital is Bergamo.

SERIOLA, in Botany, faid by De Theis to be the
diminutive of o-f^i,, the ancient appellation of Succory or
Endive, which this plant refembles, efpecially in its leaves.
— Linn. Gen. 404. Schreb. 533. Wiild. Sp. PI. v. 3.
1619. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.
465. Juir. 171. Lamarck Ilultr. t. 656. Gasrtn. t. 159.
— Clafs and order. Syngenejia Polygamla JEqualts. Nat.
Ord. Compofiliv Semiflofciiloftc, Linn. Cichoracea, Jufl.

Gen.Ch. Common calyx fimple, compofed of linear, nearly
equal, ereft leaves. Cor. compound, imbricated, uniform,
compofed of numerous, equal, perfeft flowers ; proper of
one ligulatc, linear, truncated, five-toothed petal. Slam. Fi-
laments five, capillary, very (hort ; anthers cylindrical,
tubular. Pi/l. Germen ovate ; Ilyle thread-fhaped, the
length of the ftamens ; ftigmas two, reflexed. Perk, none,
except the unchanged calyx. Seeds oblong, the length of
the calyx. Down capillary, feathered, with ten rays hairy
at the fides. Rccept. chaffy, deciduous, as long as the
calyx.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Calyx fimple. Seed-down
rather hairy.

1. S. /avigata. Smooth Seriola. Linn. Sp. PI. 1139.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 237. t. 216. — Herb fmoothifh.
Leaves obovate, toothed. — Found in the fidures of rocks
in Barbary, and in the ifland of Candia. It flowers, as in-
deed do all the rell, in July and Augult. Hoots perennial,
long, twifted, icaly at the top. Stem none. Leaves radical,
in a circular duller, ftalked, fmootli, remotely toothed,
decurrcnt. Fhwer-Jlalks ereft, (lender, a little (Ireaked,
{lightly branched, fometimcs limple, almolt leaflefs, mollly
lingle-flowered. Flowers yellow.

2. S. athnen/is. Rough Seriola. Linn. Sp. PI. 1139.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 237. " Jacq. Obf. v. 4. 3. t. 79."
— Herb rough. Leaves obovate, (lightly toothed. — Native
of Italy, and near Malcar in Barbary. Root annual. Stems
branched, crcft, hairy. Leaves hairy, (talked ; upper ones
fe(hle, embracing the (lem. Flowcr-Jlalks ereft, hairy,
leaflefs above, luiequal, fingle-flowtred. Floiuers yellow,
forming a fort of corymbofe panicle.

3. S. crelenfis. Cretan Seriola. Linn. Sp. PI. 1139.
(" Achyrophorub hirfutus, denlis leonis folio Icvitcr den-
tato ; Vaill. Aft. 740.") — Herb rough with hairs. Leaves
runcinate. — Native of the idand of Candia or Crete. We
know not of any figure or defcription of this fpecics. It
reds on the above quoted authorities.

4. S. urens. Stinging Seriola. Linn. Sp. PI. 11 39.
AUion. Pedcm. t. 29. f. I. " Sclimidel. Ic. t. 32." —
Herb Hinging. Leave.? tootiicd. Stem branched. — Native
of Sicily and the fouth of Europe. Root annual, (mall,
fibrous. Stem none. Leaves in a circular duller, hairy,
fringed, Floiuer-Jlalls ereft, hairy, (lightly branched.
Flowers yellow. I^innxus difcovcrcd that the (calcs of the
calyx are ftiarp with pungent little prickles, whence indeed
the fpccific name.

Vol. XXXH.

SERIPALA, in yfnclent Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, in the number of thofc which
were fituated to the call of the river Nomadus, according to
Ptolemy.

SERIPHIUM, in Botany, a name applied to this genus
on account of the analogy, in its habit and foliage, with
Jlrtemifa pont'ica of Pliny, called by the Greeks Ssjsi^icv.
The origin of this name may be traced to Ser'iphion, or, as
it is now called, Serpho, an idand in the ^gean fea, whofe
foil is of fo dry and (lerile a nature, as only to abound in
plants of this rough kind. " This ifland," fays De Theis,
" covered with rocks and mountains, has always been re-
garded as a melancholy retreat. A Greek once demanded
of one of its inhabitants, what crime they punilhed with
bani(hment ? Perjury, was the anfwer. Why then, fays
the Greek, don't you always perjure yourfelvcs, in order
that you may efcape from fuch a horrible refidencc ?"
The French name Armofelle, from jlrmoife. Worn "^vood, is
exprelTive of itt. natural affinity to that genus. — Linn. Gen.
454. Schreb. 594. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. .Tufl'. 180.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 722. Gaertn. t. 167. — Claf' and orner,
Syngenejia Pol\gamia Segregata. Nat. Ord. Compo/ita Nu-
camentace<c, Linn. Corymbiferit, Juli.

Obf. Willdenow and the editor of Hortus Kewen/is have
not adopted this genus. They refer the feveral fpecies of
it to /frtemifia and State.

Gen.Ch. Cal. Perianth double ; outer of five, roundi(h,
imbricated, downy leaves ; inner of five, ereft, acuminated,
awl-fliaped, fmooth, fcaly leaves, which are twice as long
as the outer ones, fingle- flowered. Cor. of one petal, fun-
nel-(haped, (horter than the inner calyx ; limb five-toothed.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary ; anthers cylindrical. Pi/l'
Germen between the calyx and the flower ; Ilyle thread-
fhaped ; lligma rather cloven. Peric. none, except the un-
changed, clofed calyx. Seed folitary, oblong.

Elf. Ch. Calyx double, imbricated. Corolla of one
petal, regular. Seed folitary, oblong, below the corolla.

1. S. cinereum. Heath-leaved Seriphium. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1 3 16. (Stcebe cinerea ; Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 2406,
Tamarifcus sthiopicus, Coridis folio glabro ; Pluk. Mant.
178. t. 297. f. I.) — Flowers in whorled fpikes. Leaves
fpreading. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope, as indeed
are all the remaining fpecies. They flower frem July to
September. Stem upright, branched. Leaves fpreading,
fmall, lanceolate, crowded, recurved, gibbous at the bale,
hoary. Flowers in Icngtlicned fpikes, like a fox's tail, pale
red, interrupted. Scales of the calyx almoll briltly.

2. S. plumofum. Feathered Seriphiimi. Linn. Sp. PI.
13 16. Mant. 481. (Stcebe plumola ; Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3.
2407.) — Flowers about fix in a whorl, (piked. Leaves
clullered, awl-fliaped. — Leaves thread-lhaped, granulated.
Flowers lateral, felTile, imbricated.

3. S. ftifcum. Brown Seriphium. Linn. Sp. PI. 13 17.
Mant. 481. (Stoebe fufca ; Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 2407.) —
Flowers in terminal heads. Leaves linear, awnlcfn, downy.
Stems branched, wavy. Leaves a(h-coloured. Flowers
feflile, terminal, clullered.

4. S. ambiguum. Doubtful Seriphium. Linn. Sy(l.
Veg. ed. 14. 799. (Artemilia ambigiia ; Linn. Sp. PI.
1 190. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 1815.) — Flowers about three
together, fpiked. Leaves linear. Stem (lirubby, pro-
cumbent, branciied, afh-coloured. Leaves fimple, linear,
clullered. Flowers in long, termin;;! fpikes.

The feed-down of this fpecies being feathered at the tip,
induced Limiius to make it a Seriphium.

SERIPHUS, or Si;nn'll0.s, in Ancient Geography, an

idand m the Archipelago, and one of the Cyclaoes, ac-

P p cordinjj

S E R

cording to Herodotus, the inhabitants of which took the
part of the G'-eeks agaiiift Xerxes. Some authors, how-
ever, place Scr.phus in the ra,ik of the Sporades. It is
fitnatod vrt fl of Pares, and fouth of Cythnus. It prefents
the appearaiice of a rock, but is inhabited. The Romans
fent hi li' r certain criminals.

SER iPPO, a town of Hifpania, in Boctica. Pliny.

SERI SOMTOU, in Gfography, a dillncl of Thibet,
iituated between E. long. 95° and 9^°, and between J!^. lat.
30°a:!d 31".

SERISSA, in Botany, a genus of Juflieu's, and by that
author correAly feparated from Lyclum. Loureiro calls it
Dyfoda, from Svanh:, Jli/^ing, becaufe of its remarkably
fetid fmell.—Jufr. Gen. 209. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1061.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 376. Lamarck llluftr. t. 151.
(Dyfoda; Loureir. Cochinch. 14J. Buchozia ; L'Herit.
Monogr.) — Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynta. Nat.
Ord. Rubiace£, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, divided into five,
awl-fhaped, ereft fegments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-
fhaped ; tube fhort ; limb broad, reflexed, five-cleft ; feg-
ments trifid, acute. Stam. Filaments five, very fiiort, be-
low the mouth of the tube ; anthers oblong, incumbent.
Pyi. Germen inferior, roundifh ; ityle thread-fhapcd, the
length of the corolla ; ftigma oblong, villous, cloven, re-
flexed. Perk. Berry roundifh, fmall, of one cell. Seeds
numerous, (according to L'Heritier and Brown only two,)
ovate, fmall.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, fringed at the mouth.
Segments of the limb moftly three-lobed. Berry i.^ferior,
with two feeds.

I. S. fcetlda. Japanefe Seriila. Willd. n. I. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. I. 376. (Lycium japonicum ; Curt. Mag.
t. 361.) — Native of China and Japan, flowering through-
out the fummer. — Stem fhrubby, much divided, about two
feet high, ereft. Branches afcending. Leaves feflile, ob-
long, ovate, entire, flat, fmall, cluftered together. Flowers
folitary or cluftered, generally terminal, white.

This elegant little flirub produces numerous white
flowers, which have tlie appearance of thofe of Jafmine,
but are without fcent, as indeed is the whole plant, until it
be fqueezed or bruifed, when it emits a highly difgullmg
imell. A variety with double flowers is not uncommon in
the gardens about London.

SERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of European
•Sarmatia, in the vicinity of the Boryithenes. Ptolemy.

SERKA, in Geography^ a town of Nubia ; 200 miles S.
of Sennaar.

SERKEISK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Kaluga; 44 miles W.S.W. of Kaluga. N. lat. 54° 16'.
E long. 34" 34'-

SERKES. See Tserkesh.

SERKIS, a town of ACatic Turkey, in Caramania ; 50
miles W. of Cogni.

SERLIO, Sebastiano, in Biography, an eminent ar-
chiteft, was a native of Bologna, who flourifhed in the
early part of the fixteenth century at Venice, in the charac-
ter of an architeft. He afterwards travelled through Italy,
and refided a confiderable time at Rom.e, where he fludied
the fine arts, and made many drawings of edifices, ancient
and modern, and he is faid to have been the firft who exa-
mined, with the eye of a man of fcience, the remains of
ancient architefture. The knowledge which he acquired
was given to the public in a complete treatife of architec-
ture, of which he planned feveral books, and the firit that
appeared was the fourth in order, comprehending the gene-
ral rules of architefture, which he printed at Venice in

SER

1537, dedicated to Hercules II. duke of Ferrara. The
other fix books appeared fucceflively at different intervals,
and the different editions made of them prove their popu-
larity. Serho, in 1 54 1, was invited to France by Francis I.
and was by that fovereign employed in the erections at Fon-
tainebleau, where he thenceforth refided, and where he died,
at an advanced age, in 1578. Though as an author he was
much attached to the principles of Vitruvius in his defigns
as an artift, he very much neglefted them. His fchool of
St. Roch, and palace Grimani at Venice, are built in a
grand and magnificent ftyle. Gen. Biog.

SERMAISE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Marne ; 19 miles S. of Menehould.

SERMAISES, a town of France, in the department
of the Loiret ; 7 miles N. of Pithiviers.

SERMAKI, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Tavaitland ; 170 miles N. of Tavalthus.

SERMANICOMAGUS, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Gaul, which, according to the tables of Peutinger, was
fituated in Aquitania iecunda. It was on the right of the
Charente, at feme diilance N. of Iculifna, according to M.
d'Anville ; it is the prefent Chermes.

SERMATIA, in Geigraphy, a town of Hindooflan, in
the fubah of Agra ; 25 miles N.E; of Kerowly.

SERMATTA, an ifland in the Eall Indian fea, about
22 miles long, and fix broad. S. lat. 8^ 9'. E. long. 129° 13'.

SERMESOK, an illand near the W. coaft of Greenland.
N. lat. 6i''5o'. W. long. 47° 45'.

SERMIA, a river which rifes near Montegio, in the
ftate of Genoa, and after pafling by Serravalle, Tortona,
&c. runs into the Tanaro.

SERMIN, a town of Iftria ; 2 miles N.E. of Capo
d'Iftria.

SERMIONE, a town and caftle of Italy, in the Ve-
ronefe, on a neck of land running into lake Gorda, the
harbour of which may be iliut by means of chains, defended
by a caftle. This was the native place of the poet Catullus ;
16 miles W. of Verona.

SERMOCINATION, Sermocinatio, m Rhetoric, de-
notes difcourfe in general, whether held by a perfon alone,
or in company, and is the fame with what is otherwife called
dialogifm.

SERMOLOGUS, Sermologue, an ecclefiaftical book
compofed of fermons, or homilies of popes, and other per-
fons of eminence and fanftity, formerly read at the fealls
of the Confeffors, the Purification, All Saints, and on every
day from Chriftmas to the oftave of the Epiphany. See
Homily.

SERMON, a difcourfe delivered in public, for the pur-
pofe of religious inltruftion and improvement : or a per-
fuafive oration.

As to the choice of fubjefts for a fermon, they fhould be
fuch as ill the judgment of the preacher feem to be the mofl
ufeful, and the beit accommodated to the circumftances of
his audience. The unmeaning applaufe which the ignorant
give to what is above their capacity, common fenfe and
common probity muit teach every man to defpife. Uleful-
nefs and true eloquence are infeparable, nor can any man be
juftly deemed a good preacher, who is not an ufeful one.
In a fermon, confidered as a peculiar fpecies of compofition,
the firft objeft of attention is its unity ; by which we mean,
that there (hould be fome one main point, to which the whole
ftrain of a fermon fhould refer. This unity, however, does
not require that there fhould be no feparate heads or divifions
in the difcourfe, or that one thought fhould again and again
be prefented to the hearer in different lights. Separate divi-
fions or diftinft heads, provided that they are not too

numerous

SERMON.

numerous and too minute, ferve to aid the compofer and the
hearer of a fermou. In order to render fermons more
ftriking, and conTcquently more ufeful, the fubjeft of them
Ihould be precife and particular. General fubjefts, though
often chofen by young preachers, becaufe they offer a more
ample fupply of matter, without much labour of thought,
and a wider fcope for the difplay of (howy talents, are by
no means the moil favourable for producing the high effedls
of preaching. Thefe fubjefts, often recurred to, admit of
little diverfuy and variety. The attention of the hearer is
more certainly engaged and fixed, by feizing fome particular
view of a great fubjeft, fome fingle intereiling topic, and
direfting to that point the whole force of argument and
eloquence. Here indeed the execution is more difficult, but
the merit and the effeft are higher. Moreover, the com-
pofer of a fermon fhould never Itudy to fay all that can be faid
upon a fubjeft : no error can be greater than this. On the other
hand, the preacher Ihould feleft the mod ufeful, ftriking, and
perfuafive topics which the text fuggefts ; and with this view
he (hould confider, that difcourfes for the pulpit are intended
lefs for information than perfuafion, and that nothing is more
oppofite to perfuafion than an unnecellary and tedious fulnefs.
Again, in ftudying a fermon, the preacher ought to place
himfelf in the fituation of a ferious hearer ; and derive his
principal materials from thofe views of a fubjeft, and thofe
arguments and refleftions which would operate moft favour-
ably and moft effeftually on his own mind. Above all things,
the preacher fliould lludy to render his inftruftions interefting
to the hearers. In this refpeft, much depends on the delivery
of a difcourfe, but much will alfo depend on the compofition
of it. Correft language and elegant defcription are but
the fecondary inftruments of preaching in an interefting
manner. The great fecret lies, in bringing home all that is
faid to the hearts of the hearers, fo that every man may be
led to tliink that the preacher is addreffing him in particular.
It is hardly necefi'ary to fubjoin a caution here, that perfona-
lity (hould be avoided. For the attainment of the end now
ftated, the preacher fhould avoid all intricate reafonings,
and exprefling himfelf in general fpeculative propofitions, or
laying down praftical truths in an abllraft metaphyfical
manner. As much as pofiible, the difcourfe ought to be
carried on in the Itrain of direft addrefs to the audience ;
not in the ftrain of one writing an ciiay, but of one fpeaking
to a multitude, and ftudying to mix what is called applica-
tion, or what has an immediate reference to praftice,
with the doftrinal and didaftic parts of the fermon.
In this conneftion we may add, that the preacher Ihould
adapt his difcourfes, with a view of making them in-
terefting, to the different ages, charafters, and conditions of
men, and that he ftiould avail himfelf of any pcrfonal or do-
meftic occurrence, for imparting either inftruftion or confo-
lation. Some of the moft imprefTive difcourfes are thofe
that delineate and exhibit examples founded on hiftorical
fafts, and drawn from real life. Manv of thefe may be
found in fcripturc, which, when they arc well chofen, command
a high degree of attention. Bilhop Butler's fermon on the
" charafter of Balaam," affords a fpecimen of this kind of
prcacliing. It is of importance to obforve, farther, that
the preacher ftiould be cautious not to take his model from
particular fafhions that chance to have the vogue. It is the
univcrfal tafte of mankind, which is fubjeft to no changing
modes, that alone is entitled to poftefs any authority : and
this will never give its fandtion to any ftrain of preaching
that is not founded in human nature, connefted with ufe-
fulnefs, adapted to the proper idea of a fermon, as a ferious
perfuafive oration, delivered to a multitude, in order to make
thcra better men. Let the preacher form himfelf upon this

ftandard, and he will attain reputation and fuccefs much
more than by a fervile compliance with any popular tafte, or
tranfient humour of his hearers.

As to the ftyle of fermons, it Ihould in the firft place be
very perfpicuous. Plainnefs and fimplicity ftiould prevail ;
and of courfe all unufual, fwoln, or high-founding words
fhould be avoided ; and efpecially thofe that are merely poe-
tical, or merely philofophical. Dignity of expreftion is in-
deed indifpenfible ; but this dignity is perfeftly confiftent
with fimplicity, and alfo with a lively and animated ftyle,
diftated by the earneftnef; which a preacher ought really to
feel, and not merely to affeft, andjuftihed by the grandeur
and importance of his fubjefts. He not only may employ
metaphors and comparifons, but, on proper occafions, may
apoftrophife the faint or the finner, may perfonify inanimate
objefts, break out into bold exclamations, and, in general,
command the moft paffionate figures of fpeech.

The language of fcripture, properly employed, is a great
ornament to fermons ; and it may be employed either in the
way of quotation or aliufioii. But the allufions which the
preacher ufes ftiould be natural andeafy, forif they feem forced,
they approach to the nature of conceits. In a fermon, no
points or conceits ftiould appear, no affefted fmartnefs and
quaintnefs of expreffton ; which derogate much from the
dignity of the pulpit. It is a ftrong exprclfive ftyle, rather
than a fparkling one, that ought to be ftudied. Epithets
have often great beauty and force, but it is a great error to
imagine, tliat we render ftyle ftrong and expreflive, by a
conftant and multiphed ufe of epithets.

As to the queftion, whether it be moft proper to write
fermons fully, and commit them accurately to memory, or
to ftudy only the matter and thoughts, and truft the ex-
preftion, in part at leall, to the dehvery. Dr. Blair is of
opinion that no univerfal rule can be given. Preachers muft
adopt either of thefe methods, according to their different ge-
nius, and we m,iy add according to the fituation where they are
fettled, and the rank or charaAer of the affembly which they
addrefs. It is proper, however, to begin, at leail, the praftice
of preaching, with writing as accurately as pofiible. Hethinkj
it alfo proper to continue, as long as the habits of induftry
laft, in the praftice both of writing and committing to me-
mory. The praftice of reading fermons is, as our author
fays, one of the greateft obftacles to the eloquence of the
pulpit in Great Britain, where alone this praftice prevails.
No diicourfe which is defigned to be perfuafive can have the
fame force when read as when fpoken. We arc of opinion,
however, that fermons from memory have little advantage,
in point of effeft, above thofe that are read. An extempo-
rary fern-on has this advantage in an eminent degree ; but
few excel, and many difcourfes of this kind are fuch as
would difgull ajudicious, though candid, hearer.

The French and Englifli writers of fermons proceed upon
very different ideas of the eloquence of the pulpit. A
French fermon is, for the moft part, a warm animated ex-
hortation ; an Englilh one, a piece of cool inftruftivc rea-
foning. The French preachers addrefs themfelves chiefly to
the imagination and the pafTions : the Englilh, almoft folely
to the underftanding. The union nf thefe two kinds
of compofition, of the French carneftnefs and warmth
with the Englilh accuracy and rcafoning, would form,
in Dr. Blair's judgment, the model of a perfcft fer-
mon. The cenfure which, in faft, the French critics
pafs on tlie Englifh preachers is, that they arc philofo-
phers and logicians, but not orators. Among the French
Protcftant divines, Saurin is the moft diftinguiftied ; and tlie
late Mr. Robinfon of Cambridge^ has done a public lervicc by
tranflating many of his difcourfes into the Englifti language.
P p 2 Saurin

S E R

S E R

Saurin is copious, eloquent, and devout, though, in his man-
ner, too oftentatious. Among the Roman Catholics, the two
moll eminent are Bourdaloue and Maffillon. The French cri-
tics differ in their opinion to which of thefe preachers the
preference h due. To Bourdaloue they attribute more foli-
dity and clofe reafoning : to MaffiUon, a more pleafmg and
engaging manner. The former is a great reafoner, and in-
culcates his doftrines with much zeal, piety, and earnellnefs ;
but his llyle is verbofe, and abounding with quotations from
the fathers, and ho wants imagination. MaffiUon has more
grace, more fentiment, and, a5 Dr. Blairthinks, may have more
genius. He difcovers much knowledge, both of the world
and of the human heart ; he is pathetic and perfuafive, and
is perhaps the mod eloquent writer of fermons which mo-
dern times have produced. During the period that pre-
ceded the reftoration of Ciiarles II., the fermons of the
£ngli(h divines abounded with fcholaftic cafuiiUcal theology,
but in their application they adopted more pathetic addrefl'es
to the confciences of the hearers. Upon the reiloration,
preaching afl'umed a more correft and polifhed form.
Whatever was earnell and paflionate, either in the compofi-
tion or delivery of fermon'^, was reckoned enthufialtic and
fanatical ; and hence that argumentative manner, bordering
on the dry and unperfuaiive, which is too generally the cha-
rafterof Englifh fermons. Dr. Clark, who excels in a va-
riety of refpccls, may be eftcemed a very inllruftive com-
pofer of fermons, but he is deficient in the power of in-
tereiling and feizing the heart. Tillotfon's manner is more
free and warm, and he approaches nearer than molt of the
Enghlh divines to the charaifter of popular fpcaking ; and
he is, even now, one of the bell models for preaching. Dr.
Barrow is admirable for the prodigious fecundity of his in-
vention, and the concurrence, Itrength, and force of his con-
ceptions ; but lefs happy in execution, or compolition.
Atterbury deferves to be particularly mentioned as a model
of correft and beautiful flyle, befides having the merit of a
warmer and more eloquent flrain of writing in fome of his
fermons, tlian is commonly met with. If BuUer had given
us more fermons in the rtrain of thofe upon felf-deceit and
the charafter of Balaam, in the room of abftraft philofophi-
cal eifayp, he might have been diltinguilhed for that fpecies
of charaderiftical fermons above recommended.

The parts of a fermon, difcourfe, orregular formed oration,
are the following fix ; viz. the exordium or introduftion, the
Hate and divifionof the fubjeft, narration, and explication, rea-
foning, or arguments, the pathetic part, and the conclufion.
(See each under its proper head.) The introduAion of an
Englilh fermon is too often ftiff and formal, whereas thofe
of the French preachers are very fplendid and lively.
Common-place topics fhould be avoided": variety Ihould be
ftudied ; and in fome cafes the difcourfe may commence
without an introduftion. Explanatory introduftions from
the context are not uncommon, they are appropriate and
inllruAive; but they fiiould not be too long. An hifto-
rical introduftion has, generally, a happy effeft in caufing
attention. To the propofition or enunciation of the fub-
jeft generally fucceeds the divifion ; but it has been quef-
tioned, whether this method of lay ng down heads, as it is
called, be the belt method of preaching. Archbilhop Cambray
declares ftrongly againlt it ; alleging, that it is a modern
invention, that it was never praftiied by the fathers of the
church, and that it took its rife from the fchoolmen. But
we are of opinion, with Dr. Blair, that it ferves ufeful pur-
jjofes, and ought not to be laid afide. ( See the preceding
part of this article.) But in any difcourfe or fermon, there
are certain rules which (hould be obferved, e. g. the feveral
parts into which the fubjedt is divided fhould be really dif-

tinft from one another : the order of nature (hould be fol-
lowed, beginning with the fimpleft points, or thofe that are
moil eafily apprehended and necefi"ary to be firft difcufled,
and then proceeding to thofe which are built upon the
former, and which fuppofe them to be known : — the feveral
members of a divifion ought to exhauft the fubjeft : — the
terms in which the partitions are expreffed fhould be as con-
cife as pofllble : — and the number of heads (hould not be
needlefsly multiplied. Another part of a difcourfe or fer-
mon is narration. This part mull be concife, clear, and
dillinft, and in a ftyle correft and elegant, rather than
highly adorned. The argumentative part is fuceeeded by
the pathetic, in which, if any where, eloquence reigns, and
exerts its power. (See Pathetic.) In fermons, infe-
rences from what has been faid make a common conclufion.
With regard to thefe care Ihould be taken, not only that
they rife naturally, but that they (hould fo much agree with
the (train of fentiment throughout the difcourfe, as not to
break the unity of the fermon. The precife time of con-
cluding a difcourfe is an objeft of importance. It (hould
be fo adjuited that our difcourfe is brought to a point ;
neither ending abruptly and unexpeftedly ; nor difappointing
the expectation of the hearers, when they look for the
clofe ; and continuing to hover round and round the con-
clufion, till they become heartily tired of us. We (hould
endeavour to go off with a good grace ; not to end with a
languilhing and drawling fentence ; but to rife with dig-
nity and fpirit, that we may leave the minds of the hearers
warm ; and difmils them with a favourable iraprefTion of
the fubjeft, and of the fpeaker. Blair's Leftures, vol. ii.
See Elocution of the Pulpit, and Preaching.

Sermon, Funeral. See Funeral.

SERMONES, the title which Horace gives his Satires.
See S.\TiRE.

Critics are divided about the reafon of the name ; the
opinion of father Boiiu feems bell grounded. A mere
obfervance of feet and meafure, fuch as we find in Terence,
Plautus, and in Horace's Satires, he thinks is not fufficient
to conltitute verle, to determine the work to be poetical, or
to diftinguilh it from profe ; unlefs it have fome farther air,
or charadter of poetry ; fomcwhat of the fable or the fubhme.

Hence he judges it is, that Horace calls his Satires ^ro/!',
or fermons : his Odes have quite another air, and are there-
fore called poems, carmina.

SERMONETTA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Campagna, fituated on a mountain difficult of accefs. Some
fay that it occupies tiie fcite of the ancient Sora ; but
others fay that it occupies the fpot on which Sulmo Itood ;
13 miles S. of Velctri.

SERMONIUM, in Old Records, a kind of interlude or
hiftorical play, which the inferior orders of clergy, affilted
by boys, &c. ufed at times to atl in the body of the church,
fuitable to the folemnity of fome felHval or high procellion
day.

This is fuppofed to have been tlie origin of the modem
drama.

SERMOUNTAIN, in Botany, a fpecies of the lafcr-
wort in the Linnaean fyltem, and, according to others, of
the fefeli, or wild fpignel, which grows wild in fome of the
fouthern parts of Europe, is raifed with us in gardens, and
flowers in June.

The feeds of this plant are the part directed for ufe in
our pharmacopoeias, and the roots appear to be ufeful
aromatics, though not regarded in practice ; of an agreeable
fmell, and a warm glowing fwcctilh talle ; the roots have
the greatelt warmth and pungency ; the feeds the greatell
fweetnefs, and the moil pleafant flavour. A fpirituous ex-
trad

S E It

S E R

traft of the feeds is a very elegant aromatic fweet. Lewis.
See Seseli Seed.

SERMUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Creufe ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Auzance.

SERNA, La, a town of Spain, in the province ot
Leon ; 24 miles N. of Palencia.

SERNANCHELLA, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
■vince of Beira ; 19 miles S.E. of Lamesjo.

SERNETTY, a town of Bengal ; "30 miles E.S.E. of
Calcutta.

SERNICIUM, in ylncient Geography, a town of Italy,
on the route from Milan to Colonne, in pafTing through
Picenum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine, in whicli
it is marked between yhifdena Civil., and Boviamim Civit.

SERNON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Var; 7 miles N.W. of Grafle.

SERNST, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Claris, near a river of the fame name ; 3 miles S. of
Claris. The river runs into the Sundbach at this place.

SEROGLAZOVSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, m the
government of Caucafus, on the Volga ; 24 miles N.W.
of Aftrachan.

SEROLZECK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, at
the union of the rivers Narew and Bug ; 20 miles N. of
Warfaw.

SERON, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada ;

7 miles W. of Piirciiena.

Seron of Ahnonds, is the quantity of two hundred weight ;
of anife-feed, it is from three to four hundred ; of Cailile
foap, from two hundred and a half to three hundred and
three quarters.

SERONGE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Malwa country, celebrated for its manufafture of printed
cottons and chintzes ; 132 miles N.E. of Ougein. N. lat.
24"^ 5'. E. long. 78° 4'.

SEROOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ; 24
miles S.S.W. of Amednagur.

SEROS, Los, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 38 miles
N. of Trinidad.

SEROSITY, the watery part of the blood, or ferum.
See Blood.

SEROTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pannonia,
between Lentuli and Mariniaiix.

SEROUGE, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Diarbekir ; 80 miles S.W. of Diarbckir.

SEROWRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oudc ; 4 miles
N. of Lucknow.

SERPA, a town on the E coaftof the ifland of Corfu ;

8 miles N. of Corfu. — Alfo, a town of Portugal, in Alcn-
tejo, containing two cluirchcs, and about 4000 inhabitants ;
12 miles S.W. of Mourao.

SlvKTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
Boetica, on tile left of tlie river Anas, and nearly E. of
Pax-Julia.

SERPEGER, in the Manege, was ufed to denote the
riding a horle in the Terpentine way, or in a tread with
waved turnings like the polture of a ferpcnt's body ; but
is now become obfolcte.

SERPENTARA, in Geography,
the E. coall of Sardinia. N. lat,
lo" 2'.

SERPENTARIA, in Botany, a name api^lied by the
older botiuiical and medical writers, to various plants, cither
on account of the fcrp'Mit-like fm-m of their roots, as in
Polygonum Bijlorta, their fpolted ftems, as in Arum Dra-
cunculus, or (ome other fanciful refembhince. Tiie fame
name lias likewife been given to plants fuppofed to cure the

a fmall
39° 18'.

ifland near
E. long.

bites of ferpents, as Arijlohchia Serpentaria, or Virginian
Snake-root. For a fimilar reafon certain fpecies of Plan-
tago have been denominated Serpentina.

SERPENTARIUS, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of
the northern hemifphere, called alfo Ophiuchus, and anciently
JEfculapius.

The rtars in the conftellation Serpentarius, in Ptolemy's
catalogue are 29; in Tycho's, 15 ; in Hevelius's, 40; in
the Britannic catalogue, they are 74. See Constella-
tion.

SERPENTES, Serpents, in Zoology, the fecond order
in the Linman clafs Amphibia, wliich are thus commonly
charafterized : they are footlefs ; their eggs are connected
in a chain ; tlie penis is double, and muricate.

Thefe animals are fufliciently dillinguiflied from reptiles
by their total want of feet, moving by the afTillance of their
fcales, and their general powers of contortion. The dif-
tinftion of fpecies in this numerous tribe is, according to
Dr. Shaw, frequently very difficult. Linnxus thought that
an infallible criterion might be found in the number of fcaly
plates on the abdomen, and beneath the tail ; and accord-
ingly attempted, m the Syifema Naturas, to dilcriminate
the fpecies by this mark alone. This is now found to be,
by much, too uncertain and variable for a fpecific teft. The
colour is indeed frequently variable, but the pattern, or
general diftribution of markings in each fpecies, appears to
be more conftant ; the relative fize of the head, the length
of the body and tail, the fize, imoothnefs, or roughnefs of
the fcales, as well as their fhape in different parts of the
animal, often afford tolerably certain fpecific marks.

The diitinftion of ferpents into poilonous and innoxious,
can only be known by an accurate examination of their
teeth ; the fangs, or poifoning teeth, being always of a tu-
bular ftrufture, and calculated for the conveyance or injec-
tion of the poifonous fluid from a peculiar relervoir, com-
municating with the fang on each fide of the head : the
fangs are always fituated in the anterior and exterior part of
the upper jaw, and are generally, but not always, of much
larger fize than the other teeth ; they are alfo frequently
accompanied by fome Imaller or fubfidiary fangs, apparently
deitined to fupply the principal ones, when loft either by
age or accident. The fangs are fituated in a peculiar bone,
fo articulated with the reft of the jaw, as to elevate or de-
prefs them at the pleafure of tiie animal. In a quiefcent
ilate, they are recumbent, witli their ])oints diredled in-
wards or backwards ; but when the animal is inclined to life
them as weapons of offence, their polition is altered by the
peculiar mechanifm of the above-mentioned bone, in which
tliey are rooted, and tiiey become almoft jierpendicular.

A general rule for the determination of the exiftence or
non-exiflence of thefe organs, in any fpecies of ferpent, was
propofed by Dr. Gray, in the Tranfaftions of the Royal
Society for the year 1788. According to this author, the
fangs may be dillinguiflied with great eafe, by the following
fimple method. When it is difcovered tiiat there is fomc-
thing like teeth in the anterior and exterior part of the upper
jaw, which iitu.iticni he conficlers as the only one in which
venomous fangs are ever found, let a pin, or other hard
body, be drawn from that part of the jaw to the angle of
tlie mouth. If no more teeth be felt in that line, it may be
fairly concluded that thofe firft difcovered are fangs, and
that the ferpent confequently is venomous: if, on the con-
trary, the teelh lirll difcovered be obferved not to ftand
alone, but to be only part of a complete row, it may aa
certainly be concluded that the ferpent is not venomous.
This rule, however, like moft otiier general rules, may have
its exceptions j and perhaps the molt legitimate tcft of real
9 fangs

SERPENTES.

fangs in a ferpent is their tubular ftrufture, which may al-
ways be ealily detefted by the afliftance of a proper magnifier.
It is to be obfervcd, th^t all ferpents, whether poifonous or
not, have, befides the teeth, whether fangs or fimple teeth,
in the fides of the upper jaw, two additional or interior
rows, which are generally much fmaller than the reft, and
frequently fcarcely vifible. The general rule, therefore, h,
that all venomous ferpents have only two rows of true or
proper teeth in the upper jaw, and that all others have
four.

A head entirely covered with fniall fcales is, in fome de-
gree, a charafter, but by no means an univerfal one, of
poifonous ferpents ; as are alfo cariiiated fcales on the head
and body, or fuch as are furni(hed with a prominent middle
line. All ferpents call their Mns at certain periods : in the
temperate regions, annually ; in the warmer climates, per-
haps more frequently. The ferpents of the temperate and
cold climate alfo conceal themfelves, during winter, in
cavities beneath the furface of the ground, or in fome other
convenient places of retirement, and pafs the winter in a
ftate more or lefs approaching, m the different fpecies, to
complete torpidity. Some lerpents are viviparous, as the
rattle-fnake, the viper, and many other of the poifonous
kind ; while the common fnake, and probably the greater
part of the innoxious ferpents, are oviparous, depofiting,
as we have already obferved, their eggs, in a kind of ftring
or chain, in any warm and clofe fituation, where they are
afterwards hatched. The broad undivided lamiua:, or fcaly
plates, on the bellies of ferpent?, are termed fcuta ; and the
fmaller or divided plates, beneath the tail, are called fub-
caudal fcales ; and from thefe different kinds of laminx,
the Linnasan genera of ferpents are chiefly inflituted. In
the edition of the Syflema Naturx by Gmelin, feven genera
are enumerated and defcribed, viz.

Acrochordus, Caecilia,

Amphilbasna, Coluber,

Anguis, Crotalus.

Boa,

Having, in our alphabetical arrangement, omitted a de-
fcription of fome of the above genera, and referred to the
fpecies of others which have not yet been given, we Ihall
take the opportunity which the order itfelf gives us, of
making up for the defefts that have efcaped our notice, be-
ginning with

Acrochordus, of which the generic character is, that
it has tubercles covering the whole body. Gmelin gives
but a finale fpecies, viz. the javanicus ; but Dr. Shaw has
defcribed three

Species.

Javanicus ; or Warted Snake. Brown, beneath paler ;
the fides obfcurely variegated with whitifh.

This, as its fpecific name denotes, inhabits Java, chiefly
among the pepper plantations ; it grows fometimes to the
length of feven or eight feet. The warts or prominences
appear, by a magnifying glafs, to be convex carinate fcales,
and the fmaller ones are furnifhed with two fmaller promi-
nences, one on each fide the larger. The head is fomewhat
flattened, hardly wider than the neck ; the body is gradu-
ally thicker towards the middle, and fuddenly contrafting
near the tail, which is Ihort and (lightly acuminate.

This remarkable fnake, which gave rife to the inftitution
of the genus, was firit defcribed by Mr. Hornfted, in the
Swedifh Tranfaftions for the year 1787. It was found in
a large pepper-ground near Sangafan, in the year 1784, and
meafured eight feet in length. Its neck was fix inches thick,
that of the largeft part of the body ten inches, and that of

the tail an inch and a half; the colour of the upper part of
the animal was blackifh, and of the undjr part whitifh ; the
fides are marked with duilcy fpots ; the head u truncated,
depreffej, and fcaly ; the jaws equal, the fuperior being
emargiiiatcd beneath, the i.iferior curved ; the eyes lateral,
on the fore part of the head, the iridcs livid ; tiie noftrils
circular, fmall, approximated, and fituated above the tip
of the fnout ; the body was entirely covered, as well as the
tail, with rough tri-carinated warts ; the vent is fmall, the
body very fuddenly tapering towards the tail. This animal
was fecured by a Chinefe, by means of a fplit bamboo palfed
over its neck, and thus carried to Batavia, where, on being
fkinned and opened, exclufive of a quantity of undigefted
fruit, were found completely formed five young, meafuring
nine inches each ; the ilefh of the animal was eaten by the
Chinefe, who affirmed that it was excellent food, and the
flvin being preferved in fpirits, was brought over to Europe
by Mr. Hornfted, and depofited in the mufeum of the king
of Sweden.

Dumcs, or Brown Acrochordus, has a carinated abdo-
men, and its fides are fpotted with black. In its general
appearance and proportion, this very nearly refembles the
javanicus juif defcribed ; but the head of the dubius is co-
vered with very minute rough or warted fcales, differing in
fize alone from thofe on other parts of tlie animal. It is not
more than about three feet in length ; its colour is of an ob-
fcure brown, with fome ill-defined clouds and patches of a
darker colour, difperled along the fides and abdomen. The
fpecimen from which this defcription is taken, is in the
Britifh Mufeum ; but its native place is not afcertained.

Fasciatus, or Fuliginous Acrochordus, called alfo the
Hydrus granulatus, has a carinated abdomen, with whitifh
afcendant lateral bands. This is fo much allied to the du-
bius, that it may be doubted whether it really differs in any
other refpeft than age, fize, and in the cafl of colours, mea-
furing about eighteen inches in length, and being of a dufky
brown colour, with feveral paler fafcix, which take their
rife from the abdomen, and afcend on the fides ; the abdo-
men is carinated as in the former. " This," fays Dr. Shaw,
" is certainly the Hydruii granulatus of Mr. Schneider, who,
in his work on the Amphibia, defcribes it as a water-fnake,
though, feemingly, without any other foundation than its
having a carinated abdomen ; its other charaders by no
means agreeing with thofe of the genuine Hydri." Its na-
tive place is not known. A fpecimen is preferved in the
Britifh Mufeum.

Anguis, or Snake. This genus of ferpents was noticed in
its place, and the names of the fpecies enumerated, with the
intention of defcribing each fpecies in the alphabetical order :
after this the plan of the work was fomewhat altered, and
the fpecies will now be given with their appropriate defcrip-
tion. The generic charafter is, fcales on the belly and fcales
under the tail.

Species.

Stri.\tu.s. The fcales of the belly are 179 in number;
thofe of the tail feven ; the body is furrounded with tranf-
verfe lines.

Meleagris. The fcales on the belly of this are 165;
thofe of the tail 32. It inhabits South America and fome
parts of India. It refembles the Lacerta bipes (fee Li-
zard) ; it is glaucous, with numerous longitudinal rows of
black dots. There are two varieties, one dotted, with
brown, and one charafterized by its long tail.

CoLUBBiNUS. Scales of the belly 180; of the tail 18.
It inhabits Egypt : is varied with brown and pale ochre.

MiLiAHis. Scales of the bellj 170; of the tail 32.

Found

SERPENTES.

Found near the Cafpian fea : it is 14. inches long, and is
about as thick as one's finger ; black, with numerous pale
fcales or dots on the fides, and grey ones on -he back ; the
head is grey, fprinkled with black ; the tail is two inches
long, much thinner than the body, cylindrical, obtufe, va-
ried with white.

Jaculus. The fcales of the belly of this fpecies are
1 86, thofe of the tail 23 : it inhabits Egypt.

Maculatus. There are on this 200 abdominal fcales ;
12 fubcaudal ones. It inhabits America ; above it is yellow,
with a brown dorfal ftript- and linear bands. A variety
i« decuflate with red bands dotted with black. It inhabits
Afia.

Reticulata. Scales on the belly 177 ; of the tail 37.
This is an American fnake. The fcales are brown with a
white difk.

Cerastes. Abdominal fcales 200 ; fubcaudal 15. It
is found in Egypt.

Nasutus. On the belly of this are 218 fcales ; on the
tail 22. It is about a foot long ; the colour is of a grecnifti-
black ; beneath, at the fides, on the tip of the head, a broad
band on the tail, and dots on the tip, all yellow. The fnout
is prominent ; it has no teeth ; the eyes are on the top of
the head, not lateral ; the trunk is funound d with 20 rows
of hexagonal fcales ; the tail not quite half an inch long,
with minute fcales, and obtufe, rigid at the tip.

LuMBKlCALls. In this the fcales of the belly are 230 ;
thofe of the tail feven ; it inhabits America. In colour it
is whitilh, inclining to yellow.

Laticauda. The abdominal fcales are 200 ; the fub-
caudal 50. This if, found at Surinam ; the tail is compreiled,
Iharp, pale, with brown bands.

ScvTALE. Scalcsof the belly 240; of the tail 13. As Dr.
Shaw calls all the fpecies of this genus by the Englifh name
flow-worm, fo he denominates this the painted flow-worm,
from its fingular beauty ; its general length is from eiirhteen
inches to two feet, and its diameter in proportion ; the ground
colour is a rich yellowifh-ferruginous or orange, on which
are difpofcd throughout the whole length of the animal, nu-
merous, moderately broad, equidiltant, jet-black tranfverfe
bands, not continued entirely round the body, but alternat-
ing with each <<tlier, and terminating in rounded extremities ;
the fcales on the nitermediate parts are generally tipped with
brown, exhibiting more or lefs of a fpeckled appearance on
the fkin. When this animal has been preferved a confiderable
length ot time in fpirits, many of its fine colours fade into
white, in confequence of which, the fpecimens ufually feen
in mufeum?, appear variegated only with black and white ;
the head is finall, and the tail is very (hort, beinf not more
than the twentieth of the whole length, and terminating
obtufely. This fpecies is a native of South America, and
fome of tlie Well Indian illands.

•Ekvx; Aberdeen Snake. The fcales on this fpecies
of the belly are 126; thofe on the t^il 136. It inhabits
America and England. Above it is cinereous, with black
lines the whole length, beneath it is lead-colour, with white
fpots. It has been thouglit to be only a variety of the next
fpecies.

* Fhaoilis ; Blind Worm. Scales of the belly 13J,
and the fame number on the tail. This fpecies is found in
almoft all parts of Europe, in ourown iflands, and in Siberia,
in fimilar fituations witli the common Inake. It is a per-
feftly innoxious animal, living on worms and infefts ; its
ufual length is from ten to twelve inches, and fometimes even
more ; its colour is pale rufous-brown above, with three
narrow longitudinal dorfal ftreaks of a darker caft ; and be-
neath a deep lead-colour. The head is rather fmall, and

covered in front with large fcales, as in moft other innoxious
ferpents ; the eyes are very fmall ; the tail meafures more
than half the length of the animal, and terminates rather
fuddenly in a flightly acuminated tip. It is a viviparous ani-
mal, and fometimes produces a very numerous offspring ;
like other ferpents, it varies in the intenfity of its eolours
at different periods, and the young are commonly of a deeper
caft than the parent ; the general motions of this animal are
rather flow than otherwife, except when endeavouring to
efcape, and the young feem to move more (lowly than thofe
that are full-grown. Slow-worms can, however, exert a con-
fiderable degree of fwiftnefs, and can readily penetrate the
loofe loil, in order to conceal themfelves from purfuit; they
are often found in confiderable numbers, during the winter
feafon, at fome depth beneath the furface, retiring on the
approach of winter, and lying in a flate of torpidity, and
again emerging from their concealments on the approach of
fpring, when they call their Jlcin and recover their former
livelinefs. It has been obferved by fome naturaliils, that
if the individuals of this fpecies, and of fome others likewife,
be ftrvick with any degree of violence, the body not only
breaks abruptly on the flruck part, but even frequently
at different parts ; the flcin is remarkably Itrong, and the
animal, when handled or irritated, has a mode of ftifFen-
iiig itfelf by ilrctchingto its ntmofl: length, in which Itate, if
any part of the flcin be injured, the feparation foon take*
place in confequence of this rigidity. The fragments will
live a long time after their feparation.

Ventualis. Abdominal fcales 127 ; fubcaudal 223.
This is an inhabitant of South Carolina. The body is of
an afhy-green, flriate : lateral band black ; belly fhort,
and appearing as if annexed by a hollow future ; the tail is
verticillate, three times as long as the body. A fmall blow
will caufe the animal to break into feveral pieces, the mufcles
being articulated quite through the vertcbrx.

Platurus. Tail cpmpreffed, obtufe. It is a native
of the fhores of Pine ifland, in the Pacific ocean. The
body is a foot and a half long ; above it is black, and be-
neath it is white ; the fcales are minute, fub-tnbicular,
not imbricate ; head oblong ; it is toothlefs, fmoothifh ;
the back is fubcarinate ; the tail is variegated with black
and white.

LiNEATUs. Blackifh, but on the upper part it is white :
a curved line runs down the whole body.

Clivicus. Cinereous-brown ; the plate of the front is
larger and heart-fhaped. It is found in fome parts of Ger-
many.

Annulati's. White, with ftraight brown bands meet-
ing beneath, tail tapering, beneath witli a double row of im-
bricate fcales.

ScuTATUs. This is a very flender fpecies ; waved with
white and black bands ; pl.ites of the head broad ; tail
iTiarpifh. This is found at Surinam. The belly and tail be-
neath with tranfverfe broad fcales, like the boa. Gmclin
thinks it docs not belong to this fpecies.

CoiiALLiNUS. This IS named by Shaw the pale-red flow-
worm, withblood-red variegations, and by Scbait is called the
red Brafilian ferpent, fo named probably from its colour, it
being red with paler bands ; the fcales arc tipped with black.
This is a very elegant fpecies ; it is about a foot and a half
long, the tliicknefs is very confiderable ; the ground-colour
is of a pale-red, with very broad, alternating fafeix, and
variegations of a deep coral red ; the fcales are moderately
large, and of a rounded form, and the head and tail are re-
markably obtufe. This highly beautiful animal is a native
of the warmer parts of South America, wliere it is faid to
be found in woods, and to derive its iuflcnance from the
II larger

SERPENTES.

larger infL-fts, as Icolopendrx, &c.; in colour it fomctimes
varies, a mixture of black in different proportions being
blended with the red on the fides, and the bands are alfo
more numerous in fome fpeciniens than in others.

Ater. Tiiis, as its name denotes, is black, with white
bands ; fcales tipt with black. This is nearly allied in ge-
neral appearance to the coraUinus, but diffL-ring in colour ;
being white with black bands ; the abdominal fcales sre di-
lated according to Seba's figure, on the authority of which,
a beautiful engraving of it is given by Shaw. It is a native
of South America.

RuFUS. Tawny, with tranfverfe but interrupted white
lines ; beneath it is variegated. This is found at Surinam.

Hepatic us. Line on the top of the back, and a waved
line on each fide, of liver-colour, the fpaces between paler,
with roundilh whitifh fpots. It inhabits Surinam.

Te.ssei.latus. This fpecies is of a faffron colour, with
numerous bands, and three ftripes : the head is white, and
fpotted with brown. It inhabits Paraguay.

Albus. The individuals of this fpecies are entirely
white ; tapering towards each end.

Boa, another genus of the ferpent race, has been gene-
rally defcribed in the alphabetical arrangement, with refer-
ences to the fpecies, which having been neglefted in their
places, muft be noticed now. (See BoA.) The genus, ac-
cording to Gmelin, includes ten fpecies, but Shaw mentions
others ; we (hall firft mention thofe given by Gmelin.

Species.

CoNTORTRiX ; Hog-nofed Boa. The plates of the
belly are 150 in number, and thofe on the tail 40. It
inhabits Carolina ; it is broad, and its back is convex ;
it is cinereous, with lateral round fpots ; it has a poi-
fonous bag, but no fangs ; the tail is about half the length
of the body.

Canina. This fpecies has 203 plates on the belly, and
77 on the tail. It inhabits America. By Shaw it is named
the Green Boa, with tranfverle, undulated, white dorfal
bands. It is a highly beautiful fnake, meafuring, when
fuU-grown, about four feet in length, and of a proportionable
thicknefs ; the head is large, and (haped like that of a dog ;
the colour of the whole animal on the upper parts is a mod
beautiful Saxon green, with feveral (hort, undulating, tranf-
verfe white bars down the back, the edges of which are of a
deeper or Itronger green than the ground-colour of the
body ; the under or abdominal part is white. There is a
fpecimen of this fpecies in the Britiih Mufeum.

A variety of this fpecies is defcribed by Seba; the ground-
colour is of a bright orange, the dorfal bands are of a pale
yellow, edged with red, and the abdomen is of a pale yellow.
It is a native of the Eaft Indies, differing merely in colour
from the former.

HiPNALE. The plates on the belly arc 1 79 : thofo on the
tail 120. It is found at Siam, and is of ayellowifh colour,
with white ocellate fpots on the back.

CoN.STRiCTOR. This, by fome naturalifls, is denominated
the yellowifh-grcy boa, with a large chefnut-coloured chain-
like pattern down the back, and fubitrigonal fpots on the
fides. Dr. Shaw gives the generic charafter thus : fcuta, or
undivided plates, both on the abdomen and beneath the tail.
But by Gmelin it is charatterized fimply by the 240 plates
on the belly, and 60 on the tail.

Of all the box, the moll confpicuous is the B. conltridlor,
which is at once pre-eminent, from fuperiority of fize, and
beauty of colours ; in this refpeft it appears to be fuhjeft to
confiderable variation from age, fex, and climate, but may
be diftinguifhed in every Itate from the reft of its tribe

by the peculiar pattern or difpofition of its variegations.
The ground-colour of the whole animal in the younger
fpecimens is a yellowifh-grey, and fometimes even a bright
yellow; on which is difpofed along the whole length of the
back, a feries of large, chain-like, reddifh-brown, and
fometimes perfectly red variegations, leaving large, open,
oval fpaces of the ground-colour at regular intervals: the
largeft or principal marks compofing the chain-like pattern
above-mentioned are of a fquarifh form, accompanied on their
exterior fides by large triangular fpots, with their points
direfted downwards ; between thefe larger marks are dif-
pofed many fmaller ones of uncertain forms, and more or lefs
numerous in different parts : the ground-colour itfelf is alfo
fcattered over by a great many fmall fpecks of the fame co-
lour with the variegations ; the exterior edges of all the
larger fpots and markings are commonly blackifh, or of a
much deeper call than the middle part, and the ground-
colour immediately accompanying the outward edges of the
fpots if, on the contrary, lighter than on other parts, or
even whitifh, thus conllituting a general richnefs of pattern,
of which nothing but an aftual view of a highly-coloured
fpecimen of the animal itfelf can convey a complete idea.
In the larger fpecimen?, the yellow tinge is often loft in an
uniform grey call, and the red tinge of the variegations finks
into a deep chefnut : and in fome the general regularity of
the pattern before defcribed is dilturbed by a kind of con-
fluent appearance : the head is always marked above by a
large longitudinal dark band, and by a narrower lateral
band paffing acrofs the eye towards the neck.

The boa conftriftor is a native of Africa, India, the
larger Indian iflands, and South America, where it chiefly
refides in the molt retired fituations in woody and marfhy
regions.

It was, in all probability, an enormous fpecimen of tliis
very ferpent that once diffufed fo violent a terror amongft the
moft valiant of mankind, and threw a whole Roman army
into difmay. Hiftorians relate this furprifing event in terms
of confiderable luxuriance. Valerius Maximus mentions
it from Livy, in one of the loft books of whofe hiitory it
was related more at large, and the learned Frienfhemius, in
his Supplementa Liviana, has attempted a more ample and
circumtlantial narrative of the fame event, of which the
following is a quotation.

" In the mean time Regulus, every where viftorious, led
his army into a region watered by the river Bagrada, near
which an unlooked-for misfortune awaited them, and at once
afleited the Roman camp with confiderable lofs, and with
appreheafions ftill more terrible ; for a ferpent of prodigious
fize attacked the foldiers who were fent for water, and while
they were overwhelmed with terror, and unequal to the con-
flift, engulphed feveral of them in its enormous mouth, and
killed others by writhing round them with its fpires, and
bruifiiig them with the itrokes of its tail : and fome were
even deftroyed by the peftilential effluvia proceeding from
its breath : it caufed fo much trouble to Regulus, that he
found it neceflary to conteft the poffcfTion of the river with
it, by employing the whole force of his army ; during
which a confiderable number of foldiers were loft, while the
ferpent could neither be vanquifhed nor wounded ; the ftrong
armour of its fcales eafily repelling the force of all the wea-
pons that were diredled againft it ; upon which recourfe was
had to battering engines, with which the animal was attacked
in the manner of a fortified tower, and was thus at length
overpowered. Several difcharges were made againft it with-
out fuccefs, till its back being broken by an immeafe ftone,
the formidable moiiller began to lole its powers, and was
yet with difficulty deftroyed ; after having diffufed fuch a

horror

SERPENTES.

Iiorror amonfr the army, that they confefl'ed they would ra-
ther attack. Carthage itfelf than fuch another monller : nor
could the camp continue any longer in the fame ftation, but
was obliged to fly ; the water and the whole adjacent region
being tainted with the peftiferous effluvia. Amoll mortifying
humiliation to human pride ! Here at lead was an inltance
of a whole Roman army, under the command of Regulus,
and univerfally viftorious both by fea and land, oppofed by
a fmgle fnake, whicli conflifted with it when living, and even
when dead obliged it to depart. The proconful, therefore,
thought it no diminution to his dignity to fend the fpoils of
fuch an enemy to Rome, and to confefs at once the greatnefs
of his viftory and his terror, by this public memorial : for
he caufed the Ikin of the fnake to be taken off and fent to
the city ; which is faid to have mcafured 1 20 feet : it was
fufpended in a temple, and remained till the time of the Nu-
mantine war."

Cenchbis, the Rufcfcent Boa, with large dufliy dorfal
rings, and hlackifh kidney-fhaped lateral fpots with white
centres ; it has 265 plates on the belly, and 57 on the tail.
It inhabits Surinam ; it is greenifh, with white ocellate fpots ;
the irids are grey.

Ophrvas, or Brown Boa, has on its belly 281 plates, on
the tail 84; the body is brown, and in appearance it re-
fembles the B. conllriftor.

ENVDHii ; or Water Boa. This fpecies is variegated
with different fhades of grey ; the teeth in the lower jaw are
longer than ufual in this genus ; the number of abdominal
fcuta is 270, and of thofe on the tail 105. It is very like
the hortulana, hereafter to be defcribed.

MuiuNA ; Grey Boa. This fpecies has 254 plates on
the belly, and about 65 on the tail. It inhabits America.
It is glaucous, with round black fpots.

ScYTALE ; Spotted Boa. Cinereous, with large orbi-
cular black dorfal fpots, and annulated lateral ones, with
white centres ; it has 250 plates on the belly, and 70 on the
tail.

This is fcarcely inferior in fize to the B. conllriftor, and
is of fimilar manners, deflroying, like that animal, goats,
(hecp, deer, &c. ; it is generally of a grey or glaucous colour,
marked with large orbicular black fpots on the back, and
with fmaller ones of a fimilar form, but with centres, on the
fides ; while on the abdomen are fcattercd feveral oblong
fpots, and marks interfperfed with fmaller fpecks and varie-
gations. It is a native of feveral parts of South America,
and like other large fnakcs is occafionally eaten by the In-
dians.

HoRTKLANA ; Garden Boa. This is of a yellowifh-
grey, with brown variegations, thofe on the head refembling
lace ; the body fub-comprefled, and the fides marked by
wedge-lhaped fpots ; it has 290 plates of the belly, of the
tail 128.

This very elegant ferpent, which is of a moderate fize,
meafurmg only a few feet in length, and being of a flendcr
form, has obtained its fpecific name from the fingular varie-
gations on the head, which reprcfent the form of a parterre
in an old-fafhioned garden ; the variegations on the body
arc, like thofe on the head, of a blackifh-brown, on a pale
ferruginous or yellowifli ground ; they are difpofed into
large circular, and fometimcs angular patches on the fides,
the centres of fome being open, and of others marked by an
oblong Ipot ; befides thefe there arc others interfperfed of
fmaller fize and of different forms ; the abdomen is com-
monly yellowifh, with dufl<y fpecks and patches; the ground-
colour of tlie whole fnake is fometimes of a pale violet, and
the variegations of a dark purplifh-brown ; but in all its
varieties this fpecies may be cafily diflinguifhed by the rich

Vol. XXXII.

embroidered appearance of the pattern, and more particu.
larly by that on the top of the head ; the head is alfo
broader, and the neck more (lender in proportion, than in
moll of the other box, the body flightly compreffed, and
the tail flender. It is a native of South America.

Such are the Linnxan fpecies given by Gmelin ; the fol-
lowing are additional ones, defcribed by Dr. Shaw in his
General Zoology.

Regia ; Royal Boa. With longitudinal flriped neck,
and body variegated either with brown and grey, or orange
and rofe-colour. This fpecies, which is defcribed by Seba,
is, in its general fhape, moll allied to the canina and the
phrygia. It varies very much with refpedl to colour, the
ground-work being white, but the variegations fometimeg
duflvy or chefnut, and fometimes of an elegant orange-red,
accompanied by a tinge of bloffom-colour on the lighter
parts of the pattern ; the top of the head is filled by a large
patch, from which run two long parallel ilripes to a con-
fiderable diflance on each fide the neck, leaving a wider
ftripe of the ground-colour along the upper part, and which
afterwards ceaflng, forms a part of tlie general variegation,
which confifls of a large chain-like dorfal bai:d running-
down on each fide, at moderately diilant intervals, into ob-
tufe procefles, or fituations regularly bordered by the white
ground-colour, the intervening lateral fpaces being much
lighter, and each is marked by a dufl^y patch on the upper
part ; the under parts of the body and tail are white, the
head is covered in front with large fcales, the tail is ex-
tremely (hort, and tapers rather fuddenly.

Phrygia ; Embroidered Boa. White, with a greyifh
call on the back ; the body is moil elegantly marked with
black lace-like variegations.

This is unqueftionably one of the moft elegant fpecies of
the whole ferpent tribe ; its variegations are fo condufted,
as to bear a linking refemblance to an embroidery in needle-
work. It is a native of the Eaft Indies, where divine wor-
(hip is paid to it.

Fasciata; Fafciated Boa. With fubtriangular body an-
nulated with blue ; is a native of India, and moll generally
found in the country of Bengal. It is of a yellow colour,
marked with numerous dufky-blue tranfverfe bands, con-
tinued at equal diflances tliroughout the whole length of the
animal, each band completely invefling the body ; the body
is of a trigonal form, the fidea (loping very confiderably ;
along the ridge of the back runs a continued feries of hexa-
gonal fcales. This fnake is among the number of poifonous
fpecies, and its bite is confidercd by the Indians as fatal. A
fpecimen was brought to Dr. Ruffel in the month of Novem-
ber 1788, in an apparently very weak and languid ftate. Being
fet at liberty, it Ihewed no difpofition to bite ; it fuftered a
chicken to got on its back, without noticing it ; but the
thigh of the bird being put within its jaws, it (hewed im-
mediate fymptoms of liaving been poiloiied, and it expired
in the courfe of half an hour. Thir. was tlie only experiment
whicii was made, the fnake dying the next day ; but from
the languid flatc in which it appeared, and the cffetl of its
bite on the chicken, it may be concluded that, when in full
vigour, it mufl be an animal of a highly dangerous nature.

ViPEiiiNA ; Viperinc Boa. Grey, with a black, undu-
lating, dorfal band, edged with white ; and the fides fpotted
with black. It is about a foot and a half in length, and of
a moderately brown colour. It is faid to produce by its
bite a flow wafling of the fingers and toes, fimilar to what
happens in fome leprous cafes. A living fpecimen, however,
was obtained in 1778, and though in good health, yet its
bite was not followed by any deleterious cfledls.

LiNBATA, Lineated Boa, called alfo Geodi Paragoodoo,

S E R

is of a flender form, with the general appearance of a
coluber rather than a boa. It is of an extremely dark blue
colour, fo as to appear almoft black in certain lights, and
is marked throughout the whole length of the upper part
by feveral tranfverfe curved and dotted white lines at
unequal diftances, and varying in number in different indi-
viduals, from about 42 to 50 : they are fo difpofed, as
almoft to reprefent fo many large fpotted circles. Dr.
Shaw has given an account of fome experiments on this
animal, to whofe work we refer our readers. See General
Zoology, vol. iii. part ii.

HoRATTA. This is of a dark brown, with a waving
yellow band on each fide, and a row of dorfal fpots. This
is one of the fmaller fpecies, meafuring only about fifteen
inches in length. The fangs, or poifoning organs of this
fnake, fhew that it is noxious, but in what degree has never
been afcertained ; it is, however, faid to be one of the moil
fatal.

Palpebrosa. Whitifli, obfcurely fafciated with grey ;
with prominent eye-lids ; this has 1 1 2 abdominal fcuta, and
51 on the tail.

An'nclaia. Subferruginous, with black, orbicular, dor-
fal fpots included in rings ; reniform, ocellated, lateral fpots,
and abdomen- undulated with dufcy variegations. This is
about two feet long, and in its general appearance it is allied
to the B. hortularia and enydris. It is a native of South
America.

Serpents, in JJlronomy, a conllellation in the northern
hemifphere, called more particularly Serpens Ophiuchi. The
ftars in the conftellation Serpens, in Ptolemy's catalogue,
are 18; in Tycho's, 13 ; in Hevelius's, 22; and in the
Britannic catalogue, 64. See Constellation.

Serpent Cucumber, in Botany. See Trichosanthes.
Serpens Hypnotkus. See Hypnoticus.
Serpens Marinus. See Sea Snake.
Serpens Rubefcens, the redferpent-fijh, in Ichthyology, the
name of a fifh, properly of the t^nia kind.

It refembles the common fnake in figure, and is of a fine
ftrong red in colour, and marked with oblique lines all down
the fides, and long ones from the gills to the tail, one on each
fide ; its mouth is but fmall, and its teeth (harp and ferrated ;
and it has all over its back a number of fine capillaments, fet
at diftances from one another, even to the tail, and the fame
on the belly ; its tail ends in a fingle fin.

Serpens Terrenus, the earth-ferpent, a name given by
fome of the chemical writers to nitre. It was originally
given to the nitre of the ancients, a fait very different from
that which we call nitre, but it has fince been applied alfo to
that fait.

SERPENT-5/onfJ. See ^v.w.^-Stoms.
SKKPEt^T^Fi-Tongue, in Botany, a genus of tlie cryptogamia
JHUes clafs ; comprehending five fpecies. See Adder's-
tongue.

Serpents' Tongues. The ifland of Malta abounds with
gloffopetra;, or the petrified teeth of fharks, which, from
their refemblance to a tongue, are by the vulgar fuppofed
to be the tongues of ferpents turned into ilone by fome
miracle of St. Paul, when he was there. This idand abounds
not only with thefe, but with bufonitse, and valt numbers
of other remains of fea produftions.

Augnftino Scilla, who has written at large on the foffils
of this ifland, gives a very rational account of their being the
real remains of animals, which, according to hi» fyftem, it is
no way wonderful to find<here.

In regard to the ifland of Malta, which fo abounds with
them at this time, he fuppofes that long fince the time of the
creation, and even without the afliftance of the general

S E R

deluge, it may have been formed out of the fea, and that it
appears plainly to have been at firft no other than a mafs of
foft mud, with an immenfe number of fea-ftiells, teeth of
fifties, and other remains of fea-animals mingled among it ;
and that thefe fubfiding as low as they could among that
thickening matter, have made the ifland what we now find
it, that is, a heap of earth with thefe things in vaft quan-
tities buried in it, and at different depths. Philof. Tranf.
N" 219, p. 182.

And though there are found among thefe teeth, &c. in
the ifland of Malta, great quantities of ftiells, of fuch fpecies
as arc not natives of thofe feas, this is no objedlion to the
opinion ; fince it is well known, that the winds, when violent,
as they probably were about the time of the formation of
that ifland, will bring fuch light bodies as ftiells a vaft way
in water.

The mountains of Sicily afford fome few glofl'opetrse, or
fnakes' tongues, but they are few in number, and worfe pre-
pared than thofe of the ifland of Malta ; which is probably
owing to the high ground of thofe mountains being lefs likely
to receive the refufe of the fea, and its foil, which is fandy,
being lefs fitted to preferve them when there than the marie,
of which the ifland of Malta confifts.

The echini mavini, or fea-eggs, and their fpecies, which
are very frequent among the ferpents' tongues of Malta, all
lie upon the furface of the ground, or near it ; whereas the
gloffopetrx lie deeper, though at no great depth. Tliis is a
plain effeft of all thefe things having been really anim.al
bodies, and having floated in the mud, of which that ifland
was formed ; for m this it could not be otherwife, but that
the gloffopetrx, or ferpents' tongues, being heavy, would
fubfide in the water, while the light ftiells of thefe other
animals would float on or near the furface.

Whenever the gloflopetrse are taken carefully up out of
the earth in Malta, the marie or earth, which ferved for
their bed, is found to contain all their minuteft traces and
lineaments, like wax from a feal. This is a proof that the
niarle was as foft as melted wax when they were put into
it, and that they were of the full fize and growth when
placed there, not having grown, or had any increafe in that
place.

The apophyfes, or proceft'es in the gloffopetrse, are alfo a
ftrong proof of their being no other than real iharks' teeth,
fince they exatlly anfwer to thofe in the teeth of recent
ftiarks, by which every tooth is received or inferted into its
neighbour in the jaw. Nay, whereas ftiarks' teeth are mor-
tifed into one another in fuch a manner, that a man may
eafily tell which belongs to each fide, which lie near the
throat, and which near the front of the mouth ; and whereas,
in a ftiark's mouth, the teeth on the left fide will not fit on
the right, nor thofe above ferve below, but that on feeing
a recent tooth, a perfon of judgment will be able to fay
what part of the mouth it belonged to ; fo in the foffile
ftiarks' teeth, or gloffopetrse, there is not any one which may
not be referred to the particular part of the mouth of the
living animal, and could have belonged to no other. Au-
guftino Scilla, de Petrifac. See Glossopetha.

Serpent, in Mufic, a wind inftrument of the baffoon
kind, blown by a mouth-piece. It has its name from ite
ferpentine figure ; and is compofed of two pieces of walnut-
tree-wood, and covered with thin leather or ftiagreen.

This inltrument has fix holes, whicli give it a compafs of
twenty-feven notes. The mouth-piece is fixed in a focket of
copper or filver. Its neck is curved, and its mouth-piece
is of wood or ivory.

It is held in fuch a manner, as that the fore-finger, the
middle-finger, and the ring-finger of the left hand, caa itop

the

S E R

S E R

the holes i, 2, and 3 ; and the fame fingers of the right
hand, flop the holes 4, 5, and 6.

The abbe de Bceuf, in his Hiftory of Auxerre, torn, i.
p. 643, iays that, about the year 1590, Edmond Guillaumc,
a canon of Auxerre, found the means of boring and turning
a cornet in tlie form of a ferpent, which was ufed in con-
certs at his houle, and the inftrument having been perfefted
became common in the great cnurches. For the fcale and
compafs of the ferpent, fee Laborde.

In France, the ferpent ufed to be confined to the military
bands ; at prefent, iays M. Laborde, it is confined to the
church and proceflions. In cathedrals there is one on each
fide the choir.

Merfennus, who had ftudied this inftrument, fays, that
if unfolded and ftraight, it would be more than fix feet
long. Laborde fays eight feet. The compafs of the in-
llrumcnt is now probably extended, which in the fcale given
in the folio Er.cyclopedie is from double B flat in the bafs,
to F in the firft fpace of the treble.

Merfennus, who has particularly defcribed this inftru-
ment, mentions fome peculiar properties of it, e. g. that
the found of it is Itrong enough to drown twenty robuft
voices, being animated merely by the breath of a boy, and
yet the found of it may be attempered to the foftnefs of
tTie fweetell voice. Another peculiarity of this inftrument
is, that great as the diltance between the third and fourth
holes appears, yet, whether the third hole be open or fhut,
the difference is but a tone.

SliUPENT, in Mythology, was a very common fymbol of
the fun, and ho is repreiented biting his tail, and with his
body formed into a circle, in order to indicate the ordinary
courfe of this luminary ; and under this form it was an
emblem of time and eternity.

The ferpent was alfo the fymbol of medicine, and of
the gods which prefided over it, as of Apollo and .<Efcu-
lapius : and this animal was tlie objeft of very ancient
and general worlbip, under vanoun appellations and cha-
racters. In moft of the ancient rites we find fome al-
lufion to the ferpent, under the feveral titles of Ob, Ops,
Python, &c.

The idolatry is alluded to by Mofes, Lev. xx. 27. The
woman of Endor, who had a familiar fpirit, is called Out,
or Ob, and it is interpreted Pylhonifia: the place where
flie refided, fays the learned Mr. Bryant, feems to have
been named from the worihip then inftituted ; for Endor is
compounded of En-ador ; and fignifies fans pithonis, the
fountain of light, the oracle of the god Ador ; which oracle
was probably founded by the Canaanitcs, and had never
been totally fupprelTed. His pillar was alio called Abbadir,
or yiiadir, compounded of nb and adii; and meaning the
ferpent deity ytddir, the fame, as yidorus.

In the orgies of Bacchus, the perfons who partook of
the ceremony, ufed to carry ferpent s in their hands, and
with horrid fcroams call upon Eva ! Eva !

Eva being, according to the writer juft mentioned, the
fame as epha, or opha, which the Greeks rendered ophis,
and by it denoted a ferpent.

Thefe ceremonies, and this fymbolic worfhip, began
among the Magi, who were the fons of Chus ; and by
them they were propagated in various parts. Wherever
the Ammonians founded any places of worfhip, and intro-
duced their rites, there was generally fome llory of a fer-
pent. There was a legend about a ferpent at Colchis, at
Thehrs, and at Delphi ; and likewife in other places. The
Ore: ks called Apollo himfelf Python, which is the fame
as Oupis, Opts, or Oub.

In Egypt there was a ferpent named Thermulhls, whicli

was looked upon as very facred ; and the natives are faid
to have made ufe of it as a royal tiara, with which they
ornamented the ilatues of IGs. The kings of Egypt wore
high bonnets, terminating in a round ball, and (urrounded
with figures of afps ; and the priells likewife had the repre-
fentation of ferpents upon their bonnets.

Abadon, or Abaddon, mentioned in the Revelations,
XX. 2. is fuppofed by Mr. Bryant to have been the name
of the Ophite god, with whofe worfhip the world had
been fo long infefted. This worfliip began among the
people of Chaldea, who built the city of Ophis upon the
Tigris, and were greatly addifted to divination, and to the
worfhip of the ferpent. From Chaldea the worftiip paffed
into Egypt, where the Serpent deity was called Canoph,
Can-eph, and C'neph ; it alfo had the name of Ob or Oub,
and was the fame as the Bafilifcus, or royal Serpent, the
fame as the Therrmithis, and made ufe of by way of orna-
ment to the flatues of their gods. The chief deity of
Egypt is faid to have been Vulcan, who was llyled Opas ;
he was the fame as OJiris, the Sun, and hence was often
called Ob-el, or Pythofol ; and there were pillars facred to
him, with curious hieroglyphical infcriptions, bearing the
fame name, whence among the Greeks, who copied from
the Egyptians, every thing gradually tapering to a point
was flyled obelos, or obelifcus.

As the worfhip of the ferpent began among the fons of
Chus, Mr. Bryant coiijeftures, that from thence they were
denominated Ethiopians and ylithiopians, from Ath-ope, or
Ath-Dpes, the god whom they worfhipped, and not from
their complexion : the Ethiopes brought thefe rites into
Greece, and called the ifland where they firft eftablifhed
them, Ellopia, Solis Serpentis infula, the fame with Eubaa,
or Oiibaia, i. e. the Sirpent-ifland.

The fame learned writer difcovers traces of the fer-
pent worfhip among the Hyperboreans, at Rhodes, named
Ophiufa, in Phrygia, and upon the Hellefpont, in the
ifland Cyprus, in Crete, among the Athenians, in the
name of Cecrops, among the natives of Thebes in Bccotia,
among the Lacedxmonians, in Italy, in Syria, &c. and in
the names of many places, as well as the people where
the Ophites fettled. One of the moft early herefies intro-
duced into the Chriftian church was that of the Ophitse.
Bryant's Analyfis of Ancient Myth. vol. i. p. 47, &c.
p. 473, &c.

Seupent Iflands, in Geography, fmall iflands near the N.
coaft of lake Huron. N. lat. 46° 2'. W. long. 82° 45'.

Serpent.s, Ifland of. See Szalgen.

SERPENTINA, in Botany. See Serpentaria.

SERPENTINE, in Chemiflry, a worm, or pipe of
copper or pewter, twifted into a fpiral, and afcending from
the bottom of the alembic to the capital, and ferving in
the diftillation of rectified fpirit of wine.

Serpentine, in Mineralogy, a ftone, which derives its
name from the variety of its colours, fuppofed to rcfemble
thofe of the ferpent. The ancients called this ftone ophites,
from the Greek o^i.;, ferpent, as being fpeckled like a fer-
peiit's fkin. The moft prevailing colour is green of dif-
ferent Ihades, fpotted with red, or with dark green, and
alfo clouded and veiny. Some ferpentines are red, varying
from a peach-bloom to a blood-red or fcarlet. In rich
variety of colours, this ftone far exceeds any other of the
great rock-formations. It will receive a high polilli, and it
nearly indcllrutlible by fire or acids, and is therefore eminently
fuited for ornamental Iculpture or architcfture. The hard-
nels of ferpentinc is variable : fome kinds fcarcely yield to
the knife, others are eafily worked. It is infuliblc by the
blowpipe ; the frafturc is fplintcry, palfing into fmall con-
y q 7 choidal J

SERPENTINE.

choidal ; the fragments are tranflucent at the edges ; the
luflre is fomewhat refmous, and when powdered, it has an
unftuous foapy feel. The fpecific gravity varies from
about 2.6 to 2.7. Serpentine feems nearly aUied to the
mineral called hornblende, from which it differs in its conlli-
tuent parts by containing more magnefia and lefs iron.
Chrome has been found in fome Terpentines. The analyfis
of different ferpentines fhews a confiderable variation in the
proportion of their conftituent parts,
from 45 to 29 Silex,

18 23 Alumine,

23 34 Magnefia,
3 4 Iron,

II 10 Water and lofs.

Some ferpentines contain 6 per, cent, of lime.

The difciples of Werner 'divide Terpentine into two
fpecieo, the one called the noble Terpentine, the other the
common ferpentine ; the former they ceniider as older, and
having a different geological pofition to the common ferpen-
tine ; but for this diftinftion there does not appear fufii-
cient reafon, as the fame beds will furnirti fpecimens of
both kinds. The noble ferpentine has the richelt variety
of colours and the greatelt degree of tranflucency. Ser-
pentine, though not very rare in many alpine diltrifts, is
by no means fo common as granite, (late, and limeltone.
Serpentine occurs in beds in gneifs and primary limeftone,
and in mica-flate : it alfo covers many rocks in amorphous
mafTes, and may be obferved graduatmg into chlorite or talc-
flate. Serpentine has been remarked to exilt generally at a
low level in alpine diitrifts ; but there are fome remarkable ex-
ceptions to this, particularly in the fummits which furround
the central parts of mount Rofa, in Switzerland. Thefe
fummits have an elevation of more than 1700 fathoms,
formed of beds of ferpentine lying in a poiition generally
horizontal.

Serpentine is more abundant in Europe, than any other
part of the globe that has been yet explored. The whole
front of the Alps facing Italy contains ferpentine almoil in
every part, although there is very little in the fide towards
Switzerland. It extends through Italy, where it is culled
gabbio. Oneof the fineft varieties is at the hills of Im-
pronetta, near Florence : it contains much of that green,
femitranfparent, and fattiny fubilance, which SaulTure calls
fmaragdite, on account of its fine emerald-green colour.
France has fome mountains of ferpentine, efpecially in
Limoufin.

The fineft ferpentines of Spain are from Sierra Nevada ;
two leagues from Grenada, they have a green bafe filled
with gliflening plates of a yellow colour. Superb columns
have been made of it, which decorate the churches and
palaces of Madrid. According to Patrin, ferpentine is
almoil entirely wanting in northern Afia, with the excep-
tion of the eaftern part of the Ural mountains, which fepa-
rate Europe from Afia. There are fome hilk of ferpen-
tine, which at great intervals accompany their bafe, follow-
ing their direftion from north to fouth ; there are alfo
fome detached branches which appear near Tobolllc, which
is not far from thefe mountains. But from hence to the
river Amur, a fpace of about three thoufand miles, fcarcely
any veftiges are found either in the great chains of Altai,
Sayennes, or the mountains of Daouria. The ferpentines
moft known in Europe are thofe of Saldbergh in Sweden,
and Zeobhtz in Saxony, from which vafes of every kind
are turned and exported to diltant countries. The ferpen-
tine of Bayreuth is filled with garnets of the fize of a pea,
difperfed equally through the mafs. When the Hone is
pohihed, they prefent a pleafing mixture of fine red fpots

in a green bafe. Trinkets and other ornaments are made
of it.

The mountain called Roth Horn, or Red Horn, which
faces mount Rofa towards Italy, is elevated 1506 fathoms;
it is compofed of immenfe maffes of terpentine of an irre-
gular ftiape. The furface of this ferpentine becomes a
deep red by the adfion of the atmolphere, which oxygenates
the iron it contains. It is this colour, and the elongated
form, that have occafioned the mountain to be called Red
Horn.

The ferpentine of this mountain is covered by a ileatite
of a fea-green colour, mixed with carbonate of lime and
grains of felfpar. On this ferpentine are laid beds of
micaceous fchill, intermixed with limeftone, compofed of
more than one half of mica. Thefe are again covered by
ferpentine : all the beds are nearly horizontal, riling a little
towards mount Rofa.

Mount Crevin, another mountain near mount Rofa, is an
inaccellible obelilk of a triangular form, wliich is elevated
2309 fathoms above the fea. It is compofed of three dif-
tinft mades ; the uppermoft, which forms the fummit, is of
a yellow ifabella colour. It is compofed of ferpentine
mixed with micaceous fchift, containing limcitone and quartz.
The middle is of gneifs and micaceous Ichift, and the lovifer
one or bafe of the pyramid is ferpentine ; but the moft re-
markable hill of ferpentine is in the chain of mountains
that leparatesthe marggravate of Bayreuth from the Upper
Palatinate. Its elevation above the plain is about 300 feet ;
it extends in a direftion from eaft to weft. The rocks
which crown the fummit are of very pure ferpentine,
divided into beds, and repofing on gneifs and hornblende.
M. Humboldt having brought his compafs near thefe rocks
of ferpentine, faw with furprife, that the north pole of the
needle flew round to the fouth. He further obferved, that
the rocks on the northern and fouthern declivities have op-
pofite poles. The eaftern and weftern extremities of the
hill do not exert any aftion on the magnetic needle, though
the appearance of the ftone is the fame as on the north
and fouth declivities. In the magnetic parts of the hill
certain rocks are alfo obferved, which are not magnetic in
junftion with fimilar rocks, that exert a Itrong aftion on
the needle, fome of them at the dillance of 22 teet. The
mountain not only exerts its aftijn on the needle in its
whole mafs, like fome other hills, it is manifeft even in
fmall fragments.

Humboldt obferved, that minute fragments are brifkly
moved on prefenting them to the point of a weak magnet ;
but they have not the leaft attraftion for iron not mag-
netized. Humboldt convinced himfelf that this ferpentine
does not contain an atom of magnetic iron, all which it con-
tains is in the ftate of oxyd. Its fpecific gravity is much
lefs than that of other ferpentines, fcarcely reaching to
2000, that of common ferpentine being upwards of 2700.
This mountain of ferpentine, taken in the aggregate, may
be regarded as one large natural magnet, having two poles,
the part equidiftant from each difplaying no figns of
magnetic power, as is the cafe with fmdl natural and
artificial magTiets. Like them too, if a fragment be broken
from the mafs, each fmall piece has it? north and fouth
pole, and a central part, which is not magnetic. That par-
ticular kind of foft ferpentine, which is capable of being
turned into veflels that refill the aftion of the fire, is called
pot-Hone, and has been already defcribed. See PoT-
Slone.

Steatite and amianthus, a fibrous aftjeftus, are almoft
always ailociated with ferpentine. (See Asbestus and
Steatite.) The fineft amianthus occurs in Corfica form-

2 ing

S E R

S E R

i)ig beautiful white filky threads of two or more feet in
length, and is fo abundant, that Dolomieu made ufe of
it inftead of flax to pack liis minerals in when in that
iHawd.

Serpentine exifts in various parts of the hig;hlands of
Scotland and the Hebrides ; it is found botii pure and alter-
nating vviih raicii-flate and linieftone.

No weli-characlerized rocks of ferpentine are known in
South Britain, except in Cornwall and the Ifle of Anglefea.
The ferpentine of Cornwall is not particularly diftinguilhed
for the beauty of its colours. Rocks of this mineral ex-
tend to the Lizard Point.

The moft beautiful variety of ferpentine in Great Bri-
tain, or perhaps in Europe, is that on the weftern fide of
Anglefea. It occurs at a low elevation afl'ociated with
rocks of talcous flate. The beds are of confiderable fize,
and divided by feams of albcllus. Some of the ferpentine
is intermixed with white cryllalline limcftone, like the verde
antique from Italy ; but the particles of white are gene-
rally fmaller. Veins of quartz and fteatite, with brilliant
kminx of fchillcr fpar, alfo occur in feme of the beds.
It is iufficiently hard to refill the point of a copper tool,
and takes a high polidi. The colours are variou; (liades
of light and dark green and red, varying from a peach-
bloom to a blood-red fcarlet. The colours are intermixed
.and diftributed in an infinite variety of fpots and clouds,
the effects of which are heightened by polifhing.

Mell'rs. Bullock and Co. in Oxford-llreet, haveeftablifhed
a manufacture of chimney-pieces, columns, and other or-
namental articles of this (tone, which has the advantage,
being raifed in vaft blocks, fo as to form columns and flabs
in one piece, from 12 to 20 feet in length, and of pro-
portionate diameter and breadth. A column of 12 feet in
one (haft, compofed of red ferpentine, which we meafured
at Medrs. Bullock's manufactory, weighed two tons, and
had no perceptible flaw or blemilh in the v/hole piece.
This is the moll durable as well as the richell of Britilh
ftones applied to ornamental Iculpture, and is not exceeded
in the variety or frefimefs of its colours by any of the
colHy marbles of Italy.

The Mona marble, as this ferpentine is called by the pro-
prietors, is not liable to have its colours injured by common
fire, which is the cafe with many marbles, when made into
chimney pieces ; neither are the colour.s affefted by acids,
air, or moilture.

With fuch a valuable material for ornamental fculpture
in our own ifland, it is greatly to be regretted, that fuch
large fums (liould be annually paid to foreign nations in
tlie purchafe of ftone for fimilar purpofes, which is lefs
durable and lefs beautiful. It would furely be more
patriotic to encourage the proper application of the mine-
ral treafures of our own country.

The ftone called verde antique is a mixture of green
ferpentine with white granular limellonc. See Vekde
ylnlique.

Seiu-entine, in tlie Manege. A horfc is faid to have a
ferpentine tongue, if it is always frilking and moving, and
fometimes paffing over the bit, inllead of keeping in the
void fpacc, called the liberty of the tongue.

Tiie Romans, in breaking and drelTing their liorfes, ufed
to work them in ivavlng ox ferpcnlhie lines, as the practice
is, or ought to be, at prefcnt. The French call this riding
a horfe enfirpentanl. The Greeks and Romans know it by
the term of riding in Mttatulcrs, in allufion to the windings
and doublings of the celebrated river which bore that name.

Sebpentine Column. Sec Colum.v.

Serpentine Ftrfn, are fuch as begin and end with
the lame word. As,

" Ambo florentes aetatibus. Arcades ambo."

SERPHANT, in Geography, a village of Syria, fup-
pofedto be the ancient Sarepia I which fee) ; 14 miles S.S.W.
of Saide.

SERPHO, the ancient Seriphus, an ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago, about 36 miles in circumference. Its moun-
tains are fo rugged and lleep that the poets fei^ed the
natives to have been transformed into ftone by Perfeus.
Here are mines of iron and loadltone. The inhabitants be-
long to the Greek church : they pay 800 crowns to the
grand feignior, for the capitation and land-tax. The pro-
duce is but fmall. The onions are in high eltimation. It
was made a place of exile by the ancient Romans. N. lat.
37° 10'. E. long. 24^ 34'.

Sehpho Poulo, a fmall ifland, five miles N.E. of the
former.

SERPI, Grottatkl. SeeGltOTTA.

SERPICULA, in Botany, derived homferpo, to creep,
a name given by Linnaeus to theprefent genus, in allufion to
its creeping habit and diminutive flature. — Linn. Mant. 16.
Schreb. 628. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 329. Mart. Mill. Did.
V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kevv. v. 5. 257. Purfh v. i. 33. Jufi'. 318.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 758. ( Laurembergia ; Berg. Cap. 350.
Elodea ; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. i. 20.) — Clafs and order,
Monoecia Tetrandria. Nat. Ord. ImindaU, Linn. Onagrt,
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth minute, four-toothed,
ereft, acute, permanent. Cor. Petals four, oblong, acute,
feflile. Stam. Filaments four, very fliort ; antiiers oblong,
about equal to the petal*.

Female, on the lame plant. Cal. Perianth fuperior, mi-
nute, in four deep permanent fegments. Cor. Petals tliree,
or none. P'ljl. Germen inferior, ovate, furrowed ; ftyle
fhort ; Itigmas obtufe. Perk. Nut cylindrical, furrowed,
of one cell, deciduous. Seed one, or more, oblong.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx four-toothed. Petals four. Fe-
male, Calyx in four deep fegments. Nut.

Obf. The fecond fpccies differs widely from the original
generic characters, being dioecious, with three-cleft flowers,
and feveral feeds. The whole wants revifion.

1. S. repens. Cape Serpicula. Linn. Mant. 124. Suppl.
416. AViUd. n. I. Ait. n. i. (Lanrembergia repens;
Berg. Cap. 350. t. 5. f. 10.) — Leaves fcattered, lanceolate,
entire — Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Sent to Kew,
by Mr. Mafhin, in 1789. It is a perennial, herbaceous,
greenhoufe plant, flowering in July and Augufl. Stem
branched, leafy, creeping by fibrous radicles. Leaves acute,
three-quarters of an inch long. Flowers axillary, two to
four together ; the males are defcribed by Bergius and Lin-
njeus as (talked.

2. S. vertieillata. Eafl Indian Serpicula. Linn. Suppl.
416. Willd. n. 2. Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. 33. t. 164. —
Flowers three-cleft. Leaves whorled, finely ferrated. — Na-
tive of clear Handing (wcet water in the Eail Indies, flower-
ing during the cold feafon. This is dioecious. The male

Jloiuers are (edile, and without a tube, but the female ones
have a long tube, and a (heath-like ealyx. Both male and
female are three-cleft. 'YW fced-vejfel feems an cblong cap-
fule, with four yJw/j, one over another.

3. S. veromcifoliet. Bourbon Serpicula. Willd. n. 3. —
" Leaves oppoiite, ovate, toothed at the fummit." — Native
of rocks in the ifle of Bourbon. Bory dc St. Vineeut. — Stems
creeping, (lender, red. Leaves thickilh, a line, or line and

half,

S E R

half, long, refembltng thofe of Veronica agrefi'u. Floiuers
monoecious, four-cleft, reddifh, very minute.

4. S. occidenlalis. American Seipicula. Purfh n. I. (Elo-
deacanadenfis; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. i. 20.) — "Flowers
united. Stigmas ligulate, cloven, reflexed. Leaves ternate,
linear, acute." — Frequent in ftagnant waters, from Canada
to Virginia, flowering in July. Perennial. Flowers white,
very fmall and delicate. Leaves when magnified very finely
ferrulated. In the early part of the feafon they are, as Mi-
chaux defcribes, oblong and obtufe, but at the flowering
time long, linear, and acute. Pur/h.

SERPIGO, in Medicine, irom Jirpere, to creep, is nearly
fynonimous with herpes, and fignifies, in the language of the
older writers, any fpreading tetter, or excoriation of the
lliin. When the tetter is ftationary, according to Foreftus,
it is called ;m/>f/if (7 ; but when it fpreads and creeps from
one place to another, it is c2\\e&ferpigo. (See Foreft. Obf.
Chirurg. lib. ii. obf. 11.) It is the property, however, of
many eruptive difeafes to fpread in this manner, though very
different in their nature from each other ; whence in the
more accurate nomenclature of the prefent day, the term
ferpigo is not ufed. It would be applicable, in faft, to dif-
eafes of every clafs, puftular, fcaly, papular, and veficular ;
to the difeafes called impetigo, lepra, pforiafis, lichen,
herpes, eczema, &c. It is, therefore, jultly exploded.

SERPUCHOV, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
the government of Mofcow ; 40 miles S. of Mofcow. N.
lat. 55". E. long. 37° 2'.

SERPULA, in Concho!ogy, a genus of the order Tef-
tacea, of which the generic charafter is, animal a terebella :
(hell univalve, tubular, and generally adhering to other fub-
ftances ; often feparated internally by divifions at uncertain
diftances. There are about fifty fpecies included in this
genus, of which feveral are found in our own country.

Species.

Nautiloides. Shell flattifh, minute, confluent, verru-
cofe, fpiral, with very thin femilunar internal divifions. It
is found in the feas about Norway, adhering to the Madre-
pora prolifera, is very minute, brownifh, or white ; of an
uncertain figure, fometimes rather oblong, fometimes more
orbicular ; the divifions arc parallel, the aperture very
narrow.

Semilunum. The fhell of this is regular, loofe, glabrous.
It is found in the Adriatic and Red feas, and fometimes
it is obtained foflile. The (hell is fcarcely larger than
a grain of fand, while and yellowifti ; the whorls are
prefled clofe together ; the aperture is narrow, and com-
preffed.

Pjlanokbis. In this fpecies the fliell is orbicular, regu-
lar, flat, equal. It is found adhering to (hells. The (hell
refembles a round fcale, and when broken horizontally it
exhibits the appearance of a fpire in minute concentric
circles.

Spikillhm. Shell regular, fpiral, orbicular, pellucid,
with round gradually decreafing whorls. It inhabits the
ocean, on zoophytes, fertularix, and other marine fubllances ;
it refembles the next, which is a native of this country, but
is much lefs than it.

* Spirokbis. Shell regular, fpiral, orbicular, the whorls
flightly caniculate above and inwardly, and growing gra-
dually lefs towards the centre. It inhabits mod feas, ad-
hering to fuci and zoophytes. There is a variety ; the
fhell is white, without polilh, not complicated, but Jifpofed
fingly on the fubilance to which it is attached ; the aperture
is circular.

S E K

* TnreuETRA. The fliell of this is creeping, flexuous,
triangular. It inhabits the ocean, adhering to marine fub-
(lanccs. Hones, and the bottoms of (hips ; is from half an
inch to an inch long. The (hell is white, pellucid, irregu-
larly twift^ed, carinate on the back, fometimes denticulate;
with a narrow circular aperture.

* Intricata. Shell filiform, rough, round, intricately
twifted. It inhabits the European and Indian feas, and
often on our own coafts, upon (hells. The (hell is of a
greenifh-white, a little rugged and coarfe.

FiLOGRANA. Shell capillary, fafciculate, in branched
complications, and cancellate. It inhabits the Mediterra-
nean ; is four inches long, and forms a beautiful kind o(
network.

Granuiat.v. The fhell of this is round, fpiral, glo-
merate, with elevated ribs on the upper fide. It inhabits
the North feas, in large mafl'es, adhering to Hones, (hells,
&c. The fliell is white, and tlie fiz? of a coriander
feed.

* Contoutuplicata. The (hell is angular, rugged, and
irregularly entwined. It is found in the European and Ame-
rican feas, and on our own coal'.s ; is from three tn four inches
long ; and fometimes it is as urge as a goofe-quill ; the (hell
is white, cinereous, or yello\vi(h-brown ; witliin it is fmooth,
tranfverfely ftriate.

Glomerata. The fliell of this fpecies is round, glo-
merate, with decuflate wrinkles. It inhabits the European
and Athintic feas, in large matles. The (hell is white, grey,
or brownifh ; within it is fmooth.

LuMBRiCALis. The fliell of this is round, flexuous, with
a fpiral acute tip. There are three varieties of this fpecies,
which are found in the Atlantic and Indian feas, in large
mafles. The (hell is from three to five inches long, tranf-
verfely ribbed and longitudinally wrinkled.

PoLYTHALAMiA. The (hell of this is likewife round,
diaphanous, fmooth, (traightifh, with numerous internal di-
vifions. It inhabits the Mediterranean and Indian feas,
under the fand. The (hell is outwardly white, tranfverfely
wrinkled, and annulate; the infide is feparated by imperfo-
rated convex and concave divifions, making it appear as if
it confided of numerous united tubes.

Arenaria. Shell jointed, entire, diftinft, flattifli be-
neath. It is found in India, and divers parts of the coaft
of Africa. It is probably a teredo, hereafter to be de-
fcribed. The (hell is white, witli pale brown undulate rays,
or whitifli ; the outfide cancellate, within it is fmooth ; fpi-
rally twitted : there are about a hundred ftrix, which are
fometimes nodulous.

Anguika. Shell roundilh, fub-fpiral, with a longitu-
dinal jointed cleft. It inhabits the Indian ocean ; varies
much in figure, being fometimes round and fometimes an-
gular ; it is more or lefs flexuous, glabrous or rough, with
the joints of the cleft often obiolete. There is a variety of
this fpecies.

♦ Vermicularis. Shell round, tapering, curved, wrinkled.
It inhabits the European feas, and is from two to three
inches long. The (hell is whitifh, ending in an obtufe point ;
the inhabitant is of a bright fcarlet, ivith elegantly feathered
tentacula, from the middle of which arifes a trumpet-lhaped
tube, and a leffer fimple one.

Pekis. The (hell of this is round, (Iraight, taper, with
a dilated radiate larger extremity ; the di(k is covered with
cylindrical pores. This is denominated the watering-pot,
It is found chiefly in the Indian ocean. The (hell is white
or cinereous, with a faint (hade of red ; fmoothilh, tapering,
and open at the fmall end ; the dilated margin at the larger

end

SERPULA.

end terminating in numerous fmall tubes ; the di(l< is convex,
and covered with round perforatious, with a longitudinal
one in the middle.

EcHiNATA. Shell roundifh, flexuous, rofy, with nume-
rous rows of pricltles, obtufe at the end. It is the fize of
a crow's quill ; the aperture is margined.

OcREA. The fliell of this is roundifh, ftriate, brown.
It inhabits the Indian ocean, ufually afBxed to corals.

Protensa. Shell poliflied, fn:oothi(h, with annulate
plaits, a little tapering towards the end. It is found in the
Indian and American feas, and is the fize of a quill. The
fhell is ivory, whitiOi or blueifh, either Itraight or partly
bent.

Decussata. Shell round, with decuflate ftrise, flightly
wrinkled, flexuous, red, within fmooth and white.

Proboscidea. The (hell is fmooth and white ; the
broader part is ilraight and tranfverfcly plaited. The (hell
is from two to four inches long, white, or of a duflcy
brown.

Afra. Shell fub-flriate, yellowifh-brown, round, twifted
into three whorls, with a ceiitral tip. It is found about the
coafts of the ifland of Goree.

Cereolus. Shell round, fmooth, yellowifli, many
times twifted. It inhabits America. The Ihell is long and
narrow.

Gornucopi.^;. Shell conic, fpirally twifted, yellowifh,
with brown bands ; the middle is round and twifted ; the
aperture is orbicular. The ftiell, as to its form, is obtufe at
the tip.

Goreensi.?. The (hell is round, cancellate, yellow,
within horny. It is found at Goree, fixed to teftiaceous
fubftances and wood ; is from eight to nine inches long, with
elevated ftriae ; the longitudinal ones are crowded.

Intestinalis. Shell triangular, twifted, fragile, tuber-
culate, with hollow dot?. This is found on the African
coaft. The (hell is whitifti, (ingularly twifted, fub-umbili-
cate, within glabrous.

Infundibulum. The (hell is round, white, tranfverfely
ftriate, and thrice twifted ; the (irlt bend appearing' as if
compofed of five funnels placed on each other.

PyRA.MlD.\Li.s. Shell cini-reous, above convex, beneath
flat, pyramidal, hence its fpocific name, and it is many times
twifted, the bends decreafing inwardly. It is found in the
Indian fca, adhering to tcftaceous fubftances about an inch
long, open at the narrower end ; fometimes it is ftraighti(h,
or a little bent.

Denticulata. The (hell of this is white, round, fubu-
late, ftraight, toothed at the fides, with a longitudinal gla-
brous rib in the middle ; the tip is a little incurved and gla-
brous. It is found adhering to the Lepas tintinnabulum, and
ie about three-quarters of an inch long.

Melitensi.s. Shell roundifti, twilled, umbilicate, with
decuilate llrix, and longitudinal nodulous nbs, within
fmooth, with numerous divifions. It is found foffile in
Malta. The two rtrft bends are placed on each other.

NoKWEGic.'.. The ftiell of this is round, fmooth, in-
curved, with a nearly obfolete undulate bafe : the mouth is
obliquely truncate. It is found, as its fpecific name de-
notes, in Norway.

PoRRECTA. Shell round, fmooth, polilhcd, afcending
in a flexuous manner from the fpiral bafe. It inhabits the
North feas. The ftiell rtfrmbles the S. fpirillum, but is
whiter, pellucid, and not rugged ; the inhabitant is fhort,
with a red back and paler fides.

Vitrea. The (hell is round, regular, fpiral, orbicular,
pellucid, fliining, wrinkled, with a thickened aperture. This
II

fpecies is found in the Greenland feas, on fertularii,
fuci, ftones, and divers marine fubftances. It refembles
the S. glomerata ; the (hell is thick, umbilicate, not a
line in diameter, and fometimes it is of a reddilh colour.

Ca!»cellata. Shell fpiral, glomerate, with three
grooves, the lower groove interrupted by tranfverfe lines.
It inhabits the Greenland feas, and refembles the S.
granulata. Shell white, grey or greeiii(h, the aperture is
two-toothed.

Stellaris. Shell fub-orbicular, umbilicate, convex,
radiate with wrinkles. This alfo is found in the Greenland
feas, on fertulariae and ftones. The (hell is fcarcely larger
than a needle, violet, reddi(h-brown, or yellowilh radiate
with white ; beneath it is flat, with a fingle whorl or bend ;
the aperture is very minute.

Gigantea. The (hell of this is fomewhat triangular,
with a little bend, gradually tapering, violet, within
fmooth, pale yellow, the aperture is white, with undulate
ftriae, and armed with a conic tooth. It inhabits Africa
and America, attached to rocks and corals. The (hell is fix
inches high, and as thick as the little finger. The inha-
bitant is whiti(h.

CiNERE.\. The (hell is filiform, glabrous, conglomerate,
perforated. It inhabits the (hores of Maffilia ; it is gla-
brous, of a greyilh-white, and flexuous.

* SuLCAT.-V. Shell with two whorls, deeply and fpirally
grooved. It inhabits the coafts of Pembrokelhire, on the
roots of the Fucus digitatus. It is a minute (hell, of a
greeni(h colour.

* OvALis. Shell fub-oval, imperforated. It is found at
Tenby. The (hell has two bends, which form an oval ; it
is never perforated, and is minute.

* Reflexa. The ftiell is regular, rounded, with a rc-
fledtcd margin at the aperture. This is found on the
Pembrokelhire fands. It is minute ; fhell gloffy, white,
perforated ; the aperture is above the plane of the fpire.

* Cornea. The ftiell is regular, rounded, and pellucid,
with three whorls. This alfo is an inhabitant on the Pem-
brokefhire coaft. It is brown and horny.

* BicoRNls. Shell fcmilunar, ventricofe, white, opaque,
gludy. It is found at Sandwich and Reculver, and is
minute.

* Peufouata. Shell femilunar, perforated, wliite,opaque,
gloffy. It inhabits Sandwich, as do all thofe that will be
hereafter dtfcribed. This is, however, as well as the next,
very rare and minute.

* La< TEA. The ftiell is ovate, thin, fmooth, pellucid,
with milky veins.

* Lagena. Shell rounded, ftriate, grooved, with a
narrow neck. Tliis is dcfcribcd, as are all thofe which
are found in this country, in Adams's work on the Micro-
fcope. The (hell of this is exaftly ftnped like an oil-fladc,
and is whitilh.

* Retorta. Shell rounded, margined, with a ftender re-
curved neck. The ftiell is white, opaque, ftiaped lomcthing
like the retort uh.d by chemifts.

Incukvata. Tiie (hell is ftraight, with three clofe
whorls at the fmalier end. The ftiell is white and tranfpa-
rent, and refembles, in fome refpetls, the Nautilus femi-
lituus.

SERPYLLUM, in Botany, fometimes written Serpillum,
fo called from its humble creeping mode of growth. See

THY.MUS.

SERQUEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Upper Marnc ; 3 miles N. ot Bour.
boane.

SERRA,

S E R

S E R

SERRA, Paolo, m Biography, author of an elaborate
treatife on folmifation, pviblifhed at Rome in 1768, fmall
folio, entitled " Introduzione Armonica Sopra la nuova fe-
rie de' Suoni modulati oggidi, e mode di rettamente, e piu
facilmente intuonarla;" or, " Harmonical Introduftion to a
new feries of modulated founds, and a method for accu-
rately, and with greater facility, learning to name and pro-
duce them with tlie voice."

The author begins, cap. i, with the origin of mufic, its
utility, and the different modes of naming the notes in fmg-
ing. After endeavouring to rob Guido of the invention of
the hexachords and folmifation, and condemning its uie, he
propofes a new method of naming the notes in learning to
fing ; aHignm;^ a fpecilic name to every found in the fcale
ending with the vowels A, E, I ; as ca for a flat note, ce for
a natural note, and cl for a fliarp note ; beginning each
found with the letters now in ufe in the Septenary, by
which means the ftudent is difembarraffed from all mutations,
and every found in the fcale has a fpecitic and invariable name
appropriated to it.

C D E F

CA CL Cl

D.-V Dh. DI iE E OE

±c^oiC_ :

FA FE FI

GA GE Gl

A AO AU

BA BE BI

This method had the approbation of feveral of the bell
mailers in Rome, who have figned a certificate of its effeft
upon the ftudies of a young finger of the name of Bene-
detti, who was rendered capable by it, in lefs than a year,
of finging at fight any vocal mufic that was put before him,
even without accompaniment. Benedetti has fince fung
the firft man's part in the operas of feveral of the principal
cities of Italy ; and, perhaps, his genius may be fuch, as
would have enabled him to have done the fame by any other
method, with equal ftudy and praftice. Inftrumental per-
formers, at prefent, are not plagued with the ancient names
of the notes and mutations, but learn them by the fimple
letters of the alphabet ; and yet we have never heard of one
that has been able to play at fight in a year's time.

Upon the whole, the alphabetic names of the notes feem
the moll fimple and ufeful for every purpofe but that of ex-
ercifing the voice, which is belt done by the vowels ; and it
may be faid, that to Jy/labize in quick padages is little more
than to fpeak, but to vocalize is to fing. However, we
were told by a fcholar of the famous Durante, that while
he was in the confervatorio of St. Onofrio, at Naples, when
the boys ufed to be tormenting themfelves about the muta-
tions, and the names of notes in tranfpofed keys, with
double fl.its and (harps. Durante cried out, " Quelle note
intonatele, chiamatele poi anche diavole fc volete, ma into-
natele." Meaning, that if they did but hit the intervals
right, and in tune, he did not care what they were called.
And, perhaps, what Pope fays of different forms of go-
vernment, may be more jullly applied to thefe feveral methods
of finging.

" Whate'er is bed adminilter'd is belt."

As, in the ufe of any of them, whoever has the beft matter,

and. feconds his inftruftions with the greateft degree of in-
telligence and indullry, will be the molt likely to fucceed.
And when we recollect the great abilities and enchanting
powers of m.any fiiigera of paft times, who have been
obliged to articulate ever)' note of their folfeggi in the moil
rapid movements, we may apply to the new fyllems what
M. Roulfeau faid with refped to his own : " That the
public has done very wifely to rejeft them, and to fend their
authors to the land of vain fpeculations." For innovators
will always find, that a bad method, already known, will be
preferred to a good method that is to learn.

Serra, in Botany, a genus of plants, fo called in the
Flora Peruviana, after a Spanilh bolanift of the fame name,
who has fludied the plants of Minorca. DeTheis.

Serra, in Geography, a tow-n of France, in the depart-
ment of the Jemappe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Corte. The canton contains 2 171 inhabitants.

Serka, a town of Corfica ; 11 miles S.S.W. of Ccr-
vione.

Serra de A-z.enhao, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo ;
4 miles N. of Monfort.

Serra d' Alcoba, mountains of Portugal, in the province
of Beira, between Vifeu and Bragan^a Nova.

Serra de Bouzeno, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo ;
4 miles S. of Portalegre.

Serra de Culdelrao, mountains of Portugal, between
Algarva and Alentejo.

Serua da EJlrtca, -mountains of Portugal, in the province
of Entre Duero e Minho ; 18 miles N. of Braganza.

Serra Falperra, a town of Portugal, in Tras los Monies ;
15 miles W. of Mirandela.

Serra de Maram, a mountain of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Tras los Montes ; 10 miles S. of Chaves.

Serra de Alonchtque, mountains of Portugal, between
Alentejo and Algarva.

Serra de Momil, mountains of Portugal, between Miran-
dela and Torre de Moncorvo.

Serra de Querera, a town of Africa, in Lower Guinea,
on the river Camarones.

Serra de Reboardaos, mountains of Portugal, fouth of
Braganza, in Tras los Montes.

Serra de St. Miguel, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo,
on the fouth fide of the Tagus ; 15 miles N.N.W. of Caf-
tello de Vide.

Serra de Salvador, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo ;
8 miles E. of Arronches.

Serra Pifcis, in Ichthyology, a name given by many au-
thors to the pri/Us, ax fa-ju-fjh.

Serra is alio a name given by Pliny to a fpecies of the
balilles, called by the generality of wxiters fcolopax , It is
diilinguifhed by Artedi by the name of the balilles, with
two fpines in the place of the belly-fins, and one behind the
anu«. See Trumpet;/^.

SERRAE, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Macedonia, the fee of a Greek archbilhop ; 36 miles
E.N.E. of Saloniki.

SERRAIN, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Hcdsjas ; 40 miles S.W. of Mecca. N. lat. 21° 5'.

SERRANA, or Pearl IJland, a fmall ifland in the Carib-
bean fea, fo called from Serrana, the commander of a Spaiiilh
veflel in the time of Charles V., who was ftiipwrecked on
the coafl N. lat 14=5'. W. long. 78=50'.

SERRANILLA Islands, adulter of fmall iflands in
the bay of Honduras. N. lat. 16^^ lo'. W. long. 80° lo'.

SERRAPETRONA, a towu of Italy ; 7 miles S.W.
of Ancona.

SER.

S E R

S E R

SERRATA, a name giTen by fome of the Roman au-
thors to the plant which the Gauls, according to Pliny, had
named betontca, and which the Greeks called ctjlrum-pfuchro-
trophon and prioriies. This was evidently the fame^plant with
our ferratula, or faw-wort ; but befides this there was an-
other plant called by this name, and which, according to
Pliny, was the chamnedrys or germander of the Greeks.

Diofcorides fays nothing of the chamacdrys, but thai its
leaves were fmall. And it is much more probable, that the
world fhould take the idea of a faw from the leaves of the
ferratula than from thofe of this plant, they being much
lefs nicely denticulated than thofe. So that thofc who have
been influenced by Pliny, to fuppofe the germander and fer-
rata of the ancients to be the fame plant, are in the wrong,
though they have the countenance of this fo generally re-
puted authentic author for it.

SERRATE Flies, in Natural Hl/lory, a name given by
authors to certain flies, difl;inguiflied from all the other kinds
by their having a weapon rcfcmbling a double faw, placed
at the hinder part of the body ; this ferves feveral fpecies
of them to make holes in the branches of trees, in which
they depofit their eggs ; but there are fome of them which
do not feem to make any ufe of this curious inftrument,
though they have it. See Kont-Fly.

The fly of this kind that lays its eggs on the goofeberry-
bufti, depofits them only on the furface of the middle rib of
the leaf ; and the ofier-fly, which is one of this genus, pro-
duced from a baftard caterpillar of the ofier, lays its eggs on
the intermediate furface of the leaves between the ribs.

There appears to be no ufe made of this curious inftru-
ment in the depofiting of thefe eggs, fince they are only laid
in rows upon the leaves, and fixed to them by means of a
vifcous fluid which covers them. It is a very remarkable
property in the eggs of this genus of flies, that they grow
much larger after they are laid. This is obfervable in the
eggs of the common rofe-fly, which are at firft buried in the
wood, and by their growth force out the furface into tumours
of an oval figure ; but in thofe of the ofier-fly it is moll
beautifully feen, and the whole growth of the foetus in
them is clearly feen, on examining them at different times of
their growth, which may be eafily done without difturbing
them, as they lie naked on the furface of the leaf.

There feems a plain proof that the egg receives fome fort
of benefit, and that a very efiential one to its prefervation,
from the juices of the plant on which it is dcpofitcd, fince,
if thofe leaves be pulled oft from the plant, and left to dry,
the eggs always dry up with them, and perifti ; whereas, if
the ends of thefe leaves be put into water, and the leaf be
by that means prefervcd frefli and juicy, the creature hatches
from it as well as if it was left upon the tree. Reaumur's
Hift. Inf. vol. ix. p. 164.

SERRATED Leaf, in Boiany. See Leaf.
SERRATI, in the Hi/lory of Coinage, a name anciently
given to Syrian, Roman confular, and fome few other
coins, which wore ornnmcnted by cutting out regular
notches on the edges. Tacitus fays, that the Germans pre-
ferred ihefc to other Roman coins. But the uld forgers imi-
tated thia kind of incifion, which was intended to prevent
forgery, by fhewing the infide of the metal.

SERRATULA, in Botany, fo called by the early
writers on plants, from the fine fcrratures of the leaves, in

tlie original fpecies, which Hands firft on our lift Bauh.

Pin. 235. Linn.Gen.408. Schreb.542. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 3. 1638. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 845.
Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 148. Ait. Hort. Kcw. v. 4.
472. Dill. Gift", t. 8. Juft'. 174. Lamarck llluftr.
t. 666. f. I. Gxrtu. t. 162? — Clafs and order, Syngcne/ia
Vol. XXXII.

Po/ygamia-aqua/h. Nat. Ord. Compqfifa eapllata, Linn. C«-
narocephah, i\x{[.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx oblong, nearly cylindrical,
clofely imbricated, with numerous, lanceolate, ercft, un-
armed fcales. Cor. compound, tubular, uniform. Floret*
numerous, equal, all perfeft, of one petal, funnel-lhaped ;
the tube inflexed ; limb tumid, five-cleft. Slam. Filaments
five, capillary, very fliort ; anthers united into a cylindri-
cal tube. Pyi. Germen obovate ; ftyle thread-ftiaped, the
length of the ftamens ; Itigmas two, oblong, revolute.
Peric. none, except the unchanged calyx. Seeds folitary,
obovate. Down feflile, toothed or feathery. Recept.
cliafty or hairy.

Efi. Ch. Receptacle chaffy or hairy. Calyx imbricated,
cylindrical, unarmed. Seed-down feathery or toothed.

Obf. Carduus and Cnicus are diftinguifhed from this ge-
nus by their more fwelling, or nearly globofe, calyx, with
fpinous fcales. We know not what Gsertner has procured
for the Carduus cyanoidcs, which he reprefents with unarmed
fcales, and therefore properly refers to Serratula ; but the
true Linnzan plant has fpinous fcales. This learned author
would remove to the preient genus a number of fpecies from
Cnicus, Carduus, and Centaurea, of which he names but two,
Cnicus cenlauroides, and Centaurea Rhaponticum, certainly
very remarkable plants, and ftriftly akin, but in our opinion
they anfwcr very imperfeftly to the idea of a Serralula.
We content ourfelves with followHng Willdenow in the main,
though well aware of the ambiguity of fome of the fpecies,
too prone to approach Carduus in their calyx, or Centaurea
occafionally in their marginal florets. We perfi^ft, however,
in excluding S. arvenjls, which is, in chara<3.cr and habit, a
raoft evident and certain Carduus, or rather Cn/Vuj, as Mr.
Curtis long ago demonftrated. Willdenow could fcarcely
have been acquainted with this common fpecies, for he marks
it as biennial, though no weed is more notorious for itj
deeply creeping, almoft indeftruftible, roots. See Fl.
Brit. 851, and Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 57. — Two genera,
with a naked receptacle, and other differences of character,
arc properly feparated by Schreber, Willdenow, and others,
from Serralula. See LlATRls and VernoniA.

1. S. tinSoria. Common Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
1144. Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Ait. n. i. Fl. Dan.
t. 281. Engl. Bot. t. 38. (Serratula; Ger. Em. 713.
Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 295. Camer. Epit. 682.) — Leaves
fharply ferrated, fomewhat ciliated, more or lefs pinnatifid
at the lower part. Corymb level-topped. Florets uniform.
Seed-down fringed. — Native of groves and bufliy places,
chiefly in the north of Europe ; though the Abbe Seftini
told Dr. Sibthorp he had gathered this plant near Conftan-
tinople. It is perennial, with a brown woody root, and
flowers in July and Auguft. The Jlem is upright, ftraight,
ftift", leafy, angular, reddifli, about two feet high, not much
branched. Leaves alternate, fmooth, of a deep fhining
green, with elegant, (harp, hair-pointed teeth ; the radical
ones ftalkcd, undivided ; the rcfi lyrate, or varioufly pinna-
tifid. Flowers corynibofe. C/y ■■ purplilh-brown, now and
then downy. Corolla crimfon, occafionally white. This
herb ferves in Sweden to give a yellow colour to coarfc
woollen cloth.

2. S. coronata. Siberian Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 144.
Ait. n. 2. (S. pracalta cenlauroides montana italica ; Bocc.
Muf. 45. t. 37 ? Carduus n. 41 5 Gmcl. Sib. v. 2. 49.
t. 20.) — Leaves (harply ferrated, fomewhat ciliated, deeply
pinnatifid. Corymb level-topped. Florets of tlie circum-
ference female, longer than the reft. — Native of moft part*
of Siberia, flowering in the end of .Tune. If Boccone'*
fynonym be right, the plant grows alio on mountains in

R r Italy.

SERRATULA.

Italy. Gmelin fays it is ufed in the former country for
dyeing yellow, birch-leaves being fuperadded. This fpecies
is thrice as large as the tinSoria ; the kavts always deeply
pinnautid ; thejlotuers much larger, furiii(hed with radiating
marginal florets, which, though deilitute oi Jlametts, pro-
duce feed.

3. S. quinquefolia. Five-leaved Saw-wort. Willd. n. 3.
Ait. n. 3. — Leaves ferrated, deeply pinnatifid, five or feven-
lobed. Flowers fimply corymbofe. Inner fcales of the
calyx elongated and coloured. — Native of the north of Per-
fia Introduced into the gardens of England by Mr. Bu(h,
in 1804. A hardy perennial, flowering in July and Auguft.
Very like the lad, but the leaves have only two or three pair
of lobes ; the calyx is rather fmaller, and not downy, its
long coloured inner fcales refembling a radiant corolla.
Florets uniform, irilldenetu. The fpecitic name is excep-
tionable, for, by this author's own account, the leaves are
only pinnatifid.

4. S. humilis. Humble Saw-wott. Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. 244. t. 220. Willd. n. 4. (Jacea fupina, carhnte
capitulo acaule, tola incana ; Bocc. Muf. 146? J. incana
chamsleouis capitulo; ibid, t; 109?)— Leaves pinnatifid,
■with oblong entire fegments ; downy beneath. Flower fo-
litary. Calyx hoary, with fpreading-pointed fcales, — Na-
tive of Sicily and Barbary, flowering in fiimmer. An ele-
gant httle perennial plant, with fcveral fpreading radi-
cal leaves, either fimply or interruptedly, but always
very deeply, pinnatifid ; fmooth above. Floiver rofe-co-
loured. Itsjlali appears to vary in length, being fometimes
nearly wanting.

5. S. mollis. Soft-leaved Saw-wort. Cavan. Ic. v. i.
62. t. 90. f.' I. Willd. n. 5. — Leaves pinnatifid, with ob-
long, obtufe, entire fegments ; downy beneath. Flower
fohtary. Calyx downy, with ereft fcales.— Native of hills
in Spain, flowering in June. Cavanilles fays the root is an-
nual, but Willdenow thought it feemed perennial. The
latter, who had feen dried fpecimens of this and the laft,
was perfuaded of their being diftin£l, and, befides the cha-
rafters given above, he remarks that the feed-donun of the
prefent fpecies is moll feathery.

6. S. pygmxa. Dwarf Linear Saw-wort. Jacq. Auftr.
V. 5. 20. t. 440. Willd. n 6. (Cnicus pygm^us ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 1 156.) — Leaves nearly linear, revolute, looftly
hairy. Stem leafy, hairy, fingle-flowered. Calyx-fcales
ovato-lanceolate, ereft. — Found by Jacquin on the celebrated
Auftrian mountain called Schneeberg, in 1761. Clufius ap-
pears to have gathered the fame in Hungary, and Scopoli in
Carniola. The perennial root, furnillicd with long black
fibres, is crowned with a tuft of numerous fpreading leaves,
each two or three inches long, not half an inch wide, green
on both fides, though clothed with Inofe fcattered white
hairs ; their margin either entire, or diftantly toothed.
Similar, though rather ihorter, leaves clothe the fimple^fm,
which is from two to five inches high, hollow, hairy,
bearing one upright purplilh Jloiuer, with prominent
violet anthers. The fcales of the calyx are broad, flat,
purplilh and downy. This is one of the rareil a'pine
plants, nearly related to the following, but certainly
diftinft.

7. S. alpha. Alpine Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 114J.
Willd. n. 7. Fl. Brit 11.2. Engl. Bot. t 599. Lightf.
Scot 448 t. 19. (Cirfium montanuni humile, cynoglodse
folio, poly;.nthemum ; Dill. Elvh. 82. t. 70.)

e. S. difcolor. Willd. n. 8. (Cirfium n. 179; Hall.
Hill v. I. 77. t. 6. C. n. 52 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 67. t. 26,
Herb. Linn, from the author. Carduus moliif, foliis la-
patlii; Ger Em. 1184.)

Leaves cottony and white beneath, toothed, pointe(J,
ovato-lanceolate, undivided ; the radical ones fomewhat ovate
or heart-fliaped. Flowers corymbofe. Calyx clothed with
foft hairs. — Native of the higheft mountains of Europe,
particularly Siberia, Wales, Scotland, and Switzerland,
flowering in July and Auguft. There can be no doubt that
all the fynonyms here cited belong to one fpecies, nor is it
eafy to mark the limits of even its varieties. The root is pe-
rennial, tough, and woody. Stem from three to twelve
inches, or more, in height, fimple, leafy, ftriated, cottony,
crowned with a level-topped tuft of elegant Jloiuers, on
rtalks of various lengths. Calyx of many foft, brown,
hairy fcales. Florets pink, witti blue or violet anthers.
The leaves are exceflively variable in fliape, from lanceolate
to broadly heart-fiiaped ; their margin toothed, fometimes
wavy ; their footjlalks long and llender, fliort and thick,
or altogether wanting. The upper furface of each leaf
is green, fmooth, and nearly or quite naked ; the under
covered with denfe, white, cottony down. The nar-
roweft-leaved fpecimens grow in rich ground, amongll other
plants.

8. S. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Saw-wort. Willd.
n. 9. (S. alpina i, anguftifoha ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1145. ^"'
fium n. 59 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 78. t. 33. Herb. Linn, from
the author.) — Leaves linear, revolute, entire; rather hairy
beneath. Flowers fomewhat racemofe. Brafteas awl-
fhaped. — Gathered by Steller, on the banks ol rivers in the
ealtern part of Siberia. A much more flender plant than
any variety of the preceding. The Jlem is eighteen to
twenty-four inches high, ereft, flender, hollow, llriated,
purplilh, nearly fmooth. Leaves fcattered, hardly a line
broad, quite entire, paler, and a little hairy, but not
cottony, beneath. Flozuers few, on long, fimple, diltant,
rather racemofe than corymbofe, (talks. Scales of the
calyx ovate, pointed, purplilh or brown, hairy within.

9. S. falkifolia. Willow-leaved Saw-wort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1145. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 5. (Cirfium n. 53;
Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 69. t. 27.) — Leaves linear-lanceolate, en-
tire ; white and cottony beneath. Corymb compound,
leafy. Scales of the calyx elliptical, ribbed, downy. —
Native of Siberia, in dry open rocky places, where it flowers
towards the end of July. Mr. Jofeph Bufh is faid to have
brought this fpecies into the Enghlh gardens in 1796. It
is an elegant hardy perennial, diftinguilhed by the fnowy
whitenels of the backs of its leaves, whofe edges are
fcarcely, if at all, revolute; their bale tapering djivn into
a bordered footjlalk. The Jloiuers rather more refemble
thofe of 5. lindoria than of alpina, but the caly.v is flightly
cottony.

10. S. indica. Indian Saw-wort. Willd. n. 11. — " Leaves
linear-lanceolate, ferrated, roughilh. Stem panicled. Co-
rymbs level-topped." — Native of the Eaft Indies. Stem
furrowed, fmooth, four feet high. Upper leaves entire.
Corymbs terminating the branches. Calyx cylindrical, with
lanceolate, fcariofe, imbricated fcales. Seed-down chaffy,
lanceolate, ciliated. Receptacle clothed with lanceolate,
acute, ferrat-id, chaffy fcales IVilldeno'U) .

11. &. muttiflora. Many- flowi red Saw-wort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1145. Willd. n. 12. (Cirfium n. 54; Gmel Sib. v. 2.
71. t. 7.8 ) — Leaves lar;ccolate, rough, fomewhat decurrent,
nearly entire : woolly beneath. Stem repeatedly corymbofe,
m<niy-tl jwer-jd. Scales of tfie calyx lanceolate, keeled. —
Gathered b\ Gmelin in mountainous parts of Siberia. Dr.
Fifchfr has fent us a l"fs luxuriant fpecimen from mount Cau-
cafns. The ftcms are faid to be decumbent. The leaves vary
in breadii;, and are fometimes revolute; the radical ones
coarfely toothed. Their green upper furface is rough like a

file;

S E R

S E R

file ; the under clothed with loofe white cottony wool.
Flowers more or lefs numerous, corymbofi", rofe-coloured,
with an cKgan;, (lender, purplifii, llightly downy, calyx.
Gmelin himlelt jutlly fays that the Jlntuers in his plate
are too large ; yet Linnxus on that account doubts the
certainty ot his fynonym, for which there can be no
reafon.

12. S. cafpica. Cafpian Saw-wort. " Pall. It. v. 2.
append, n. 121. t. Z." Willd. n. 13. — " Leaves lanceolate,
obtufe, entire, fmooth, fomewhat flelhy. Stem corymbofe."
— Native of the borders of the Cafpian fea. T\k feed-down
is hairy and fringed. Receptacle villous. JVilldenoiu .

13. S. mucronata. Pointcd-fcaled Saw-wort. Desfont.
Atlant. V. 2. 243. t. 219. Willd. r.. 14. — Leaves eUiptic-ob-
long, nearly entire, fmooth. Stem with few flowers. Scales
of the calyx with recurved membranous points. — Found by
Desfontaines, on hills in Barbary near Mafcar, and on mount
Atlas, flowering in the early fpring. Root perennial.
Whole plant very fmooth, near two feet high. Leaves
alternate, entire or finely toothed, from four to fix inches
long. Flowers from one to three, rather large, pink, or
purplifti, with an ovate fquarrofe calyx: Seed-down and
hairs of the receptacle fimple, flender.

14. S. amara. Bitter. Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 148.
Willd. n. 15. (Cirfium n. 55 ; Gmel. Sib v. 2. 72. t. 29.)
— Leaves lanceolate, rough-edged, naked, fomewhat decur-
rent. Flowers corymbofe. Scales of the calyx dilated and
vounded at the extremity. — Native of dry open fields in Si-
beria, on a faline foil, abundantly. Gmelin. /Joo/ jis thick as
the little finger, perennial, bitter, with a faline flavour. Stem
from a fpin to one or two cubits high, fimple or branched,
leafy, angular, and furrowed. Leaves four or five inches
long, and one broad, coriaceous, tapering at each end, naked
and nearly fmooth on both fides, except the edges and mid-
rib : the lower ones llalked, toothed ; the upper generally
decurrent, and entire Flowers feveral, purple, the fize of
Centaurea nigra or Jacea, but in the afpe£l and hue of their
calyx moll refembling the latter, except that the round apex
of each fcale, though jagged, is not fringed.

ij. S. cenlauroides. Centaury-like Saw-wort. Linn.
Sp. PI. U48. Willd. n. 16. Ait.n. 6. (Carduus n. 38 ;
Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 44. t. 17.) — Leaves deeply pinnatifid,
acute, fmooth, unarmed. Stem branched. Flowers folitary.
Scales of the calyx partly pointed ; the inner ones dilated
and membranous. — Native of Siberia. S^-nt by fir Joleph
Banks to Kew, in l 804. A hardy perennial, flowering iii
July and Augull. This has the habit of feveral Centaurea,
but wants the neuter marginal florets. T\\cjhm is a foot or
more in height, alternately branched, leafy, angular, fmooth.
Leaves rigid or coriaceous, with deep, entire, decurrent feg-
ments. Flowers folitary at the top of each branch, large,
purple. Calyx ovate, of many ovate acute fcales, feveral of
the middlcmult of which bear a fliort fpine, while the inner
ones are much elongated into a linear, membranous-tipped
appendage. The genus of this plant cannot Vjut be eonfidcrcd
as very doubtful, nor can we refer it without fcruple lo Ser-
raliila, or Centaurea ; perhaps we fliould, like Gmelin, remove
it to Carduus or Cnicus, the calyx anfwering Tci"y nearly to
that of the arvenjis.

16. S.japonica. Japan Saw-wort. Tluiiib. Jap. 305.
Willd. n. 17. — Leaves pinnatifid, toothed, rough on both
fides. Corymb compound. Scales of the calyx dilated and
rounded at the extremity. Gathered by Tliunberg in Japan.
Thcjlem is a yard high, fcarcely branched, leafy, llrongly
angular and furrowed, rough with minute hairs. J^caves
flalkcd, fomewhat lyrate, three or four inches long. Flowers

numerous, in a compound level-topped corymb, rather
fmaller than thofe of Serratula arvenjis. Calyx-fcales tipped
with an elegant, purple, notched, membranous dilatation.

17. S. cilista. Fringed Saw-wort. Vahl. Symb. v. i.
67. Willd. n. 18. — Leaves feflile, lanceolate, undivided,
fringed with minute fpines ; downy underneath. — Gathered
by Forfliall, in gardens at the village of Bujuchtari, near
Conftantinople. Willdenow erroneoufly makea this fpecies
a native of Egypt. Forfkall took it for the Linna:an S. ar-
venjis. Vahl, who had examined his original fpecimens, de-
fcribes ihejlem as herbaceous, branched, ftriated ; hoary ia
the upper part. Leaves feflile, an inch and a half long,
tapering at the bafe, obtufe, finely ferrated, with fpinou*
teeth ; the upper fide green, flaaggy ; the under hoary and
downy. Flowtrs fmaller than a hazel-nut, llalked, two or
three at the end of each branch. Calyx-fcales fmooth j the
outermolt ovate, keeled at the fummit, and pointed ; the
inner ones lanceolate. Seed-down iezlhery. This may poffi-
bly, like the following, belong to Cnicus.

18. S. felofa. Briftly Saw-wort. Willd. n. 19. — •
" Leaves oblong, fmooth, finely ferrated, fringed with
briltles, obtufe, pointed. Stem corymbofe." — Native of
Silefia ; obferved by the Rev. Mr. Seeliger. Root bien-
nial. Stem furrowed, fmooth, corymbofe and level-topped.
Leaves copious, alternate, an inch long (or broad?) green
on both fides, fmooth, undivided, very minutely ferrated, each
ferrature tipped with a brillly point. Flower-Jlalks hoary.
Calyx nightly downy, with ovate, acute, obfcurely-pointed
fcales. Willdenow, from whom we borrow this defcrip-
tion, fays the plant is like Cnicus (his Serratula) arvenfis,
except in the form of its leaves, and fmallnefs of the flowers.
If fo, it perhaps is likewife a real Cnicus, and perennial ; fee
our obfervations under the generic charadlcr.

Serratula, in Gardening, contains plants of the tall,
hardy, herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies
cultivated are ; the long-leaved faw-wort (S. noveboracen-
fis) ; the tall faw-wort (S. praealta) ; the glaucous-leaved
faw-wort (S. glauca) ; the rough-headed faw-wort (S.
fquarrofa) ; the ragged-cupped faw-wort (S. fcariofa) ; and
the fpiked faw-wort (S. fpicata).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may all be increafed by
parting the roots, and planting them out in the autumn, when
the ftems decay, or in the fpring ; but the former is the
better feafon. The old plants fliould not be parted oftener
than every third year, and then not too fmali.

They are likewife all capable of being increafed by feeds,
when they can be had good, which fliould be fown in the au-
tumn or eariy fpring, in a border to the call, in flight drills.
When the plants are a few inches high, they fliould be
pricked out in nurfcry-rows to remain till the following
autumn, and then planted out where they arc to remain.

They afford ornament in the borders, clumps, &c. being
planted to the middle or the back parts.

SERRATLTM, and SEiutuLATUM, Folium,in Botany, fo
called from ferra, a faw, the teeth of which arc imitated in
their margins. See Leaf.

SERRATUS, in /Inatomy, a name given to different
mufcles attached to the ribs, and arifing by feveral diitinft
portions, fo as to have a ferrated edge. In French they are
called dentile.

Serkatus Amicus, the name under which Albinus de-
fcribes the peftoralis minor. It is alfo called fcrratus mi-
nor anticus.

Serhatu.s Magnus, (fcrratu.'! major anticus; le grand

dcntele ; fcapulo coflicn,) a large mufcle of the fliouldcr,

broad and flat, lying between the fcapula and the cheft, and

R r 2 extending

S E R

extending from the nine upper ribs to the bafis of the fca-
pula. It is irregularly four-fided, broader below and in
front than above and behind. It arifes from the eight or
nine upper ribs by as many diftinft pointed portions, which
are firlt tendinous, then flefhy. The firlt, which is broad,
very thick, (hort, aytd dHHnft from the reit, arifes from the
outer edge of the firlt rib, towards its back part, from the
fecond, and from an intermediate aponeurolis. The fecond,
third, and fourth, broad and thin, arife from the external
furfaces of the fecond, third, and fourth ribs, in oblique
lines direfted from above and behind, downwards and for-
wards. The four or five lalt, narrower and increafing in
length downwards, arife from the upper edge and external
furface of the eorrefponding ribs, and are placed between
the digitations of the obliqtius externus abdominis. From
the origins juft enumerated, the fibres of the mufcle proceed,
divided, particularly below, into fafcicuU eorrefponding to
each digitation, fcparated by cellular lines, and foon form-
ing three diftinft portions. Tiie fuperior divifion is thick,
narrow, and fhort, extends from the two firlt ribs to the fu-
perior angle of the fcapula, afcending a little, and covering
the upper edge of the fecond portion, to which it is united.
The middle "divifion, broad and thin, goes from the fecond,
third, and fourth ribs to the upper three-fourths of the bafis
of the fcapula ; its fibres proceed horizontally from before
backwards, except the inferior ones, which defcend a little.
The inferior portion of the mufcle pafl'es from the fifth, fixth,
feventh, and eighth ribs to the inferior fourth of the bafis of
the fcapula, and the inferior angle of the bone. This part
is thick, radiated, broad in front, and narrow behind. The
fuperior fibres of this portion go nearly horizontally from
before backwards ; the inferior ones are direfted at the
fame time from below upwards, and are more obhque in
proportion as they are lower : they are united towards the
inferior angle of the bone.

The external furface of the ferratus is covered, towards
its lower and anterior part, by the fkin, at the lower and
pofterior part by the latidimus dorfi. Above and towards
the front it is covered by the peftoral mufcles, by the axil-
lary vellels, and the brachial plexus. In the reft of its ex-
tent it is in contaft with the fub-fcapularis. The external
furface covers the feven or eight fuperior ribs, the external
intercoftal mufcles, and behind a portion of the ferratus
fuperior poiticus. The upper edge of the mufcle is the
fhortelt, extending from the margin of the firlt rib to the
fuperior angle of the fcapula : the inferior, much longer,
reaches from the eighth or ninth rib, or about two inches
from its cartilage, obliquely to the inferior angle of the fca-
pula. The anterior edge is the longeft, and fixed to the ex-
ternal furface of the eight or nine firft ribs, by the diliinft
pointed ferrx or digitated portions, from which the name of
the mufcle has been derived : the pofterior is fixed to the
front edge of the bafis of the fcapula, and of the fuperior
and inferior angles of the bone.

The aftion of the ferratus anticus produces two different
effefts, according as the fcapula or the ribs are the fixed
point. In the firft cafe, the fcapula being fixed by the tra-
pezius, rhomboid and levator mufcles, it draws the ribs out-
wards, elevating thofe to which it is fixed by its lower digi-
tations : in this refpedl it is a powerful agent of infpiration,
concurring with the peftoral mufcles. In the fecond cafe,
it carries the fcapula forwards, antagonizing the rhomboid,
trapezius, &c. But it moreover draws the inferior angle
forwards, and confequently moves the upper and anterior
angle of the bone, forming the . (houlder, upwards. Thus
the ferratus anticus is an important mufcle in fupporting

S E R

burdens carried on the {houlders. In this cafe the diaphragm
and abdominal mufcles are put in aAion to draw down the
ribs, fix them, and prevent them from yielding to the effort*
of the ferratus.

Serratls Major Anticus. See Serratus yintkus.

Skrratcs Pofllcus Inferior, (dentele potterieur inferieur ;
lombocoftieii,) is a broad, thin, and Hat mufcle, fituated at
the lower part of the back, and extending from the fpinous
proceffes of the vertebra to the ribs. It arifes from the
fpinous proceffes of the two laft dorfal vertebrae, of the
three firlt lumbar, and the intervening interfpinal ligaments,
by a broad aponeurofis, compofing one half of the mufcle,
common to it and the latiffimus dorfi, compofed of parallel
fibres, directed obliquely upwards and outwards. This
aponeurofis is connected in front to that of the tranfverfus
abdominis, and by its lower edge to the obhqu'is interaus.
The mufcular fibres, pafTing with the fame obliquity as thofe
of the aponeurofis, form four fafciculi or pointed ferrated
portions, of which the firft and broadeft is fixed to the lower
edge, and near the angle of the fecond falfe nb ; and the three
others, which are fucccflivcly fmaller, are alio attached, by
aponeurotic fibres, to the lower edge of the three fucceeding
ribs, farther from the angle. The pofterior furtaceof this
mufcle is covered by the latiflimus dorfi. The anterior fur-
face covers the three laft falfc ribs, the external intercoftal
mufcles, the longiflimus dorfi and facrolumbahs, and the
tranfverfus abdominis. The upper edge is continuous with
the thin aponeurofis, wiiich immediately covers the longifli-
mus dorfi and facrolumbnlis.

By drawing downwards the lower ribs, this mufcle afGfts
in expiration. It car.not produce any tffeft on the fpine :
it will confine the muicles lying at the fide of the ipiiie, and
thus has the fame effedt as the ferratus poilicus fuperior and
the fafcia extended between them.

Serratu.s Pojlicus Superior, dentele pofterieur fuperieur ;
dorlocoftien,) is a very imall and thin mufcle, flat and four-
fided, placed at the upper part of the back. It arifes from the
ligamentura nuchas, the laft cervical Ipinous procefs, and
the two or three upper dorfal ones, by a thin aponeurofis,
compofed of parallel fibres, direfted obliquely downwards
and outwards. The flefhy fibres follow the fame direftion,
forming a thin ftratum, which terminates in four fmall fafci-
culi or ferrated portions, ending in aponeurotic fibres,
which areinferted in the upper edges of the ft-cond, third,
fourth, and fifth ribs, near their angles. Il is covered ex-
ternally by the rhomboideus : and it covers the fplenius,
tranfverfalis colli, the vertebral mufcles, the ribs, and the
eorrefponding intercoftal mufcles.

It will have the effedt of elevating the ribs, and thereby
of enlarging the cheft, or aflifling in infpiration.

SERRAVALLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of Marengo, O'; the Scrinia ; 12 miles S. of
Tortona. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Sefia ; i8 miles N. of Vercelii. — Alfo, a town of Italy,
in the duchy of Mantua ; 24 miles S.E. of Mantua. — Alfo,
a town of Italy, in the Trevifan, i\ miles in circumference,
partly on a plain between two mountains, and partly on the
mountains near the river Mafcliio, which runs through the
middle of the town, and has its fource in a fm;dl h.ke in the
higher part of the town. At the extremity of the market-
place is the public palace, and at the lower end the cathedral
church, containing fome good paintings. The town and its
fuburbs comprehend two parilhes, and 30 churclies, that of
St. Augufta attra£t;ng notice by its noble architecture, and
its long noble ftaircafcs. Here are alio two nionafterics, and
two nunneries. The inhabitants are induftnous, and trade

particularly

S E R

particularly in cloth, woollen and filk manufaftures, and
carry on an extenfive commerce in wiiie, corn, and honey,
both with the adjacent provwces and with Germany ; 2
miles N. of Centda.

SERRE, I. A., in B'lography, a miniature painter of
Geneva, who had been in England, and fccmed well ac-
quainted with Geminiani, and tlie (late of mufic in our
country in the middle of the laft certury. He has analyfed
the " Guida Armonica" of Geminiani, the " Bafle fon-
damentale" of Rameau, and the Treatifes of Tartini, with
his difeovcry of the " Terzo Suono." Thefe celebrated
works M. S^Te has critically examined in two ingenious
ellays, publilhed in 1753 and 1763, in which there are like-
wife many curious remarks on difpatable points in the theory
and practice of harmony, which will both amufe and inftrudl
mufical lludents.

Sekre, Fr., clofe intervals in m.ufic, fuch as the enhar-
monic quarter tunes ia the ancient G-eek mufic ; and in
French mufic, fhort and quick. See Spissos.

Serre, La, in Geo^raphf, a river which runs into the
Oife, near La Fere, in the department of the Aifne.

Serre, a town of France, in the department of the
Ifere ; i 2 miles N of Romans.

SERRES, JoriN de, in Biography, a Proteflant minifter,
was born m the fouth of France, and lludied at Laufanne.
We fi'.d him in 1572, ferving a country church in the neigh-
bourhood of Geneva. Having made himfolf known by va-
rious works, he became reftor of the college of Nifmes,
and a minitti.r of that city, and he was employed on feveral
important occafions by Henry IV.; that prince having afl<cd
Serres if it were poflible for a perfon to be faved in the com-
munion of the church of Rome, he anfwered in the affirma-
tive, whence he has been accufed of promoting Henry's
change of religion. Notwithftanding this deciiion, he was
a warm controvcrlialift againft the Catholics, and made a very
fevere attack upon the Jefuits, entitled " Doflrinse Jefuitics
precipua capita." Asa learned author, he is chiefly known
by an edition of Plato in three volumes folio, printed by
Henry Stephers in 1578, with notes and a new Latin verfion,
which however is not remarkable for correftnefs ; and the
ilyle of thofe parts <vhich Serres compofed is very unequal
to the majjlly of the original. He was author of a number
of works in hiftory, and had the title of hiiloriographer <if
France ; but his compofitions are faid by the Catholics to be
partial and full of mifreprefentations. The principal of them
are as toUow ; " Commentariorum de ftatu Religionis et Rei-
publicsE in Regno Francix," comprifing the events from
1557 to I 576 : " Memoire de la Troifeme Guerre civile fous
Charles IX. ;" " Recueil des Chofe memorable avenues en
France fous Henri II., Francois II., Charles IX., et
Henri III. ;" and " Inventaire General de I'Hiltoire de
France." Serres, towards the end of his life, engaged m
the hopelefs defign of uniting the Catholic and reformed
churches, which brought on him the contempt of one party
and the enmity of the other. Hediedin 1598.

Serres, Or.iviER ue, an eminent agriculturift, was
born in 1539, at Vilhneuve de Berg, in the Vivarais.
During the civil tumults of his time, his property was pil-
laged, and his houfe demolifli. d, and after it had been
rebuilt, it was again deftroyed bv lire. He is faid to have
borne thefe misfortunes with great equanimity, and to have
forgot'en them by engaging his muid in iludy and rural oc-
cupations. By his talents he became fo advantageoufly
known to Henrv IV., that he lent for him to Paris, and
employed himflfin fever.!l iui|)roveraents about his domains.
Serres wrote work, which rendered him the oracle of the
cultivators in that age, and many of his ideas have been co-

S E R

pied by later writers without acknowledgment. The chief
of thefe, in which he collected the refults of long experience,
is entitled " Theatre d'Agriculiure, et Menage des
Champs," 1600, and has been feveral times reprinted. It
has been delcribed by Haller as " a great and valuable work,
written by an experienced man, fond of fimplicity, and not
at all attached to expenlive methods." Some of the econo-
mical precepts of Mr. 5erres have been thrown into vcrfe, in
order that they might be more eafily remembered. He pub-
lilhed treatifes on the management of filk-ivorms, the col-
lection of the filk, and the culture of the white mulberry-
tree, which he introduced into France. This eftimrble man
died in 1619, at the age of four-fcore, after having had the
fatisfaftion of witnefling the happy effefts of the improve-
ments fuggefted by him.

Serres, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment uf the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in
the dillnct of Gap; 24 miles W.S.W. of Gap. The
place contains 1219, and the canton 4249 inhabitants, on a
territory of 170 kihometres, in 10 communes. N. lat. 44"
26'. E. long. 5° 8'.

SERRET, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natoha ; 30
miles W. of Cailamena.

SERRIERES, a town of France, in the department of
the Ardeche, and chief place of a Qanton, in the diilridt of
Tournon ; 15 miles N. of Tounion. The place contains
1924, and the canton 9416 inhabitants, on a territory of
115 kiliometres, in 17 communes.

SERRIS, a town of _Hindooflan, in Bahar ; if miles
S.E. of Saferam. N. lat. 24° 51'. E. long. 84° 26'.

SERRO, a fmall ifland belonging to the duller of
Papuan ides. See Papua.

SERROPALPUS, in Entomology, a genus of infefts,
of the order Coieoptera, whofe generic charafter is as fol-
lows : antennas fetaceous ; four unequal feelers ; the an-
terior ones are the longer, and deeply ferrate, compofed of
four joints, the laft very large, truncate, comprefled, pa-
telliform ; the pofterior ones are fubclavate ; thorax mar-
gined, concealing the head, with a prominent angle on each
fide ; the head is deflefted ; and the feet formed for digging.
There are two

Species.

Striatus. The body of this infeft is brown ; the fliells
(Iriate. It inhabits the ifland Runfale, and is defcribed in
the Stockholm Tranfaftions for the year 1786 ; where it is
faid to be found chiefly on old wooden buildings, in the
evening in autumn, and is about the fize of the Elater
aterrimus.

L^cviGATUs. This fpecies is charaClcrized by a black
body, and fmooth (hells. It inhabits different parts ef
Europe, and is likewife defcribed in the volume of the
Stockholm Tranfat\ions already referred to.

SERRURIA, in Botany, a name rightly altered by Mr.
Salilbury and Mr. Brown, from the Serraria jf profedor
John Burmaiin, who, 111 his Plaiitx Africana;, 266, eda-
blifht s the latter app» Ihuion, in honour of Dr. Jofcph Ser-
rurier, Profedor ol Botany at Utrecht ; but it is not eafy
to difcover the above author's meanirg In thus perverting
the word ; for Serriirler is a lockfmilh, and has no reference
to a favv, or fawyer. — Brown. Tr. of Linn. Se^c. v. 10 112.
Ait. Hurt. Kew. V. i. 19S — Clafs ai;d order, TumniJria
Moiwgynia. Nat. Ord. ylggregatt, Linn. Protcacfx, Jufl'.
Broun. ,

Ed. Ch. Corolla in four dep icgmeiits. Stamens in the
concave tips of the fegmeiils. NeCtary four fcalcs bein th

tlio

SERRURIA.

the germen. Stigma vertical, fmooth. Nut fuperior,
fomewhat ftalked. Common receptacle convex, many-
flowered, with chafFy deciduous fcales.

A genus of rigid Cape (hrubs, of which Mr. Brown de-
fcribes thirty-nine fpecies, eight of which find a place in the
Hortus Kewenfis. The leaves are thread-lhaped, pinnatifid
or three-cleft, rarely undivided. Heads oi Jlowers either
terminal, or, from the bofoms of the uppcrmoft leaves,
either fimple and folitary, or compoied of feveral feffile
partial heads, or corymbofe. BraBeas imbricated, mem-
branous, mod commonly fliorter than the Jloivers, in a few
inltances longer, in feme wanting. Flowers always feffile,
purple. PiflU the length of the corolla, with a club-fhaped,
rarely cylindrical, ftigma. Nut oval, finely downy, fome-
times bearded, fometimes nearly fmooth. We feledt the
following examples, among which are included all the fpecies
known in the gardens of England.

Seft. I. Heads Jtmple ; the Jlower-Jlalks undi'o'iJed or
wanting.

S. pinnata. Wing-leaved Serruria. Brown, n. 8. Ait.
!i. I. (Protea pinnata ; Andr. Repof. t. 512.) — Heads
ilalked, fomewhat aggregate. Brafteas lanceolate, villous,
r.early as long as the flowers. Corolla bearded. Leaves
pinnatifid or three-cleft, longer than the heads. Stem pro-
cumbent, hairy. — Gathered by Mr. Niven, on drj- hills at
the Cape of Good Hope, particularly in afcending Paarl-
berg. It flowered in Mr. Hibbert's garden, in the fummer
of 1807. I" ^ natural ilate ihe Jlem is faid to be perfeftly
proftrate, dividing from the bafe into branches about a foot
long, round, downy, leafy. Leaves above an inch long,
turned upwards, confifting of three or five awl-fliaped feg-
ments. Heads of Jlcnvers red, about as big as a walnut,
cither folitary and terminal, or partly axillary ; the young
buds enveloped in the white filky hairs, which clothe the
tips of the corolla externally.

S. cyanoides. Trifid-leaved Serruria. Brown, n. 10.
Ait. n. 2. ( Protea cyanoides ; Linn. Mant. 188. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 507. Cyanus aethiopicus, rigidis capillaceis
tenuifTimi,' foliis trifidis ; Pluk. Mant. 61. Phyt. t 345.
f. 6. ) — Heads terminal, longer than their ilalks. BraAeas
rounJi/h, pointed, villous. One fegment of the corolla
nearly fmooth. Leaves fpreading ; the lower ones three-
cleft ; upper fubdivided. Stem nearly upright Native of

hills about the Cape. Mr. Brown gathered it on the fides
of mountains, near Simon's bay. A fhrub of humble
growth, flowering with us in June or July. The branches
are fcarcely pubefcent. Leaves not an inch long, rather
hairy while young. Flower-Jlalks folitary, downy, gene-
rally but half the length of the heads of flowers, which are
the fi/.e of a large cherry, rifing above the upper leaves, and
accompanied by membranous iilky bradeas.

S. pedunculata. Woolly-headed Serruria. Brown, n. 13.
Ait. n. 3. ( Protea glomerata ; Andr. Repof. t. 264.) —
Heads terminal, ft;alked. Brafteas ovate, downy. Corolla
curved, feathery ; its inner fegment filky. Leaves twice
or thrice pinnatifid, hairy, as well as the upright fl:em. —
Found in various hilly fituations at the Cape of Good Hope,
where the fnil is rather fertile. Meflrs. Lee and Kennedy
are recorded as having firft raifed this fpecies, in 1789, from
feeds obtained from Vienna. It flowers in fummer, and
makes a handfome appearance, with its copious many-cleft
/eaves, and large heads of light reddifli -brown fioiuers-,
clothed with fine white plumy down. The anthers are
yellow. Stigma blackifh.

S. hirfuta. Hairy Serruria. Brown n. 15. (Protea
phylicoides ; Thunb. Did. n. 9. Prodr. 25. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. I. 510, excluding the reference to Bergius.) —

Heads terminal, longer than their ftalks. Brafteas linear,
lanceolate, hairy. Corolla feathery. Leaves doubly pin-
nate, about as long as the head;. Branches hairy. Stem
ereft. — Native of fl;ony hills at the Cape. Mr. Brown ob-
ferved it near Simon's bay. It feems unknown in our gar.
dens. This^ri/i is two or three feet higli, with ftraight
umbellate branches, rough with fpreading permanent hairs.
Leaves copious, moderately fpreading, an inch, or fome-
times an inch and half, long, hairy when young only ; their
fegments very (harp-pointed. Floiuer-Jlalks often more than
one at the top of each branch, half tlie length of the headsy
with lanceolate-awl-fliaped, fpr^-ading bradeas. Heads as
big as a walnut, rifing above the upper leaves. Corolhi
fiightly curved ; the hairs on its inner fegment fliorter than
thofe of the other three. Stigma cylindrical, fomewhat
club-fliaped.

S. Niveni. Niven's Serruria. Brown, n. 17. Ait. n. 4.
(Protea decumbens ; Andr. Repof. t. 349.) — Heads ter.
minal, feffile. Biafteas lanceolate ; the inner ones filky.
Corolla bearded. Leaves doubly pinnatifid ; the uppermoft
longer than the head, and fmooth like the branches. Stem
decumbent. — Difcovered by Mr. James Niven, on Swart-
berg, a rocky mountain at the Cape of Good Hope, and
fent by him to Mr. G. Hibbert in 1800. It blooms in the
fummer, and is of a Imall ilature, and decumbent habit.
The Jlowers are of a dull red, clothed externally with white
filky hair.-; ; and each fohtary head, fmaller than a hazel-nut,
is encompafled with numerous, crowded, radiating leaves.
Each leaf of the general foliage is about an inch long.
Stigma hardly thicker than the llyle. Mr. Andrews's plate
reprefents the branches as fomewhat downy.

S. phylicoides. Phylica-flowered Serruria. Brown, n. 24,
Ait. n. 5. (Leucadendron phylicoides; Berg. Cap. 29.
Protea fphcerocephala ; Linn. Mant. 18S. P. abrotani-
folia ; Andr. Repof. t. 507.) — Heads terminal or axillary,
on fcaly flialks. Bracteas half as long again as the head,
lanceolate, fmooth ; the outer ones narrowell. Tips of the
corolla bearded. Leaves twice compound, longer than the
floiver-ftalks. — -Native of the Cape, from whence it was fent
to Kew, by Mr. Maflbn, in 1788 ; flowering there in July
and Auguft. This is a fmooth upright Jhrub, with reddifli
leafy branches. Leaves generally bipinnatifid, an inch or
two long, moderately fpreading. Thejlower-Jlalks, clothed
with feveral lanceolate fcales, and either folitary, or aggre-
gate in a corymbofe manner, are longer than the heads, but
ufually fliorter than the foliage. Heads above half an inch
in diameter, fubtended by many longifli, deflexed, green,
red-pointed bradeas. Corolla whitifii and fmooth, except
the ends of the fegments, which are red, and deiifely bearded.
Stigma red, cylindrical.

S. Jlorida. Large-flowered Serruria. Brown, n. 26.
(Protea florida ; Thunb. Dilf. n. 2. t. I. Prodr. 25.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 506.) — Brafteas longer than the
ftalked heads ; the outer ones elliptic-oblong, pointed,
fmooth ; inner concealed, linear-lanceolate, fringed. Leaves
once or twice pinnatifid — Thunberg and Matlon gathered
this fpecies on the mountains of Franche Hoek at the Cape-
It has not as yet found its way into our green-houfcs, which
is much to be regretted, no other Serruria being comparable
to it in beauty. The leaves are three or four inches long,
fmooth, as well as the branches, which are of a purple hue.
Flowers many together, on corj-mbofe fcaly ftalks at the
ends of the branches, large, remarkable for their beautiful
red external braSeas, which are each an inch or inch and
half long, attended by fmaller ones, of the fame kind, feat-
tered down the llalk, while the innermoft braSeas, coming
into view by the fpreading of the former, are luic^.r, fringed

with

S E R

S E R

W'ith yellow hairs. This is a very rare plant, even in dried
coUeftions.

Seft. 2. Heads compound ; partial ones croiuded.

S. decumbeits. Trailing Serruria. Brown, n. 27. (Protea
decumbens ; Tliunb. Dill. n. I. t. i. Prodr. 25'. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 506. P. procumbens ; Linn. Suppl. 116.) —
Stem proltrate, fmooth, as well as the three-cleft leaves,
■whofe (egments are undivided. Each partial head ol about
four flowers.— Native of the ftony fides of mountains, at the
Cape of Good Hope ; not as yet known as a garden plant.
It is fmooth, dividing from the root into feveral proflrate,
leafy, wavy branches. Leaves afcending, about two inches
long, in two or three fimple, thickifh, linear fegments.
Floiuer-Jlalks axillary and terminal, flender, fcaly, each
bearing a fmall roundifh head, enveloped in ovate, pointed,
rather filky bradeas, and compofed of from four to fix
fmaller heads. Corolla filky, very fiightly curved. Mr.
Brown remarks that fome of the heads are, apparently from
ftarvation or abortion, fimple.

S. glomerata. Many-headed Serruria. Brown, n. 31.
Ait. n. 6. (Protea glomerata ; Linn. Mant. 187. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 509. Leucadendron glomeratum ; Linn. Sp.
• Pi. 137. Serraria foliis tcnuifiime divifis, capitibus tomen-
tofis ; Burm. Afr. 265. t. 99. f. 2 ) — Stem erect, (mooth
like the doubly pinnaliiid leaves. Partial heads of many
flowers. Inner bratleas fomewhat filky. Common flower-
ftalks fcaly. Stigma club-fliaped. — Found in ilony hilly
places at the Cape. Mr. Maflbn is faid to have fent it,
about the year 1789, to Kcw, where it flowers in July and
Auguft. A ratlier humble _/7jra3, with reddifli branches.
Leaves from one to two inches long, flender, quite fmooth.
Floiuer-Jlalks downy ; the common ones often aggregate and
racemole, clothed with broad, fmooth, loofely imbricated,
fcaly braBeas ; partial ones ftiorter than their refpeftive
heads. Corolla externally filky.

Seft. 3. Floiuer-Jlalks divided. Heads Jimple, corymbofe
or raccmoje.

S. Burmanni. Burmann's Serruria. Brown, n. 36. Ait.
n. 7. (Protea Serraria; Linn. Mant. 188. Willd Sp.
PI. V. I. 508. Leucadendron Serraria k ; Linn. Sp. PI.
137. Serraria foliis tenuiflime divifis, floribus rubris apetahs;
Burm. Afr. 264. t. 99. f. i. Abrotanoides arboreum,
&c. ; Pluk. Mant. i. Phyt t. 329. f, 1.) — Heads corym-
bofe, each of about ten flowers. Corollas level-topped,
more or lefs filky, fliorter than the partial ftalks. Leaves
doubly pinnatifid, briftle-fliaped, longer than the flower-
ilalks. — Native of low barren fpots, about the fides of hills
at tlie Cape, very frequent. Mr. Mafl'on fent it in 1786
to Kew garden, where it bloflbms from May to July. A
humble corymbofe Jhrub, with very flender acute leaves,
•which are flightly hairy. The heads are fmall, reddifli,
crowned with the long prominent llyles. Mr. Bi own men-
tions a variety, or polfibly dilhnft fpecies, whofe leaves are
rather filky, heads more obtufe at their bafe, and bradeas,
as well !i9, Jloiuers, altogrilier filky.

S Iriterncita. Silvery. (lowered Serruria. Brown, n. 37.
Ait. n 8. (Protea triternata ; Thunb. Dill. n. 7. Prodr.
25. Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 509. P. argentiflora ; Andr.
Repof. t. 447.) — Corymbs compound. Heads globofe,
many-flowred. Brafteas and partial flower-ltalks filky.
Leaves ilirice trrnate, fmooth as well as the flem. — Ga-
thn d by Mr. Niven, near the river at Roode Zant, Cape
of Good H'.jpc. Mefl'is. Lee and Kennedy are faid to have
firll railed this elegant fpecies, ;ibout the year 1802. It
blofloms liom June to xAuguft. Tiic leaves are four or five
inches long, ard as thick as a crow's quiil, being larger, as
well as more compound, than in molt «ther Iptcics, Heads

of flowers of a filvery white, filky, numerous, each rather
above half an inch diameter. 6V/jma obovate, yellow.

SERSALISIA, fo named after a Neapolitan ecclefi.
afl:ic, much commended by Fabius Columna, (thijugii m
what part of his writings we are not informed,) is a ^.'enus
feparated by Mr. Brown, in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 529,
from the Linnaean Slderoxyloti ; but the charaAer does not
feem to us very clear. One fpecies of this new genus is
Sideroxylon Jer'iceum, Ait. Hort. Kew. cd. i, v. i. 262.
ed. 2 v. 2. 13 ; another is called by Mr. Brown Serfnlifia
obovata. Both are natives of the tropical parts of New
Holland. See SapoT/T. and SiDEKO.WLON.

SERSEY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 25 miles E. of Baraitch.

SERTA, Garlands, among the y^nc»>n/j. See Gah-

LAND.

SERTAM, in Geography, a town of Portugal, on the
river Pera, in Eltremadura ; 24 miles N.E. of Thomar.

SERTINO, a river of Sicily, which runs into the fea,
on the call coalt.

SERTORIUS, QuiNTUs, in Biography, a dillinguiftied
Roman commander, was a native of Nurfia, in the Picentine
regions of Italy. His father died in his infancy, but by
tiie care of his mother he received a moll: excellent educa-
tion ; and even in his youth he gained a confiderable re-
putation as a pleader at Rome. He had, however, a
decided turn for the duties and glory attached to a military
life, and made his firlt campaign under Servilius Ccepio,
againll the Cimbrians and Teutones in Gaul. In an early
engagement he was feverely wounded, and would have lolt
his life, if he had not poflefled fuflicient vigour to fwim
acrols the Rhone, when encumbered with his armour. He
next ferved under Marius, and exhibited proofs of valour
and talents, which much ingratiated him with that general.
Spain was the next great theatre of his exertions, where he
ferved under Didius, and acquired much reputation in the
campaign. On his return to Rome, he was made queltor
in Cilalpine Gaul ; and when the locial war broke out, he
brought a well-timed reinforcement to the Roman army.
In a battle that enfued, he loft an eye, a mark of bravery
in which he always gloried, and which pointed him out to
the plaudits of the people, whenever he appeared in the
theatre, and other public places. He was candidate for
the tribunelhip, but was difappointed in his hopes by the
overbearing intereft of Sylla: he accordingly joined the
party of Marius in the fncceeding civil war. He com-
manded one of the three armies which inverted Rome, and
honourably dillipguiflied himfclf by abrtaining from all
thofe afts of cruelly which dilgraced the arms ot Cinna and
Marius. When Sylla gained the alcendancy in It.ily, Ser-
torius withdrew t(^ Spain, of which country he had been
appointed pretor. Here he hoped to be able to revive his
caufe, and with this view he detached a body of troops to
feize the pafles of the Pyrenees ; but the murder of their
commander induced them to abandon their poll, and confe-
quently laid Spain open to Sylla's officers. After fome
various adventures, chiefly of the difaftrous kind, Scrtoriu8
went into Africa, and aflilted the Mauntanians to throw
off the yoke of a tyrannical king ; defeating one of Sylla's
generals, by whom he w;is fupported. His reputation now
caufed him to be invited to Lufitania ; and failing thither
wiiii a fmall body of Romans and Africans, he obtained
fuch an afcei.dancy over the natives, that he loon had the
command of the whole Lufilanian nation. He exercifed
them in the arts of warfare, and introduced a rigid difciplinc
among them ; but Roman taftic! being unfuitablc to them,
he adopted a fervice belter fuited to the nature and circum-

tiancci

S E R

S E R

fiances of the country. He defeated, with his new-trained
armies, feveral Roman generals, who were fent acrainft him,
and inllituted a fenate in competition with that of Rome,
and imitated all the forms of the republic. He foiled the
attempts of that eminent commander, Metellus, to reduce
him ; continually haraffing his troops by fudden attacks and
ncirniifhes, and intercepting his convoys. He adopted the
liberal policy of civihzing the Lufitanians and neighbouring
Spaniards, and famiharizing them with Roman letters and
cuftoms. For this purpofe he eftablirtied a great fchool in
the city of Ofca, at which the fons of men of diftinftion
were gratnitoufly educated, and at the fame time kept as
holtages for the fidelity of their parents. Feeling that his
power was not fufBciently firm, without the aid of fuper-
ftition, which ever captivates the ignorant and uncivilized,
he trained a white fawn, that had been prefented to him, to
f uch a degree of taraenefs, that it followed him whitherfo-
ever he went, and was his conftant companion ; and he en-
couraged the belief that the animal was the gift of Diana,
and intended by that goddefs to convey him information of
the defigns of his enenv'es. At length the famous Pompey
was nominated to the com.mand againft him ; and when he
arrived, he found that all the Roman troops, which, after
the death of Lepidus, had been carried to Spain by Per-
fenna, with the defign of fetting up there for himfelf, had
joined Sertorius, who was now at the head of a confiderable
army. Pompey proceeded againil him with a fuperior
force ; but Sertorius took a town in his prefence, and after-
wards defeated him at the battle of Sucro. He gave him a
fecond defeat ; but Metellus routed a feparate divifion, and
Sertorius was glad to take to the mountains. He then of-
fered to lay down his arms, provided the profcription againft
him might be taken off, and he were permitted to return to
Rome. Soon after he received an embaily from Mithri-
dates, the formidable foe of the Romans, offering him an
advantageous alliance, provided he were fufFered to re-
poffefs the provinces from which he had been expelled by
Sylla. But Sertorius would not agree to more than his re-
covery of Bithynia and Cappadocia, without touching upon
the Roman province of Afia ; and upon thefe terms the
treaty was concluded. A confpiracy was formed againit
Sertorius by the Roman patricians in his army, and they
fucceeded in exciting a revolt in feveral Lufitanian towns.
Incenfed at this defeftion, he caufed feveral of the children,
whom he kept as hoftages at Ofca, to be flain, and others
to be fold as flaves. This is faid to have been the only aft
of cruelty by which his memory is tarniftied. In revenge
for the lofs of their fons, the confpirators formed a plot
againft the life of Sertorius ; in confequence of which he
was bafely affaffinated, while he was at a featt. This event
took place in the year 73 B.C. " The great qualities and
mihtary talents of this eminent perfon would undoubtedly
have raifed him to the firft rank among the chiefs of hi's
country, had he not been a leader of a partv, inftead of a
commander . for the ftate. With nothing to fupport him
but the refources of his own mind, he created a powerful
kingdom among ftrangers, and defended it a long time
againft the arms of Rome, although wielded by the ableft
generals of his time ; and he difplayed public and private
virtues, which would have rendered a people happy under
his rule at a lefs turbulent period." Univer. Hift.

SERTULA Campana, in Botany, a name given by
fome authors to melilot.

SERTULARIA, in Natural Htjlory, a genus of the

clafs Vernies, and order Zoophytes. The generic cha-

rafter is this : the animal grows in the form of a plant ; the

Hem is branched, producing polypes from cup-fhaped den-

9

tides, or tninute cells. There are nearly four-fcore fpeciej,
divided into two feftions, A and B, of which the following
is the defcription.

A. Stem horny, tubular, Jjxed to the bafe, befet luilh cup-Jhaped
denticles, and furntjhed <with vejieles, or ovaries, containing
polypes, eggs, or living young.

Species.

* Rosacea. This fpecies is panicled, with oppofite,
tubular, truncate denticles, and alternate branches ; the ve-
ficles are crowned with fpines. It inhabits the European
feas, and our own coafts, growing on flicUs, or creeping
up other corallines ; it is white ; the veficles referable the
bloffom of the pomegranate.

* PuMiLA. The denticles of this fpecies are oppofite,
pointed, and recurved ; the veficles are obovate ; the
branches loofe and irregular. It is found in the ocean, or
fuci, particularly on the ferratus.

* Operculata. Denticles oppofite, pointed, and nearly
ereft ; the veficles are obovate, covered with a lid ; the
branches are alternate. It inhabits the European and
American feas, on fuci and Ihells. The twigs are about
five inches long ; the denticles are bicufpidate, with a (hort
bi-iftle on each fide.

* Tamarlsca. Denticles nearly oppofite, truncate,
three-toothed ; veficles ovate, two-toothed, with a fhort
tube in the centre; the branches are alternate. This is
found in moft of the European feas, and is the largeft of its
kind. It is about four inches long, and is found adhering
to (hells.

* Abietina. Denticles nearly oppofite, tubular, oval ;
the veficles are oval, and the branches alternate. It is
found in the Britifh and other European feas, and the Medi-
terranean, growing to ihells. It is five inches long, and
often covered with fmall ferpulx ; the branches are fre-
quently pinnate.

* Nigra. Denticles nearly oppofite, minute ; veficles
large, placed all on one fide, oval, quadrangular ; the
branches are pinnate. This is found on the Cornifh coaft,
adhering to the Mytilus margaritiferus. It is four inches
long, blackifh.

* FuscESCENS. Denticles nearly oppofite, tubular ; the
veficles are numerous, placed all on one fide, minute, with
three tubercles on each ; the branches are pinnate. This is
alfo an inhabitant of the Cornifli coaft. It refembles the
laft, but is of a greyifh-brown colour.

Obsoleta. Denticles generally placed in eight rows,
ovate, flightly heart-ftiaped, and difpofed in a quincunx
form ; the branches are alternate and pinnate. It is an in-
habitant of the Frozen ocean, is about five inches high, and
of a horn colour, with the joints becoming more and more
obfolete towards the top.

PiNUS. Denticles fub-fpinous, generally difpofed in fix
rows ; the veficles are bottle- fhaped, turgid, fubdiaphanous,
with a fimple mouth ; the branches are pinnate, nearly al-
ternate. It inhabits the White fea, fixed to ftiells.

CupRESsoiDES. Denticles fimple, obliquely truncate,
with a flightly protuberant mouth ; the veficles are ovate,
with a fubtubular mouth ; the branches are dichotomous,
loofe, and with the trunk joined with two rings at the
junftures. This is found in the White fea ; is fubdia-
phanous, yellowifh, and nearly half a foot long.

* CupRESSiNA. Denticles nearly oppofite, obliquely
truncate, and a little pointed ; veficles obovate, two-
toothed ; branches panicled, and very long. It is common
in all the European feas, and is found in a long pointed
loofe panicle.

* Argkntea.

SERTULARIA.

* Argentea. Denticles nearly oppofite, pointed ; ve-
ficles oval ; branches alternate, pai.icled. This is an in-
habitant of the European and American ieas ; very much
refembles the laft, but the branches are ftiorter and loofer,
and the panicle is more obtufe.

* RuGOsA. Denticles nearly oppofite, obfolete ; veficlcs
much wrinkled, and three-toothed ; the branches are fcat-
tered. This fpecies inhabits the European feas, and is
found growing on the Fluftra foliacea, and other fer-
tulariz:.

* Halecixa. Denticles alternate, tubular, and two-
jointed ; the veficles ova!, each united along the fide to a
fmall tubular (talk ; the ftem is alternately branched and
pinnate. This is found in the European and Mediterranean
ieas. It is horny, and of a yellowi(h-grey ; the denticles
are nearly obfolete.

* Thuja. The denticles in this fpecies are arranged in
"two rows, clofely adhering to the item ; the veficles obo-

vate, margined ; item waved and ftiff, with a tuft of dicho-
tomous branches near the tip. It is found on tiie northern
coafts of England, and in the Mediterranean, and is about
half a foot long.

* MvRlOPHVLLUM. The denticles are truncate, all leaning
one way on the ftem ; the ftem itfelf is gibbous on the fide
oppofite the branches ; the branches lean all one way. This
is found in moll European feas, and in the Mediterranean ;
it is about three inches long, is pale and horny ; the ftem is
rather angular, with arched protuberances oppofite the
branches ; the denticles are feated in a focket furnifhed with
a (hort fpine on the lower part.

HvPNOlDEs. Denticles pointing one way, campanulate,
toothed, and beaked ; ftems with pinnate branches, and very
crowded fubdivifions. It inhabits the Indian ocean, is fix
inches high; in colour it is brown, with yellowifli imbricate
radicles.

Speciosa. Denticles campanulate, eflFufe, toothed, and
flipulate ; the ftem is pinnate, rigid, with incurved branches,
moitly pointing one way. It is found in the Indian ocean,
adhering to the tubular radicles of gorgoniae ; it is brown,
horny, and from three to four inches long.

* Falcata. The denticles of this fpecies point all one
way ; they are imbricate and truncate ; the veficles are
ovate ; the branches are pinnate and alternate. There is a
variety of this fpecies defcribed by Ellis, in his work on
Corallines. It inhabits the European and Indian feas, and
is from three inches to a foot long ; the ftem is a little (lexu-
ous ; the denticles in a finglc row.

* Pluma. In this the denticles point one way, they are
imbricate and campanulate ; the veficles are gibbous and
crelted ; the branches are pinnate, alternate, and lanceolate.
It is found on moll European coafts, climbing up fuci ; the
branches are jointed ; the denticles are ferrate at the margin,
and fupported in front by a fmall hollow fpine ; the vefi-
cles have a denticulate margin, and generally five oblique
crefted ribs.

Echinata. Denticles oppofite, pointing one way, cam-
panulate ; the veficles are crefted ; the branches pinnate, al-
ternate, and lanceolate. It inhabits chiefly the ftiorcs of
Sweden, on fuci.

* Antenni.na. The denticles are verticillate, in fours,
fetaceous ; veficles obliquely truncate, verticillate ; the
ttcms are generally fimplc. There is a variety which is
branched. They are botii found on the Britifli coafts, often
nearly a foot high ; it is yellow, with very fine capillary
yellowifli radicles ; the ftem is furrounded with fmall in-
curved letaceous branches, on the upper fides of which are
rows of fmall cup-ftiaped denticles ; the veficles are placed

Vol. XXXII.

on pedicles obliquely open towards the ftem, and placed
round it at the infertion of the branches.

* Verticillata. The denticles in this are obfolete ;
the veficles campanulate, toothed round the rim, on long
twifted pedicles, and placed in fours round the ftem ; the
branches are alternate. It is found on the Britifti coafts ;
ftem ribbed, very loofely branched ; the denticles are not
vifible ; the veficles are nearly ^reft, and glutinous ; the
ovaries are oval, ending in a tubular mouth.

Gelatinosa. Veficles campanulate ; ftem with nu-
merous decompofite fpreading branches. It is found on the
coafts of the Netherlands ; is half a foot long, and of a grey-
i(h-brown colour.

* VoLUBiLis. The denticles in this are obfolete ; the
veficles are alternate, campanulate, toothed round the rim,
on long, twilled pedicles ; the branches are alternate. It
inhabits European feas, climbing up other fertulari^ ; it is
whitifti and minute ; the ftem is loofely branched ; the
ovaries are egg-fhaped and fmooth, or tranfverfely wrinkled.

* Syringa. Denticles obfolete ; veficles cylindrical,
moftly alternate, and placed on fliort twifted pedicles.

* Cuscata. Denticles obfolete ; veficles oval, axil-
lary ; branches oppofite and fimple. It is found in the
European feas, adhering to fuci.

* PusTULOSA. Stem with alternate dichotomous branches,
obfoletely denticulate on the upper part. It inhabits the
ftiores of the Ifie of Wight, and is four inches long. The
ftem is fcen rifing into alternate dichotomous joints, with
fmall denticles, having a circular rim, with a point in the
middle of each towards the upper part of each joint.

* Frutescens. Denticles cylindrical, campanulate,
placed in a fingle row on the infide of the branches ; the
branches are alternate, and pinnate. This is chiefly found
on the Britifli fliores ; rather hard, blackifti with brown
branches ; the ftem is compofcd of fmall united tubes.

Pinaster. In this fpecies the denticles are oppofite,
felfile, with an incurved tubular tip ; the veficles are large,
ovate, quadrangular ; the angles terminating in a fpine, and
furniflicd with a tubular mouth in the centre, placed in a row
along the branches ; the branches aie alternate.

Pennatula. The denticles in this are in a fingle row,
crenate on the rim, and fupported by a flender, truncate, in-
curved horn ; the branches are oppofite. It is found in the
Indian ocean ; is five or fix inches long ; yellowifh-brown ;
the denticles have two oppofite fpines on the rim.

* FiLicuLA. Denticles oppofite, ovate, with a finglc
ercft one at the junttures of the branches ; veficles obovate,
with a tubular mouth in the centre ; the ftem is zig-zag, with
alternate branches. It inhabits the Britilh fliores, is very
tender, and the ftem is much branched.

QuADRiDENTATA. Denticles in fours, oppofite, at the
joints of the ftem ; the ftem is fimple, with the joints taper-
ing and twifted towards the bafe. It inhabits the African
fliores on the Fucus Icndigerus.

Spicata. Denticles in tliree, cylindrical, terminal, and
nearly clofed at the mouth ; veficles ovate, axillary ; ftem
tubular, panicled, annulate, with trichotomous branches dif-
pofed in whorls round the rings.

* EvANsn. The denticles arc fliort and oppofite ; the
veficles are lobed, arifing from the branches which are op-
pofite. It inhabits the Britifli coafts, and is found on fuci :
it is two inches high, very flender, and yellow, with fulvouj
veficles.

* MunicATA. The denticles of this fpecies are pedi-
clcd, proceeding alternately from thrjoints of the branches ;
veficles oval, Ipinous ; the ftem is jointed. It is found
oil the fliores of Scotland ; the veficles arc nearly globular,

S f placed

SERTULARIA.

placed on pedicles, and full of pointed fpines from crafted
ribs.

Secundaria. Denticles in a fingle row, campanulate ;
the velicles are axillary ; the ftem is minute, white, and in-
curved. This fpecies is found in the Mediterranean :
it is fcarcely three lines high, and not thicker than a fine
bnftle.

MisENEXSls. The denticles are alternate, very thin,
fpreading ; the veficles are oval, peduncles axillary ; Item
much branclied, dichotomous. It inhabits the Mediter-
ranean, is very flender, pellucid toa-ards the tip, and fome-
times covered with the Cancer linearis.

RacemosA. Denticles fcattered, pellucid ; veficles
cluftered ; ftem ftraight, round ; opaque, horny, with (lightly
curved branches. It inhabits the Mediterranean.

* UvA. Denticles obfolete ; veficles ovate, cluftered ;
ftem (lightly branched, with alternate fubdivifions. It in-
habits the (hores of this country and Holland, adhering
to other zoophytes ; veficles tranfparent, with a white
nucleus.

* Lendigeha. Denticles obfolete ; veficles cylindrical,
arranged in a fingle row along tiie branches, and growing
gradually lefs towards the top : the ftem and branches arc
jointed. This is found on the European coafts, on other
zoophytes. The branches are fubdivided and irregularly
interwoven ; the veficles are placed in parallel ranks along
the infide of the branches, and growing gradually fliorter to-
wards the top of the joints.

* Geniculata. Denticles alternate, twitted ; veficles
obovate, with a tubular mouth in the centre ; the ftem is
branched, jointed, flexuous. It inhabits the European
coafts, adhering to fuci.

* DicHOTOMA. Denticles obfolete ; veficles obovate and
axillary, on twifted pedicles ; the ftem is dichotomous, with
twifted joints. It inhabits the Britifti and Dutch coafts, and
is nearly a foot long ; it is white, but becomes teftaceous
with age.

* Spinosa. Denticles obfolete ; veficles ovate, fubulate ;
the branches are dichotomous and fpinous. It is found on
moft European coafts, as well as on thofe of this country,
and is about eight inches long. The ftem is compofed of
interwoven tubular fibres ; the branches are flexuous, loofe,
forked, with pointed tips.

* Pinnata. The denticles of this fpecies are obfolete ;
the veficles are oblong, and furrounded with a coronet of
tubercles at the rim ; ftem fimple, pinnate, and lanceolate.
It is found in Europe and in India, and is about three inches
high. The ftem is fimple, with alternate fubdivifions ; the
veficles are placed in clufters round the ftem.

* Setacea. Denticles obfolete, remote, placed in a
row on the upper fide of the branches ; veficles oblong, ax-
illary ; the ftem is fimple, with alternate bent divifions. It
inhabits the European coafts, and is about an inch and
half high.

* PoLYZONiAS. Denticles alternate, (lightly toothed ;
veficles obovate, tranfvcrfely wrinkled ; the ftem is loofe,
branched. It inhabits moll feas, adhering to marine fub-
ftances.

Pennari.\. The denticles are placed in a row on one
fide the branches ; the veficles are oval ; the ftem is twifted,
and doubly pinnate. It inhabits the Mediterranean fea,
growing in tufts on rocks ; the ftem is ftraight, afcending,
flexile, horny, brown with whitifh branches.

* LicHENASTRUM. Denticles alternate, obtufe, in two
imbricate rows along the ftem ; the veficles are ovate, in two
parallel rows along the branches ; the ftem is fimple, alter-
mately pinnate. It is found in the Irilh, Indian, Aiiatic, and

Armenian feas. The ftem is ereft, jointed, comprefTed, and
denticulate ; the branches are alternate, denticulate, and
ftraight.

Cedrina. Denticles fubcylindrical, tubular, in four
imbricate rows ; the branches arc irregular, quadrangular,
and thicker upwards. Inhabits the ieas of Kamtfchatka ;
the branches are dichotomous, obtufe, with four rows of
veficles.

* Imbric.\ta. The veficles of this fpecies are fubcla-
vate, irregularly imbricate upwards ; the ftem is (lightly
branched. This fpecies is defcribed and figured in the jth
vol. of the Linnsan Tran factions. It inhabits the weltem
coaft of Britain, on the Fucus nodofus ; it very much re-
fembles the laft, but the veficles are not placed in any re-
gular feries ; it is about three inches high ; the (mailer
branches have the veficles placed bifarioufly, but towards
the tip they become imbricate.

Purpurea. Denticles fubovate, tubular, in four im-
bricate rows ; the veficles are ereft and campanulate ; the
branches arc dichotomous and fquare. It inhabits the fea
round Kamtfchatka, and is of a blacki(h-purple.

Articulat.v. Denticles prcfted together ; the veficle*
are ovate, rather large, covered with a lid, and placed in a
fingle row ; the ftem is jointed and pinnate. It is found
in the Atlantic ocean, creeping on (hells, and is about two
inches long ; pale yellow.

Filicina. Denticles imbricate, placed on one fide only ;
veficles jointed ; ftem granulate, branched and pinnate, the
fubdivifions alternate. It inhabits the Indian ocean, is pale,
and about three inches long.

Fruticaks. The denticles of this fpecies are in a fingle
row on one fide ; femi-campanulate ; the ftem is granulate,
woody, with alternate fetaceous fubdivifions. It inhabits
the American feas in tufts, on (hells ; it is fix inches long,
and of a yellowi(h-grey.

B. The fpecies of this dlvlfton have a cruflacmus flem, inclining
tojlone, and compofed of rows of cells ; they have no -vejicks,
but in the place of thefe there are fmall globules .

* BuRS-ARLii. Denticles oppofite, compreded and trun-
cate ; the ftem is branched, and dichotom.ous. It is found
on the Britilh coafts, adhering to fuci ; it is minute, flexile,
hyaline ; the denticles are carinate, with a fmall clavate tube
at the top.

* Loriculata. Denticles oppofite, obliquely truncate,
and nearly obfolete ; the branches are ereft and dichotomous.
It inhabits the Britilh coafts, on old fertularii.

* Fastigiata. Denticles alternate, pointed ; branches
dichotomous, ereft. This is found in the Britilh feas ; the
denticles are marked with a black fpot in the middle.

* Aricularia. The denticles all point one way, nearly
oppofite, and furnilhed with two mucroiiate appendages ;
the globules appendaged ; the ftem is branched and dicho-
tomous. It is found in the European leas ; is from one to
two inches long ; in colour it is of a dirty grey. It is very
brittle.

* Neritina. The denticles are alternate, acute, and
pointing one way ; the branches are dichotomous, unequal,
and ftraight. It is found m the European and American
feas. It is foft ; the globules have an opening furrounded
by a dark-coloured margin.

* ScRurosA. Denticles alternate, angular, fpinous ; the
branches are dichotomous and creeping. It inhabits moft
feas ; is very brittle, linear, and pale, with a double row of
cells.

PiLosA. The denticles are alternate, oblique, with a
long mouth ; the branches are dichotomous, faftigiate, and

llrong.

S E R

S E R

iuong. It is foun^ in the Mediterranean, and is not half
an nieh long.

Crisp A. This fpecics is very much branched, dichoto-
mous, elongated, and crifp, with depreded ovate joints,
funiifhed with cells on one fide. It inhabits the Eait, is
large, flexile, and of a pale-grey colour.

FloccosA. This is very much branched, dichotomous,
faftigiate, with wedge-lhaped joints, having cells on one fide.
This is found chiefly in the Indian ocean ; is large, whitifh,
with greyifli iicxile joints.

* Repiass. Denticles alternate, two-toothed ; the
branches are dicholomous and creeping. This is found in the
European feas, adhering to the Flullra foliacea ; it is not an
inch long ; white or pale-grey.

Parasitica. The denticles of this fpecies are verti-
cillate, turbinate, ciliate, and parafitical. It is found in the
Mediterranean and North feas, adhering to other fertu-
lari« and corallines ; in colour it is dull red, with terminal
denticles.

* Ciliata. Denticles alternate, ciliate, funnel-form ;
branches dichotomous and ereft. It inhabits the European
feas, on marine fubftanccs ; not half an inch high ; it is
whitifti ; the cells have wide mouths.

* Eburnea. The denticles are alternate, truncate, a
little prominent ; the veficles are gibbous, with a tubular
beak on one fide ; the branches fpreading. This inhabits
the European and Mediterranean feas, and is found growing
upon other fertularise and fuci ; is about an inch high, and
white.

* Cornuta. The denticles are alternate and truncate,
with a fingle hair on the top of each ; the veficles are
gibbous, with a tubular beak ; the branches are alternate.
This inhabits, like the lall and two following, the Euro-
pean and Mediterranean feas, on fuci ; it is ftony, clear
white, and not half an inch long. The denticles are curved,
tapering towards the bafe, and placed on each other.

LoRlCATA. Denticles in a concatenate row, pointing
one way, with a margined moutli, horned beneath ; the
branches are alternate. It is found on fuci. The denticles
are like inverted horns placed on each other, with a fhort
hair on the top.

* Anguina. The flemis very fimple, without denticles,
but befet with very fimple, obtufe, clavate arms, each with
a lateral opening. This is found climbing up marine fub-
ftances ; it is white, foft, flexile, varying in form, and
appears to conneft the fertulariae and hydrae ; the arms are
teftaceous.

Cereoides. Denticles imbricate, with fomewhat pro-
minent mouths; the ilem is branched, jointed, and cylindii-
cal. It inhabits the coalt of Africa
whitifh, ftony, aggregate, with fhort joints.

TuLiPlKEKA. Cells in threes on the upper part of the
joints, and united together ; Hem branched, with clavate
joints. It inhabits the Well Indies, adhering to fuci,
about half an inch high, and clear white ; the ftem is llony
and fubdiaphanous ; the cells are terminal.

Flaeellum. This fpecies is Itony, branched, jcintcd,
dichotomous ; the joints are fomewhat wcdge-lhapcd, and
have cells on one fide. It inhabits the Bahama illands, is
about two inches high, white, growing in tufts ; the joints
are convex and flriate on one fide ; the others are flat, with
a triple row of cells.

* Teu.vata. Branched, dichotomous, jointed, creep-
ing ; the joints arc angular at their fides, v.-ith three cells in
the fro.nt of each. It inhabits the fliores of Scotland ; it
it ftony, femitranfparent.

CnutATA, Stony, jointed, flat, dichotomous, incurved.

is three inches high ;

the joints are fubciliate, ovate, truncate, flat, and having^
ceUs on one fide. It inhabits the Indian ocean, is about
two inches high, and is white ; th.- joints are convex, and
ftriate on one furface ; the other is flattened, with a double
row of cells.

Opuntioides. Branches in threes, with cylindrical
joints, covered with flightly prominent pores. It inhabits the
Eaftern ocean ; is about half an inch high, ered, very
much branched, white, ftony, with the pores difpofed in a
quincunx form.

SERVA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan ;
I So miles S.S.W. from Zareng.

SERVAGE. See Service.

SERVAL, in Zoology. See Felis Serval.

SERVAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the lUe and Vilaine, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrift of St. Malo. The place contains 8836,'
and the canton 10,617 inhabitants, on a territory of 50 kili-
ometres, in 4 communes.

SERVANDONI, John Nicholas, in Biography, an
eminent architeft, was born at Florence in 169J. He
was employed by feveral of the fovereigns in Europe on
occafions of magnificent pubhc fpeftacles, in which he
difplayed a very fertile invention, with noblenefs of ideas,
and a corredl tafte. At Paris he had the direftion of the
theatre during 18 years, and was architeft, painter, and
decorator to the king ; and was admitted member of the
feveral academies of arts. He gave a number of defigns
for the theatres of Drefden and London, and was fent for
to the latter capital on the rejoicings for peace in 1749. He
prefided at the grand fettivals exhibited at the court of
Vienna, on the marriage of the archduke .lofeph and the
princefs of Parma. The king of Portuj^-al frequently em-
ployed him, and honoured him with the ordi.-r of Ghrift.
He died at Paris in 1766, having acquired the reputation
of being the firft artift of the period in which he flourilhed.
As an architeft he has left a fine fpecimen of his tafte in the
portico and front of the church of St. Sulpice.

SERVANT, Servus, a term of relation, fignifying a
perfon who owes and pays a limited obedience for a certain
time to another, in quality of mafter; in contradiitinftion to
^ave, over whofe life and fortune the mafter claims an abfo-
lute and unhmited power. See Slave.

The firft fort of fervants, acknowledged by the laws of
England, comprehends mfn/Vi/ fervants ; fo called from being
intra mania, or domejlics. The contraft between them and
their mafters arifes upon the hiring : if tiie hiring be general,
without any particular time limited, the law conltrues it to be
hiring for a year (Co. Litt. 42. F. N. B. 168.) ; but the
contraft may be made for any larger or fmaller term.
All fingle men between twelve years of age and fixty, and
married ones under thirty years of age ; and all fingle
women between twelve and forty, not having any vifible
livelihood, are compellable by two jufticcs to go out to fervice
in hufbandry, or certain fpecific trades, for the promotion
of honeit induftry : and no mafter can put away his fcrvant,
or fcrvant leave his mafter after being fo retained, either
before or at the end of his term, without a quarter's warn-
ing, unlefs upon rcafonable caufe, to be allowed by ajullice
of the peace (ftat. 5 Eli/., c. 4.) ; but they may part by
confcnt, or make a fpecial bargain.

Another fpecies of fervants includes thofe called appren-
tices (which fee): a third fort belongs to that clals denomi-
iialed labourers. See Ladour and Labouuers.

And there is a fourth fpecies, if they may be called fer.

vants, being rather in a fnperior capacity of^ fervice ; fi:ch

as itewards, faftors, and bailiffs, whom, however, the law

S f 2 confidtrs

SERVANT.

eonfiders as fervants/ro tempore, with regard to fiich of their
afts as afFeft their mafter'j or employer's property. The
treatment of fervants, ftriftly fo called, as to diet, dif-
cipline, and accommodation, the kind and quantity of work
to be required of them, the intermiffion, liberty, and in-
dulgence to be allowed them, mult in a great mealure be
determined by cuftom ; for the contraft between them and
their mafters expiefTes only a few of a confiderable variety
of particulars which it is fuppofed to comprehend. A fer-
vant is not bound to obey the unlawful commands of his
matter ; e. g. to miniiler to his unlawful pleafures ; or to afliil
him by unlawful praftices in his profellion. For the fervant
is bound by nothing but his own promife ; and the obliga-
tion of a promife extends not to things unlawful. For the
fame reafons, the mailer's authority is i\o jujlification of the
fervant in doing wrong ; for the fervant'sown promife, upon
which that authority is founded, would be none. A matter
may by law correct his apprentice for negligence, or other
inilbehaviour, provided it be done with moderation ; though
if the matter or matter's wife beat any other lervant of full
age, it is good caufe of departure : but if any fervant,
workman, or labourer, aflaults his matter or dame, he fhall
fuffer one year's imprifonment, and other open corporal
punifliment, not extending to life or limb. (5 Eliz. c. 4.)
By fervice, all fervants and labourers, except apprentices,
become intitled to wages ; according to their agreement, if
menial fervants ; or according to the appointment of the
flieriff or feflions, if labourers or fervants in hufbandry.
For to them only the ttatutes for regulation of wages
extend.

A matter may maintain, /. e. abet or aflitt his fervant in
any aftion at law againtt a ftranger ; he may alfo bring an
aftion againtt any man for beating or maiming his fervant,
affigning his damage by the lofs of Icrvice, and proving the
lofs upon the trial: he may likewife juilify an aflault in de-
fence of his fervant, and a fervant in defence of his matter
( 2 Roll. Abr. 546. ) : and if any perfon hire or retain my
fervant, being in my fervice, I may have an aiftion for da-
mages againtt both the new matter and the fervant, or either
of them ; but if the matter did not know tlut he is my
fervant, no aftion lies, unlefs he afterwards refufe to
rettore him upon information and demand. F. N. B.
167, 168.

As for thofe things which a fervant may do in behalf of his
matter, they feem to be grounded on this principle, that the
matter is anlwerable for the aft of his fervant, if done by
his command, either cxprelsly given or imphed ; therefore,
if the fervant ^mmit a trcfpafs by the command or en-
couragement of his matter, the matter fliall be guilty of it :
if any inn-keeper's fervants rob his guelts, the matter is
bound to reilitution (Noy's Max. c. 43.); and if the
drawer at a tavern fells a man bad wine, by which hie health
is injured, he may bring an action againtt the matter.
( 1 Roll. Abr. gj. ) In the fame manner, whatever a fervant
is permitted to do in the ufual courfe of his bufinefs, is
equivalent to a general command ; if I pay money to a
banker's fervant, the banker is anfwerable for it ; if a tteward
lets leafe of a farm without the owner's knowledge, the
owner mutt ftand to the bargain : a wife, friend, or relation,
that ufed to tranfaft bufinefs for a man, are quoad hoc his
fervants, and the principal mutt anfwer for their conduft.
Farther, if a fervmt, by his negligence, does any damage
to a ttranger, the matter fhall anfwer for his negleft : if a
fmith's fervant lames a horfe while he is (hoeing him, an
aftion lies againtt the matter and not againtt the fervant.
A matter is chargeable if any of his family layeth or car-
rieth any thing out of his houfe into the ttreet, or common

high way, to the damage of an individual, or the common
nufance of his majetty's liege people. In cafe of fire the
fervant is accountable. Blacktt. Comm. book i. See
Larceny.

Much depends upon the fobriety, integrity, and diligence
of fervants ; and the eafe with which they obtain characters,
or procure employment with fuch characters, real or ficti-
tious, as they gain, is very mjurious both to their employers
and to themfelves. Charafters are given with fo little re-
ferve and veracity, " that I (houid as foon depend," fays
the author of the Rambler, " upon an acquittal at the Old
Bailey, by wa)^ of recommendation of a fervant's honefty,
as upon one of thefe charafters." At the fame time an-
other extreme ttiould be avoided, which is that of obilruft-
ing the advancement of a faithful and deferving fervant,
either from refentment, caprice, or felf-interett. In order
to form good fervants, attention fliould be paid to their
domeftic conduft, and that kind of difcipline fhould be
cxercifed at home which may contribute to- prevent their
corruption and mifery.

what the Chriftian fcriptures have delivered concerning
the relation and reciprocal duties of matters and fervants,
breathes a fpirit of liberality, very little known in ages
when fervitude was flavery ; and which flowed from a habit
of contemplating mankind under the common relation in
which they ftand to their Creator, and with refpeft to their
intereft in another exittence. (Ephef. vi. 5 — 9.) " Sen-ants
be obedient to them that are your matters, according to the
fletti, with fear and trembling ; in finglcnefs of your heart,
as unto Chritt ; not with eye-fervice, as men-pleafers, but as
the fervants of Chriif, doing the will of God from the heart ;
•with good luill, doing fervice as io the Lord, and not to men :
knowing that whatfocver good thing any man doth, the
fame fhall he receive of the Lord, whether he be bond or
free. And ye matters do the fame thing unto them, for-
bearing threatening ; knowing that your matter alfo is in
heaven ; neither is there refpeft of perfons with him."
The idea of referring their fervice to God, of confidering
him as having appointed them their taflt, that they were
doing bis will, and were to look to him for their reward,
was new ; and affords a greater fecurity to the matter than
any inferior principle, becaufe it tends to produce a tteady
and cordial obedience in the place of that conttrained fervice,
which can never be trutted out of fight, and which is iuttly
enough called eye-fervice. The exhortation to mafters, to
keep in view their own fubjeftion and accountablenefs, was
no lefs f;afonable.

The Romans, befides their flaves, whom they alfo called
fervi, had another kind of fervants, whom they called nexi
and addiai, who were Inch as being in debt, were delivered
up to their creditors by the prstor, to work out the debt,
after which they were again at liberty.

The pope, out of his wonderful humility, calls himfelf in
his bullo, the fervant of the fervants of God, fervus fer-
I'oriim Dei. The firtt who ufed the appellation, as Dia-
conus tells, were pope Damafus, and Gregory the Great,
which laft is faid to have ufed it to check, by his modetty,
the arrogance of John, patriarch of Conttantinople, who
took the title of ecumenical. Du-Cange adds, that the title
fervant has been affumed by fome bifhops, by fome kings,
and fome monks.

Servant, in Agriculture, a perfon employed in the
performing of fome part of the bufinefs of a farm, of
whatever kind it may be. On this fubjeft, the following
judicious hints have been thrown out by the author of the
" Landed Property of England," for the direftion of thofe
fervants who have the condufting of the management of

fanning

SERVANT.

farming bufi.icfs. Nothing, he contends, contributes more
to facility and fati^faction in this fort of bofinefs, than a
forecall toward works to be done. A mifcarriage is ever
to be dreaded as a mifchief ; and when it is brought on by
a want of forethought, it brings with it a degree of difcredit,
and a train of unpLafaut reflections, which four every enjoy-
ment. This kind of fervant (hould, he thiiikrf, have a fore-
caft towards crops for three or four years ; toward team-
labour for as many months ; and (hould look forward with
a view to hard labour for fome weeks, according to the
feafon of the year. And to bring it to a decree of certainty, it
is neceiiary to make out a lift of the fields, or parcels of land,
of which the farm confilts ; with the crops which each has
borne for fome years back ; together with the manurings
which they have feverally received, in order that the future
treatment of each may be decided upon with fufficient ac-
curacy. And to prepare every autumn, by the alliftance
of fuch lift, an arrangement of the crops that are intended
for the enfuing year ; clafling the fields, or pieces, accord-
ing to the purpofes for which they (hall be intended : thus
afcertaining the quantity of each crop, whether arable or
grafs, as well as the quantity of ground intended for pafture ;
in order that the quantity of team-labour may be diftinftly
forefeen, — the required llrength be eftimated from time to
time, — and the feveral crops be fown in due feafon ; and in
order that the ftock of the enfuing fummer may, in due
time, be properly apportioned to the intended quantity of
pafture ground ; as well as that the works of fummer and
harveft may be conftantly before the eye ; and proper hands
be engaged, iu time, to perform them in feafon, and with
the neceiiary difpatch and certainty. And he further
advifes a fort of m.emorandura lift to be kept of bufinels to
be done, — immediately, — or in immediate fucceflion ; whether
it relate to crops or to any other concerns of the farm ; that
nothing may efcape the memory ; and that the moft re-
quifitc may be brought forward firft ; or another which is
more fuitable to the (late of the weather, or other circum-
ftances. In this, as well as other bufinefs, the great objeft
to be aimed at is that of enfuring fuccefs ; which is not
only profitable to an employer, but fatisfaftory to tlie perfon
employed. Whereas a mifcarriage injures al once the pro-
perty of the one, and the charafter, as well as peace of mind,
of the other. Hence a farm manager ought to engage in
a work, whether of improvement or ordinary pradlice, with
caution; and to proceed in it with attention and firmnefs. A
ftanding rule, refpefting this main objeft of management, is
not to attempt too much, and never to begin a work without
a moral certainty of being able to finifli it in due icalon.

Further ; but befides the common work of a farm, ae
the culture and harvefting of crops, the rearing and fatten-
ing of live-ftock, and the bufinefs of markets ; there are
various other objcAs of attention which ought to be
conftantly kept in the mind, or in the mind's way, of
a manager ; as on them the difference between good and
bad, between correCl and (lovcnly management, very
much depends ; fuch as keeping the homeltall in repair,
and free from impediments ; attending to private roads
and driftways ; keeping up fences, every where, in
thorough repair ; attending particularly to young hedges,
and to the rearing of hedge-row timber ; the feeing that
gates fwing clear, and catch with certainty; equslly to
preferve them from injury, and to prevent loiife (lock
from going aftray ; the attending to drains and watcr-courfes ;
to fee that fuperlluous waters have free paUages to tlieir
proper outlets, and be readily ditcharged. And it is ad-
vifed, that in fummer ftrift attention be paid to drinking-

pools and other watering places of ftock, as well as to the
ftate of. pafturiiig, and ilie Hiifting of paftiiring ftock.
Likewife to weeds, as well in graf-; groui.ds as iu arable
lands, to fee that not a thiltle blows, nor any other weed
manures its feed, either in the areas, or on the borders of
fields, as great injury is done by their (heddiiig their feeds.

Alfo in winter, much care is nccefl'ary to the caf.le-ftock,
not only to fee that they are regularly fupplied with proper
fodder ; but that fufficient (helter and comfortable refting-
places are afligned them, fo that they may be kept in a
proper thriving ftate. At this feafon alfo the vi'atcring of
grafs-lands ftiould be attended to as much as the nature of
the fituation will admit. And to the accumulation of
manure an unremitted care (hould be bellowed the year
round, as upon it much depends. And on the whole, to
perform thele and other objefts w-ith propriety, repeated
examinations of every part and particular under his care ;
and committing to his memory whatever requires his more
immediate attention ; fo that whether he is on the fpot, or
arranging his plan of operation, in the hour of leii'ure, it
may be prefent to his mind, and take its proper courfe in
the routine of work which is to be carried forward.

It may be noticed, that in the time of work the bufinefg
of a managing fervant lies in the field, in executing the
plans he has formed, in palling from one fet of work-
people to another : not more to fee that the difl'erent
operations are rightly executed, with proper difpatch, than
to order any required aflTiftance, (to the teams moft efpe-
cially,) in order that every part of the machine may be
kept in profitable motion. And that in the ordinary ope-
rations of hufbandry, and on common occafions, a (teady
even pace be recommended ; equally for the good of work-
ing animals, and the work which they are performing.
Neverthelefs, there are times when quick difpatch is necef-
fary : and then it is his duty to encourage good fpeed ; by
his example, and by promifes of reward, if the occafiun re-
quire it. That at all times, and on every occafion, idlenefs
is a crime which ought not to be fuffered to pafs with im-
punity. It is a diredt fraud ; and a manager (hould guard
againft it with the fame care and affiduity as againft pilfer-
ing. A day labourer who idles away an hour, robs his
employer of an hour's wages ; and thereby injures him as
much as if he were to ftcal a faggot of equal value. This
truth requires to be deeply imprinted on the minds of la-
bourers. He has known the imprellion to have a good
effeft. But he properly remarks, that the right ordering
of fervants and work-people is a difficult branch of moral
duty ; and forms an important part of that oi the managing
fervant. They require to be treated according to their
refpeftive merits ; encouraging good ones by extra wages,
or other rewards. Some men are worth double the wages
of others, as day labourers. Yet cuftom makes no tliftinc-
tion between them in this rcfpeft ! Hence the propriety
of engaging the beft workmen the country allord., ; and
retaining them, by civil treatment, and fuitable encourage-
ments. The managing lervant (hould keep his work people
at a proper diftance, without deftroying that free commu-
nication of opinion refpeCting the work in hand, whicli, on
ordinary occafions, every intelligent workm n (hould be
allowed. And a (landing rule of conduiA, in the ordering
of workmen, is never to find fault without occafion : nor to
commend, without reafon. G"'>d fellows will not biook
the former, nor will bad ones be mended by the latter.
But it is right to habituate workmen in general to be told
of their faults ; firft, in the mihUft terms the occafion will
admit of; relerving the warmth uf temper for extraordinary

occafions ;

SERVANT.

accafions ; and then it is prudent to fting them with keen,
rather than to load them with heavy, words : to endeavour
to ftir up their pride, rather than their malice or refentment.
And much of the fmoothnefs and uniform fuccefs of bufiiiefs
depends on the manner of communicating orders to work-
men. If orders are inaccurately or loofely given, it is un-
reafonable to expeft that the execution of them (hould be
faultlefs. It is difficult to explain bufinefs in words with
fufficient accuracy to ruftic workmen ; and if a third perfon
is fuffered to intervene, errors are inevitable. The fervant
who has the management ought therefore to make a point
of giving orders, in perfon, and if poflible on the fpot, to
the men whom he means fhal! execute them. There he
can explain himfelf to them intelligibly and fully ; or aflift
them in marking out their work. There is always danger
in merely verbal orders ; and, in a meffage, certain mifchief.
It (hould be an invariable rule for him to fet his men to a
frelh work, in perfon ; and if it is out of the common way
of hufbandry, to ilay by them, or direft them with his own
hands ; and return to them, again and again, until he finds
them completely in their work. In this view, this fort of
fervant, as well as for various other reafons, ought to be
mailer of every implement, tool, and operation belonging
to his profeffion ; and if he find himfelf deficient in any par-
ticular, he (hould praftife it day by day, until he make it
familiar to him ; or how is he to correft a bad workman ;
or to know when to be fatisfied with a good one; who,
knowing when he is right, will not bear the reproaches of
ignorance ? He has no other way of fccuring the elteem
and attachment of good workmen, and of fini(hing in a
workman-hke manner every thing he undertakes, than by
making himfelf mafter of his bufinefs ; without which
little fatisfaftion will arife from it to himfelf, or profit to
his employer. And in the general principles of conduft, in
his dealings and intercourfe with other men, punftuality is
one of the moft eflential. Method is the bed alTillant of
punAuality ; and clear accounts are one of the bed refults
of method. Thefe (hould always be kept with exaftnefs,
and be fent, when required, to the proprietor, in weekly,
monthly, and annual periods, fo as to (hew the daily Itate
of the work ; the monthly (late of receipts and payments ;
and, laftly, the whole (late of accounts and balances.

Befides, it is extremely necelTary for the farmer to be care-
ful in providing his fervants, not only to fee that they are pro-
per for the work, but that there be not more than are necef-
fary for executing it, as the expence of them is now become
extremely great. It has long Cnce been recorded by the
above writer, in his " Minutes of Agriculture," that on the
matureft calculation he found the yearly expence of a man
fervant in the houfe to be 35/., and that of a boy 23/.,
fuppofing the man's yearly wages to be 10/. and the boy's
3/. Now the expence of a day-labouring man for a whole
year (if he works every day) is but 27/. los., which is
7/. ios. difference againli keeping a man in the houfe by the
year, and hiring one by the day. But that of a boy is itill
more in proportion, -vix. the expence of a day-labouring
boy for a whole year, if he works every day, is but 13/.,
which makes a difference of 10/., or more than three-fourths
of a boy's day-wages. In the above account, no deduction
in the daily pay is made for rainy days. The impropriety,
therefore, of keeping plough-boys in the houfe is very
vifible : and though it may be convenient to have the
carters about ihe houfe, the conveniency is not worth 7/, lot.
a-year. He therefore recommends putting a woman into
a cottage, within about two hundred paces of the farm-
yard, to take in lodgers ; and to keep in the houfe no more
4

farming fervants than a buftler and a yardman. Indeed he
fays it is abfolutely necefTary to have fomebody about a
farm-yard in cafes of emergency ; but the above two are
fufficient, as the carters in the adjoining cottage will be
nearly as handy as if they were in the houfe. This meafure,
it is obferved, like many others, is merely local, but the
hint is univerfal.

But perhaps the farmer, who keeps no accounts, imagines
he faves money by boarding his fervants in the houfe ; how-
ever, if he keeps them m the luxurious manner which farm-
ing-fervants in general expeft to be kept, he will be mif-
taken. A farmer, indeed, who fits at the head of his
kitchen-table, may no doubt feed his men confiderably
cheaper, than a perfon who eats in a feparate apartment.
It is a jutl obfervation, that one fed by Ins mafter colls
the community as much as two who provide for themfelves ;
for difcharge a grumbler, one who pretends to be dilTatisfied,
though in faft only fatiated, and he will return to his bread
and ciieefe with perhaps equal health and equal happinefs.
He fits down to his mailer's table with a refolulion to eat
voracioufly of the bed, to do himlelf judice ; but at his
own table eats fparingly of the meaned, to fave his money.
His motive in both cafes is the fame ; felf-intered. The
plan here inculcated is at this time Hill more neceflary than
it was at a former period.

And it is added, that in fome counties, particularly in
Surrey, it is an eftablilhed cudom for every man, in harveft,
to work by the acre, or by the month, not by the day. If
a labourer be conllantly employed through the year, he
expefts during harved to be condantly employed in mow-
ing, reaping, &c. by the acre, or to have his harveft-month ;
that is, to have an advance of wages certain, wet or dry,
during one month ; which month commences when it belt
fuits his employer. This is very convenient ; they are
always at command in cafes of emergency ; and nothing
but a continuance of rains while the barns are empty can
make them burdenfome. He drongly recommends the em-
ploying of aftive young men ; for one invahd or fluggidi
fellow will fpoil the whole fet ; and this holds generally.
Mix two or three old women, or two or three boys, with
a company of men, and the effeft will be very foon vifible ;
for the men will foon conform to the ways of either the
old women, or the playfulnefs of the boys. It is not pru-
dent to employ many women with the men ; and nothing
but neceflity can excufe it. Two women after the fird or
fecond day, will do as much work as half a dozen, alone.
If it be neceffary or convenient to employ a number of
both men and women, it is but common good management
to keep them feparate ; with this exception, which may be
laid down as a maxim, -viz. one man among women, and
one woman among men. A crudy conceited old fellowr
will check the goflipping of the women, and it has been re-
marked that raking after a young wench has animated more
than a gallon of ale. Two are dangerous ; they breed
contention, and rather retard than accelerate. Tiie molt
valuable fervant in harved is a good carter. It is neceflary
to common management that he (hould be able, willing, and
careful. Every pitch of hay and corn, generally fpeaking,
pades twice through his hands ; he loads and unloads,
which are the two moll laborious ta(l<s of harved ; he
drives the team backwards and forwards ; if he loiters by
the way, the fi.'ld-men or dack-men mud dand idle ; if he
fpill or overturn his load, or if he break his waggon, or fet
his horfes, the arrangement of the day is broken ; and,
perhaps, the damage done by the lofs of time rendered irre-
parable by the next day's rain. A good carter will not

fufTer

SERVANT.

fuffer his waggon to be overloaded. The field-men, too,
that is, the pitcher and afliftant-loader, (hould be young
and aftire, and well matched with the carter.

But fince the above was written, the prices of fervants
have coniiderably increafed m every diftridt of the kmgdom,
and the expences of keeping them been very greatly aug-
mented. This has led to fewer being kept, and efpecially
in the houfe. It is ftated, that in Hertfordfhire the annual
wages of a carter or ploughman was formerly from fix to
nine guineas ; boys from two to four guineas ; and maid-
fervants about five guineas ; but they have fince rilen to
nearly double thefe fums. And formerly in Norfolk farm-
work was particularly diftinguifhed by the cheapnefs as well
as expedition with which it was performed ; which, it is
faid, arofe not merely from the cheapnefs of labour, but the
greater exertions of fervants and labourers than in molt other
dittrifts ; but this is confiderably diminiihed at prefent. In
fome parts of that diltriA the cultom of allowing board-
wages to farm-fervants, inftead of the old plan of feeding
them in the houfe, is coming into ufe ; and Ss. a-week are
given. This is a bad, immoral regulation, which (hould be
difcontinued. In Yorkfhire the wages of fervants have alfo
been greatly increafed. In the Weft Riding the wages of a
houfe fervant (of which kind molt of the ploughmen are)
may be eftimated from 25/. to 30/. yearly, including mainte-
nance. There is a practice which prevails over a confider-
able part of this diftrift, of giving them drink both forenoon
and afternoon, be the work what it will ; which is a ridi-
culous cuftom, and ought to be abolifhed without lofs of
time. What can be more abfurd than to fee a ploughman
Hopping his horfes half an hour, in a cold winter day, to
drink ale ? But the praftice is fo deep rooted, that it will
not be eafily removed without a compenfation. It is fug-
geftcd that the proper remedy is to let the value of the ale
be paid to the fervant in money, which probably would be as
much for his interelt, and certainly more advantageous to
the farmer. In thofe places where long yokings are taken,
fay feven or eight hours, it may be neceilary to feed both
men and horfes on the ground ; but this praftice cannot be
recommended unlels in urgent cafes, it being very injurious
to tlieir liealth. In the beft regulated agricultural coimties,
five hours labour in the morning and four hours in the after-
noon, when the fcalon allows, and five hours, or five hours
and a half, in fliort days, is confidercd to be as much as
horfes are capable of luftaining, and yokings of this duration
require no refrclhmcnl on the ground. And it is added, that
the hours of labour for men are generally in fummer from
fix to fix, with the ufual time for reft and refrefhment, which
gives betwixt nine and ten hours labour each day, and in
winter from light to dark. Much of the farm-labour, fuch
as ditching, hedging, threfliing, &c. is done by the piece,
but the prices vary greatly in different places. And it may
be added that when the farmer is a proper judge of his
bufinefs, piece-work is not only moft to his advantage, but
the only way by which an aAive diligent fervant can be
properly rewarded for his labour.

In Berklhire, and many other counties, great care is taken
to keep no more fervants in the houfe, by the farmer'., than
are juft fufficimt for performing the ordinary bufinefs to be
done. The pay of a carter is there from nine to twelve
guineas the year ; an under carter from four to feven guineas
for the fame length of time ; a fliepherd from eight to ten
guineas, and the run of a few ftieep ; a boy from two to
three guineas ; and a dairy-maid from five to ten guineas, in
proportion as (he may be qualified.

In tlie manufafturing diltrifts of Chclhire and Lancalhire,
the wages of houic-farming fervanta run in this way.

£
10

to

£

1 2 fer annum.

10

— 8—12

0

~"~

«4

4

—

6

2

—

4

0

to

25

6

—

10

5

—

8

2

—

4

In the fir ft,

Man to follow the team - fron

Lad of from 15 to 20, for the
fame purpofe - - j

Cow boy, or man, as the ftock
may be - - -

Home-work fervant, for'

hedging, mowing, threlh- ■ — 10 — 12
ing, &c. - - - .

Head dairy woman, in pro-
portion to the fize of farm j

Women fervants of other
kinds - - - - J

Girls . . . . _

In the latter,

Men fervants ... from

Lads .... —

Women . - - . —

Girls - . - . —

They have lately been confiderably on the increafe in both
of thefe diftrifts.

In the county of ElTex, and many other diftrifts which
are principally agricultural, the work of the farms is in a
great meafure executed by hired daily or weekly labourers,
very few yearly fervants being kept by the farmers. This
is fuppofed, in many inltances, to be not only the cheape(t,
but the moft convenient method of having fuch forts of work
performed ; and the farmers are, at the fame time, the mod
free from trouble in their houfes and families. In the very
fouthern agricultural diftrifts of Devonlhire and Cornwall,
the wages of the farm (ervants, kept in the houfe, with \va(h-
ing and lodging, are, in the former, for a carter or head
man ten pounds the year, the inferior forts of farm bufinefs
being often accomplilhed by pari(h apprentices ; and in the
latter, from eight to twelve guineas, with their board, for
men, and from three to four pounds, with the fame, for maid
fervants during the year. Thefe rates, however, vary a little,
according to the quahfications of the fervants, and the nature
of the iituatioHS and farms.

In the county of Hereford (hire, where the hours of
labour are from light to dark in tlie winter, and from fix in
the morning to the fame hour in the afternoon, in fummer,
the following are the average prices of wages now given to
fervants kept in the houfe by the farmers.

Waggoner, - 10 to 12 guineas ^^r annum.

Bailiff or cattleman, 8 — 10 ditto.

Dairy-maid, - 6 — 7 ditto.

Under-maid, - 2 — 3 ditto.

Likewife in Eaft Lothian, in Scotland, the wages are
moftly from ten to fourteen pounds per annum ; but this clafs
of fervants is but fmall. The female (ervants have (rom
four pounds to four pounds ten (hillings, or five pounds.
And in Clydefdalc, the greater part of the agricultural
labour is pcrlbrmed by (ervants hired by the half year, and
living in the farm-houfes. In many parts of the cou.ity the
women fervants work along with the men, at almoft all kinds
of out-work. But as more hands than ordinary are needed
for cutting down the corn in harveft, many hulbandmen, to
fecure a fixed number for that purpole, when they can be
got, contrail with villagers to allill during the time of reap-
ing. All thefe labourers have no fixed hours, but continue
their labour while ligiit and weather admit, and circum-
Itances require. The poor girls, wlien light i' gone and the
men fit down by tiie Ike, Tefumc their houiliold labours.

The

SERVANT.

The labourers, both men and women, are fometimes hired
by the day, particularly in the time of planting, fowing, and
hoeing turnips and potatoes, hay-making, and harvell, when
a fixed number is not provided. Thefe work only ten
hours in the day, beginning at fix in the morning and flop-
ping at fix at night, and taking an hour to rell at breakfaft,
and another at dinner. Hired labourers, in winter, take
breakfaft before they go out in the morning, make a ftiort
paufe to eat a little at mid-day, and quit when light fails in
the evening. The following are the prices of wages.

Former.

Prefent.

■ from 13/. to 16/. from 20/. to 25/.

5/. to 7/. or 8/. to 9/. los.

Wagesof men fervants, '

befides bed, board,

andwafhing,/(Tann. _
Wages of a maid fer-"

vant, befides bed,

board, and wafhing,

per ann.

But in Perthfhire, a man fervant, who is matter of all the
operations in farming, only receives, in the corn country,
between eight and twelve pounds, for twelve months. In
the grazing dillrifts, more remote from the feat of manu-
faftures, their wages, and the price of all kinds of labour,
are about one-fourth lower. But in many cafes the fervants
are maintained in the farmer's family ; but the praftice of
giving them fix and a half bolls of meal, together with a
houfe, garden, and a cow's grafs, free of rent, and fome
fuel, is daily becoming more general. Thefe farmers, who
keep any married fervants, have them all on this eftablifli-
ment of livery meal. The maid fervants live all i;i their
matter's family, and are engaged for betwixt three and four
pounds, and in fome cafes five pounds of yearly wages, ac-
cording to their expertnefs, and the nature of their work.
But common labourers earn between one ftiilling and one
(hilling and three-pence a day ; and if able-bodied and
handy, they demand one fliilling and fixpence, without
viftuals. The various denominations of artificers charge
according to the nicety of their art. The hours of labour
from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, are from fix to fix,
allowing an hour for breakfaft and another for dinner ; and
during the other half year, from the dawn of day till the light
fails at night, with an allowance of one hour for breakfaft.
Houlhold fervants are not fo exaft with refpeft to hours ;
in the long days, they continue to work aftw fix at night ;
and in fliort days they get out of bed before day light,
where there is much grain to thratti. But in many of the
large farms, thraftiing machines have been erefted ; and they
are fuch a great faving, by the abridgment of labour, that
more of them are fet up every year, in different parts of the
county.

And in Argylefliire, within thefe 30 years, the price of
labour is fomevvhat more tlian doubled. It ftill varies in
diff^erent parts of the county, but may be cftimatcd in general
at the following rates. A man fervant's wages, />£■/• ««««»;,
with viftuals, from 6/. to 8/. A maid fervant's, from 50J.
to 4/. And that fince 1795 the wages and the price of
labour have been advanced more than one fourth, or from
25 to 30 per cent., and are ftill rifing.

Further, in regard to the regulating the rate of wagvs, it
has been fuggefted in the Agricultural Survey of the Weft
Riding of Yorkftiire, that the only mode of making them
proportional to the rife or fall on the value of money and
provifions, is to pay the labourer in kind, that is, with a
certain quantity of corn, as parties ftiall agree, which infures
him, at all hazards, a comfortable fubfiftence, and prevents
him from a daily or weekly vification of the markets. When

the labourer is paid in money, it expofcs the thoughtlefj
and inattentive to many temptations ; whereas, when paid
in kind, he cannot raife money to gratify the whim of the
moment. In thofe counties where this mode of payment
has been long eftabhftied, we believe the ploughmen and
labourers are, on the whole, better fed, live more comfort-
ably, and rear healthier children tiian in thofe parts where,
from being paid in money, the currency of the article facilN
tates the expenditure, and prevents him from laying by a
ftock of provifions for his fupport, when laid off work by
cafualties or diftrefs. In the part of the kingdom where
the WTittr refides, nearly all farm-tervants are paid in this
manner. They have a certain quantity of grain, mainte-
nance for a cow fummer and winter, a piece of ground for
planting potatoes andraifing flax, and whatever fuel they re-
quire, given gratis. Thefe, with the privilege of keeping a
hog and a few hens, enables them to live, and bring up their
families in a comfortable manner ; and, while their income ia
confiderably lefs than people of their ftation in other parts,
they are, on the whole, better fed, better drefled, and enabled
to give a better education to their children. Placed under
thefe circumftances, they are a refpeftable fet of men ; and,
for frugahty, faithfulnefs, and induftry, they will bear a
companfon with their brethren in any quarter. The intro-
duftion of a fimilar mode of paying farm-fervants into the
Weft Riding, is therefore recommended, which, although it
might at firit be attended with fome difficulties, would con-
tribute to the public good, and to the advantage of the la-
bouring peafantry in many refpefts. And it is remarked in
the Herefordftiire Agricultural Survey, that if a certain pro-
portion between the price of labour and the average price of
wheat could be fixed by law, fo as to render the applications
for parochial aid necefl'ary only in cafes of very large families,
of uuufual illnefs, of fcanty fcafons, or any other real emer-
gency ; the meafure, it is prefumcd, would ftiiliulate in-
duftry and fidelity, would check diftionefty, and endear to a
numerous clafs their native foil.

The advance in the rate of farm-fervants' wages who live
in the houfes of the farmers, has, within the laft twenty-fire
years, been probably not lefs than from a third to a fourth
of the whole, according to the nature and fituation of the
diltricl, over the whole country ; but how far the agricul-
tural and manufntturing ftate of the nation may thereby be
aft"eftcd, is difficult to determine.

It is a matter of very great coiifequence to farmers, to
have good, traclable, intelligent, able, and honett fervants, as
no fort of good farm-work, or improvements, can be pro-
perly carried on without them.

Servants' Rooms, in Rural Economy, the lodging places
for farm-fervants, which (hould always, if polfible, be dif-
tinil from the houfe upon farms of confiderable fize. And
m cafes of very exteniive farms, and of courfe where many
fervants are required, efpecially if they be unmarried, pro-
per and convenient accommodations for fleeping, and where
they find their own provifions, for preparing and dreffing
them in, are not only requifite, but highly advantageous,
both to the farmer and the men, as f^aving much time,
which would otherwife be loft in going to their meals, and
keeping them together fober, fteady, and ready for their
different employments. And in this way the fervants are
much more comfortable, and live confiderably cheaper than
where it is the cuftom to go to pubhc houfes, or other fuch
places for their meals, which is too much the cafe in many
of the more fouthern diftrifts of the kingdom, by which
their manners often become depraved, and their conltitu-
tions enfeebled by the great ufe of fpirits, and other intoxi-
cating liquors, which they are alraofl neceffitated to take

under

S E R

under fuch circumftances. But thefe inconveniences are
perhaps the moil effeflually guarded againft by fuch fer-
vants being provided for, where it can be done, from the
tables of the farmers. But where this laft method is fol-
lowed, the eating rooms fhould be fo fituated, that they
may be overlooked with facility. Their lodging rooms, in
all cafes, are the moft proper and the fafell, when made in
a building quite detached and diilinft from the other houfes
and offices ; as perfons of this defcription are often ex-
tremely negligent of their fires, candles, &c., as well as
irregular in other parts of their conduct. It has been ad-
vifed, that whatever fituation may be fixed upon for thefe
conveniences, the ground-floors ihould always be of ilone
or brick, and the upper ones made with plafter, as is done
in fome of the midland counties, or brick, which is more
eafily laid. See Plaster Floors.

Moil kinds of farm labour may, however, probably at
prefent be performed more cheaply by other forts of
workmen, than fervants provided for in any of thefe ways.

SERVE, in the Sea Language. To ferve a rope, is
to lay fpun-yarn, rope-yarn, fennit, a leather, a piece of
canvas, or the like upon it, which is rolled fail round
about the rope, to keep it from fretting or galling in any
place.

SERVERETTE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Lozere ; 12 miles N.N.W. of
Mende.

SERVETISTS, in Ecclefmfieal Hiflory, a feft faid to
be the difciples or followers of Michael Servetus, the ring-
leader of the Anti-Trinitarians of thefe laft ages. See his
article.

It is impoflible (fays the tranflator of Mofheim's Eccl.
Hift. ) to juflify the conduft of Calvin in the cafe of Ser-
yetus, whofe death will be an indehblc reproach upon the
charafter of that great and eminent reformer. The only
thing that can be alleged, not to efface, but to diminifh
his crime is, that it was no eafy matter for him to diveil
himfelf at once of that perfecuting fpirit, wrhich had been
fo long nourifhcd or ftrengthened by the popifh religion in
which he was educated.

Servetus, in reality, had not any difciples, as being
burnt, together with his books, before his dogmas had
time to take root. But the name Servetifls has been given
to fome of the modern Anti-Trinitarians, becaufe they fol-
low the footfteps he had marked out.
' However, thofe who were denominated Servetifls, or Ser-
vetians, by the theological writers of the fixteenth century,
not only differed from Servetus in many points of doftrine,
but alfo varied widely from him in his doftrine of the Tri-
nity, which was the peculiar and diilinguifliing point of his
theological fyftem.

Sixtus Senenfis calls the Anabaptifts Servetifls, and feems
to ufe the two terms indifferently. The truth is, in many
things, the ancient Anabaptifts of Switzerland, &c. coin-
cide in opinion with Servetus.

As the books that he wrote againft the Trinity are very
rare, his real fentiments are but little known : M. Simon,
who had a copy of the firft edition, delivers them at large
in his critical hiftory.

Though Servetus ufes many of the fame arguments againft
the Trinity as the Arians, yet he profcfTcs himfelf very far
from their fentiments. He alfo oppoics the Socinians in
fome things ; and declares his diflent from the opinions of
Paulus Samofatenus ; though Sandius miftakenly charge*
him with having the fame fentiments.

In effcft, he does not feem to have had any fixed regular
Vol. XXXII.

S E 11

fyftem of religion, at leaft not in the firft edition of his
book againft the Trinity, publifhed in 153 1, under the
title " De Trinitatis Erroribus Libri feptem, per Mi-
chaelem Servetum, alias Reves, ab Arragonia Hifpanum."

The year following he publifhed his dialogues on the
myftcry of the Trinity. In the preface to which laft work
he declares himfelf diffatisficd with it. It was on this
account he undertook another on the fame fubjeft, of
much greater extent, which did not appear till the year
1553, a little before his death, under the title of " Chrifti-
anifmi Reftitutio."

Thofe of Geneva, having feized the copies of this
edition, had it burnt ; nor were there above two or three
that efcaped ; one of which was kept at Bafil, where the
book was printed, but is now in the college library at
Dublin.

It was put to the prefs fecretly in England, but being
difcovered, the impreffion was feized and deftroyed.

Servetus, according to Mofheim's account, conceived
that the genuine doftrine of Chrift had been entirely loft,
even before the council of Nice ; and he was moreover of
opinion, that it had never been delivered with a fufiicient
degree of precifion in any period of the church. To thefe
extravagant affertions he added another flill more fo, even
that he himfelf had received a commilfion from above to
reveal anew this divine doArine, and to explain it to man-
kind. His notions with refpeft to the Supreme Being,
and a Trinity of perfons in the godhead, were very obfcure
and chimerical, and amounted in general to the following pro-
pofitions : that the Deity, before the creation of the world,
had produced within himfelf two perfonal reprefentations
or manners of exiftence, which were to be the medium of
intercourfe between him and mortals, and by whom, con-
fequently, he was to reveal his will, and to difplay his
mercy and beneficence to the children of men : that thefe
two reprefentatives were the Word and the Holy Ghoft :
that the former was united to the man Chrill, who was
born of the Virgin Mary, by an omnipotent aft of the
Divine Will ; and that, on this account, Clirift might be
properly called God : that the Holy Spirit dircfted the
courfe, and animated the whole fyftem of nature, and
more efpecially produced in the minds of men wife coun-
fels, virtuous propcnfities, and divine feelings ; and, finally,
that thefe two reprefentations were to ceafe after the dc-
ftruftion of this terreftrial globe, and to be abforbed into
the fubftance of the Deity, from whence they had been
formed.

Servetus, however, did not always explain his fyftem in
the fame manner, nor avoid inconfiftencies, contradiftior.s,
and ambiguities ; fo that it is extremely difficult to learn
his true fentiments. His fyflem of morality agreed in
many circumflances with that of the AnabaptiUs, whom
he alfo imitated in ccnfuring witli the utmoft fcvcrity the
cullom of infant-baptifm. Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. 176S.

SERVETUS, Michael, in Biography, was born at Villa-
nucva, in Arragon, in 1509. His father was a notar)--
pubhc, and he himfelf was lent to the academy of Tou-
ioufe, where lie fhulicd the law during the fpace of three
years. About this period his attention was turned to the ftudy
of the facred fcriptures, to which he was probably excited
by the reformers of that day. He foou difcovered many
errors and abufes in the church of Rome, in tlie tenets of
which he had been brought up, and laid then the fou:id-
atioii of his opinions concerning tlie doftrine of the Trinity.
It is known, that at this period, many learned men in
Italy and other parts, among whom wcro fome dignitaries
Tt of

SERVETUS.

of the church, condemned in private the reigning fuper-
ftitions, to which, however, they readily conformed in
pubh'c. Whether Servetus was inftrufted by any of thefe,
or whether his own opinions were the refult of inveftigation,
cannot be afcertained : it is certain, that he did not think
it prudent to divulge them in France, and therefore re-
tired to Germany, where a much greater liberty of con-
fcience was allowed and aflVrtcd, and where feveral princes
fecretly favoured the bold attacks on the popedom. He
went through Lyons and Geneva to Switzerland, and fixed
his refidence at Bafil in the year 15^0. Here he was on
a footing of friendly intimacy with CEcolampadius, with
whom he often converfcd about various religious topics, but
to whofe peculiar opinions he would not yield, in the
fmalleft degree, any notions which he had previoudy
adopted. The unbending difpofition with regard to mat-
ters of fmall moment, alienated many perfons from Servetus
who had formed a high opinion of his talents and integrity.
While he was at Bafil, he put into the hands of a book-
feller a manufcript, " De Trinitatis Erroribus," which
was printed in the year IJ31. Servetus now went to
Stralburg, in which city he became acquainted with two
reformers, viz. Capito and Bucerus. Here he fearched
for opportunities to communicate his religious tenets to his
new acquaintances, and here he learned that his work had
excited a confiderable fenfation among people of all dalles.
He was aware that he had, in many refpefts, treated the
fubjeft too imperfedly ; and had made ufe of exprefiions
that were liable to give offence; he accordingly, in the fol-
lowing year, endeavoured to foften the unfavourable ini-
preffion, and to avert a ftorm that feemed threatening to
fall upon him, by publiihing a work entitled " Dialogorum
de Trinitate Libri duo," in which he explained and de-
fended his opinions. The confequences of this fecond piece
was, that many were exafperated againft the author, wliile
a few adopted his doftrines and fpread them abroad. CEco-
lampadius requefted his friend Bucer to inform Luther,
that Servetus'! book had been publifhed without their
knowledge, in order that it might not be fuppofcd they
had given any countenance to the propagation of the offen-
five tenets. And Melanchthon, in fpeaking at this time of
Servetus, fays, " He wants neither acutenefs nor cunning
in difputing, but I cannot allow him energy. He has,
moreover, as it appears to me, confufed imaginations,
neither is he able fnfficiently to explain his thoughts with
prccifion. He unqueilionably fpeaks like a madman about
juftification ; about the Trinity, -r?ji rr,; -r^txao-:, you know
that I have been always apprehenfive that fimilar things
fooner or later would break out. Good God ! what trage-
dies will this queltion excite among potlerity."

The circumllances of Servetus being low, he engaged
for fome time with the Frellons, eminent bookfellers" at
LyoHS, as correftor of the prefs. From Lyons he went
to Paris, where he iludied phyfic under the celebrated
Sylvius, Fernehus, and other profelTors ; and, as we (hall
have occafion to remark hereafter, he carried into that
fcience the fame penetrating fpirit and love of improvement
which dillinguilhed him in theology. He graduated at
Paris, and being invelled with this honour, he delivered
public leftures in geography and fome branches of mathe-
matics, while he followed the profeffion of a phyfician.
At Paris he quarrelled with the faculty, and wrote an
" Apology," which was fuppreffed by the pariiament.
After quitting that capital he praclifcd phyfic at Charlieu,
near Lyons, whence, at the invitation of the archbifhop of
Vienne, he removed to that city, and had apartments near
3

the palace. He had, previoufly to this, -u/a. in i^4iy
fuperintended the printing of a Latin Bible at Lyons, to
which he added marginal notes, under the name of Villa-
novanus.

During this time, Servetus was in conftant correfpond-
ence with Calvin, with whom he difcufied various pomts of
controverfy, and to whom he opened himlelf freely and
without referve concerning his particular notions, and con-
fulted him refpefting his writings. Calvin afterwards made
a bafe ufe of this confidence, by aftually producing his let-
ters and manufcripts as matter of accufation againft him on his
trial. It muft not, however, be concealed, that Calvin does
not appear to have encouraged Servetus to this expofition of
his fentiments, for he frequently fent him iii reply angry
and fevere letters. In 1553, Servetus publifhed his matured
theological fyftem under the title of " Chriftianifmi Reihtu-
tio." Confcious of the danger to the author of fuch a
work in a Catholic country he concealed his name, but
Calvin took care that the magillrates of Vienne fliould be
informed of it. He was in confequence thrown into prifon,
and his death would have added an example to the num-
berlefs cruelties of Roman Catholic perfecutions, had he
not made his efcape. His effigy and his books were con.
demned to the flames. Seri'etus, purpofing to go to Naples
to praftife in his profefiion, im.prudentty went through
Geneva. Calvin, who was acquainted with the plans of the
traveller, and who was on the watch to entrap him, gave
information to the magillrates the moment he arrived within
the gates of the city. He was accordingly feized, thrown
into prifon, and a charge of blafpheniy and herefy was
preferred againil him by Calvin's own fervant. In order
to enfure conviction and condemnation, no lefs than thirty-
eight articles of accufation were brought againil him, for
which not only his lad work, but all his other writings were
ranfacked. As a proof of the malice and unfairnefs with
which he was treated, it is mentioned that one of the charges
was extrafted from his preface to an edition of Ptolemy's
Geography, publifhed twenty years before, in which he
had aflerted, that Judea had been falfely extolled for its
beauty and fertility, fince modern travellers had found it
to be fterile and unfightly. That no doubt might be left
whence the profecution came, one of the main articles
againft the prifoner was, that in the perfon of Mr. Calvin,
minifter of the word of God in the church of Geneva, he
had defamed the doftrine preached in it, uttering all ima-
ginable injurious and blafphemous words againil it.

Servetus, in the firft examination, repelled with firmnefs
every accufation, though he avowed that he publifhed in
Germany his book " De Trinitatis Erroribus ;" in France
his " Reftitutio Chriftianifmi," together with Ptolemsus,
and the edition of Pagnini's bible. At the fecond examin-
ation, he acknowledged, when urged to confefs the truth,
fome of the articles brought againft him in regard to his
publications, denied others, and hefitated to explain him-
felf more plainly upon others. But when he was again
queftioned, " why he had flandeied Calvin, and lacerated
the Chrillian doftrine ?" he protefted that Calvin had been
the aggrelfor, and that if he had recriminated it was done in
felf-defence ; which plea was deemed by his judges as an
aggravation of his offence.

The magillrates of Geneva were, however, fenfible that
many eyes were upon them in this extraordinary proceed- 1
ing, with refpeft to one who was no fubjetl of their's, nor |
a refident in their city, nor could he be acculed of having
committed any offence in their territory, and within their
jurifdiftion. He was, in truth, kidnapped in his pafl'age.

Moreover,

S E R

S E R

Moreover, it could not but appear ftrange, that men (hould
be aflbciates in perfecutioii, with thofe very people who
would infallibly burn them as heretics, (hould they fall into
their hands. They therefore thought it advifeable to con-
fult the magillrates of the Proteftant cantons of Switzerland,
to whom they fent Servetua's book, with Calvin's reply.
The Helvetic divines, to whom the matter was referred,
wnanimoufly declared for his punifhment : they faid that
Servetus's errors ought to be detelled, and that great care
ought to be taken that the infedlion fpread no farther, and
that the man ought to be reftrained ; but they, none of
them, faid a word refpefling capital punilhment, nor do
they allude to the kind of coercion that (hould be chofcn.
Their meaning was, however, readily inferred from their
own practice ; for the capital punifliments of heretics had
not been aboliihed in Switzerland ; they had been frequent-
ly praftifed at Zurich againlt the Baptilts.

Servetus was for a time kept ignorant of all the pro-
ceedings againll him ; at length he difcovered the inten-
tions of his enemies, and drew up, and caufed to be prefented,
two petitions to his judges : in the fiift he endeavoured to
exculpate himfelf ; in the fecoiid he complained that a fair
trial had not been allowed him. As he refnfed to retratl
his opinions, he was, notwithflanding his pleas, condemned
to the flames as an obftinate heretic, which cruel fentence
was carried into execution on the 27th of Odtober 15)3,
when he was in the forty-fourth year of his age. His
fufferings were particularly fevere, and the fire was fo
managed, that the unfortunate man lingered in excruciating
pain more than two hours.

That this bloody perfecution was difapproved by many
at tlie time, is rendered very probable by the apology for
the Genevan magiilrates, publifhed by Calvin, in which he
undertook to prove that it was lawful to punifh heretics
with death. The mild and otherwife moderate and benevolent
Melanchthon fantlioned the deed by a congratulatory letter
addreded to the magiilrates of Geneva. The conduft of
Calvin in this bufinefs, as iiidigated not only by bigotry,
but perfonal hatred, has imprcfled an indelible (lain on his
memory ; and the only poftible excufe now olfered for it
arifcs from the provocation given by Servetus, " whofe ex-
ceflive arrogance," according to Molheim, " was accompa-
nied with a malignant and contemptuous fpirit, and an in-
vincible obllinacy of temper."

The theological fyllem ot Servetus is defcribed as fingular
in the liighcft degree. The greateft part of it was a
neceffary confequence of his peculiar notions concerning the
univerfe, the nature of God, and tlie nature of things,
which were equally (Irange and chimerical. See the article
Servetists.

Servetus is numbered among thofe anatomids who made
the neareil approach to the doftrine of the circulation of
the blood. The padage cited to this efleA is contained in
his lateil and fatal work, " De Reititutione Clirillianilmi."
It clearly Hates the circulation of the blood through the
lungs. He purfucd, in his medical fludies, anatomical rc-
fearclies with the greateft ardour.

Servetus was a man of great erudition and unfeigned
piety : his mind was llored with a variety of knowledge,
and he (toed very high, in the cilimation of his contempora-
ries, for his talents and for his difcovcricB in the profeflion
of medicine. Whatever might have been his errors as a
theologian, it is certain he never preached them to the vulgar,
but communicated ihcm freely to Calvin, CEcolampadius,
•Capito, Bucerus, and other reformers, with an cagernefs to
>difcover truth which has never been lurpafled.

The 3trocioU8 murder committed on him will not ad-

mit of a fingle excufe. His imprifonment was fcandalous
and unjuft. The fenate of Geneva had no right to lay
violent hands upon a traveller, who had no intention of
remaining in tlieir city, and who probably never uttered
within the precinfts of their dominions one fyllable of his
obnoxious opinions. Here Geneva (lands condemned by all
civilians.

The affability of the manners of Servetus, and his vaft
learning, had procured him numerous friends in France, in
Germany, and in Italy : and his name will be handed down
to the lateft pofterity with comraiferation and refpeft. See
a life of Servetus, in a feries of letters to Jedidiah Morfe,
D. D., by Fr. Adrian Vandcrkcmp : inferted in vol. v. of
the Monthly Repofitory.

SERUG, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir ; 12 miles S. of Ourfa.

SERUGNANO, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe j
8 miles E.N.E. of Verona.

SERVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, part of the
ancient Pannonia, or of Turkiih lUyria, deriving its name
from its inhabitants, is bounded on the N. by Bofnia and
Sclavonia, on the E. by Walachia and Bulgaria, on the S.
by Macedonia and Albania, and on the W. by Bofnia and
Dalmatia. It was formerly divided into Proper Servia, or
Serbia, and Rafcia, and the inhabitants were diiUnguiftied
into Servians, and Rafcians or Reitzcs ; and the former,
which conftitutes the upper part, towards the Danube, be-
longs to the bannat of Mafovia. The capital of Servia is
Belgrade, (which fee). The Turks call it Lafs Vilayeti,
or Lazarus-land, becaufe in the year 1365, when they
fubdued it, Lazarus was prince of Serbia. See Ser-
vians.

SERVIAN, a town of France, in the department of the
Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Beziers ; 6 miles N.E. of Bezicrs. The place contains
2200, and the canton 7319 inhabitants, on a territory of
1 175 kiliometres, in 9 comnuines.

SERVIANS, or Serbes, a branch of the lUyrian Slavi,
who gave name to the province called Servia or Serbia. In
the Ruffian empire the Servians and Reitzes are colonifts, to
whom, in the year 1754, a confiderablc diltridl was allotted
on the Dnieper near anduponthepolfefTionsof the Zaporagian
Coll'acks. This country, which got the name of New Servia,
was for the molt part an uninhabited defert, extending to
what were then the Poh(h borders, by which it was fur-
rounded on three (ides. The Serbians, who voluntarily
fettled here in great numbers, were formed into a military
ailbciatiwn, to be a check upon the dillentions and exceffes
of the Zaporagians. In the year 1764, the whole of this
traft of country was erefted into the government of New
Ru(ha, and at prefent forms a confiderable part of the pro-
vince of Ekaterinoflaf.

SERVICE, or Servage, Servilhim, in Lanu, a duty
which the tenant, by realon of his fee, owes to the lord.

This, in pure, proper, and original feuds, was only two-
fold : to follow, or to do fuit to, the lord in his courts in
time of peace ; and in his armies, or warlike retinue, when
neceflity called him to the field.

Ancient law-books make feveral divifions of fervice, viz.
into perfonal, real, and mi.xl ; mUilary and bafe, intr'mfic and
extrinfic, &c. But, fince the ilatutc 12 Car. II., by which
all tenures arc turned into free and common focage, much
of that learning is fet afidc. Yet it may not be amifs to
mention how the fcvcral kinds of fervice arc defcribed in
our ancient law-books.

Service, Perfonal, is that to be performed by the per.
fon. Such it that due from a (lave to hia maftcr.

T t J Perfoii»l

S E R

S E R

1'erronal fervke is a difgraceful fort of tenure, under
which lands were formerly held, and in which the tenant
did various forts of work for. the lord, and provided him
with a variety of different articles. It is a cuftom which
has long been aboliftied in this part of the kingdom, as being
highly injudicious and improper ; but which, Mr. Donaldfun
remarks, is not wholly difcarded in Scotland. " In the
north of Scotland," fays he, " the rents are to a certain ex-
tent paid in perfonal fervices ; the tenants being bound to
plow and harrow a certain proportion of the proprietor's
farm ; to reap, carry home, thrafti, drefs, and mill a cer-
tain quantity of his crop at their own charges ; and that
they are alfo bound to pay poultry, eggs, cheefe, fheep,
fwine, fifh, linen, yarn, &c." It might, continues he,
have been unavoidably necetfary, from the want of a cir-
culating medium in the early periods of the hiftory of this
country, to oblige the tenants to pay their rents in perfonal
fervices, and in the various articles of produce which their
farms afforded ; but it mufl be confidered a fingular cir-
cumftance in the hiftory of Great Britain, that in the end
of the eighteenth century, and at a period when the intro-
duftion of improvements in agriculture is the chief topic of
converfation, there Ihould exifl proprietors, who are fo loft
to every fentiment regarding what is due to the community
of which they are members, to the people whom Providence
has placed under their proteftion, and to the improvement
of their native country, as to perfift in demanding from
their tenants a fpecies of r^nt, which no farmer, who is en-
titled to the name, would fubmit to pay, nor any pro-
prietor, who regarded the good of his country, or his own
intereft, think of requiring. Thefe difgraceful fervices
fhould of courfe be done away with in every fituation, as
being incompatible with all forts of improvementJ in huf-
bandry, or the introdu£Uon of fpirited agriculture into any
part.

This fort of fervice is not only hoftile to all kinds of
farming improvements, but highly diilrefling and ruinous
to tenants at particular feafons, as during the feed-time, the
harveft, and the time of getting in the hay, by being often
under the necefiity of neglecting their own operations and
bufineffes, in order to perform the various works of their
lords, or fuperiors. The fooner thefe fervices are wholly
abolifhed in every part of the kingdom, the better it will be
for the interefts of agriculture.

Service, Real, is either urbane or rufilc ; which two
kinds differ, not in the place, but the thing. The firft is
that due from a building or houfe, in whatever place fituate,
whether in city or in country, as keeping a drain, a viita,
or the like.

Services, Rufiic, are thofe due for grounds, where
there is no building ; fuch is the right of paffage through
ways, &c.

Service, Mixt, is that due from the perfon, by reafon
of the thing, as an ufufruit, &c.

Our ancient law-books tell us of lands held of the king,
by the tenant's letting a fart before the king on New Year's
Day ; others, by furnifhing tlie king with whores, when-
ever he travelled that way ; others, by bringing the king
a mefs of pottage at his coronation-feaft, &c.

There are alfo natural fervices. For inftance, if a man
cannot gather the produce of his lands, without pafling
through his neighbour's grounds, the neighbour is obliged
to allow a padage, as a natural fervice.

Service, Forenjic or Extr'wfic, Servitium forenjicum, &C.
was a fervice which did not belong to the chief lord, but to
the king.

It was called forenjic and extrin/ic, becaufe done /oris,

out of doors ; and extra ferDltium. We meet with feveral
grants, in the Monafticon, of all liberties, with the appur-
tenances, falvo forenji fermt'io.

Service, Intrinjic, Servitium intrin/icum, that due to the
chief lord alone, from his vaflais within his manor.

Service, Frank, Servitium liberum, a fervice done by
the feudatory tenants, who were called Uberi homines, and
diftinft from valials : as was likewifc their fervice ; for they
were not bound to any bafe fervices, as to plow the lord's
lands, &c. but only to find a man and horfe to attend the
lord into the army or court.

Service, Ba/e. See Villenage.
Service, Bord. See Bordage.

Seuvice, Foreign, Honorary, Knighti, Rent. See the
adjeftives.

Service, Herist, See Heriot.
Service, Ovelty of. See Ovelty.
Service, Suit of. See Suit.

Service, Choral, in Church Hi/lory, denotes that part
of rehgious worfhip which confifls in chanting and finging.
The advocates tor the high antiquity of finging, as a part of
church mufic, urge the authnrity of St. Paul in its favour:
Ephi?f. chap. v. ver. 9. and Coloff. chap. lii. ver. 16. On
the authority of which palfages it is afferted, that fongs and
hymns were, from the eftabhfhment of the church, fung in
the aflemblies of the faithful ; and it appears, from un-
doubted teftimoiiy, that finging, which was practifed as a
facred rite among the Egyj tians and Hebrews, at a very
early period, and which likewife conftituted a confiderable
part of the religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans,
made a part of the rehgious worlhip of Chriftians, not only
before churches were built, and their religion eftablifhed by
law, but from the firfl profefTion of Chriftianity. How-
ever, the era from whence others have dated the introduc-
tion of muiic into the fervice of the church, is that period,
during which Leontius governed the church of Antioch,
/'. e. between the year of Chriil 347 and ^^6. See Anti-
phony.

From Antioch the praftice foon fpread through the other
churches of the Ealt ; and in a few ages after its firft intro-
duftion into the divine fervice, it not only received the
fanftion of public authority, but thofe were forbid to join
in it who were ignorant of mufic. A canon to this purpofe
was made by the council of Laodicea, which was held
about the year 372 ; and Zonaras informs us, that thefe
canonical fingers were reckoned a part of the clergy. Sing-
ing was introduced into the weftern churches by St. Am-
brofe, about the year 374, who was the inftitutor of the
Ambrofian chant, eftablifhed at Milan about the year 386;
and Eufebius (lib. ii. cap. 17.) tells us, that a regular
choir, and method of finging the fervice, were firft efta-
blifhed, and hymns ufed in the church at Antioch, during
the reign of Conftantine ; and that St. Ambrofe, who had
long reiided there, had his melodies thence. This was,
about two hundred and thirty years afterwards, amended by
pope Gregory the Great, who eftablifhed the Gregorian
chant ; a plain, unifonous kind of melody, which he
thought confiftent with the gravity and dignity of the fer-
vice to which it was to be appHed. This prevails in the
Roman church even at this day : it is known in Italy by the
name of canto fermo ; in France, by that of plain chant ;
and in Germany, and mofl other countries, by that of
the cantus Gregorianus. Although no fatisfaftory account
has been given of the fpecific difference between the Am-
brofian and Gregorian chants, yet all writers on this fubjeft
agree in faying, that St. Ambrofe only ufed the four au-
thentic modes, and that the four plagal were afterwards

9 added

S E R

added by St. Gregory. Each of thefe had the fame final,

or key-note as its relative authentic ; from which there is
no other difference than that the melodies in the four au-
thentic, or principal modes, are generally confined within
the corapafs of the eight notes above the key-note, and
thofe in the four plagal, or relative modes, within the com-
pafs of the eight notes belotn the fifth of the key. See
Mode.

Ecclefiaftical writers feem unanimous in allowing, that
pope Gregory, who began his pontificate in 590, coUefted
the mufical fragments of fuch ancient pfalms and hymns as
the firft fathers if the church had approved and recom-
mended to the firll Chriitians ; and that he felefted, me-
thodized, and arranged them in the order which was long
continued at Ronie, and foon adopted by the chief part of
the wellern church. Gregory is alfo faid to have banifhed
from the church the canto Jigurato, as too light and dilTolute ;
and it is added, tlut his own chant was called canto Jermo,
from its gravity and fimplicity.

It has been long a received opinion, that the ecclefiaftical
tones were taken from the reformed modes of Ptolemy ;
but Dr. Burney obferves, that it is difficult to difcover any
connedtion between them, except in their names ; for their
number, upon examination, is not tlie fame ; thofe of Pto-
lemy being feven, the ecclefialtical eight ; and, indeed, the
Greek names given to the ecclefiaftical modes do not agree
with thofe of Ptolemy in the fingle inftance of key, but
with thofe of higher antiquity. From the time of Gregory
to that of Guido, there was no other diltinftion of keys
than that of authentic and plagal ; nor were any femi-
tones ufed but thofe from E to F, B to C, and occafionally
A to B i.

With refpeft to the mufic of the primitive church, it may
be obfcrved, that though it confifted in the finging of
pfalms and hymns, yet it was performed in many different
ways ; fometimes the pfalms were fung by one perfon alone,
whilft the reft attended in filence ; fometimes they were fung
by the whole allembly ; fometimes alternately, the congre-
gation being divided into feparate choirs ; and fometimes by
one perfon, who repeated the firft part of the verfe, the reft
joining in the clofe of it.

Of the four different methods of finging now recited, the
fecond and third were properly diitinguifhed by the names
of fymphony and antiphony ; and the latter was fometimes
called refponfaria, in which women were allowed to join.
St. Ignatius, wlio, according to Socrates (lib. vi. cap. 8.),
converfed with the apoftles, is generally fuppofed to have
been the firft wlio fuggefted to the primitive Chriftians in
the Eaft the method of finging hymns and pfalms alter-
nately, or in dialogue ; and the ciiftoni foon prevailed in
every place where Chriftianity was eftabhfiicd ; thougli
Theodoret, in his Hidory (lib. ii. c. 24.), tells us, that this
manner of finging was firft praftifed at Antioch. It like-
wile appears, that ahnoft from the time when mufic was
firft introduced nito the fcrvice of the church, it was of two
kinds, and coiifilled in a gentle infleftion of the voice, which
they termed plain long, and a more elaborate and artificial
kind of mufic, adapted to the hymns and folemn offices con-
tained in its ritual ; and tliis diftinftion has been maintained
even to the prefent day.

Although we find a very early diftinftion made between
the manner of finging the hymns and chanting the pfalms,
it is, however, the opinion of the learned Martini, that tlie
mufic of the firft five or fix ages of the church confifted
chiefly in a plain and fimple chant of unifons and oftavcs,
of which many fragments are ftill remaining in the canto
fermo of the Romifh miftals. For with rcfpeft to

S E R

mufic in parts, as it does not appear, in thefe early ages,
that either the Greeks or Romans were in podeffion of
harmony or counterpoint, which has been generally afcnbed
to Guido, a monk of Arezzo, in Tufcaiiy, about the
year 1022 ; though others have traced the origin of it
to the eighth century, it is in vain to feek it in the
church. The choral mufic, which had its rife in the
church of Antioch, and from thence fpread through
Greece, Italy, France, Spain, and Germany, was brought
into Britain by the fingers who accompanied Auftin the
monk, when he came over, in the year 596, charged with
a coromiffion to convert the inhabitants of this country to
Chriftianity. Bede tells us, that when Auftin and the com-
panions of his miffion, had their firft audience of king Ethel-
bert, in the ifle of Thanet, they approached him in pro-
ceffion, finging litanies ; and that afterwards, when they en-
tered the city of Canterbury, they fung a litany, and at
the end of it, Allelnjah. But though this was the firft
time the Anglo-Saxons had heard the Gregorian chant, yet
Bede likewife tells us, that our Britifh anceftors had been
inftructed in the rites and ceremonies of the Galilean church
by St. Germanus, and heard him fing Allelnjah many years
before the arrival of St. Auftin. In 680, John, pra'ceutor
of St. Peter's in Rome, was fent over by pope Agatho to
inftruft the monks of Weremouth in the art of finging ; and
he was prevailed upon to open fchools for teaching mufic in
other places of Northumberland. Benedift Bifcop, the
preceptor of Bede, Adrian the monk, and many others,
•contributed to diffeminate the knowledge of the Roman
chant. At length the fucceflbrs of St. Gregory, and of
St. Auftin his miffionary, having eftabhlhed a fchool for
ecclefiaftical mufic at Canterbury, the reft of the ifland was
furnilhed with mafters from that feminary. The choral fer-
vice was firft introduced into the cathedral church of Can-
terbury, and, till the arrival of Theodore, and his fettle-
ment in that fee, the praAice of it fcems to have been con-
fined to the churches of Kent ; but after that, it fpread
over the whole kingdom ; and we meet with records of very
ample endowments for the fupport of this part of public
worffiip. This mode of rehgious worfliip prevailed in all
the European churches till the time of the Reformation :
the firft deviation from it is that which followed the re-
formation by Luther, who being himfelf a lover of mufic,
formed a liturgy, which was a mufical fcrvice, contained in
a work, entitled, " Pfalmodia, h. c. Cantica facra Veteris Ec-
clefios felcfta," printed at Norimberg in 1553, and at Wit-
temberg in 1561. But Calvin, in his ellablifhment of a
church at Geneva, reduced the whole of divine fervice to
prayer, preaching, and finging ; the latter of which he re-
ftrained. He excluded the offices of the antiplion, hymn,
and motet, of the Romifh fervice, with that artificial and
elaborate mufic to whicli they were fung ; and adopted only
that plain metrical pfalmody, which is now in general ufe
among the reformed churches, and in the parochial ciiurches
of our own country. For this purpofe he made ufe of
Marot's verfion of the Pfalms, and employed a mulician to
let them to ealy tunes only of one part. In 1553, he di-
vided the Pfalms into paufcs or (mall portions, and ap-
pointed them to be fung in churches. Soon after they were
bound up with the Geneva catechilm, from which time the
Catholics, who had been accuftomed to fing them, were
forbid the ufe of them, under a fevere penalty. Soon after
the reformation commenced in England, complaints were
made by many of the dignified clergy, and otht-rs, of the
intricacy and difficulty of the church mufic of thofe times :
in confequence of which it was once propofed, that organs
and curious finging fliould be removed from our churches.

Latimer,

S E R

S E R

Latimer, in his diocefe of Worcefter, went ftill further,
and iffued injunAions to the prior and convent of St. Mary,
forbidding in their fervice all manner of finging. In the
reign of Edward VI. a commiffion \Tas granted to eight
bifhops, eight divines, eight civihans, and eight common
lawyers, to compile a body 'of fuch ecclefialUcal laws as
fliould in future be obferved throughout the realm. The
refult of this compilation was a work, firft pubhfhed by
Fox the Martyrologift, in 1571, and afterwards in 1640,
•under the title of " Reformatio Legum Ecclefiafticarum."
Thefe thirty-two commiflioners, inftead of reprobating
church mufic, merely condemned figurative and operofe
mufic, or that kind of finging which abounded with fugues,
refponfive paflages, and a commixture of various and intri-
cate proportions ; which, whether extemporary or written,
is by muficians termed defcant. However, notwithftanding
the objeftions againit choral mufic, and the praftice of
fome of the reformed churches, the compilers of the Eng-
lifh liturgy, in 154S, and the king himfelf, determined to
retain mufical fervice. Accordingly the ftatute 2 & 3
Edw. VI. cap, I. though it contains no formal obligation
■on the clergy, or others, to ufe or join in either vocal or in-
ftrumental mufic in the common prayer, does clearly recog-
nize the practice of finging ; and in lefs than two years
after the compiling of king Edward's liturgy, a formula
was compofed, which continues, with fcarcely any variation,
to be the rule for choral fervice even at this day. The au-
thor of this work was John Marbecke, or Marbeike ; and
it was printed by Richard Grafton, in 1550, under the title-
of the Book of Common Prayer, noted. Queen Mary la-
boured to re-eftablifh the Romifii choral fervice ; but the
accedion of Elizabeth was followed by the aft of uni-
formity ; in confequence of which, and of the queen's in-
junftions, the Book of Common Prayer, noted by Mar-
becke, was confidered as the general formula of choral fer-
vice. In 1560, another mufical fervice, with fome addi-
tions and improvements, was printed by John Day ; and in
1565, another coUeftion of Offices, with mufical notes.
Many objections were urged by Cartwright, and other Puri-
tans, againit the form and manner of cathedral fervice, to
which Hooker rephed, in his Ecclefiallical Polity. In
1664, the ilatutes of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, for uni-
formity in the common prayer, were repealed ; and the di-
reftory for public worihip, which allows only of the fing-
ing of pfalms, eftabhftied. But upon the reftoration of
Charles II. choral fervice was again revived, and has fince
uniformly continued. The Quakers objeft to finging as a
part of public worihip, and accordingly it is never praftifed
in their meetings. To this refpeftable body we here make
an apology for a jeu d'efprit of our learned coadjutor. Dr.
B., who compiled part of the article Liturgy, which
efcaped him, notwithftanding his well-known liberality and
candour, and which was undoubtedly unfeafonably intro-
duced, in an account of their public worfhip. Religious
feruples, though in fome refpefts unfounded and unwar-
rantable, when ferioufly avowed, are not fit fubjeAs of ridi-
cule. See on this fubjeft Hawkins's Hid. of Mufic, vol. i.
p. 404. vol. ii. p. 264. vol. iii. p. 58 — 468, &c. vol. iv.
p. 44 — 347. Burney's Hift. Muf. vol. ii. ch. i. paffim.

Services ef the Church. (See Cathedral Ser-vkes.)
Thefe have been collcfted, and fplendidly and accurately
publifhed in fcore, by doftors Green, Boyce, and Arnold.
Thefe valuable pubUcations appeared in the following order,
and are reputable monuments of the abilities of our old
mafters in the ecclefiaitical ftyle of compofition, equal, at
leaft, to contemporary produftions by the greateft contra-
p^ntifts CD the continent.

Cathedral Music ; being a coUeftion in fcore of the
molt valuable and ufeful compofitions for the fervice by the
feveral Englifh mafters of the lait 200 years, the whole fe-
lefted and carefully revifed by Dr. William Boyce, organift
and compofer to the royal chapels, and mailer of his ma-
jefty's band of muficians. Vol. i. 1760.

The fecond volume was publifhed in 176S, and tlie third
in 1773. Thefe were both dedicated to his majefty.

In 1780, Dr. Samuel Arnold, organift and compofer to
his majefty's royal chapels, publifhed, in the fame fplendid
manner, a firft volume, in continuation of this colleftion
of fervices and full and verfe anthems of old mafters ; and
in 1790 a fecond and third volume, all dedicated to the
king.

There is likewife, in the Britifh Mufeum, Bibl. Harl.
7337' Plut. VI. B. a colleftion of Englifti church mufic,
in fix vols. 4to. all tranfcribed for and dedicated to the right
hon. Edward lord Harley, by Dr. Thomas Tudway, mufic
profefTor of Cambridge. In thefe volumes, among fome
compofitions of no great merit, there are many valuable pro-
duftions by Tye, Tallis, Bird, Morley, Gibbons, Child,
Blow, Purcell and Crofts, that have never yet been pub-
bfhed.

Service, Cathedral. See Cathedral Service.

SERVicE-TVff, in Botany, a corruption of the Latin SoR-
Bus ; fee that article, as well as Pyrus and Mespilus.

SERVICE-7rfC, Wild. See CRATa;GUS.

SERVIENTES Virgatores. " See Vibgatores.

SERVIERE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lozere ; i 5 miles N. VV. of Mende.

SERVIERES, a town of France, in the department of
the Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Tulle; 13 miles S.E. of Tulle. The place contains 1115,
and the canton 8567 inhabitants, on a territory of 265 kilio-
metres, in 10 communes.

SERVILE, in Hebrew Grammar, the denomination of
a clafs of letters ufed in contradillinftion to radical. The
latter conftitute roots (which fee), and the former confti-
tute derivatives, or branches from thefe roots, and are em-
ployed in all the different flexions. Of all the twenty-two
letters of the alphabet, any of which may be radicals, there
are properly only eleven letters that can claim this title, be-
caufe they never can be ferviles. The ferviles are the other
eleven letters, by means of which the whole bufinefs of
flexion, derivation, numbers, genders, perfons, and tenfes, is
accomplifhed. But even thefe letters are fomewhat limited
in their fervile power. For only two of them, -oix. '\ and ♦
can be inferted or ingrafted between radical letters ; the
others mult be either prefixed or polt fixed to the root. The
eleven fervile letters are the following ; {i{, ^, J^, "), 1, 3, S,

SERVIN, Louis, m Biography, a celebrated lawyer in
France, who flourifhed at the fixteenth and beginning of
the feventeenth centuries, was defcended of a good family
in the Vendomois. He cultivated polite literature with fuc-
cefs while he was young, and at an early period became the
correfpondent of feveral eminent men of letters in different
parts of Europe. In 1589 he was appointed advocate-
general to the parhament of Paris, being then, according to
Vendome, " a young man of great learning, and much at-
tached to the interefts of his majefty Henry III." He dif-
tinguifhed himfelf in that ftation by his zealous fupport of
the liberties of the GaUican church, and his oppofition to
the pretenfions of the court of Rome. His printed plead-
ings were honoured with the cenfure of the Sorbonne, and
with a virulent attack by a Jefuit of Provence. The title
of his work was " Aftions notables et Plaidoyers," In

1590

S E R

S E R

»5<)0 he publirtied a work in favour of Henry IV., who
4iad fuccecded to the crown, entitled " Vindicix fecundum
iibertatcm Ecclefia: Galhcanx, et Defenfio Regii Status
Gallo-Franeonim fub Henri(?o IV. Rege." In 1598, *i"ing
joined in a commifTion for the reformation of the univerfity
■of Paris, he delivered " a remonllrance" on the fubjecl, which
■was printed. To liisn alfo is attributed a work in favour
of the republic O'f Venice in the affairs of the Intcrdift.
In the reign of Lewis XIII., at a bed of jultice holden in
1620, he made flroiig and animated remonflranccs in favour
of the right of parliament to regiiter royal edifts. On an-
other fimilar occafion, for the purpofe of compelling the
regillry of fome financial ediils, as he was firmly but re-
fpedtfully making frefli remonllrances to his majelty, he fud-
denly fell and expired at the king's feet, a memorable death,
and fuch, fays his biographer, as may in a meafure entitle
him to be enrolled among the martyrs to liberty. The pri-
vate charafter of this excellent magillrate was worthy his
high public reputation, and few men of his time Itood in
more general reputation.

SERVING, encirchng a rope with line or fpun-yarn,
&c. to preferve it from the wet getting to it ; alfo to pre-
vent its being chafed. Rigging, Plate ^-Jig- 48.
Serving the Rigging. See Mallet.
SEKVlSG-AItj/let, a cylindrical piece of wood with a
handle in the middle. It is ufed for fervi:ig rope, and has
a groove along the furface, oppofite to the handle, which
fits the convexity of the rope to be ferved. Rigging,
Plate I. Jig. 49, a fliort board with fcores in it, is ufed for
laying on Imall fervice.

SERVISTAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farfiftan ; 25 miles S.E. of Schiras.

SERVITES, an order of religious, fo denominated from
their vowing a peculiar attachment to the fervice of the
Virgin.

The order was founded by feven Florentine merchants,
who, about the year 1233, began to live in community
on mount Senar, two leagues from Florence. In 1239,
they received from the bifiiop the rule of St. Auguffine,
with a black habit, in lieu of a grey one, which they had
worn before. In 1251, Bonfiho Monaldi, one of the fuven,
from being fimple prior of mount Senar, was named
general.

This order was approved of by the council of Lateran,
and again by cardinal Raynerius, legate of pope In-
nocent IV., who put it under the protection of the holy
fee. The fuccccding popes have granted it a great many
favours. It is become famous in Italy, by the hillory of
the council of Trent, of F. Paolo, a Venetian, who was a
rehgious Servite. M. Hcrmant gives this order the name
of the Annunciate, doubtlefs from this millake, that in
fome cities of Italy they are called religious of the Annunciate,
becaufe in thofc cities their ciuirch is dedicated under that
name. F. Archang. Giani derives the name Servitcs, fer-
vants of the holy Virgin, from hence ; that when they ap-
peared for ttte firll time in tlie black iiabit given them by
the bifhop, the fuckling children, as they fay, cried out.
Behold the fervanls of the Virgin. There arc alfo nuns of
this order.

SERVITIA, Per Qu^. See Pi:n Qv.v..
SERVlTllS Aequictanilis, a writ judicial that lies for a
man dillrained for fervices to one, when he owes and per-
forms them to anotiier, for the acquittal of fuch fervices.
Skuvitiis ConfuetuJinibus. See CoNSUETt'DINlBUS.
SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a feholar or
ftudent, who attends and waits on another for his main-
tenance there.

Servitors of Sills, denote fuch fervants or mefTcngeCI
of the marflial of the king's bench, as were fent abroad
with bills or writs, to fummon men to that court. They
are now commonly called tip-Jlaves.

SERVITUDE, the condition of a fervant, or rather
flave. Under the declenfion of the Roman empire, a new
kii'.d of fervitude was introduced, diff^erent from that of the
ancient Romans : it confiHed in leaving the lands of fub-
jugated nations to the firit owners, upon condition of certain
rents, and fervile offices, to be paid in acknowledgment.
Hence the names o( fervi cenjiti, afcriptitii, and addiBi glebe ;
fome of whicli were taxable at the reafonable difcretion of
the lord ; others at a certain rate agreed on ; and others
were maiiimortable, who, having no legitimate children,
could not make a will to above the value of five-pence, the
lord being heir of all the reft ; .ind others were prohibited
marrying, or going to live out of the lordfhip. Moft of
which fervices iUU fubfift in one province or other of
France ; though they are all abolidied in England. Such,
however, was the original of our tenures, &c. See Slave.
SERVIUS, Maurus-Honouatus, in Biography, a
grammarian and critic, who flourilhed in the reigns of
Arcadius and Honorius, is principally known by his Com-
mentaries on Virgil, which, however, are confidered rather
as a coUeftion of ancient remarks and criticifms on that
poet than as made by himfelf. They contain n\any valuable
notices of the geography and arts of antiquity. The Com-
mentaries of Servius were firft printed feparately at Venice
in 1471, and have frequently been reprinted fince. In
1532 tiiey were annexed to Stephens's Virgil, but they are
mod correftly given in Burman's edition in 1756. A traft
on profody by this author, entitled " Centimetrum," is
printed in the coUeftions of the ancient grammarians. Ser-
vius is mentioned with refpeft and honour by Macrobius,
who makes him one of the fpeakers in his Saturnalia.
Gen. Biog.

Servius, Sulpicius Rufus, an eminent Roman jurift
and Itatefman, was defcended from the illuftrious patrician
family of Sulpicii. He was contemporary with Cicero,
and born probably about a century before the birth of
Chrift. He cultivated polite literature from a very early
period, efpecially philofophy and poetry, and wrote fome
pieces in tiie latter clafs, which were marked with the licen-
tioufnefs of the time. He bore arms in the Marfic war ;
but finding himfelf better pleafed with the arts of peace, he
appeared a pleader at the bar in the 25th year of his age.
The profefiions of advocate and lawyer were then fo dillinft,
that the former were accullomed to confult jurifts upon all
difficult points. Servius having once applied for that pur-
pofe to Quint us Mucins, a very eminent lawyer, the latter
perceiving that Servius did not comprehend his explanations,
alked him if it were not a fliame that he, a patrician and
pleader, fliould be ignorant of the law upon which he was
frequently called to fpeak. Tins reproof is faid to have
had fuch an eff"cft upon liim, that Servius quitted the bar,
and gave all his attention to legal ftudics ; and fuch was
his fuccefs, that Cicero faid of him, " If all, in every age,
who in this city have acquired a knowledge of the law, were
brouglit tBgether, they would not be to be compared with
Servius Sulpicius ;" and he fartlier adds, that " he was
not lefs the oracle of julHce than of the law : he always
referred to principles of equity and obvious interpretation
what he deduced from tlie civil code, and was lefs defirous
of finding grounds for anions than of fettling difputes."
There was a great intimacy formed between thefe two
perfonages, and there arc feveral letters extant from Cicero
to Sulpitius, and two from Sulpituis to Cicero, of which

one

S E R

one is a well-known confolatory epiftle on the death of
Tullia.

Servius pafled through the ufual gradations of honour
among Romans of rank. He was firft quaellor, then edile
and prxtor. When the troubles of the repubhc were im-
pending, he was created interrex, in which quality he nomi-
Nated Pompey fole conful. He was himfelf conful with
Marcellus, in the year 51 B. C, and oppofed the motion
of his colleague to remove Cxfar from his command, left it
Ihould immediately bring on a civil war. After the battle
of Pharfalia he declared for Caefar, and was appointed
governor of Achaia. When that chief was taken off he
returned to Rome, and afted with the party who aimed at
the reftoration of public liberty. During the fiege of
Modena by Mark Antony, he was urged by the fenate to
undertake a legation to him, which, after pleading his age
and infirmities, he accepted : but he forefr.w it would be
fatal to him, and he died in Antony's camp in the year
43 B. C. Cicero's ninth Philippic is entirely employed in
pleading for a brafs ftatue to the memory of this excellent
man, as for one who had loll his life in the fervice of the
republic, which was voted by the fenate, Servius was
author of a great number of volumes on legal topics, none
of which have been preferved ; but quotations from fome
of them are extant in A. Gellius.

Servius ToLLius, the fixth king of Rome, was the fon
of Ocrifia, a native of Corniculum, who was made a captive
when the Romans took that place. Tarquin the Elder
prefented Ocrifia to his queen Tanaquil, and having a fon
born while flie was in a Itate of fervitude, he was named
Servius. It is not at all known who the father of this
king was, and it was probably not till after his elevation to
the regal dignity that he was reprefented as having been a
perfon of rank who was killed in the defence of his country.
Young Servius was brought up in the palace, and became
a great favourite of the king and queen. He diftinguifhed
himfelf both in a civil and military capacity ; was raifed
to the patrician order ; had an important command in the
army given him ; and was at length united in marriage to
Tarquinia, the king's daughter. On the aflaffination of
Tarquin, Servius took poffeffion of the throne, which event
is dated in the year 577 B. C. As the fons of Ancus Mar-
tins, who were the authors of the confpiracy againft Tar-
quin, had a ftrong party among the patricians, Servius pur-
fued the policy of attaching the people to his intereft, by
paying off their debts, and making feveral regulations in
their favour ; and having added to his reputation by a defeat
of the revolted Etrufcans, he ttrengthened his title to the
crown by procuring a legal election from the curias. He
then applied himfelf to the improvement of the public
police, and feveral of the moft ufeful inftitutions of the
Roman ftate took their origin in his reign. Servius en-
larged the city by taking two more hills into its limits : he
added a fourth tribe to the three old ones : he divided the
whole Roman territory into tribes, with a pagus, or fortified
poil to each, and inltituted a cenfus, by which all the
Roman citizens were dillributed into fix clafles, according
to their property. He alfo gave to the freedmen the pri-
villages of citizens ; and finding the duties of the regal
office under the augmented population too numerous, he
committed to the fenate the determination t !' ordinary
caufes, referving to himfelf only the cognizable crimes
againft the ftate. Aware that he was ftill looked upon
by the nobles as an intruder on the throne, he endeavoured
to add confequence to his family by marrying his two
daughters to the grandfon of the late king. He now created
» clofer connexion between the Romans and their allies, the

S E R

Latins and Sabines, by the ereftion of a temple of Diana
at Rome, at their common expence, in which they were to
join in annual facrifices, and in the amicable declfion of all
difputes among them. Servius, in many refpedls, was for-
tunate as a man and a monarch ; but his greateft calamity
was in his youngeft daughter, who was continn.iUy urging
her huft)and Arunx to criminal attempts againi her father,
but he nobly rejefting her infamous folicitations, (he at-
tached herfelf to the other brother, lier filter's huftiand,
Tarquin, a prince of a charafter and difpofition very fimilar
to her own. They got rid of their partners by poifon,
and then, having formed an inceftuous union, they boldly
and openly declared Servius an ufurper, and Tarquin laid
claim to the throne before the fenate. The patricians
generally came over to his intereft ; but the great mafs of
the people were determined to fupport their king, who,
whatever might have been his defcent, had Ihewn himfelf
worthy of the crown which his infamous relations wilhed to
tear from his head. Tarquin, however, continued to in-
trigue with his party, and at length took the daring ftep
of afluming the royal robes and infignia, and feated himfelf
on the throne at the temple in which the fenate ad'embled.
He there pronounced a violent inveftive againft the perfon
and government of Servius, who arrived while he was fpeak-
ing, and approac' ed to pull down his fon-in-law from the
throne ; but Tarquin feized the venerable monarch by the
waift, and threw him down the fteps of the temple. He
rofe with difficulty, and was moving away by the help of
fome by-ftandcrs, when his unnatural daughter Tullia ar-
rived, who, having faluted her hufband as king, fuggefted
to him the ncceffity of difpatching her own father. Tar-
quin fc-nt perfons to perpetrate the foul deed, and Tullia
fealfd her cruelty and impiety by driving her chariot over
the dead body. Servins was murdered in his 74th year,
after a reign of forty-fonr years, during which he had done
enough to merit the title and charafter of one of the belt
kings of Rome.

SERUI.A, in Ornithology, the name of a web-footed fea-
bird, a kind of nurgus, very common about Venice, and
called by Mr. Ra) mergus cirratus fufais, the brown-crefted,
or lefler-toothed diver, and fuppofed to be the anas longi-
rojira, or long-beaked duck of Gefner. This is the red-
breafted merganfer of Pennant.

It is very nearly of the fize of the duck ; its head and
throat are of a fine changeable black and green ; on the firft
there is a long pendent creft of the fame colour ; the upper
part of the neck and of the breaft, and the whole belly,
white ; the lower part of the breaft ferruginous, fpotted
wnth black ; the upper part of the back black ; near the
fetting on of the wings fome white feathers, edged and tipt
with black ; the exterior fcapular black ; the interior white ;
lower part of the back, the coverts of the tail, and feathers
on the fides, under the wings, and over the thighs, grey,
marked with waving lines of black ; covers on the ridges of
the wings dullvy, fucceeded by a broad bar of white ; the
quill-feathers dufky, the tail is ftiort and brown, and the
legs orange-coloured ; the head and upper part of the neck
of the female are of a deep ruft colour ; the creft fhort, the
throat white, and diftinguifhed by fome other varieties of
colour from the mje. Thefe birds breed in the northern
parts of Great Britain. Pennant.
SERUM. See Blood.

Serl'M Alum'mofum, Alum-'vuhey, a form of medicine pre-
fcribed in the late London Pharmacopeia, made of a pint of
milk boiled to whey with a quarter of an ounce of alum.

'SERVONG, in Geography, a town on the N. coaft of
Sumatra. N. lat. j° 3'. W. long. 96^ 18'.

SERUSKUI,

S E S

S E S

SERUSKUI, a town of European Turkey, in Romania;
30 miles N. of Gallipoli.

SERWEEZ, a town of Ruffian Lithuania; 64 milei
E. of Wilna.

SERWEL, a province of the Cuttore country.

SERWOY, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by
Theodore de Bry, and others, to the animal called by us
the opojfum, and by the natives of Brafil the carigueya.

SERYA, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in Oude ;
32 mile? S.W. of Lucknow.

SESA, a town of Nubia, on the Nile ; 210 miles S.S.W.
of Syene.

SESAMION, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs a
preparation of the fcfamum, or oily grain. It was a cake
made of fefamum, honey, and oil.

SESAMOID, in Anatomy, a name given to fome fmall
bones of the thumb and great toe. See Extremities.

SESAMOIDES, in Botany, a name firft pubhfhed by
Clufius, as applied at Salamanca to two very different plants,
neither of them bearing any evident refemblance to Sefamum.
Thefe are Silene Otites and Refeda SefamoiHes ; fee Reseda
and SiLENE. Tournefort has founded on the lait-men-
tioned fpecies, along with R. canefcens TtnA purpurafcens, his
genus SefamoHes, Inft. 424. t. 238, whofe charafter de-
pends on the deep divifions of the ripe fruit, each of which
embraces a feed, and feems a diftindt capflile. But this is
only one inftancc, amongft others, of the proteus like nature
of the very peculiar genus of Refeda.

SESAMUM, an ancient Latin name, o-nTapiv in Greek,
for which fome vague derivations have been propofed, but
which appears, as profeflor Martyn obferves, to have been
taken from Sempfem, the Egyptian name of the fame plant,
or grain, the ufe of which, as food, has been, from the molt
remote antiquity, common in the Eaft. Thofe who have
read the Arabian tales, will not forget the magic power of

the word Sefame Linn. Gen. 323. Schreb. 422 ■ Willd.

Sp. PI. V. 3. 358. Mart. Mill. Did. V. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 4. 52. Juff. 138. Lamarck lUultr. t. 528.
Grertn. t. no. — Clafs and order, Didynamia Angio/permia.
Nat. Ord. Lurldx, L,\nn. Bignsnu, Jui^.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, ereft, ihort,
permanent, in five deep, equal, lanceolate fegments, of
which the upper one is ftorteit. Cor. of one petal, bell-
(haped ; tube roundifh, almoft as long as the calyx ; throat
inflated, fpreading, bell-diaped, very large, declining ; limb
in five fegments, four of v.'hich are fpreading, and nearly
equal, the fifth, which is the lowcrnioll, ovate, ftraight,
twice as long as the reft. Stam. Filaments four, originating
from the tube, fhorter than the corolla, tapering, afcending,
the two inncrmoll fhortelt ; anthers oblong, acute, ercft ;
there is an imperfeft filament befidcs. Pi/l. Gcrmen fu-
perior, ovate, hairy ; llyle thread-(hapcd, afcending, rather
longer than the ftamcns ; lligma lanceolate, deeply divided
into two parallel plates. Perk. Capfule oblong, obfcurely
quadrangular, comprelTcd, pointed, of two valves and four
cells. Seedt numerous, nearly ovate.

EfT. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla bell-
fhaped, five-cleft at the border ; the To well fegment largelt.
A rudiment of a fifth filament. Stigma lanceolate, divided.
Capfule of four cells.

Obf. Linnaeus remarks that the flower agrees with Digi-
talis, but the fruit is widely different.

\. ?i. orientate. Common Sefamum or Oily-grain. Linn.
Sp. PI. 883. Willd. n. I. Alt. n. I. (Sefamum feu
Sempfem ; Alpin. .£gypt. 98. t. 100. S. five Sliamiim ;
Ger. Em. 1232.) — Leaves ovate-oblong, undivided; the
lower ones fomewhat ferraled. — Native of the Eall Indies.
Voj.. XXXII.

A tender annual, occafionally raifed, for the fake of curi-
ofity, in the (loves of Europe. The oil of its feeds is
much ufcd in Egypt and the Eaft, being preferred to that
of the olive. The feeds themfelves are alfo a great article
of food. An external application of the herb, cither in
the form of a fomentation or cataplafm, is fuppofed to be
ufeful in cutaneous, and various other, diforders. The roDt
is fibrous. Stem ereft, near two feet high, branched,
round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, more or
lefs ovate, one and a half to three inches long, finely downy ;
paler beneath ; the upper ones entire ; the lower often
coarfely toothed, but not lobed or divided. Floiuers ax-
illary. If alked, white, about an inch long. Calyx and co-
rolla hairy. Capfule eieft, beaked, an inch long, tranf-
verfely furrowed, rough with minute clofe-preffed hairs.

2. S. luteum. Yellow- flowered Sefamum. Retz. Obf.
fafc. 6. 31. Willd. n. 2. — " Leaves lanceolate, on long
ilalks. Corolla externally hifpid." — Found by Koenig,
in groves at Nidrapur, in the Eaft Indies. "The flem is
upright, leafy, very little zig-zag. Leaves alternate, acute,
rough at the edges, as well as the ribs beneath, with very
fhort hairs. Flotvers axillary, folitary, each on a ftiort
ftalk, which proceeds from the bafe of the footllalk it-
felf. Calyx and capfule hifpid. Corolla deep yellow. Ret-
zius.

3. S. indicum. Indian Sefamum. Linn. Sp. PI. 884.
Willd. n. 3. Rumph. Amboin. v. j. 204. t. 76. f. I.
(S.alterum, fohis trifidis, orientale, femine obfcuro ; Pluk.
Phyt. t. 109. f. 4.) — Lower leaves ternate, or three-lobed,
ferrated ; upper undivided. Stem ereifl — Native of the
Eaft Indies, Mauritius, &c. Differs from the firft fpecies
principally in the divifion of its lower leaves. The Jloivert
are whitilh, compared by Rumphius to thofe of Henbane.
Both calyx and corolla are externally hairy, as in S. orientale.
There is a variety with black, and another with brown or
greyifti, feeds. Both are ufed in Amboyna, but the latter
is preferred.

4. S. laciniatum. Jagged Sefamum. Willd. n. 4. —
" AH the leaves deeply three-cleft, jagged. Stem prof-
trate, hifpid." — Gathered by Klein, in the Eaft Indies,
near Hydrabad. — The Jlem is branched, the extremities
of its branches only afcending. Leaves oppofite, on fhort
ftalks, rough on both fides ; whitilh beneath ; their feg-
ments blunt, deeply toothed. Flowers axillary, folitary, on
very ftiort ilalks. Capfule obtufe at each end, tipped with
the broad permanent ttylc. Willdenow.

Both this and the preceding may poffibly be mere va-
rieties of the firft fpecies. S- luteum appears to be
diftinft.

5. S. proflratum. Dwarf Hoary Sefamum. Retz.
Obf. fafc. 4.28. (Euphrafiae affinis pufilla planta, pcri-
carpio lignofo oblongo quadrate bivalvi ; Pluk. Amalth. 8y.
t. 373. f. 2.) — Leaves roundifli, toothed, hifpid; hoary
beneath. Stem proftrate, villous — Native of loofe fands
near Madras ; very rare clfewhere. Ktcnig, Rottlcr, Root
woody, tiiick and ilrong, evidently perennial. Stems
fevcral, woody at the bale, about a fpan long, much
branched, leafy, villmis, fpreading flat on the ground in
every diredlion. Leaves o\->-pciC\Xe, ftalked, fmall, from one
quarter to three quarters of an inch long, obtufe or abrupt,
coarfely toothed, often wedge-ftiaped at the bafe ; the upper
furface hairy ; lower white and cottony ; the upper ones,
beyond the flowers, often alternate. 7'7oiwr/ axillary, foli-
tary, ftalked, thrice as long as the leave-;, very handfomc.
Corolla externally dlaggy and hoary ; internally yellow,
beautifully ftaincd and dotted with blood-red. Capfule
ovate, quadrangular, hard, woody, hairy, fcarccly more than

U \\ half

S E S

S E S

half the length of tlie corolla. Seeds numerous, oblong,
angular, black.

Liniixus has erroneoufly referred the above fynonym of
Plukenet to his Torenia afiatica, a very different plant.
Hence Willdenow was led to omit the prefent fpecies of
Sefamum, as very uncertain. S. jaiiamcum, Burm. Ind. 133.
Retz. Obf. fafc. 4. 28, is Columiiea longifolia, Linn. Mant.
90. Ach'imenes fejamoides, Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 71. Willd.

Sp. PI. V. 3. 357. . , r

Sesamum is alfo a name given by fome authors to the
myagrum, or gold of pleafure.

SESBAN, a barbarous and inadmiffible generic name,
even when altered by Mr. Purfh into Sejbania, in his Flora
of North America, v. 2. 460, 485. Tins name is given by
Poiret in Lamarck's Diftionary, v. 7. 126, to a genus fe-
lefted by him out of jEschyxomexe, fee that article ; and
confiding of the Linnaean JE.grandlflora, cocdnea, and Scfbaii,
with feveral others more recently difcovered. Thefe plants
are moftlv referred by Willdenow to CoronlUa, with which
they do not ill accord. They certainly cannot remain with
the original fpecies of Mfchynomaw, which fcarcely differ
from Smitiiia, fee that article.

SESEL, Poiret in Lam. Dift. v. 7. 130, the Amboyna
name of a tree, which, according to Rumphius, afl'um ;i a
very different appearance on the coaft to what is ufual in the
adjacent plains ; the leaves, always Itrongly three-ribbed and
entire, lanceolate in the latter fituation, being roundilh-cvate,
and much (hortened, in the former. He fpeaks of this plant
as allied to Metrofdcros, the wood being fo hard as to fpoil
the tools ufcd in cutting it down. Nothing is known of the
fruAification, except that the Jlo'!uers form fmall whitilh
heads, fublequently brown, and the fruit feems a globofe
yellow berry, or drupa. See Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 64.

t-36. 37-

SESELI, an old Latin name for fome plants of the um-
belliferous family, which may pofTibly be included in the
prefent genus. It is o-stAi alfo in Greek ; but no perfon
has been able to give a plaufible Greek etymology of the
word, which Ray judges to be barbarous, like fome other
names ending in 1. De Theis accordingly, on the authority
of James Golius, deduces it from an Arabic word which he
writes Seycelyous. — Linn. Gen. 143. Schreb. 193. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 1458. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 2. 154. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gra:c. Sibth. v. i. 199.
Purfh v.. I. 197. Jull'. 220. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 202. —
Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbelli-
fera.

Gen. Ch. General Umbel rigid; partial very fliort, of
many rays, globofe. General /nvolucrum of very few leaves,
or none ; partial of feveral pointed leaves, about the length
of the partial umbel. Perianth fcarcely difcernible. Cor.
Univer/al uniform ; florets all fertile ; partial nearly flat, of
five petals, whofe inflexed points render them heart-fliaped.
Stam. Filaments five, awl-ihaped ; anthers fimple. Pifl.
Gcrmen inferior ; llyles two, diftant ; ftigmas obtufe.
Peric. Fruit ovate, fmall, ilriated, feparable into two parts.
Seeds two, ovate, convex and ilriated at the outer fide, flat
on the inner.

Eff. Ch. Umbels globofe, rather rigid. Flowers regular,
all fertile. General involucrum of one or two leaves ; par-
tial of feveral. Fruit ovate, ilriated.

Obf. S. Hippomarathrum offers a remarkable exception to
the above generic charafter, having a partial involucrum of
one leaf, orbicular and toothed, like the wheel of a clock.
That of .S. gummiferum is nearly fimilar.

I. S. Jilifolium. Thread-leaved Meadow-faxifrage.
Thunb. Prodr. 51. Willd. n. 1. — Leaves linear-thread-

fhaped. Stem zigzag, creft. Perianth awl-fhapcd. —
Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope, from which we have
an authentic fpecimen. The Jlem is a foot high, flightly
branched, round, furrowed, fmooth. Leaves two or three,
one of which only remains perfe£l, an inch long, undivided,
very narrow, acute, ribbed, fmooth, fomewhat channelled.
Umbel terminal, of four rigid Ilriated rays, with a general
involucrum of as many unequal, lanceolate, ribbed, fmooth
leaves, the longell but half the length of the rays. Partial
umbels level-topped rather than globole, of ten or more fhort
flout angular rays, and feveral lanceolzle partial involucral
leaves, of the fame length. The half-ripe_//-u:/ is oblong,
about as long as the flalks which fupport it, furrowed,
crowned with a very evident calyx, of five awl-fhaped, fharp,
permanent, fomewhat fpinous, teeth, finally recurved at the
points. AVe have been the more particular in our defcrip-
tion, as there is no figure of this plant extant, and few
botanills would recognize it for a Sefeli.

2. S. pimpinelluides. Nudding Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. PI. 372. Willd. n. 2. — Stem declining, and umbels
drooping, before flowering. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets doubly
pi:;natifid, with alternate, flat, linear, decurrent fegments. —
Native of the fouth of Europe. Cultivated by Linnx-us at
Upfal. Perennial. Stem a foot high, flightly leafy, round,
finely flriated, fmooth, decumbent at firlt, but firmly ereCi as
the Jloiuers come to perfetlion, and bearing about three
rather large vmbels, which in a young Hate droop, like thofe
of Pimpinella Saxifraga. Radical leaves llalked, a fpan
long, fmooth, of a light glaucous green ; their fegments
fpreading, acute, entire, veiny, very uniform. Floiuers
white. Partial involucrum of one or two, almoll capillary,
leaves. Seeds a quarter of an inch long, nearly oval, with
five elevated ribs, three of which are central, two marginal,
and dark intermediate furrows.

3. S. montanum. Mountain Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. PI. 372. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. I. (S. multicaule ;
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 59. t. 129. Carvifolia ; Vaill.
Paris, t. 5. f. 2.) — Footflalks under the branches oblong,
entire, with a membranous edge. Stem-leaves with linear

very narrow fegments. Seeds downy Native of hillocks

in Italy and France. Cultivated at Oxford in the middle of
the 17th century. A hardy plant, flowering in fummer.
Root perennial, tapering, crowned with the fibres of decayed
footflalks. Stems ereCl, from one to three feet high, round,
ftriated, fmooth, branched, leafy. Leaves doubly pinnate,
three-cleft ; the fegments of the upper ones longell, nar-
roweil, and moil glaucous ; X.\te\r footJlaHs fheathing, clofe,
ftriated, with more or lefs of a membranous border, entire
at the fummit. Umbels fmaller than in the preceding, ere£l,
white, of many rays, fometimes accompanied by a general
involucral leaf. Seeds obovate, one-fourth the length of the
former, ribbed, minutely downy.

4. S.Jlriatum. Furrowed Meadow-faxifrage. Thunb.
Prodr. 51. Willd. n. 4. — " Footflalks under the branches
with a membranous edge, emarginate. Stem ftriated.
Leaflets awl-fhaped, channelled." — Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. Thunberg.

5. S. glaucum. Glaucous Meadow-faxifrage. Unn. Sp.
PI. 372. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 2. Jacq. Auftr. t. 144.
— Footflalks under the branches oblong, entire, with a mem-
branous edge. Branches fpreading. Leaflets linear, chan-
nelled, fmooth, glaucous, longer than their footflalks. Seeds
ovate, downy. Umbels lax. — Native of France. To de-
fine the difference between this plant and S. montanum is very
difficult. The glaucum has longer leaflets, and the primary
divifions of its radical leaves feem to be always flalked, not
fitting clofe to the mid-rib. The branches are more divari-

cated.

SESELi.

cated, and umMs more lax. Seeds rather fliorter. In Jac-
quiii's figures thefe plants appear very different, but the
glaucum of moft authors is merely montanum. Jacquin does
not notice the hahy feeds.

6. S. arijlatum. Bearded-leaved Meadow-faxifrage. Ait.
n. 3. WiUd. n. 6. (Ligulticum lucidum ; Mill. Dift.
ed. 8. n. 4.) — " Footftalks under the branches lax, entire,
fomewhat membranous. Leaves repeatedly compound ;
leaflets lanceolate, briltle-pointed. Fruit ovate." — Native
of the Pyrenean mountains. Cultivated by Miller at Chelfea.
A hardy perennial, flowering in .June and July, yiito/i.
Miller fays the root is biennial. Leaves doubly pinnate ;
lobes very narrow, and finely divided. Stems Itrong, a foot
and half high, furnifhed with fhining winged leaves, and ter-
minated by pretty large umbels ot whitifli Jioiuers. A fpe-
cimen fent by Gouan for S. annuiim, which it certainly is
not, feems to be the plant under confideration. The feg-
mentg of its leaves have callous tips. The leaves of the
partial hivolucrum are ovate, with broad white membranous
edges, their points extending beyond the Jioiuers.

J. S.annunm. Caraway -leaved Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. PI. 373. Willd. n. 7. Jacq. Auftr. t. 55. (S. carvi-
folium ; Villars Dauph. v. 2. 586, from the author. S. co-
loratum ; Ehrh. Herb. n. 113. Beitr. v. 5. 179. Pimpi-
nella tenuifolia ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 83. f. i. Foeni-
culum fylvellre annuum, tragofelini odore, umbella alba ;
Vaill. Parif. 54. t. 9. f. 4.) — Footftalks of the upper leaves
lax, membranous, emarginate. Stem and branches ereft.
Leaves doubly pinnate, cut ; their primary divifions feflile.
Seeds fmooth. — Native of France, Germany, and Switzer-
land. Root tapering, woody, crowned with fibres of de-
cayed leaves, and having all the appearance of being peren-
nial. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, ereft, lliff, fome-
what zigzag, round, ftriated, leafy, often purplifh ; its
branches very little fpreading. Leaves ftalked, varying
greatly in the length of the leaflets a.id their divifions, green
rather than glaucous ; occafionally purplifh ; their fegments
linear-oblong, narrow, keeled. Umbels white or purplifh,
of many general as well as partial rays, all more or lefs
downy. Partial involucrum of many lanceolate membranous-
edged leaves, whofe taper points reach beyond the flowers.
Seeds elliptic-oblong, very convex, with three dorfal ribs,
deftitute of pubefcence in every part. We have this fpecies
from M. Du Cros as Haller's n. 762, to which it feems well
enough to anfwer, but if fo, Gouan miftakes Haller's plant.

8. S. chitrophyltoliles- Chervil Meadow-faxifrage. Thunb.
Prodr. Ji. Willd. n. 8. — "Footftalks under the branches
membranous, tumid, entire. Stem forked, paniclcd. Leaves
repeatedly compound, fmooth." — Gathered by Thunberg,
at the Cape of Good Hope.

9. S. j^mmmdes. Milfoil Meadow-faxifrage. Linn. Sp.
PI. 373. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 4. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
V. I. 20. t. 52. (Ammoides; Baiih. Pin. 159. Ammi ;
Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 120. A. M:Utliioli ; Dalech. Hift.
695.) — Leaflets of the radical leaves imbricated ; thofe
of the upper ones almolt capillary. Stem fpreading.
Rays of the umbel capillary, very unequal. Seeds
fmooth. — Native of Greece, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, and the
fouth of France. A fleiider annual plant, about a foot high,
iia Jlem generally branched from the very bottom. Lower
leaves on long flender ftalks, pinnate, their leaflets in many
narrow-lanceolate, channelled fcgment), lying over each
other ; upper ufually twice ternate, with much longer, and
very flender, undivided leaflets ; their footftalks fhort, flu-ath-
ing, furrowed, and membranous. Umbels terminal, very
delicate and lax, of about feven or eight extremely unequal
capillar)' rays ; the partial ones of more numerous, but like-

wife unequal, much fhorter, fpreading ray«. Li-volucral
leaves briftle-fhaped. Flowers white. Fruit minute, roundifh-
ovate, ftriated, fmooth.

10. S. tortuofum. Crooked Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. PI. 373. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 5. (S. maffilienfe,
foeniculi foho, quod Diofcoridis cenfetur ; Bauh. Pin. l6l.

Foeniculum tortuofum; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. p. 2. 16.)

Stem much branched, divaricated, rigid, furrowed and an-
gular. Leaves of the partial involucrum ovate, membranous
at the edges, fomewhat combined at the bafe. — Native of
the fouth of Europe. Root biennial, rather than perennial.
This fpecies is known by its remarkably rigid, repeatedly
branched, ftraggling ^I'm, bearing great numbers of rigid,
clumfy, fpreading umbels, each frequently accompanied by a
general involucrum of one leaf. The Jlem-leaves are com-
monly very fmall, with a large, broad, abrupt, membranous.
edged footjflali. Whether the leaflets of the radical leaves
vary greatly in length and breadth, or whether Linnjeushas,
under this, confounded feveral diftinft fpecies, we have not
fufiicient information to decide. The whole herbage i«
glaucous, of a thick rigid habit.

II. S. giimmiferum. Gummy Meadow-faxifrage. Sra.
Exot. Bot. v. 2. 121. t. 120. Ait.Epit. 374. — Stem fur-
rowed, rigid, leafy. Partial involucrum of many hnear
leaves, united by a broad bafe. Flowers almolt feflile.
Leaflets wcdge-fhaped. — Gathered by profeflor Pallas in the
Crimea. It was obferved by Mr. Lambert in the Oxford
garden, about the year 1803, and communicated by him to
his friends. The plant is biennial, hardy, flowering in
fummer and autumn. Stem three or four feet high, ereft,
branched, leafy, very ftout and rigid, furrowed, minutely
downy ; when wounded exuding a copious, yellow, fetid
refinous gum. Leaves a fpan long or more, triply pinnate,
glaucous, fomewhat downy ; their leaflets oblong or wedge-
fhaped, flat, decurrent, acute. Umbels terminal, ereft, finely
downy, flattifh, from three to fix inches broad, of very nu-
merous rays. General involucrum ufually of one fliort llrap-
fhaped leaf; but in the large primary umbel of feveral:
partial with a broad, fimple, di(k-like bafe, fringed with co-
pious, horizontal, linear, acute leaflets, nearly equal to the
Jlowers. Each partial umbel is flat when young, parti-
coloured with purple and white, but afterwards convex, con-
filting of innumerable almoft [n'Rde jlo'wers, powdered over,
as it were, with the white anthers. Petals red and white, in-
flexed, nearly regular. Cermen furrowed, fmooth. Fruit
elliptical. 'T\\t Jlo-uiers have a faint imcll, not unlike thofe
of the Barberry. In Haller's letters, v. 2. 318, is one from
Dillenius, dated Dec. 1746, in which he fpeaks of an um-
belliferous plant, fent under the name of Stfeli from Siberia,
which, being fown in the fpring, flowered, but perifhed on
the approach of winter, without producing feed. He con-
ceived it to be allied to the Hippomaralhrum of Rivinus, (fee
our next fpecies,) on account of tlie fimple-leaved partial in-
volucrum, cut into fix or eight teeth. The general umbel
had a flender ftrap-like leaf to each ray. The feeds refembled
thofe of Caraway, and were not winged. Might not this
be our S . gummiferum ^ If io, Dillenius ought to be re-
corded as Its original introducer.

12. S. Hippomaralhrum. Cupped Meadow-faxifrage.
Linn. Sp. PI. 374. Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 6. Jacq.
Auftr. t. 143. (Hipponiarathriim ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr,
t. 67. Saxifraga pannonica ; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 196. Gcr.
Em. 1047.) — Stem nearly leaflefs. Partial involucrum of
one cup-lhaped many-toothed leaf. — Native of ftony ground
in Auftria, Carniola, Hungary, &c. flowering in July and
Auguft. The root is woody and perennial, crowned with
the fcaly or fibrous remains of old footflalks. Stems a foot
U u 2 high,

SESELI.

high, nearly upright, rigid, round, fmooth, rufhy, fomewhat
branched above, bearing feveral oblong, (heathing, mem-
branous-edged feotjlalh, with only very (hort or abortive
leaves. The proper leaves are radical, pretty numerous,
ilalked, two or three inches long, doubly pinnate and cut,
linear, glaucous and fmooth like the reft of the herbage.
Umbels terminal, folitary, fmall and clofe, rigid, minutely
downy, with feveral principal rays, and fometimes a fheath-
like leaf at the bafe ; the partial ones of many white, nearly
kWte,foivers, chiefly remarkable for the fimple, cup-like,
partial involucrum, whofe membranous downy edge is va-
rioufly jagged and toothed. Dillenius rightly obferves, in
the letter te Haller, quoted under our laft fpecies, that this
Angular part is not fhcwn in the figure of Clufius and Ge-
rarde. It indicates an affinity to our gummtferum, which
obliges us to place thefe two fpecies together, next to tortuo-
fum, with which they accord greatly as to habit.

13. S. Turlith. Turbith Meadow-faxifragc. Linn. Sp.
PI. 374. Amoen. Acad. v. 4. 310. Willd. n. 1 1. (S. qux
ferulae facie, Thapfia, five Turbith, gallorum ; Bauh. Hift.
V. 3 p. 2. 45. Boerh. Lugd. Bat. v. 1. 50. Thapfia
Diofc; Lob. Ic. 779. T. tenuifolia ; Ger. Em. 1030.)

Leaves repeatedly three-cleft, divaricated, awl-(haped.

General involucrum of one or two awl-fhaped leave« ;
partial of many fhort, pointed, membranous ones. Seeds
villous, the length of the permanent ityles. — Native of Spain,
and the fouth of France. The root is perennial, thick, dif-
charging a milky juice, which, according to John Bauhin,
to whom it was pointed out by his preceptor Rondelet, pof-
feffes a valuable purgative quality. Stem ereft, branched,
round, fmooth, not fo clumfy as in Bauhin's figure. Leaves
chiefly oppoiite, with broad (heathing /oo//?a/ij, fpreading,
repeatedly fubdivided into divaricated, (lender, awl-fhaped
fegments, crofling each other, and much refembhng fennel.
Umbels terminal, large, of many (lender, downy, fpreading,
general as well as partial, rays. General involucrum of very
few and (hort, tapering, fcarcely membranous-edged leaves ;
thofe of the partial ones more membranous, lanceolate,
fringed, half the length of the flower-ltalks, quite dillinfl at
their bafe. Petals white. Fruit ovate, covered w-ith fine
hoary denfe briflly hairs, and crowned with the long fpread-
ing Jlyles, very tumid at their bafe. Stigmas obtufe, but
hardly capitate.

14. S. pyrenxum. Pyrenean Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. PI. 374. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 7. (Selinum pyre-
naeum ; Gouan Illuftr. 11. t. 5. Carvi alpinum ; Bauh.
Prodr. 84. Lachenal Aft. Helvet. v. 7. 332. t. 12.) —
Leaves doubly pinnate, with many linear, acute, decurrent.
Hat fegments. Partial involucrum fetaceous, equal to the
flowers. Seeds fmooth, nearly orbicular, with three clofe
central ribs. — Native of the Pyrenees. Miller appears to
have cultivated it in 1731. The root is perennial, the fize
of the finger. Stem a foot high, ereft, furrowed, fmooth,
fcarcely branched, mod leafy at the lower part. Fooljlalks
long, dilated and (heathing at the bafe. Leaves three or
four inches in length, light green, fmooth, their leaflets
tiniform, with linear, alternate, pointed, decurrent, veiny
fegments. Umbels of fix or eight unequal rays, without any
general involucrum ; the partial ones convex, denfe, many-
flowered, with It partial involucrum oi mmj fmooth, flender
leaver, almoft capillary, dillinft at the bottom. Petals yel-
lowi(h, with a purple tinge externally. Seeds with a broad,
flat, even margin, their centre marked with three clofe pro-
minent ribs.

15. S. faxifrngmn. Slender Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. PI. 374. Willd. n. 14. (Pimpinella faxifragia tenui-
folia ; Bauh. Prodr. 84.) — "Stem thread-fliaped, divari-

cated. Leaves doubly ternate, hnear. Umbels of about
fix rays." — Plentiful about the lake of Geneva, according to
C. Bauhin, who defcribes it with an oblong root. Stem a'
foot high, green, fmooth, Itriated, bent, divided from the
bafe, and fubdivided into flender branches. Leaves in flender,
afterwards almoft capillary, fegments. Flowers few, minute,
whiti(h, in a fmall umbel. It is not poflible to determine
any thing from this defcription, nor have we feen an authentic
fpecimen. Linnjeus faw this fpecies in Burfer's herbarium
only. His account agrees with the above, only adding that
the partial involucral leaves are brirtle-(haped.

1 6. S. elatum. Tall Meadow-faxifrage. Linn. Sp. PI.
375. Mant. 357. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 8. Gouan Il-
luftr. 16. t. 8. — Stem much branched, round, rigid, very
fmooth. Leaves twice fruate, with linear, flelhy, diftant
leaflets. Fruit fmooth, ovate, with diftant obtufe ribs.
Partial involucrum awl-lhaped, fhorter than the flowers. —
Native of Italy and the fouth of France. Specimens are in
the Linnsan coUcftion from Arduins and Gouan, as well as
the garden plant alluded to in the letter of Linnxus, cited by
Gouan. Thele, as well as Gouan's figure, prove the prefent
fpecies to vary greatly in luxuriance. The Jlem is from
eighteen inches to five feet high, much branched from top to
bottom, very fmooth, pale at the joints, leafy, the upper
part greatly divaricated. Loiuer leaves iwnce Itrazte ; upper
quite fimple ; all hnear, very narrow, flelhy, fmooth ; each
leaf, or leaflet, from one to two inches long. Footjlalks
linear, channelled, flieathing, clofe, with an evident, though
narrow, membranous edge. Umbels numerous, terminal, of
from two or three to ten rays, fmooth, without an invo-
lucrum ; partial ones of many fliortiili unequal rays, their
involucral leaves flender, but membranous, rarely equal to the
flowers. Petals white. Seeds ovate, gibbous, fmooth, by
no means tuberculated, though Gouan defcribes them
dotted ; each is marked with three flightly prominent ribs,
but not bordered. The fynonym of Magnol, quoted in Sp.
PI. was afterwards referred by Linnaeus to his Pimpinella
glauca.

17. S. triternalum. Yellow Meadow-faxifrage. Purfli
v. I. 197 "Leaves triply ternate; leaflets linear, elon-
gated. Umbels hemifpherical. Partial involucrum of many
linear leaves, as long as the flowers." — About the waters of
Columbia river, where it was found by governor Lewis,
flowering in April and May. The ipmdle-lhaped perennial
root is one of the grateful vegetables of the Indians, who ufe
it baked or roafted. Floiuers deep yellow. Purjh.

18. &. junceum. Ru(hy Meadow-faxifrage. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grasc. Sibth. n. 698. — Stem much branched, divari-
cated. Footftalks of the ftem-leaves very ftiort, and fpread-
ing. Umbels folitary, fimple, of few flowers. — Found in
the Greek herbarium coUefted by Dr. Sibthorp, but with-
out any name, or mention of the place where it was gathered.
The root appears to be perennial. Herb a fpan high, rigid,
fmooth, rather glaucous. Radical leaves twice ternate, with
keeled three-pointed leaflets ; thofe of the ftem very fmall,
and as if abortive. Umbels fmall, white.

19. S. ctfpitufum. Tufted Meadow-faxifrage. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Grafc. Sibth. n. 699. — Stem fimple, nearly
naked. Radical leaves tufted, fiat, pinnate, cut ; the ter-
minal leaflet three-cleft, decurrent. — Gathered by Dr. Sib-
thorp, and his companion Borone, on the fummit of the Bi-
thynian Olympus. The root is thick, perennial, dividing at
the crown into many heads. Stems from four to eight inches
high, fimple, fcarcely ever divided, ereft, ftraight. If i(f and
fmooth, bearing a folitary leaf only. Radical leaves iorrmn^
a denfe tuft, fmooth, rigid, of various fizes. The footjlalk
of the ftem-leaf has a membranous edge. General umbel

1 1 of

S E S

S E S

of about five rays. Fruit cylindrical, oblcurely llriated,
fmooth.

SESELi-i'ff'f/, in the Materia Medica, the name of the feed
of a plant, called alfo by fome libanotis, and growing three
or four feet high, with leaves like fennel, but of a paler
green. It is a native of warm climates. The feed ought to
be chofen moderately large, of a longilh fhape, heavy, clean,
and of a greenifh colour, fre(h, and of a grateful fraell. It
affords, by diftillation, a very large quantity of an effential
oil, and is hot and dry. It incides, opens, and difcufles,
and is cephalic, neurotic, peftoral, and nephritic. It is
goodagainit epilepfies, apoplexies, vertigos, and all diforders
of the head and nerves. Lemery's Diift. of Drugs.

The fteds of the Jefe/i Creticum, or hart-wort of Crete, are
diuretic, uterine, and good in all difoi-ders of the bread and
lungs. They are given in fuppreflions of urine, and of the
menfes, and in all kinds of flatulencies ; and are, among the
German phyficians, a common ingredient in medicines, in-
tended to promote expeftoration.

The feed of the French hart-wort, or fefeli MaJJilienfe, has
been elteemed of great virtue in difeafes of the head and
nerves, in convulfions and epilepfies, and in weaknefs of
the fight. It is alfo given in eleftuaries, intended againlt all
diforders of the brealt and lungs, in coughs^ catarrhs, and
afthmas, and in obft ructions of the liver. Some have recom-
mended it fingly, as a medicine of great efficacy againft
obftruftions of the menfes ; and Schroder tells us, that
it has the credit of being an antidote to the poifon of hem-
lock.

The common hart-wort is pofTeffed of the fame fort of
virtues with the other two, but its feed is more warm and
acrid than that of either of them. It is efteemed a very
efficacious remedy in obllruftions of the menfes, and in all
diforders arifing from indigeition, crudities, and flatulencies.
See Sermountaik.

Seseli Pratenfe. See Saxifrage.
SESEME-QUIAN, in Geography, a river of the N.W.
territory, in the United States of America, which runs
into the Illinois.

SESEN, or Sesem, . a town of the principality of
Wolfenbuttle ; 1 2 miles S. W. of Gofslar.

SESERINUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ronde-
letius, and fome other authors, to a broad and fhort fea-fi(h,
feeming the fame with the lampuga of Italian fifhermen ; and
defcribed by authors in general, and by this very author in
another place, under the name oijlromateus.

SESHA, in Hindoo Mythology. Images of Naga, or
Sefha, HI brafs, are faid to be invoked in cafes of ill-health,
with appropriate ceremonies, and according to the author of
the Hindoo Pantheon, they are very common in India, wliere
the idea of the medicinal virtues of fnakes appears to be of
very old date. A Hindoo, attacked by a fever, or other
difeafe, makes an image of Naga in brafs, clay, or wax, and
performs appropriate cerenionies in furtlierance of his re-
covery. Such ceremonies are particularly efficacious when
the moon is in the naklhatra, or allerifm, called Sarpa, or
the ferpent. We have obferved that the fnake, in all
mythological language, is an emblem of immortality ;
its cndlefs figun;, when its tail is infcrted in its mouth,
an adrological mylticifm common to Afia and Europe ;
and the annual renewal of its fltin and vigour afford
fymbols of continued youth, of duration, and eternity ; and
its fuppofcd medicinal virtues, or life-prcferving qualities,
may alfo have contributed to tlie fabled honours of the fer-
pent tribe. In the mythological machinery of India, Egypt,
and Greece, thefe coincidences are numerous. Some
learned writers attribute this univerfality of ferpcnt-forms to

the early and all-pervading prevalence of fin, its firft fliape
on earth. For fome notice of fabulous relations connefted
herewith, fee Kusa and Sui-erna. With the Hindoos,
ferpents are not always of ill omen. A day in the
Indian kalendar, called " nagapanchami, is facred to the
demi-gods in the form of ferpents, who arc enumerated in
the Padma and Garuda Puranas." Cities, towns, moun-
tains, rivers, men, women, &c. are commonly, among the
Hindoos, named after mythological perfonages. Nagpour,
the capital of the rajah of Berar, properly Nagapuri, is after
one of the common names of Sefha, as is alfo a town in My-
fore, Naugmungalam, properly Naga-mangala. Sec Man-
gala.

One of the fables mofl; commonly alluded to in Hindoo
writings, is Vifhnu repofing on Sefha, and it is a favourite
fubjedt with painters. In a beautiful ode, by fir W. Jones,
addrefi'ed to Lakfhmi, the Magna mater of her feftaries,
(fee Lakshmi,) her union with Vifhnu is introduced. On
this occafion the bride rofe from the churned fea, hke our
Venus, and choofing Vifhnu for her hufband, the fubjeft of
this article formed a nuptial couch for her reception : thus
poetically deicribed.

Love bade the bridegroom rife : —

Straight o'er the deep, then dimpling fmooth, he rufli'd,
And towr'd th'unmeafur'd fnake — llupendous bed! —
The world's great mother, not reludlant, led :
All nature glow'd whene'er fhe fmiled or blufh'd :

The kingof ferpents hufh'd
His thoufand heads, where diamond mirrors blaz'd,
That multiplied her image as he gaz'd."

The operation of churning the ocean, alluded to above, is
defcribed under the article Kurmavatara of this work,
and a poetical allufion to the reflefting gems or mirrors on
the heads of Sefha, will be found under Shitakoontha.
See alfo Lotos.

SESHNAGA, a name of a mighty mythological fer-
pent among the Hindoos, otherwife called Sejha ; which
fee.

SESHTI-MATRIYA, a name of Kartikya, the my-
thological commander of the celeftial armies of Hindoo
fable. The name means having_/7.i' mothers. Shan-matriya
has the fame meaning, and is another of his names, and Shan-
matura. Shanmuka is another, and means with fix faces or
mouths. For the origin of *hefe appellations, and for fome
particulars of the iiero fo diftinguifhcd, fee Kartikva, and
Skanda, another of his names.

SESIA, in Geography, a river of Italy, wliich rifcs in
the Alps, on the borders of the Valais, and runs into the
Po, a little below Cafal.

Sesia, one of the (x)^ departments of France, into which
Piedmont was divided, wIku it was united to the French re-
public, Aug. 26, 1802 ; it is compnfed of Verceil and Maf-
fcrans, in N. lat. 45° 25', E. of Doire ; and contains 140
fquare leagues, and 204,445 inhabitants ; it was divided
into three circles, tj;«. Vcrccil, comprehending 79,301 in-
habitants ; Santhia, with 36,014 ; and Bielle, having 89,040
inhabitants. The climate of this department is unhealthy ;
the eminences and hills are favourable for the culture of the
vine ; and the cultivated plains yield abundance of grains,
fruits, and palluies.

SESIAL, a town on the N.W. coall of Timor. S. lat.
8' 54'. E. long. 125" 26'.

SESKAR, a fmall ifland in the N. part of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 6j° 38'. E. long. 23" 39'.— AHo, a
fmall ifland in the gulf of Finland. N. lat. 59° 57'- E.
long. 28° 14'.

SESLERIA,

S E S

S E S

SESLERIA, in Botany, received that appellation from
Scopoli, who in the firft edition of his excellent Flora Car-
niohca, fays, he could never forget the delightful garden, fo
rich in fcarce plants, wliich he often ufed to vifit, while at
Venice, in the year 1745. It was formed in the idand of
St. Helen, by Dr. Leonard Sefler, whcie great diligence in
obferving and cultivating plants jullly f ititled him, in Sco-
poli's opinion, to this botanical commc noration. A letter
of his, defcribing a fuppoied new gen': . under the name of
Vitaliana, is fubjoined to Donali's St -u Naturale del Adri-
at'ico, but Linnsus reduced the plar.t to Primula. — Scop.
Carn. ed. i. 1S9. Sm. Fl. Brit. 93. Prodr. Fl. Grasc.
Sibth. V. I. 52. Ait. Hon. Kew. v. i. 13-3. Juil. 31.
Lamarck Did. v. 7. 138. Ulu.h. t. 47. — Clafs and
order, Triandria Digynia. Nat. O- i Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume of two, nerrly equal, ovato-lan-
ceolate, concave, pointed valves, ccitaining about three
flowers. Cor. of two unequal, erecl parallel, acute, valves ;
the inner folded, two-ribbed, clo -or ; outer rather the
longelt, entire or three-cleft. Slam. Filiments three, capil-
lary, longer than the fluwer ; anthers i^endulous, oblong,
cloven at each end. Pi/l- Germen fuperior, ovate ; ityles
two, various in length, capillary, more or lefs combined ;
ftigmas oblong, cylindrical, feathery. Perk, none, except
the corolla, which embraces the leed, but is not attached to
it. Seed fohtary, ovate, fraooth.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, containing about three
florets. Corolla of two valves ; the inner cloven ; the outer
varioufly pointed. Styles united at their bafe.

1. S. carulea. Blue Moor-grafs. Scop. Carn. ed. 2.
V. 1.63. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 1613. Knapp
Gram. t. 43. Ait. n. i. Arduin. Spec. 2. 18. t. 6.
f. 3 — 5. Poiret in Lam. Did. n. i. Hoft Gram. Auftr.
V. 2. 69. t. 98. (Cynofuruscxruleus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 106.
WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 1.414. Ehrh. Calam. 14. Mart. Ruft.
t. 20. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. I. t. 21. Gramen glumis variis ;
Bauh. Pin. 10. Prodr. 21. Theatr. 158. Scheuchz.
Agr. 83. t. II. f. 9. A, B.) — Spike ovate-oblong, im-
bricated. Brafteas alternate. Outer petals with three
teeth. — Native of mountainous paftures, or calcareous rocks,
in various parts of Europe, flowering in the early part of
fummer. It occurs in Weltmoreland and Scotland, but not
frequently. The root is perennial, tufted, deeply defcending,
witFi long firm fibres. Stems a fpan or more in height,
iimple, round, without joints, fmooth, naked, except at the
bafe. Leaves linear, obtufe, recurved, broadifh, keeled,
rough-edged ; each with a fhort, tubular, comprefl^cdySfa/A,
and a very miuWie Jlipula . Spike terminal, folitary, ere<S, an
inch or inch and halt long, of a (hining purplifh-grey, with
folitary, jagged, membranous IraBcas, of the fame colour, at
the bafe of fome of the lowcriyivjll fpikelt-ts. Tm fpikelets
are rather numerous, ufually turned one way, and molUy in
pairs, each of two or three flowers. Calyx with fhort awns.
Petals ribbed ; the outer with tliree teeth, the middle tooth
flightly awned; inner petal with two equal teeth; all the
ribs fringed. .S/y/« joined at the lower part only.

2. S. alha. White Moor-grafs. Sm. Fl. Gra^c. Sibth.
v. I. 56. t. 72. V. 2. 2. (Carex dubia ; Sibth. MSS.) —
Spike ovate-oblong, imbricated. Bradtcas alternate. Outer
petals lanceolate, acute, undivided. — Difcovered by Dr.
Sibthorp, in woods about the village of Belgrad, near Con-
ftantinople. The general afpeft of this grafs, fo like fome
ot our common fpteies of Cares, with compound andro-
gynous fpikes, eafily led its learned difcoverer to refer it to
that genus. He was, at the fame time, too accurate to over-
look the differences of its generic charaAer ; though not
fufficiently acquainted with Sejleria, to perceive its agreement

herewith. This fpecies is fomewhat larger in every part
than the foregoing, and has a creeping root, fheathed with
the wnnkled bafes of old leaves. Thejlems are twelve or
eighteen inches high, and the foliage nearly as tall. Spiie of
a greenifti-white, rather (hining, fcarcely branched. Spikelets
two or three together, ftalked. Calyx three or four-
flowered, membranous, taper-pointed ; the middle Jlorett
ftalked. Petals membranous, whitifli, with green roughilh
kesls ; the outer one lanceolate, pointed, undivided ; inner
cloven a little way down into two fliarp-pointed lobes, each
of which has its own folded rib or keel. Stamens white,
confiderably longer than the flowers ; anthers pale yellow,
drooping. Styles fmooth, united throughout, the length of
the corolla ; Jligmas divaricated, awl-fhaped, clothed with
Ihort pubefcence. This Sejleria ferves greatly to confirm
the genus, and to indicate its true eflential charafter.

3. S. fphxrocephala. Round-headed Moor-grafs. Ar-
duin. Spec. 2. 20. t. 7. Poiret in Lam. Dift. n. 2. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 47. f. 2. (Cynofurus fphserocephalus ;
Jacq. Mifc. v. 2. 71. Ic. Rar. t. 20. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. I. 414. C. microcephalus ; Hoffm. Germ. 49.) — Spike
capit:.te, globofe, braAeated at the bafe. Outer petals with
three teeth ; the middle tooth awned. — Native of the loftieft
alps of Carinthia, Auftria, the Tyrol, &c. A very much
more flender plant than either of the former. The root is
fibrous. Stem four or five inches high, fomewhat quadran-
gular, bearing one leaf only, at the lower part, which is flat,
fliort and broad, with a long ftriated^M/A, and a more elon-
g^teAJiipula than that of the other fpecies. Radical leaves
larger and narrower, folded, numerous. Spike almoft glo-
bular, the fize of a common currant, fubtended by two or
three oppofite, broad, concave, notched, membranous, co-
loured hraSeas, not half its own length. Spikelets imbri-
cated every way, of a blueilh-purple, nearly Icflile. Each
calyx contains two or three Jlcrets. The petals are divided as
in S. carulea, but the middle fegment of the outer one is
lengthened out into an awn, of a dark hue, twice or thrice
as long a-i the reft. Wulfcn, who communicated this fpecies,
and its defcription, to Jacquin, obferved what he luppofed a
variety, with wliite ^oiyfrj, in rather larger fpikes, four or
fi\e florets in each calyx, and a fhorter central awn to the
corolla. This feems to be reprefented in Jacquin's plate,
and Hoffmann, after Hank and Hopp, has made it a dif-
tinft fpecies, by the name of Cynofurus fphitrocephalus, calling
our's microcephalus. We do not lee hitficiently permanent
characters to authorize this. Haller makes another Sefleria,
at his n. 1447, which is Poa diflicha, Jacq. Mifc. v. 2. 74.
Ic. Rar. t. 19. AVilld. Sp. PI. v. i. 400. Allioni has
giv.ii it the barbar.jus appellation of P . feflerioides. This
plai • 's unqueftion;ib!v a true Poa, fee that article.

SESQSTRIS, in Biography, king of Egypt, of whom
the accounts are fo much mixed with fable, and fo obfcured
by antiquity, that it has been found extreir.ely difficult to
form a coniiftent and probable fti.ry. Hiftorians are even
divided as to the identity of the name Sefollris with that of
fome other refembhiig n.imes in the Egyptian hiftory, and
feveral hold him to be the fame with the Sefac or Sheftiac of
the Hebrew fcripturis. The following is regarded as the
moft probable account of this monarch. He is generally
placed by tl ronologers in the 15th century B.C., and is by
fome thought to have been the fon of Amenophis. Edu-
cated in manly exercifes v.'ith a number of companions, he \%
faid to have been fent, by his father, at an early age, upon an
cxped ion into Arabia; and after fubduirg that country,
into .-\lnca. While engaged in the conqueft of the latter,
his tdther died ; and his fucceffes having inflamed his am-
bition, he refolved to grafp at univerfal empire. Before

his

S E S

S E S

his departure from Ei^ypt, he ingratiated himfelf with the
people by many a£ls of kindnefs, and made a divifion of the
country into thirty-fix departments, to each of which he
affigned a governor. Then having conftituted his brother
Armais regent, he marched with a numerous army into
Ethiopia, which he rendered tributary, penetrating near to
the llraits of Babelmandeb. As he now perceived that he
could ujt carry on his great defigns without a navy, he
fitted out two fleets, notwithftanding the averfion of the
Egyptians to maritime occupations, one in the Mediter-
ranean and the other in the Red fea. By means of the
former he reduced the courts of Phoenicia, Cyprus, and
feveral of the Cyclades, and with the latter he failed into the
Indian gulf, and made himfelf mafter of its coafts. Then,
purfuing his conquefts by land, he is reprefented as having
over-run all Afia, and even as having crofled the Ganges.
On his return, he invaded the country of the Scythians and
Thracians, in which, however, he loft a great part of his
army. It is commonly thought that he left an Egyptian
colony at Colchos, but Thrace was his fartheft progrefs
weftward. On his arrival at Pelufium, after an abfence of
nine years, laden with fpoils, and attended with a vaft num-
ber of captives, he was received by his brother Armais with
pretended joy and fubmiffion, though he had formed a plot
againll him. For this traiterous attempt he expelled Armais
from Egypt, and then, difbanding his army, he fat down to
the improvement of his country. He erefted magnificent
temples in all the cities of Egypt, in the budding of which
none but his captives were employed. He raifed obelilks,
with infcriptions recording his conquells and revenues. He
built a wall of great length, on the eaftern boundary of
Egypt, to proteft it from the incurfions of the Arabians,
and he dug a number of canalf, branching from the Nile in all
direftions, for the purpofe both of commerce and naviga-
tion. He is faid, in the height of his pride, to have har-
nefled tributary kings to his chariot, till one of them, point-
ing out to him the rotation of the wheels, by which each
part was fiicceflively at top and bottom, brought him to re-
fleftion. Becoming blind in his advanced years, he finifhed
his courfc by a voluntary death.

It may be obferved that fir Ifaac Newton has endeavoured
to prove that Sefoltris is the Ofiris of the Egyptians, and
the Bacchus of the Greeks, as well as the Sefac of fcrip-
ture. Univer. Hift.

SE6QUI, a particle often ufed by old mailers and
theorifts, in Mufic, in the compofition of words to exprefs
different kinds of meafure. They called fefquialter meafures
thofe which contain notes equal to one-third more than their
ufual value ; that is, when equal to three notes of lefs value,
inllead of two. This happened in what was called perfcS
time, before the life of points or dots, when the breve was
equal to three femibreves, the femibrevc to three minims, &c.

In Italian treatifts by old tlieorilts, fefqui is much ufed to
exprefs a kind of ratio, particularly in different fpccies of
triples ; that is, when the greater term contains the le(s
once, and fome fmall quantity more ; as 3 : 2, when the
firll term contains the fecond, and unity over, wliich is the half
of 2. So that if the part remaining be jull half the lefs
term, as 4 : 3, the ratio is cMvdfrfrjn't terza, or tertia ; if a
fourth, or 5 : 4, the ratio m fefqui quarto, and fo on to in-
finity ; Hill adding to fefqui tlie ordinal number of the lefs
term.

SESQUIALTER. is a Hop in the organ, implying a
whole and a half. In large organs this flop has ufually
five ranks of pipes, each note having one lound iu unifon witn
the diapafon, one with the principal, one with the twelfth,
and one with the fifteenth.
7

SESQUI-ALTERATE, the greater perfeB, which is a
triple where the breve is three mcafuies, or femi-breves, and
that without having any point or dot annexed to it.

Sesqui-alterate, greater imperfeS, which is where the
breve, when pointed, contains three mealurcs, and without
any point, two.

Sesqui-alterate, lejjlr perfeB, which is where the
femibreve contains three meafures, and that without any
point.

Sesqui-alterate, lejfer imperfect, a triple, where the
femibreve, with a point, contains three meafures, and two
without.

According to Buontempi, one may likewife call the
triples 4 and '/> fefqui-alterates.

Sesqui-alterate, in Geometry and Jlrilhmetic, is a ratio
between two lines, two numbers, or the like, where one
of them contains the other once, with the addition of a
half.

Thus 6 and 9 are in a fefqui-alterate ratio ; fince 9 con-
tains 6 once, and 3, which is the half of fix, over ; and 20
and 30 are in the fame ; as 30 contains 20, and half 20 or 10.

SESQUIDITONE, in Mufic, a concord, refulting
from the founds of two ilrings, whofe vibrations, in equal
times, are to each other in the ratio of 5 to 6. See Ditonk
and Interval.

SESQUIDUPLICATE Ratio, is when of two terms,
the greater contains the lels twice, and half the lefs remains ;
as 15 and 6; 50 and 20.

SESQUI-OCTAVE, is a kind of triple, marked C|,
called by the Italians nonupla di crome, where there are
9 quavers in every meafure or bar, in lieu of 8.

SESQUIQUADRATE, an afpeit, or pofition of the
planets, when at tlie diftance of four figns and a half, or 135
degrees, fr»m each other.

SESQUI-QUARTA, Dupla, is a kind of triple,
marked C;;, called by the Italians nonupla di fememinime,
where there are 9 crotchets in each meafure, inftead of 4 ;
that is, three crotchets to each time.

SESQUIQUINTILE, an afpedt of the planets, when
108 degrees diftant from each other.

SESQUITERTIONAL Proportion. When any
number or quantity contains another once and one-third, they
are fefquitertional proportions.

SESSA, in Biography, an Indian philofopher and mathe-
matician, and the inventor of the game of chefs, which he
communicated to his fovcrcign Scherara, who was fo pleafed
with it, that he ordered him to demand what he pleafed as
a reward for his ingenuity. Sella aflced only for a fingle
grain of wheat to be laid on the firtt fquare, two on the fe-
cond, four on the third, and fo on in progrcffion through
the fixty-four fquares. The king, offended that he (houlj
demand fo mean a gift, direfted that he (hould have jull what
he afl<ed, and no more ; but upon coming praftically to the
bufinefs, it was, in a very Ihort time, found that all the gra-
naries in the kingdom would not lupply the demand. Sche-
ram, aitonifhed at the fad, crowned Seffa with very high
honours. He lived about the eleventh century.

Sessa, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato
Citra; 23 miles S.W. of Cangiano.

Sessa. See Seeza.

SESSEA, in Botany, a Peruvian genus of plants, dcdi-
cated by the authors of the fplendid Flora Peruviana, to the
honour of a Spanifh botaniit, named Martin Seffeo, to whom
the care of the botanic garikn at Mexico was entrulled.
— Poiretin Lamarck Dirt. v. 7. 139. " Ruiz .ind Pavon,
Fl. Peruv. v. 2. 9." — Clafs and c.rdor, Penlandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Luridft, Lmn. Solaiiet, JuU.

Gen.

S E S

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
with five angles, each angle terminating in an oval tooth,
permanent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube as long
again as the calyx ; throat globular ; limb plaited, in five
deep, llraight, oval fegments, revolute at their margin.
Stam. Filaments five, inferted towards the middle of the tube,
curved and downy at their bafe, as long as the lube ; an-
thers oval, of two cells. P'ljl. Germen fuperior, fmall, ob-
long ; ftyle terminal, thread-fhaped, the length of the
ftamens ; ftigma of two uneqi: i! lobes. Peric. Capfule
cylmdrical, (lightly curved, as i 'ig again as the calyx, of
one cell, and two cloven valves. Seeds numerous, imbricated,
oblong, comprefled, each encompafled with a membranous
border.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fliapcd. Calyx tubular, with
five angles, and five teeth. Stamens fimple. Stigma of
two unequal lobes. Capfule ot one cell and two cloven
valves. Seeds numerous, bordered,

1. S.Jipulata. « Fl. Peeuv. .. 2. 9. t. 115. f. B." —
" Leaves lanceolate, or heart-fhapcd. Clutters panicled."
— Native of cool fituations, on he mountains of Peru,
flowering in June and .July. A fft- \Jhrub, five or fix feet
high, having the afpeiJt of a Cejuum. The branches are
ttraight, leafy, alternate. Leaves alternate, ftalked, moftly
lanceolate, heart-fhaped at the bafe ; others, efpecially the
upper ones, narrower, oval, oblong, entire, pointed, from
three to five inches long, and one or two broad, fmooth
above, white and downy beneath. Stipulas at the bafe of
the footltalks, equal to them in length, oppofite, large, oval,
obtufe, feffile, a little heart (haped at the bottom, deflexed
at the fides, deciduous. Panicles terminal, compoled of
ftraight, downy clutters, with corymbole Jialhs, of yellow
downy Jlowers, accompanied by fmall, awl-lhaped, deciduous
braSeas.

2. S. dependent. " Fl. Peruv. v. 2. 9. t. 1 16." — " Leaves
oblong, heart-fhaped. Clutters very long, pendulous." —
Native of the banks of rivers in Peru, flowering in Novem-
ber, December, and January. A tree, twenty-five or thirty
feet high, agreeing in many refpefts with the foregoing, but
the leaves are very powdery at the back, and the clujlers
very long, fimple, and pendulous, flightly zigzag. The

Jlowers are ufually placed three together, in alternate feflile
tufts. Calyx powdery. Corolla with a black tube, and
yellowifli limb, externally downy. Capfules black.

Both fpecies are etteemed emollient anodyne. Peiret.

SESSEL in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 5 miles N.W.
of Doefa. N. lat, 23° 4'. E. long. 84° 58'.

SESSENREUTH, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 10 miles N. of Bayreuth.

SESSERRY, a town of Hindoottan, in Oude ; 13 miles
S. of Lucknow.

SESSILE, in Botany, a term applied to any part of the
herbage or flowers of a plant, that is not elevated on any kind
of ftalk ; from the Latin feffilis, fitting clofe. Many plants
bezr Jlores feJTdes, feflile flowers, on the branches ; very few
at the root, like Crocus, Colchkum, and Aphyteia. It is not
unufual for the fruftification, though feflile at the flowering
period, to become ftalked as the fruit advances toward ma-
turity. The germen is fo ufually feflile, as teldom to require
to be fo defcribed, it being fuflicient to notice a ftalked
germen, whenever fuch occurs, as aff"ording moftly an im-
portant generic charafler. For folia fejdia, feflile leaves,
fee Leaf.

Sessile Roots, fuch tuberous roots as adhere to the bafe
of the ftalk. See Root.

SESSION, Sbssio, denotes each fitting, or affembly, of
a council.

S E S

In quoting councils, we fay, in fuch a feflion, fuch a ca-
non, &c.

Session of Parliament, is a feafon, or fpace, from its meet-
ing to its prorogation, or difl'olution. See Parliament.

Session, in Law, denotes a fitting of juftices in court,
upon their commiflion. As the feflion of oyer and terminer,
of gaol-delivery, &c. See Assises, Justices of AJJife, Jus-
tices of Gaol-delivery, Justices of Oyer, &c.

Sessions of Wales, Great. See Courts of Wales.

Quarter fejfions, C'i[\e.A general fejjions, or open feffions, iland
oppofite \.o efpecial, otherwife called /"rf/y^^onj, which are
procured upon fome fpecial occafion, for the more fpeedy
difpatch of juftice. See QuARTER-^^onj-.

Statute-feffions, are thofe kept by a high-conftable of a
hundred, for the placing of fcrvaiits, &c. See Statute.

Sessions for Weights and Meafures. In London, four
juttices from among the mayor, recorder, and aldermen, (of
whom the mayor or recorder is to be one), may hold a
feflions to enquire into offences of felling by falfe weights
and meafures, contrary to the ttatutes ; and to receive indift-
ments, punifh offenders, &c. Char. K. Cha. I.

Session, The Court of, otherwife called the college of juf-
tices, is the fupreme court in Scotland for all civil caufes.
It confifts of one conftant prefident, who has an annual falary
of 1300/. and fourteen other judges, at "jool. per annum each,
who are lords by their office, which they hold by patent
quamdiu fe bene gefferint. The lord high chancellor prefides
here when prefent. The king names feveral other extra-
ordinary lords, who fit, but are not obliged to give at-
tendance, becaufe they have no falaries ; but they may vote
among the reft.

The court fits from the firft of November, old ttyle, to
the laft of February, and from the firft ot June to the laft of
July, all inclufive ; which holds of all the inferior courts or
judicatories in Scotland. In time of feffion, or term, they
fit from nine o'clock to twelve in the forenoon, every day
in the week but Sunday and Monday ; fometimes they fit
is the afternoon, to end concluded caufes, or to hear fuch
long debates as the forenoon was too fliort to hear, which
gives a great difpatch to caufes that come before them.
The lords, both ordinary and extraordinary, when in the
inner houfe, fit on a femicircular bench in their robes ; where
the advocates debate their clients' caufes before them. There
are fix principal clerks belonging to this court. Nine of
the lords make a quorum in the inner houfe, otherwife they
cannot vote in any cale, except fuch as are referred to one or
more of the whole lords ; and one of the ordinary lords (the
prefident being always excepted) is weekly appointed judge
in the outer houfe, for difcuffing of ordinary aftions, and
has fix under clerks to attend him. He meddles with no
extraordinary cafes, except where it is remitted to him by all
the lords, to be difcuffed in the outer houfe for difpatch.

That the lords may have time to read informations, pe-
titions, &c. and the fuitors be eafed of the trouble of going
with them to their houfes, every lord has a box ttanding
upon a table in the waiting room in the inner houfe, from two
to four o'clock in the afternoon, every day ; wherein all who
have papers to offer, may put them by a flit in the cover.
Each of the principal clerks have alfo a box, and parties
mutt put in their bills, anfwers, or informations of caufes to
be reported, into the clerk of the procefs's box.

The rolls of the court bring in all caufes in their due
order, Caufes of the greateft confequence are at firlt ad-
vifed by the whole lords in the inner houfe. Other caufe;
are called of courfe before an ordinary in the outer houfe,
who decides the controverfy, if clear, without farther trouble
or expence j and, in cafe of difficulty, takes fome little time

to

S E S

S E S

to advife it himfelf, or to advife with the whole lords upon
it. And if any of the parties think themfelves wronged by
the fentence of the ordinary, they may complain to the lords,
and get their anfwer upon a bill.

An appeal lies from this court to the houfe of lords.
The lords of fejfton were firft appointed by James I. of
Scotland, who felefled, among the eftates of parliament, a
certain number of perfons, and diftinguifhed them by this
appellation. They were empowered to hold courts for de-
termining civil caufes three times a-year, and forty days at a
time, in whatever place he pleafed to name. James IV. on
pretence of remedying the inconveniences arifing from the
fliort terms of the court of fejjions, appointed other judges,
called lords of daily council. The ieflion was an ambulatory
court, and met feldom ; the daily council was fixed, and fat
conftantly at Edinburgh ; and though not compofed of
members of parliament, the fame powers which the lords of
feflion enjoyed, were veiled in it. At laft, James V. erefted
the new court tliat itill fubfilts, and which he called the col-
lege ofjufiice, the judges or fenators of which were called lords
of counc'd and fejion. Robertfon's Hilt, of Scotland, 1776,
8vo. vol. i. p. 40.

Sessions, Kirk. See Kirk.

SESSLACH, in Geography, a town in the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 50 miles N.E. of Wurzburg.

SESSOAH, a town of Bengal ; 21 miles S. of Doefa.
SESTA, a town of the Ligurian republic ; 5 miles N.W.
of Brugnetto.

Sesta, Ital. the interval and confonant of the fixth, in
Mujic. See Hexachord, and Hexachordon.

SESTERCE, Sestertius, afilvercoin, in ufe among
the ancient Romans, called alfo fimply nummus, and fome-
times nummus feflertius.

The felterce was the fourth psrt of the denarius, and ori-
ginally contained two alies and a half.

The fefteree was at firft denoted by LLS ; the two L's
lignifying two librse, and the S half. But the librarii, after-
wards converting the two L's into an H, expreffed the fef-
teree by HS.

The word feflert'tus was fird introduced by way of abbre-
yiatioB for fem'ijlert'ius, which fignifies two, and a half of a
third, or, literally, only half a third ; for in exprcfling half
a third, it was underflood tliat there were two before. Hence
feftertius came to he the great ellimate of Roman money.

Some authors make two kinds of lelterces : the lefs, called
feftertius, in the mafculine gender ; and the great one, called
fejlertium, in the neuter : the firlt, that which we have al-
ready defcribed ; the latter containing a thoufand of the
other. Others will have any fuch dillindtion of great and
little fcllerces unknown to tlie Romans : feftertius, fay they,
was an adjeSive, and fignifiud eis feftertius, or two allcs and a
half; and when ufed pfurally, as in quinquaginta fjlertium,
or ftjlertia, it was only by way of abbreviation, and there was
always underltood cenlena, milUa, &c.

This matter has been accurately Hated by Mr. Raper, in
, the following manner. The fubltaiitive to whicli feftertius
referred is either at, or pondut ; and fejlerlius as is two aft'es
and a half ; feftertium pondus, two pondera and a half, or two
hundred and fifty denarii. When the denarius parted for
ten aflcs, the fefteree of two afTes and a half was a quarter of
it ; and the Romans continued to keep tlitfir accounts in
thefe feltcrces long after the denarius pafled for fixteen affes ;
till, growing rich, they found it more convenient to reckon
by quarters of the denarius, which they called nummi, and
ufed the wordi nummus and fefertius indifferently, as fynoni-
mous terms, and fometimes both together, as fejlerlius num-
jaus ; in which cafe, the word feftertius having loll its original
Vol. XXXII.

fignification, was ufed as a fubftantive ; ior feftertius nummut
was not two nummi and a half, but a fingle nummus of four
aft'es. They called any fum under two thoufand fefterces fo
fo mmyfejlertii in the mafculine gender ; two thoufand fef-
terces they called duo or bina fejlertia, in the neuter ; fo many
quarters making five hundred denarii, which was twice the
feftertium ; and they faid dena, vicena, &c. fejlertia, till the
fum amounted to a thoufand feftertia, which was a milbon of
fefterces. But, to avoid ambiguity, they did not ufe the
neuter fjlertium in the Angular number, when the whole fum
amounted to no more than a thoufand fefterces, or one fef-
tertium. They called a million of fefterces, decies nummiim,
or decies feftertium, for decies centena millia nummorum, or
feftertiorum (in the mafculine gender), omitting centena
miUia, for the fake of brevity. They hkewife called the fame
fum decies feftertium (in the neuter gender) for decies centies
feftertium, omitting centies for the fame reafon ; or fimply
decies, omitting centena millia feflertium, or centies fejlertium ;
and with the numeral adverbs, decies, vicies, centies, millies,
and the like, either centena millia, or centies, was always under-
ftood. Thefe were their moft ufual forms of expreflion ;
though for bina, dena, vicena fejlertia, they frequently faid
bina, dena, vicena millia nummiim. If the confular denarius
contained fixty troy grains of fine filver, it was worth fome-
what more than eight-pence farthing and a half fterling ; and
the as, of fixteen to the denarius, a little more than a half,
penny. To reduce the ancient fefterces of two aftes and a
half, when the denarius paffed for fixteen, to pounds fterling,
multiply the given numljer by 5454, and cut off fix figures
on the right hand for decimals. To reduce nummi fejlertii,
or quarters of the denarius, to pounds fterling ; if the given
fum be confular money, multiply it by 8727, and cut off fix
figures on tlie right hand for decimals ; but for imperial
money, diminidi the faid produft by one-eighth of itfclf.
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi. part ii. art. 48. See Denakius and
Drachm.

To be qualified for a Roman kpiight, an eftate of four
hundred thoufand fefterces was required ; and for a fenator,
of eight hundred thoufand.

Authors alfo mention a copper fefteree, worth about one-
third of a penny Englifti.

Sesterce, Sejlerlius, was alfo uled, in Antiquity, for a
thing containing two wholes and a half of another : as as was
taken for any whole, or integer.

SESTINI, Z/flSiCNOitA,in Biography, cng^^eA as a prima
buffa in the comic opera, arrived in England from Lilbon in
1 774 ; and her firft performance was in Aufoffi's comic opera,
entitled " LaMarchcfaGiardinicra." Her face was beautiful,
her figure elegant, and lier aftion graceful. Her voice,
though by nature not perfedtly clear and fwectly toned, had
been well diredtcd in her ftudies, and ftie fung with con-
fiderablc agility, as well as taftc and cxpreffion.

She was married to a young man of family at Lilbon, by
which imprudent Uep he had totally loft all parental favour,
and even fupport ; fo that, inftead of being an aufpicious
match for herfelf, file had him and a large family to maintain
by her talents; which not being of the firft clals, were foon
difrcgarded by the public. And after languidiing fome
years unemployed, (lie went with her helplefs huftiand and
family to Italy, where, it is to be feared, tlK-y fnffered all
the melancholy mortifications of extreme indigence.

SESTO, Cesaue, known by the name of Ccfirc Mi-
lanefe, was a native of Milan, and flourifiied about the year
1500. He is one of thofe painters by whom probably were
executed fome of the many i)iftures attributed to Lionardo
da Vinci ; and in tlic Ambrofian library was a head by him
often attributed to Lionardo. In fome of his works he alfo
X X imitated

S E S

SET

ihiitated Raphael, to whom he was known. He died at
Milan in 1524.

Sesto, in Gtogrnphy, a town of Italy, in the Milanefe ;
28 miles W.N.W. of Milan. — Alfo, a town of Italy, in
Friuli ; 5 miles N. of Concordia.

SESTOLA, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Panaro ; 17 miles S. of Modena.

SESTOS, a fortrefs ef European Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Romania, oppofite to Abydos ; 24 miles S.S.W.
of Gallipoli. N. lat. 40° 6'. E. long. 26° 25'. Abydos
(which fee) and Sejios were two towns, oppofue one another
at the moft narrow part of the Hellefpont : they were
famous for the love-adventures of Leander, who lived at
Abydos, and Hero, a prieftefs of Venus, at Seftos. Lean-
der fwam acrol's the Hellefpont to vifit his miftrefs, guided
by a torch, which (lie lighted on the top of a tower ; but,
in a tempeftuous night, Leander, having too imprudently
committed himfelf to the waves, could not reach the other
fhore, and was unfortunately fwallowed up by the agitated
waters. Hero, in true defpair, threw herfelf into th« fea,
in order to (hare the fate of her lover. Procopius places
Seftos in the cove the neareil to Abydos ; and he adds,
that the emperor Juftinian caufed a citadel to be built near
that city : the remains of this citadel are ftill to be feen
clofe to the fea-(hore. On the declivity of the hill, the
walls of the ancient city may very eafily be traced. Four
miles from Seftos, on afcending the channel, is another har-
bour, near which is feen only a fingle habitation of dervifes, '
occupied by three or four MufTulman monks.

Se6TOS, a river which rifes in the mountains of Sierra
Leone, traverfes the Grain Coaft, and runs into the Atlantic,
N. lat. f 30'.

SESTRE, Grand, or Great Parts, a town of Africa, on
the Grain Coaft, being one of the largeft commercial towns
of the country. N. lat. 4° 16'. W. long. 8° 20'.

Sestre, Petit, or Little Paris, a town of Africa, on
the Grain Coaft, near Grand Seftre.

SESTRE-KRO, or Settra-Kroo, a town of Africa,
being the chief town of the Kroo country, which extends
along the Grain Coaft, between Cape Mount and Cape
Palmas, from 5° 54' to 5° 7' N. lat. The chief town is
in long. 7° 48'. This diftrift, though fmall, is extremely
populous, and the natives are of a migratory difpofition.
Above 800 are employed as labourers at Sierra Leone ;
and they are to be found at every faftory and town along
the coaft for a fpace of 350 miles. They are employed
as faftors or intermediate merchants, boatmen and failors ;
and while the (lave trade was carried on upon this coaft,
they had their (hare of its occupations. After the age of
forty, they return and fettle at home. Their country
produces grain, particularly fine rice, pepper, and cattle ;
but their ftaple article is their own labour, with which
they purchafe goods, and return to their homes with the
produce. Wars are rare among this people ; they never
fell one another, nor kill their captives ; nor do they punifh
any offence by flavery, though witchcraft among them is
a capital offence, and the only one that is invariably fo
among them. One of the moft Angular parts of the cha-
rafter of the Kroomee, is their extreme love for their own
country, and their confident belief in its vaft fuperiority
over all others. Every aftion of their lives bears a re-
ference to it. With regard to their talents and acqiiire-
ments, they are fufSciently acute and obfervant, where the
occafion calls their minds into aftion. They have not the
afe of letters, nor will they permit their children to learn ;
their language in converfation is very bad ; and as they
live by daily labour, which is paid for in European goods,

they have no occafion for manufaftures of their own, and
of courfe no opportunity for difplaying their talents.
They make their own canoes, fome implements of agri-
culture, and a few mufical inftruments.

SESTRI dt Levante, a town of the Ligurian republic ;
12 miles W. of Brugnetto.

Sestri di Panente, a town of the Ligurian republic ;
H miles W. of Genoa.

SESTUPLA, Ital. in Mufu. See Sextupla.
SESVAH, or Ramgl'r, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Bahar ; 22 miles E.S.E. of Bettiah.

SESUVIUM, in Botany, a Linnsean name, whofe de-
rivation we are unable to trace. Loefling originally called
it Halimum. — Linn. Gen. 250. Schreb. 338. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 2. 1009. Mart. Mill. Di<ft. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew,
V. 3. 205. Jacq. Amer. 155. Swartz Obf. 204. Juff. 316.
Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 141. lUuftr. t. 434. — Clafs and order,
Icojandrta Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Succulenia, Linn. Ficeidett,
Juif.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fliaped,
deeply cloven into five, ovate, acute, withering fegments,
coloured on the infide. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments nu-
merous, awl-fltaped, (hortcr than the calyx and inferted at
its bafe ; anthers roundifti. Pifl. Germen fuperior, oblong,
at the bottom of the calyx, triangular at the upper part ;
llyles moftly three, capillary, ered, the length of the fta-
mens ; ftigmas fimple. Perk. Capfule ovate, of three cells,
burfting all round. Seeds rounded, flattifh, with a beak at
the margin.

Eft. Ch. Calyx deeply five-cleft, coloured. Petals
none. Capfule ovate, three-celled, burfting all round,
many-feeded.

I. S. Portulacajlrum. Purflane-leaved Sefuvinm. Linn.
Sp. PI. 684. Jacq. Amer. t. 95. (Portulaca aizoides ma-
ritima procumbens, flore purpureo ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 204.
Crithmus indicus ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. 165. t. 72. f. 1.)
— Stem round. Leaves oppofite, oblong. Flower-ftalks
folitary, much fhorter than the leaves. — Native of the Weft
Indies, in maritime fituations ; flowering in July and Au-
guft. — Root perennial. Stems fucculent, four or five inches
long, round, thick, diffufe, branched, at firft procumbent,
then ereft. Ltaves on ftiort ftalks, flediy, bright green ;
their ftalks ftieathing, with membranous edges. Floiuers
folitary, axillary, green on the outfide, white and blood-red
or purple on the infide, inodorous. Seeds black. — The
whole plant is very fucculent, and abounds with a neutral-
alcalefcent fait, which is eafily extrafted, and would probably
ferve as a fubftitute for Kali.

2. S. revolutifolium. Revolute-leaved Sefuvium. " Orteg.
PI. Decad 2. 19." Lamarck lUuftr. t. 434. f. 2. — Stems
fquare. Leaves obovate-oblong, reflexed at the fides.
Flowers feffile. — Native of the ifle of Cuba, flowering in
Auguft. Stems herbaceous, fucculent, much branched,
forked. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, entire, revolute at their
edges ; ftalks (lightly embracing the ftem, furnilhed on each
fide with a whiti(h membrane, like a wing. Floiuers foli-
tary, tlie upper ones perfeftly felfile, of a purple colour.
Seeds kidney-ftiaped, black.

SET, a term ufed for a pole or (haft, ufed to (hove boats
along a canal, &c.

Set is alfo a term fignifying to let, as land.
Set, in j4grieulture and Gardening, a term ufed in Ireland
to fignify a fort of ridge. It alfo fignifies a cutting of
any fort of fleihy root, (hrub, or tree of the fruit kind.
Likewife any fort of young plant from the feed-bed to be
planted out.

Set-o^ in Law, is an aft, by which the defendant ac-
knowledges

SET

SET

knowledges the juftice of the plaintiff's demand on the one
hand ; but, on the other, fets up a demand of his own, to
counterbalance that of the plaintiff, either in the whole, or
in part : as, if the plaintiff fues for ten pounds due on a
note of hand, the defendant may fet-off nine pounds due
to himfelf for merchandize fold to the plaintiff ; and, in
cafe he pleads fuch let-off, mutt pay the remaining balance
into court. This anfwers very nearly to the compenfatlo, or
ftoppage, of the civil law, and depends upon the itatutes
2 Geo. II. cap. 22. and 8 Geo. II. cap. 24.

Set-o^, in Inland Navigation, is a recefs, as I K [Plate I.
Canals, Jigs. 3 and 6. ), on the bank of a canal> and has the
fame meaning with bench or berm.

St.T-Bolts,'\n zShip. See Bolts.

To Set fail. See Sail, and Setting.

SETACEUS Vermis, in Natural Hiftory, a name
given by Dr. Lifter to that long and flender water-worm,
which fo much refembles a horfe-hair, that it has been fup-
pofed by the vulgar to be an animated hair of that crea-
ture. Thefe creatures, fuppofed to be living hairs, are a
peculiar fort of infefts, which are bred and nourifhed within
the bodies of other infefts, as the worms of the ichneumon-
flies are in the bodies of the caterpillars. See Amphisb^na
^quatica.

SETAH, in Botany, a name ufed by the oldeft writers
for the acacia. It is an original Hebrew word, and is ex-
plained by the lexicographers, by a thorn growing in the
defert. It is rendered by Theodotion acantha, one of the
names of the acacia.

SETAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Golconda ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Rachore.

SETARIA, in Botany, from feta, a briftle, a name
given by Acharius, in his Prodromus Lichenographise
Suecicx, to the 27th tribe of the great genus Lichen.
It comprehends feven fpecies, of what have ufually been
termed filamentous lichens, as jubatus, chalybeifortnis, &c.

See LiCHENES.

SE-TCHEOU, in Geography, a city of China, of the
firft rank, in Koei-tcheou, in a mountainous country, yield-
ing cinnabar and quickfilver ; 982 miles S.S.W. of Peking.
N. lat. 27" 10'. E. long. 108^.

SE-TCHIN, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang.fi ; 1 167 miles S.S.W. of Peking. S. lat. 22° 48'.
E. long. 136^ 31'.

SE-TCHING, or Se-tchim, a city of China, of the
firft rank, in Quang-fi ; i ioo,miles S.S.W. of Peking. N.
lat. 24° 17'. E. long. 105° 54'.

SE-TCHUEN, a province of China, bounded on the
N. by Chen-fi, on the E. by Hou-quang, on the S. by
Koei-tcheou, and on the W. by the kingdom of Thibet and
fome other neighbouring countries. This province compre-
hends, befides a great number of forts and Itrong places,
10 cities of the firil clafs, and 88 of tlie fecond and third.
The great river Yang-tfe-kiang traverfes Sc-tchuen, wliich
is opulent, not only on account of the abundance of filk it
produces, but alfo for its mines of iron, tin, and lead ; its
amber, fugar-canes, loadftone, lapis lazuli, mufl<, and horfes,
which are in great requeft ; alfo for its rhubarb, and the
root fou-Un, which the Cliincfe phyfician<; introduce into all
their prefcriptions ; and for a thoufand other ufeful produc-
tions, which it would be tedious to mention. Thir. province,
which is at a great diftance from the fea, obtains the fait
which it confumes from its mountains, where the inhabitants
dig pits, that furnifh them with it in great abundance. Its
capital is Tching-tou ; which fee. The population of this
province, according to fir John Staunton, is eltimated .nt

27>000)000

SETEEF, a towm of Africa, anciently called Sitiphat
and capital of a part of Mauritania, which made a llout
refiftance againft the Saracens. There is fcarcely one frag-
ment left, either of the ancient walls, pillars, or cillerns of
the Romans ; the few remaining ftruftures being obvioufly
the work of the later inhabitants. The fountains, which
continue to flow very plentifully near the centre of the city,
are equally delightful and convenient ; and without doubt
gave occafion formerly for many ingenious and ufeful con-
trivances in the diftribution of the water ; 50 miles S.W. of
Conftantina. N. lat. 35° 58'. E. long. 5° 36*.

SETERRA, or Setres, a town of Africa, on the
Grain Coaft.

SETHIANS, Sethedians, Sethiani, or Sethinianl, in
Ecclcfiajlical Hiftory, a branch of the ancient Gnollics ;
thus called, becaule of their pretending to deduce their
origin from Seth, fon of Adam, whom they called Jefus
and Chriit ; from an opinion, that Seth and Jefus were the
fame perfon, who came down from heaven at two feveral
times.

As the Sethians had the fame philofophy with the other
Gnoftics, they had numerous other fables in their fyllena.
They pretended to have feveral books of the ancient patri-
archs ; particularly, feven of their great mafter Seth ; be-
fides one of Abraham, which was full of manifeft falfities,
which yet they called /Ipocalypfe, or Revelation. The book
called the " Little Genefis," anciently very common in the
churches of the Eait, was borrowed from them. From
this book they learned the name of Seth's wife, who, they
fay, was called Horaa. Some imagine, they borrowed a
great many of their fiftions from the Hellenift .Tews.

SETH RON, in Geography, a town of E^ypt, on the
S. coaft of the lake Menzalch ; 16 miles W. of Tineh.

SETICAUDiE, in Natural Hiftory, a term ufed to
exprefs fuch flies as have one or more hairs growing out at
their tails. There are many fpecies of thefe diftinguifhed
by their having one, two, or three hairs.

SETIER. See Septier.

SETINES, in Geography. See Athens.

SETIO, a mountain in the E. part of the Tyrolefe.

SETLANA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sirowy ; 35 miles N. W. of Sirowy.

SETLE', a town of Turkifh Armenia ; 30 miles S.W.
of Akalzike.

SETLEDGE, a river of Hindooftan, which rifes in the
mountains of Thibet, and runs into the Indus, near Veh,
anciently called Hefudrus.

SETON, a river of Spain, which runs into the Gallego,
in the province of Aragon.

vSirroN, Setaceum, denotes, in Surgery, a fltein of filk
or thread, introduced through a part of the flefh by means
of a needle, and left there fo as to keep up a continual dif-
charge of matter, and a degree of counter-irritation, with a
view of relieving or curing a variety of difeafes. In a few
cafes, fetonsare employed on another principle. When fiuufe*
and fiftulae have loft all difpofition to heal, ia confcquencc
of a want of aftion in the parts affeCled, a feton, palTed
through the track of the difeafe, will fometimes excite
a falutary kind of inflammation, which brings on the
healing procefs. Great judgment, however, is ncceffary
in the application of a feton to this purpofe ; for, unlefs
the (inus be prevented from healing merely by the caufc
above fpecificd, namely, a want of ai^ion in the parth, no
fuccefs can be expedled to attend the praftice, and the
patient will be put to much unneceffary pain and incon-
venience.

A fetOR is «lfo fometimes employed as a means of dif-
Xx 2 charging

SET

charging the contents of large chronic abfceffes. It is
thought by fome praftitioners that this method has the
advantage of letting the matter efcape very gradually, a
circumftance, by which the dangerous effefts, often arifing
from emptying the abfcefs all at once, are in a great
meafure avoided. Many furgeons even fuppofe that fetoni
hinder the external air from getting into the cavity of the
abfcefs, and, as prejudice and exaggeration have filled their
minds with ferious apprehenfions upon this fubjed, they
are perhaps more attached to the praftice than any recom-
mendations which it really poffeffes would juftify.

Formerly, fetons were frequently ufed for accomplifhing
the radical cure of the hydrocele. The celebrated Mr.
Pott was an advocate for this method, which he certainly
brought to great perfection. It is fcarcely neceflary for us
to remark here, that the feton excited the requifite degree
of inflammation in the cavity of the tunica vaginalis teftis,
and the adhefion of its oppofite furfaces to each other. See
Hydrocele.

The common mode of making a feton is with a flat
broadifh needle, whicli is fomevvhat curved towards the
point, and furniflied with cutting edges. This form enables
the furgeon to bring the needle out of the part again
without any difficulty. The integuments are pinched up
into a fold, of which the operator raifes one end with the
fore-finger and thumb of his left hand, while an afliftant
raifes the other. The needle, armed with the filk or thread
dipped IB fweet oil, is then to be puftied through the flcin
thus lifted up. It is only neceflary to draw the end of the
filk or thread a httle way out of the fecond aperture : the
needle may now be removed. The next objeft is to fix the
ends of the filk, which is ufually done with adhefive plafter.
The wounds are then to be covered with pledgets, and a re-
tentive bandage. The oil prevents the filk from adhering
to the flefli, and facilitates its paflage through the wound ;
for, as foon as fuppuration has taken place, that part of the
filk which is in the wound is to be drawn out and cut off^.
The fame method is to be repeated every day, and the fame
plan of dreffing continued. When the fl<ein of filk is ex-
haufted, a new one, oiled in the above manner, is to be
introduced by means of an eye-probe.

Setons, unlefs kept exceedingly clean, and drefled with
much tendernefs, fometimes excite a great deal of irritation,
and prove very troublefome to the patient. The thread is
alfo apt, with the leaft negleft, to cut its way out, and
leave an ugly fore.

When a feton is made in a cafe of large chronic abfcefs,
a punfture is firft made in the upper part of the tumour ;
an eye-probe, armed with a fl<ein of filk, is introduced down-
ward ; and the end of the inftrument being felt againft
the infide of the lower part of the fwelling, an incifion
is made upon it, fo that the end of the filk can then be
drawn out.

The manner of making a feton for the cure of hydro-
celes has been defcribed in a former volume. See Hy-
drocele.

The hke operation is frequently praftifed on horfes, &c.
and called, by the farriers, roivelling.

SETOSCH, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Chrudim.

SETRA-JETA, the name, in Hindoo romance, of the
father of one of the favourite wives of the popular deity
Krifhna. Her name was Satyavama ; and (he is fometimes
faid to have been an incarnation of Lakflimi, confort of the
god Viflinu. See thofe articles.

SETS, in Agriculture and Gardening, a terrti applied to

6

SET

the cuttings or planted parts of potatoes, hops, liquorice,
lavender, &c.

It has lately been found to be of material confequence
for the fets which produce the plants, in fome cafes, to have
a large fubftance for their early nourifliment and fupport, as
in thofe of the potatoe ; as though the fmall parts, called
eyes or buds, will grow and produce crops, they are far from
being equal to thofe where the fets are of a large fize. Iti
fliort,the refult of various experiments has fhewn that crops
of this fort prove, ceteris paribus, abundant or other\vife»
nearly in proportion to the fize of the fets. Therefore, as
there is no material faving produced by the ufe of fmall fets
or cuttings of this root, while the difference in the quantity
of produce is from one hundred to one hundred and
fifty buftiels the acre, the practice of employing fuch fmall
fets in planting fljould be difcontinued in all fituations ; and
for the very fame reafon that heavy well-fed corn, when
otherwife in good condition, fhould, in all cafes and circum-
ftances, be preferred to that which is light. See PerATOE
and Seed.

SETSE, in Botany, the name of a Chinefe tree, called
alfo chit/e, and much efteemed by the people of that country
for its beauty, and for the goodnefs of its fruit. In the pro-
vinces of Cantong and Honan there are whole plains covered
with thefe trees, many of which grow to the fize of our
walnut-tree. The fruit ripens every where in the Eaft,
where the tree grows, but it is of a much more delicious
flavour in fome places than in others. The leaves are of the
colour and fliape of thofe of the walnut-tree, only that they
are more round at the ends. The fruit is fometimes round,
fometimes pointed at one end, fometimes oval, fometimes
flat, and not unfrequently compofed of two pieces, as it
were, and refembhng two apples, cut and joined together.
The rind is always green, never changing yellow or red, and
the fruit keeps its freflinefs all the winter. They are about
the fize of the orange, and the fliin is very tender and thin,
and the fruit has a mixed tafte of the fliarp and the lufcious.
It is very wholefome and good.

SETTE', in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital
of a country of the fame name, fubjeft to Loango, on the
river Sette ; i6o miles north of Loango. — Alfo, a country
of Africa, fouth of cape Lopez Gonfalvo, watered by a
river of the fame name. This country is governed by a
mani, who is fubjeft to the king of Loango. — Alfo, a river
of Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 2° 15'.

SETTEE, in Sea Language, a veflel, very common in
the Mediterranean, with one deck, and a very long and fliarp
prow. They carry, fome two mafts, fume three, without
top-mafts. They have generally two m.aits, and are rigged
and navigated hke xebecs or galleys, with fettee fails inftead
of lateen fails. The lealt of them are of fixty tons burden.
They ferve to tranfport cannon, and provifions for fliips of
war, and the hke. Thefe velfels are peculiar to the Medi-
terranean fea, and are ufually navigated by Italians, Greeks,
or Mahometans.

SETTEFRATRI, in Geography, a town of Naples,
in Abruzzo Ultra, 10 miles N. E. of Teremo.

SETTENIL, a town of Spain, in the province of Gre-
nada ; 8 miles N. of Ronda.

SETTER, among Farmers. To fetter, is to cut the
dew-lap of an ox, or cow, and into the wound to put the root
of the helleborafter ; by which an ifl"ue is made, for ill
humours to vent themfelves.

SETTER-/f ort, in Botany. See Hellebore.

SETTIA, iu Geography, a province of the ifland of
Candia, occupying the whole ealtern part of the ifland ; it
is the moft extcnfive, but the leait peopled, and the leaft

productive.

SET

SET

produftive, though in a great meafure fufceptible of cul-
ture, and though mod of its lands are very fertile. But
diftance from the capital, want of harbours, and the incon-
fiderate injuftice of the agas, and almoft every other circum-
llance, contribute to render the inhabitants of this part of
the ifland more indolent than the others. Contented with
gathering com and fruit for their fubfiftence, oil for paying
their taxes, and procuring for themfelves a few clothes,
and the utenfils neceflary for their family, they are not eager
to feize from the earth a furplus of produAions, which
would render them more fubjeft to the oppreflion and
fpoliation of the agas. The town is fituated on a flat fhore,
■which with a cape not much advanced, and three iflets
placed at upwards of a league's diftance, proteft it feebly
from the N. and N.E. winds. When the Venetians were
mafters of the illand, it was tolerably well fortified, and
fufficiently peopled. They conftrufted a mole, in order to
Ihelter the veflels which came thither to load with the pro-
duftions of the province, or which brought thofe that were
neceflary to fupply the wants of the inhabitants. At this
day none but fmall boats may be feen at Settia. The po-
pulation has diminiflied confiderably, and the fortifications
are in the greateft diforder. It is the fee of a Greek bifhop ;
44 miles £.S.£. of Candia. N. lat. 35° 3'. E. long.
26° 3'.

SETTIAVERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Cicacole ; 30 miles S.W. of Coffimcotta.

SETTIMA, Ital., in Mufic, the interval of theyf•yfn//r,■
which fee.

SETTIMANA Santa, Ital., paffion-week, during
which holy time, the facred mufic of the higheit clafs ufed
to be performed in the mott perfedl and imprefllve manner
• in the pontifical chapel. See Miserere and Allegri.

SETTIMO, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Po ; 8 miles N. of Turin. — Alfo, a town
of Italy, in the department of the Tefino ; 5 miles N.N.E.
of Pavia.

SETTING, in AJlronomy, the withdrawing of a ftar or
planet ; or its finking below the horizon.

Aftronomers and poets make three different kinds of
fetting of the ftars : cnfmical, acronichal, and heliacal.

To find the times of the fetting of the iun and itars, fee
Globe.

Setting, in Seamanjhip. To fet the land, or the fun,
by the compafs, is to obferve how the land bears on any
point of the compafs, or on what point of the compafs the
fun is; likcwife the aft of obferving the fituation of any
diftant objeft by the compafs, in order to difcover the angle
which it makes with the nearelt meridian : as at feven pnjl
meridian, we fet the tover of Arabia near the port of
Alexandria, and it bore S.S.E. diftant four leagues by
eftimation. (See Bearing.) Alfo, wlien two (hips fail
. in fight ot one another, to mark on what point the chafed
bears, is termed Jetting the chafe by the cimpafs.

Setting alio denotes the direttion of tlie wind, current,
or fea, but partic\ibrly the two latter ; as, the tide, which
fets to the fouth, is oppofed to a fwelling fea, fetting to
the north-weft.

Setting, when applied to the fails, is the ioofing and
expanding them, fo as to give the (hip motion, or to acce-
lerate her vch.city, when (he is already moving, and perhaps
give a new dircftion to her motion. It is ufed in contra-
dillinftion to taking-in the fails, as looiing or heaviiig-out
is oppofed to furling or ftowing them.

Setting, in the language of Sporlfmcn, a term ufed
to cxprefs a manner of attacking partridges, in order
to the taking of them by means of a dog peculiarly

trained to that purpofe. The fetting-dog generally ufed is
a long land-fpaniel, taught by nature to hunt partridges
more than any other game, and in his untaught ftate
running over the fields in fearch of them, with an alacrity
that is truly wonderful ; yet by art this creature is brought
under fuch excellent command, that he will, in the midft
of his higheft career, attend to the leaft hem from his
mafter, and ftand ftill to look in his face, and take his
orders \>y the (lighteft fignals ; and when he is fo near his
game, that it is almott in his mouth, he will ftand ftill, or
lie down on his belly till his mafter arrive, and he receives
his direftions.

The fetting-dog being taken to the haunt of the
partridges is to be caft off, and fent to range ; but he muit
be made to keep near the fportfman, and not to run
wildly on, but to beat all the ground regularly. On being
reproved for ranging too widely and too far, he will keep
clofe the whole day, ai»d at times look up in his mafter's
face, to know if he does right or wrong. If in the dog's
ranging he ftop of a fudden, the fportlman is to make up
to him, and as there is certainly game before him, he muft
be ordered to advance ; if he refufes this and look back
and (hake his tail, it is a fignal that they are clofe before
him, and the fportfman is then to take a circumference,
and look with a carelefs eye before the dog's nofe to fee where
they are, and how they lie ; then going up, and (taking
down one end of the net, he is to command the dog to lie
ftill, and to draw the net gently over the birds ; then making
in witli a noife, he is to fpring them, and they will be en-
tangled and taken as they rife. It is a rule with fair fportf-
men, when they take a covey in this manner, always to let
the cock and hen go.

Setting, among Coci-Majlers, is the placing a cock
that has fought fo that he cannot ftand, beak to beak
againlt the other cock, and if he does not ftrike, the battle
is won.

SETTiNG-^own, in Falconry, is when a hawk is put into
mew.

SETTiNG-(/of, one trained up to find out and difcover to
the fportfman whereabout fowls are. See Spaniel and
Dog.

Setting-i/4, in Sh'tp-ButUtng, is raifing a ftiip by (hores
and wedges from her blocks, the aft of extending the
(hrouds, ftays, and back-ftays, to fecure the mafts, by the
apphcation of tackles, &c.

Setting, or Setting-to, the aft of making the planks,
&c. fay or fet clofe to the timbers, by driving wedges
between the plank, &c. and wrain-ftaff. Hence " (et, or
fet away," means to exert more ftrength. The power or
engine ufed for this purpofe is fimplc, and called ajett, and
is coinpofcd of two ring-bolts, and a wraiu-ftaff, cleats aud
la(hing, or (hores.

Setting, in /Igriculture and Gardening, the bufinefs of
putting fets of difterent kinds into the (ground, as thofe of
the potatoe, hop, madder, liquorice, lavender, and many
other kinds.

Setting out Plants, the praftice of thinning and reducing
them ; in the former, to their proper diftances, in order to
ftand for crops, as in the turnip, cabbage, and many other
forts of plants ; and, in the latter, the bufineis of putting
them into the ground as crops; it being praftifed for a
great many different forts of plants that are raifed on feed-
beds, as all the cabbage kind, lettuces, endives, beet^, and
many otlier plants of a fimiiar nature. It is ufually per-
formed as (01 in as the plants have acquired a proper ftate of
growth in the leed-bcds, and moftly when the weather is
cloudy and rather moift, as it can then be done to the

grcatcli

SET

SET

greateft advantage, in fo far as the plants aM concerned.
They are commonly put out in this way to the proper dif-
tances for growing as crops, and the work is for the moll
part done by means of a line and dibble. See Thinning

out Crops, and TRANSPLANTING.

Setting of Wheat, is a method of cultivating wheat,
which was probably firft fuggefted by planting grains in a
garden from mere curiofity, and firft attempted on a larger
fcale by a farmer near Norwich, about the year 1 768. His
example was followed by feme of his neighbours, and par-
ticularly by one of the largeft occupiers of land in the county
of Norfolk, who fet fifty-feven acres in one year. His fuc-
cefs, from the vifible fuperiority in his crop both in quantity
and quality, was fo great, that the following autumn he
fet three hundred acres, and afterwards continued the prac-
tice. The method of fetting was generally introduced, in
confequence of this experiment, among the intelligent
farmers, in a very large ditlrift of land. And it has been
obferved, in recommendation of it, that, although the fet
crops appear very thin during the autumn and winter, the
plants tiller and fpread prodigioufly in the fpring. The ears
are indifputably larger, without any dwarfifh or fmall corn ;
the grain is of a larger fathom, and fpecifically heavier per
bufhel than when fown. It fiirni(hes employment for aged
perfons and children, at a fealon when they have httle eU'e
to do ; it faves te the farmer fix pecks of feed-wheat in
every acre ; the expence is already reduced to about fix {hil-
lings an acre ; and a drill-plough has been invented, by
which one man may fet an acre a day.

The lands on which this method particularly fucceeds,
are either after a clover ftubble, or thofe on which trefoil
and grafs-feed were fown the fpring before the laft, and on
which cattle have occafionally paftured during the fummer.
Thefe grounds, after the ufual manuring, are once turned
over by the plough in an extended flag or turf, at ten inches
wide ; along which a man, who is called a dibbler, with two
fetting-irons, fomewhat bigger than ram-rods, but con-
fiderably bigger at the lower end, and pointed at the ex-
tremity, fteps backwards along the turf, and makes the
holes about four inches afunder every way, and an inch deep.
Into thefe holes, the droppers (women ^nd children ) drop
two grains, which are quite lumcient. After this, a gate,
bufhed with thorns, is drawn by one horfe over the land,
and clofes up the holes. By this mode, three pecks of
grain are fufficient for an acre ; and being immediately
buried, it is equally removed from vermin, or the power of
froft. The regularity of its rifing affords the beft oppor-
tunity of keeping clear from weeds, by weeding or hand-
hoeing.

Setting, a term ufed in fheep-management, which fig-
nifies the picking, choofing, and felefting thofe which are
the beft formed, and moft perfeft for the purpofes of breed-
ing, forming the flock, and keeping as ftock ; the others,
or the refufe ill-formed fiieep, being fold off, or fent to be
fattened in the proper paftures. The praftice is extremely
ufeful and neceflary, where good ftock of this kind is aimed
at, as it cannot be well obtained without it. See Sheep,
and Sorting Sheep-Stock.

Setting Lamb-Stock, a terra made ufe of to fignify the
praftice of culling and removing thofe lambs, which are any
way improper for being kept as ftock. It is an excellent
cuftom in ftieep-management, which fliould be as feldom as
poffible neglefted.

Setting of Farms, the bufinefs of letting them to
tenants of different kinds. Much care and attention are ne-
ceflary in the management of this bufinefs. See Letting
Farms.

Setting of Bricks. See Bricks.

SETTiNG-/'m, the name of a dibble or fetting-tool.

SETTiNG-^/iVi, the ftick ufed in fetting out plants or
cuttings as field crops, and iti putting in and planting out
thofe ufed for garden culture.

SETTLE, in Geography, a market-town in the parifh
of Gigglefwick, weft d'vifion of the wapentake of Staia>
chffe and Ewcrofs, Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, is fituated
at the diftance of 58 miles W. by N. from York, and z^z
miles N.W. by N. from London. The pofition of this
town, though fingular, is pleafant, Handing clofe to the
bafe of an almoft perpendicular lime-ftone rock, about
300 feet high ; from the fummit of which is a fine profpeft
of an expanfive vale, bounded on all fides by craggy moun-
tains. This vale, which is watered by the river Ribble, and
hence has acquired the appellation of Ribblefdale, is not
furpaffed by any in England in richnefs of verdure. As the
prevalence of fogs and rains prevents the ripening of corn, it
is almoft wholly appropriated to pafturage ; and fuch is its
fertility, that the greater part of it rents as high as fix
pounds an acre. According to the parliamentary returns
of 181 1, Settie townfhip contains 274 houfes, and 1 153
inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in the cotton manu-
fadu'-e, and in the purfuits of husbandry. Like moft of
the other towns and villages in this diftrift, it is principally
built of ftone, brick being ufed only for the chimnies.
The market day here is Friday, weekly ; and the fairs are
on Tuefday before Palm Sunday, Thurfday before Good
Friday, and every alternate Friday till Whitfunday, 26th
April, 2d June, 1 8th and 21ft Auguft, firft Tuefday after
27th OSober, and every other Monday throughout the
year. Thefe fairs are generally well attended, and are
noted for large fupphes of cattle.

About a mile to the N.W. of Settle is the village of
Gigglefwick, which gives name to the parifh, and where
the church is accordingly fituated. This village is re-
markable for an excellent free grammar-fchool, founded in
the reign of Edward VI., and fupported by rich endow,
ments in land. At prefent the falary of the mafter is 5C0/.
per annum, that of the ufher 200/., and that of the writing-
mafter 150/.; and each has a good houfe, garden, and
every convenience for a comfortable dweUing. Near
Gigglefwick is a fpring, which exhibits the fingular phe-
nomenon of a conftant influx and reflux of its waters at ir-
regular periods, fometimes thrice or oftener in an hour.
No fatisfaftory explanation of this fingularity has yet been
offered to public notice.

At the diftance of feveral miles further to the N.W.
from Settle, on the road to Kendle in Weftmoreland, ftands
Irgleton, a large village, the vicinity of which prefents
many objedls worthy the attention of the admirers of ro-
mantic fcenery. Among thefe are Thornton-Scar, Yordas
Cave, and Weathercote Cave, and the mountains of Ingle-
borough, Pennigant, and Wharnfide. Thornton-Scar is a
tremendous chafm, above 300 feet ia depth, which extends
a confiderable way into the mountains, and is fo narrow to-
wards the bottom, that the fides in fome places approach
within a few feet of each other. Yordas Cave is fituated
under a mountain, called Greg-roof. It is entered through
a rude arched opening, refembling the gateway of an an-
cient cafUe, and extends about 170 feet in length, 40 in
breadth, and 48 in height. On one fide are feveral re-
cefles, and the roof and walls exhibit a variety of petrifac-
tions. Weathercote Cave difplays fcenery itill more ro-
mantic and fublime. It is of a lozenge form, and divided
into two by a grotefque arch of hme-ftone rock j the total
length about 200, and the breadth about 90 feet. At the

fouth

SET

fouth end is an entrance down into a fmall cave, which com-
municates with the larger one by a fubterraneous paflage,
« where the allonilhed vifitant fees, ifluing from a large
aperture in the rock, an immenfe cataraft, falling above
20 yards in an unbroken (heet, with a noife that ftuns the
ear. The water difappears as it falls from the rocks and
pebbles, and runs about a mile under ground. The whole
cave is filled with the fpray that arifes from the cataraft,
and fometimes a fmall vivid rainbow appears, which for
colour, fize, and fituation, is fcarcely any where elfe to be
equalled."

But the moft fublime features of this romantic diftrift
are the mountains of Ingleborough, Pennigant, and Wharn-
fide. The fummit of Ingleborough is level and horizontal,
and, from its great elevation, commands extenfive profpefts
on all fides. To the eaft, the pifturefque country of Craven
prefents a confufed ademblage of hills, gradually diminifh-
ing in height till they vanifii in the horizon. Pennigant, at
the dillance of four miles, appears to be almoil within a
leap ; as do alfo the rocks of Settle and Pendlehill. The
northern and north-weftern profpeft exhibits a mafs of
mountains. Wharnfide is within the diftance of fix miles,
and Snowdon and Crosfell are clearly vifible in the back
?M>und. Towards the weft the flat country of Lancafliire
Kes as in a map, and the profpeft extends far into the Irifh
fea, the nearett point of which is 24 miles from Ingle-
borough. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. by
John Bigland, 8vo. 18 1 3.

SETTLEMENT, Aa of, in Brltl/h Hiftory, a name
given to the ftatute 12 & 13 W. III. cap. 2. by which the
crown was limited to his prefent majefty's illuftrious houfe ;
and feme new provifions were added, at the fame fortunate
era, for better fecuring our religion, laws, and liberties ;
which the ftatute declares to be the birth-right of the people
of England, according to the ancient doftrine of the com-
mon law. See Right of Crowk.

Settlement, Marriage. See Marriage.

Settlement «f the Poor. See Poor.

SETTLING a Deck, at Sea, a term for taking a deck
lower than it was at firll.

Settling the Land, denotes finking it lower, by failing
farther out to feaward, and is ufc-d in the fame fenfe with
laying the land.

SETTOREE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; ^6
miles N.W. of Burdwan.

SETTOVITONE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dora ; 4 miles N. of Ivrea.

SETTS, powers made ufe of, where force is required,
to bring or unite two or more pieces together. The opera-
tion is performed by fcrews, fhores, crofs-fetts, or cleets.

Setts, Crofs, are made by two fhort pieces of fpars,
about four or fix feet in length : one is laid acrofs on tlie
upper fide, and the other on the under fide, of any two
pieces that are to be brought together, and their ends laflied
together on each fide with feveral turns of rope, taken
round each end alternately : wedges are then driven in be-
tween the upper crofs-piece, and the fide or part of the
maft.

Setts for Saiui, inllruments for fetting their teeth,
when out of order.

SETUNA, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
Grain Coalt.

SETUVAL, or St. Uhes, a ftrong fca-port town of
Portugal, in the province of Eftrcmadvira, fituated in a bay
of the Atlantic, at the mouth of the river Sandao, with a
good harbour, capable of receiving any ftiips of burden.
This town was founded on the ruins of the ancient Cedo-

S E V

briga, vphich vra« deftroyed by the Moors. The environs
abound in corn, wine, and oil. Befides the old walls and
towers, it is ftrengthened with eleven whole and two demi-
baftions, with feveral other out-works. It has likewife a
ttrong citadel, called " St. Phihp," in which is a fpring of
excellent water; and the ftrong fort of Outao, near the
harbour, which alfo ferves for a light.houfe, exclufive of
which it has two fmaller forts. It contains four churches,
two hofpitals, ten convents, an acidemia problcmatica,
founded by John V., and about 10,000 fouls. In 1796,
the number of veflels which entered this harbour was 558 ;
and the fame number failed from it ; 15 miles S.S.E. of
Li/bon. N. lat. 38° 29'. E. long. 8^ J3'.

SETWELL, in Botany, a name fometimes ufed for a
fpecies of valerian.

SETZINI, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Sandomirz : near it are fome filver mines, and
fome lapis-lazuli ; 16 miles W. of Malogocz.

SEV, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Defna, near
Trubchevfli, in the government of Orlov.

SEU, a river of Malacca, which runs into the Chinefe
fea, N. lat. 6° 45'. E. long. 10° 19'.

SEVAJEE, in Biography, a diftinguifhed perfon in the
hiftory of Hindooftan, the founder of the modern Mahratts
empire, was the fon of Shawjee, who, from an humble fitua-
tion, had raifed himfelf by his talents to be guardian to a
minor of the houfe of Ni/.am Shah. On a Mogul invafion
of the country, being clofely purfued by the troops of his
father-in-law, Jadoo Row, with whom he was at enmity,
Shawjee efcaped with an infant fon, and left his pregnant
wife to fall into the hands of her father. She was kindly
received, and was delivered of her fecond fon, Sevajee, the
fubjeft of this article, in the month of May 1626, and
finally feparated from her hufband.

Sevajee, at the age of 17, placed himfelf at the head of a
body of banditti, who pillaged all the neighbouring dif-
tridls, which fo affefted the perfon who had been entrufted
with the care of his education, that he put an end to his
life. Upon this, Sevajee took polTeffion of the property
accumulated from his father's eftate, and increafed the
number of his followers, fo as to become a moft formidable
free-booter. His exploits foon rendered him dangerous to
the government of Vifiapour, which fent a powerful army
againft him, and brought him to fubniiflion. Sevajee aiked
pardon for his offences, and, by the humility of his deport-
ment, threw the general, fent againft him, off his guard,
till he found an opportunity to ftab him to tiie heart with a
concealed dagger : in confoquence of which the army dif-
perfed. Shawjee, the father of this dcfpcrate young man,
was now high in office at Vifiapour, and though he pre-
tended entirely to have renounced his fon, a correfpondence
between them was fufpefted, and a plan was formed for
fcizing his perfon, and putting him to death. He was,
however, faved by the intcrccffion of a patron, and at length
reftored to office. But he was refolved to have ample re-
venge for the affront, and caufcd Sevajee to murder the
chief who had feized him, and his whole family. After
this Shawjee paid a vifit to his fon at Poona in great ftate,
and manifcfted much afteftion and refpcft for him.

Sevajee now proceeded in a career of luccefsful predatory
war, and in 1664 pillaged the rich city of Surat. Having,
in 1672, laid the king of Golconda midcr a heavy contri-
bution, he afterwards entered into an alliance with a poten-
tate againft the Mogul and the king of Vifiapour, the
objedl of which was the expulfion of all the Mahometan
powers from the Deccan ; and marching with a great army,
ill 1677, towards Golconda, he took pollcdion of many
4 fortrcflct,

S E V

S E V

fortrefles, and pillaged the whole country. His half-
brother, Eccojee, was now king of Tanjore ; and the dif-
ferent branches of the family were poflefTed of a large
portion of the fouth of India.

The principal dominions of Sevajee were in the tra£l
called Concan, extending from the fouth of Sural to the
fouth of Goa, which rendered him completely mafter of
the weltern Gauts ; from which he was, at all times, able
to ilTue and ravage the plain country, while it was impof-
fible to force him from his faltnefl'es : hence he was deno-
minated by Aurungzebe the mountain rat. Sevajee con-
tinued this courfe of aftion till his death in 1680, when he
was fucceeded in his conquells by his fon Sambajee.

SEVANI, in Geography., a town of Perfian Armenia,
on a lake ; 40 miles E. of Erivan.

SEVASTOPOL, a fea-port town of RulTia, in the
province of Tauris, on the coaft of the Black fea, with an
excellent harbour for men of war ; 80 miles S. of Pereltop.
N. lat. 44° 45'. E. long. 33° 24'.

SEUBELSDORF, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 6 miles N. of Culmbach.

SEUBITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; 8 miles S.S.E. of Bayreuth.

SEUCKENDORF, a town of Germany, in the marg-
gravate of Anfpach ; 4 miles E. of Langenzen.

SEUDRE, a river of France, which runs into the fea,
oppofite the ifle of Oleron, N. lat. 45° 49'. W. long.
1° 5'.

SEVE, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Oife, celebrated for its manufafture of china ;
li poll S.W. of Paris.

SEVEKTEN, or Sevekote, a town of France, in the
department of the Lys ; 10 miles S.W. of Bruges.

SEVEN, a river of Yorkfhire, which runs into the
Derwent.

Sev'en Ages, rocks in the Caribbean fea, near the S.E.
coail of the ifland of Blanca.

Seven Brothers, a clufter of fmall iflands near the
north coaft of Hifpaniola. N. lat. 19° 53'. W. long.

72° 35'-

Seven Capes. See Sebba Rous.

Seven Heads, a promontory of the county of Cork,
Ireland, well of Courtmafherry bay, and 6 miles W.S.W.
of the old head of Kinfale. N. lat. ?i° aV. W. Ion?.
8° 41'. ^ ^ ^

Seven Islands, a clufter of fmall iflands in the Ealt
Indian fea. S. lat. 1° 9'. E. long. ioj° 21'.

Seven Islands, a duller of iflands near the weft coaft
©f Sumatra, lying off^ Padang.

Seven Islands, a clufter of fmall iflands in the Englifli
Channel, near the coaft of France. N. lat. 48° 54'. W.

long- 3° 23'-

Seven Islands, a republic fo named, lately formed by
the union of the iflands of Zante, Cephalonia, Corfu, Ce-
rigo, Curzola, St. Maura or Leucadia, and Teaki, confti-
tuted about the year 1799, acknowledged by tlie Ottoman
Porte, and by the French and Great Britain, at the peace
of Amiens, 1802.

Seven Islands, fmall iflands of Virginia, in James river.
N. lat. 37° 40'. W. long. 78' 32'.

Seven Islands, a clufter of fmall iflands near the coaft
of Canada, in the gulf of St. Lawrence. N. lat. 50° 10'.
W. long. 66° 5'.

Seven Islands' Bay, a bay of Canada, on the north
fide of the river St. Lawrence. N. lat. co° c'. W. long.
66" 2j'. ^ ^ ^

Seven Pagodas, a town of Hindoottan, in the Carnatie;
30 miles S. of Madras.

Seven Rocks' Point, a cape in the Englifti Channel,
on the coaft of Dorfetfltire.; 3 miles S.W. of Lyme
Regis.

SEVENAER, or Zevenaer, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Cleves ; 10 miles N. of Cleves.

SEVENBERGEN, a town of Dutch Brabant ; 8 miles
N.W. of Breda.

SEVENNES, or Cevennes, mountains of France,
crofting the department of the Lozere, particularly me-
morable as being the ftrong hold of the Proteftants in the
17th century, and beginning of the 18th.

SEVENOAKS, or Sevenoke, a market-town, in a
parifli of the fame name, hundred of Codsheath, lathe of
Sutton at Hone, and county of Kent, England, is fituated
on high ground at the diftance of 16 miles W. by N. from
Maidllone, and 33 miles S.E. from London. In the
Textus Roffenfis the name is writtea Seauanacca, and is
faid to have been fuggefted by the circumftance of a clufter
of feven large oaks growing on the fcite of the town, at the
time of its foundation. The principal building here is the
church, wiiich forms a confpicaous objeft for feveral miles
round the country. It formerly contained a chantry chapel,
founded by fir Henry Gawdy, who was buried within it.
The only monument of note is that of William Lambarde,
the celebrated Kentifli antiquary, whofe family had a feat
in this parifli. Here are an alms-houfe and free-fchool,
originally built and endowed by fir William de Sevenoke,
in the beginning of the 15th century. They were fubfe-
qucntly incorporated under the title of the free grammar-
fchool of queen Elizabeth, and now poffefs a revenue of
nearly 1000/. a-year. The fchool-houfe was rebuilt in
1727, at which time the alms-houfe was fubftantially re-
paired. The former has fix exhibitions to either univerfity,
and the latter affords an afylum to thirty-two elderly
trades-people, who have a weekly allowance in money.
This town confifts chiefly of two w^ide rtreets, in one of
which ftands the ancient market-houfe, where the allizes
were frequently held during the reign of queen Elizabeth,
and where the petty feflions for the lathe of Sutton at Hone
are ftill held. Many of the lioufes are large and rcfpedlable
manfions, inhabited by independent families. The market-
day here is Saturday, weekly ; and there are two annual
fairs on the loth of .Inly and the 22d of Oftober. Seven-
oaks town and parifli conftitute a liberty, governed by a
warden or bailiff and four afliftants, who are net, however,
empowered to hold any court of record for pleas. Ac-
cording to the parliamentary returns of 1811, this hberty
contains 638 houfes and 3444 inhabitants, of whom about
1500 refide in the town. Hiftory and Topographical
Survey of Kent, by Edward Hafted, 8vo. 1797, vol. iii.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. viii. by E. W. Bray-
ley, 8vo. 1 805.

SEVENTH, Septima, in Mufic, an interval, called by
the Greeks heptachordon ; of which there are four kinds.

The firft, the defective or dimini/hed feventh, confifting of
three tones, and three greater femitones, as from ut (harp
to ft flat : its ratio is 1 28 to 75.

The fecond, called by Zarlini, and the Italians, yfm;V/;Vtf/)o
con dtapente, or fettimo minore, is compofed diatonically of
feven degrees, and fix intervals, four of which are tones,
and the reft greater femitones, as from de to vt ; and chro-
matically of ten femitones, fix of which are greater, and
four lefs : it takes its form from the ratio guadripartiens
quint as, 9 to 5.

The third, called by the Italians i7 ditono con diapeate, or

Jcllima

S E V

fett'imo magkre, is compofed diatonically, like the former,
of (even degrees, and fix intervals, fix of which are full
tones, and a fingle one a greater femitone ; fo that only-
one greater femitone is wanting of the oftave ; as from ;;/
to fi: and chromatically of eleven femitones, fix of which
are greater, and five lefler. It takes its origin from the
ratio of 15 to 8.

The fourth is the redundant feventh, compofed of five
tones, a greater femitone and a lefler, as from f. flat to la
(harp : fo that it only wants a comma of an oclave ; that is,
fo much as it wants to render its fecond femitone a greater.
Hence many confound it with the oftave itfelf ; maintain-
ing, with good reafon, that only the three firft fevenths
can be of any ufe.

In thorough bafles the feventh, whether double, fimple,
major, or minor, is marked by a figure of 7 ; but if it be
accidentally flat, or minor, thus, 6 7, or 7 b- If fiiarp,
major, thus, * 7, or 7 *. Again, if when it is naturally
minor, it be marked with a flat, it mull be diminilhed.
See Fundamental.

SEVERAC le Chateau, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Aveyron, and chief place of a canton,
in the diitridl of Milhau ; 21 miles E. of Rodes. The place
contains 21 13, and the canton 60JI inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of ^\^\ kiliomctres, in 7 communes. N. lat. 46°
19'. E. long. 3° 9'.

SEVERAL, in Agriculture, the fame as dole. See
Dole.

Sever.AL Tail, or Inheritance, in Law. See INHERIT-
ANCE.

Several Tenancy, Temna fepciraJis, a plea, or exception
taken to a writ that is laid againft two perfons as joint te-
nants, who areyfi;^/-a/.

SEVERALTY, EJlatn in. He that holds lands or
tenements in feveralty, or is fole tenant of them, is he who
holds them in his own right only, without any other perfon
being connefled with him in point of intereft, during his
eftate therein.

Severalty Land, in Agriculture, fuch as is in an open
field (late, and divided amongft many. It is a bad fituation
or tenure of land, and ought to be done away as foon as
poflible.

SEVERANCE, in Law, the Jingling or fevering two
or more that join, or are joined, in the fame writ or
a£lion.

As if two join in a writ, de Ubertate probanda, and the
one be afterwards nonfuitcd ; here Icverance is permitted, fo
as, notwithftanding the iionfuit of the one, the other may
feverally proceed.

There is alfo feverancc of the tenants in aflife ; when one,

-two, or more difleifees .ippear upon the writ, and not the

^ other. And fcverance in debt, where two executors are

named plaintiffs, and the one refufes to profccute. We

alfo meet with fcverance of fummons, feverance in attaints,

&c.

An eftate in joint tenancy may be fevered and dcllroyed by
dellroying any of its ujiities. i. That of time, which re-
fpefts only the original commencement of the joint ellate,
cannot indeed (being now palt) lie affefted by any lubfe-
quent tranfadlion. But, 2. The joint-tenant's eftate may
be deftroycd, without any alienation, by merely difiuiiting
their poftefiion. 3. The jointure may be deftroyed, by de-
llroying the unity of title. And 4. By dcftroying the unity
of intereft. Blackft. Comm. book ii.

Severanci: of Corn. The cutting and carrying it from
Vol. XXXII.

S E V

off the ground ; and fometimes the fetting out the tythe?
from the reft of the corn, is called feverance.

SEVERIA, or Sieweirz, in Geography, a town of
Auftrian Poland, in Galicia, capital of a duchy fold by the
duke of Tefchen to the biftiops of Cracow ; . 4 miles N. W.
of Cracow.

Severia, a town of European Turkey, in the Morca ; 14
miles N.E. of Mifitra.

SEVERIANS, Severiani, ia Ecckfafical Hi/lory.
There were two lefts of heretics thus called : the firft, who
are as old as the beginning of the third century, were an
impure branch of the Gnoftics ; thus called from their chief,
Severus.

The feeond, by fome called Severites, were a feft of Mo-
nophyfite?, or Eutychians ; their leader, Severus, was pre-
ferred to the fee of Antiochin 513, where he did his utmoil
to fet afide the council of Chalcedon.

SEVERIK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the government of Diarbekir ; 50 miles W. of Diar-
bekir.

SEVERIN, or Szoresy, a town of Walachia, on
the Danube, founded by the emperor Severus ; 1 2 miles E.
of Orfova.

SEVERINUS, pope, in Biography, a Roman, was
elefted foon after the death of Honorius, in 638, but was not
confecrated till May 640, when the papal fee had been va-
cant nearly two years. This delay was owing to the refu-
fal of the emperor to confirm the elcftion till the clergy
of Rome had promifed that their bifhop fliould fign the de-
claration of faith relative to the one will of Chrift, drawn up
by Sergius, the patriarch of Conftantinople, and publiflied
by Heraclius. During the vacancy of the fee, the Lateran
palace was plundered of all its treafures by the exarch of
Ravenna. At length the confirmation of the eleftion of
Severinus arrived, but he enjoyed his elevation only about
two months, which afforded opportunity for no remarkable
aft, except that he refufed to receive the declaration, and
even publilhed a decree condemning it.

Severinus, Marcus Aurelius, a diftinguifhed phyfi-
cian, was born at Tarfia, in Calabria, in the year 1580.
His early inclination led liim to the fhidy of the law ; but
he fubfequently abandoned that purfuit for the profeflion of
medicine, and received the degree of doftor in the univerfity
of Naples. He became ultimately one of the niofl cele-
brated profeftbrs of that fchool, and taught anatomy and
furgery with fuch reputation, as to attraft a crowd of flu-
dents to the univerfity. His method of treating furgical
fubjefts in his writings was highly commended by Bartliolin.
He was, however, a harfli praftitioncr, and cenlurcd the
inertncfs of his contemporaries, for neglefting the cautery
and the knife, as employed by the ancients, and himfelf car-
ried the ufe of the aftual cautery to a great extent. He died
at Naples, on the 15th of July, 1656, at the age of feventy-
fix. He was a man of bold and original mind, but fome-
what attached to paradox ; and was the author of feveral
publications, of which we have the following catalogue.
" Hiftoria Anatomica, Oblervatioque medica evifcerati ho-
minis 5" 1629. " De recondita abfceffuum natura Libri
ofto ;" 1630, which paifed through many editions. " Vi-
pera Pythiar, id eft, de Vipers; natura, veucno, et medicina ;"
1643. " Zootonica Democritea, id efl, Anatome gcncra-
lis totius animantiuin opifitii. Lib. v." 1645, containing the
refult of his difleftion of a great many animals. " De cfli-
caci Medicinn, Libri iii." 1646. In this work he extols the
advantages of fire and fteel in the cure of difeafes. " De
I.,apide fuiigifero, de Lapide fungimappa, Epiftolae du« ;"
Y y 1649-

S E V

1649. " Therapeuta Neapolitanus, five curandarum Fe-
brium et Morborum internorum Methodus ;" 1653. " Tri-
membris Chinirgia ;" 1653. «' Seilo-Phlebotome caftigata,
five de Venx Salvatellae ufu et abufu cenfiira ;" 16J4.
" De Aqua Pericardii, cordis adipe, poris choledocis ;"
1654. At the time of his death, Severini was pre-
paring for publication fome papers, which he meant to
lUuftrate by engravings ; they were publi(hed together,
and entitled, «' Antiperipatias, hoc eft, adverfus Arifto-
teleos de refpiratione pifcium Diatriba." " Commenta-
rius, in Theophraftum de pifcibus in ficco viventibus."
" Phoca anatomice fpeftatus ;" 1661. A fort of extraft
or abridgment of his writings on furgery waj alfo publilhed
in 1664, with the title of " Synopfeos Chirurgicse Libri vi."
See Eloy Did. Hift.

SEVERN, in Geography, the fecond moft important
river in England, is fuppofed by fome antiquaries to de-
rive its name from the Britifh word fabrin, fandy, or
muddy ; but others, with greater probability, confider it as
a corruption of the Saxon X.ern\ fiferne, which fignifies fea-
flowing. This river has its fource from a large bog on the
top of Plinlimmon-hill, in Montgomeryfhire, North Wales,
whence running down with a fvvift current, and being joined
by many leffer torrents, it prefently appears confiderable ;
and paffing by Llanydlos and Newtown, becomes navigable
near Welfh-Pool, where the river Vernew joins it with a
ttream little inferior to its own. From thence proceeding
gently to Shrewfbur)*, which it almoft furronnds, it flows
on through a rich vale, with many extenfive windings, to
Benthall Edge ; by the way receiving into it the river Tern,
which waters all the north of Shropfhire. Here the Severn
begins to be rapid, being pent up from thence, to Bridge-
north and Bewdley, by high woody banks and rocky cliffs,
which afford a variety of beautiful profpefts. Afterwards
it again glides pleafantly on through the fertile plains of
Worcefterfhire, vifiting in its courfe the city of Worcefter
itfelf, near which it receives the waters of the Temc. At
Tewkefbury it forms a junftion with the Avon, and there-
after purfues its courfe to Gloucelter, about fifty miles be-
low which city the name of Severn is loft in that of the
Briftol channel.

The Severn is a river of great importance, being navi-
gated by vcfi'els of large burthen for more than 160 miles
from its mouth, without the aflillance of any lock. Up-
wards of 100,000 tons of coal are annually fhipped by tlie
collieries about Madeley and Brofeley, for the cities and
towns fitiiated on its bank?, and thence conveyed into the
adjacent connties. Great quantities of grain, pig and bar
iron, iron manufaftures, and earthen-ware, as alfo wool,
bops, cider and provifions, are likewife fent to Briftol and
other places, whence various kinds of goods are brought in
return. This traffic is carried on with veffcls of two forts,
the larger ones being called trows, and the leffer ones barges,
or frigates. In May 1756, the number of thefe veffels navi-
gating from Welfh-Pool, in Montgomeryfhire, to Briftol,
amounted to 376 ; but in confequence of the addition of the
inland canals from the Trent, the Merfey, and the Thames,
into the Stroud navigation, it may be fairly calculated that
more than double that number are now employed. This
river is peculiarly remarkable for its tide, which rolls in
with a head of three or four feet high, foaming and roaring
in its courfe, as if enraged by the oppofition it meets with
from the ftrong defcending current of frelh water, which
feems to contend with it for the fuperionty. They clafh in
fwch a maruier as to dafh the waters to a confiderable height.
This conteft is called the hygrc, or ea^ir, as Rudder fup-

S E V

pofes, from the French eau-guerre, i. e. water-war. Dray-
ton, in his Poly-Albion, defcribes it in thefe words.

■ " With whofe tumultuous waves.

Shut up in narrow bounds, the Hygre wildly raves,

And 'frights the ftraggling flocks, the neighbouring fhore

to fly
Afar, as from the main it comes with hideous cry.
And on the angry front the hideous foam doth bring.
The billows 'gainft the banks when fiercely it doth fling,
Hurles up the flimy ooze, and makes the fcaly brood
Leap madding to the land, affrighted from the flood ;
O'erturns the toiling barge, whofe fteerfman doth not

launch.
And thrufts the furrowing beake into her ireful paunch."

Rudder, in his " Hiftory of Glouceilerfhire," remarks that
the bailiwick of the Severn is veiled in the crown ; that
John Arnold obtained a leafe of it in 1669 for 31 years, at
10/. a-year, and that the bailiff in 1779 was a Mr. Ed-
ward Baylis. From the rapid and boilterous charafter of
this river, its waters are extremely muddy, a circumftance
which renders it unfavourable as an abode for iifh. It is,
however, well furniflied with falmon in fome of the calmer
fpots, and is particularly famous for lampreys. For an ac-
count of the local circumftances of this river, and the
fcenery on its banks, fee the articles Montgomeryshire,
SuROP-sHiRE, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire,
alfo Welsh- Pool, Shrewsbury, and Worcester.
Skrine's Hiftory of Rivers, 8vo. Atkyns's Ancient and
prefent State of Gloucefterfhire, folio, 1768. Rudder's
New Hiftory of Gloucefterfhire, fol. 1779. Fofbiooke's
Abftrafts of Records and Manufcripts refpefting the
County of Gloucefter, 4to. 1807. Nafti's Hiftory of Wor-
cefterfhire, fol. 1782. Alfo Tours in Wales by Pennant,
Binglcy, Hutton, Skrine, Warner, and Wyndham.

Severn, a river of America, in Maryland, which runs
into the Chefapeak, a little below Annapolis. — Alfo, a river
of North America, which runs into Hudfon's bay, with
a fettlement at its month, called " Severn Houfe." N. lat.
56°. W. long. 88°. — Alfo, a river of North America,
which runs from lake Simcoe to lake Huron. — Alfo, a river
of Virginia, which runs into the Chefapeak bay, N. lat.
37° 23'. W. long. 76° 27'.

SEVERNDROOG, a fea-port town and fortrefs of
Hindooftan, in Concan, taken by the Englifh in 1756 ; 68
miles S. of Bombay. N. lat. 17° 55'. E. long. 72° 50'.

SEVERUS, Lucius-Septimius, in B'wgraphy, a Ro-
man emperor, was born at Leptis, in Africa, in the year 146
of the Chriftian era. His father, Septimius Geta, was of
a Roman equeftrian family, and his tw j paternal uncles were
raifed to the confular dignity. Severus was liberally edu-
cated, and made a proficiency in rhetorical ftudies. He
came to Rome in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, by whom
he was raifed to the offices of advocate of the treafury, and
fenator. His youth was licentious ; he however pafled with
credit through the offices of quzftor, tribune of the people,
and prsetor, in confequence of his aftive and regular perform-
ance of his public duties. After his quxttorfhip, he went
into Africa, as lieutenant of the proconful, wliere he fhewed
his fenfeof the dignity of oflSce, and the importance of ftrift
difcipline, by caufing an old acquaintance of ordinary rank
to be fcourged for greeting him familiarly, as he was walking, 11
preceded by liftors. After he had completed the prxtorian
year, he was fent to Spain with the command of a legion.
He pafted fome time in retirement at Athens, at the beginning
of the reign of Comraodus ; after this, however, he was

raifed

SEVERUS.

raifed to the higheft honours, being fucceflively appointed
governor of the diftridl of JLyons, conful, and commander
of the legions polled on the banks of the Danube.

At the death of Commodus, Severus acquiefced in the
elevation of Pertinax to the throne ; but when, after the
murdifr of that prince, the empire was purchafed by Didius
Juhanus, he procured himfelf to be declared emperor by his
Paniionian lejyions, in the year 193. Senfible that nothing
was fo eflential to his fuccefs as celerity, after preparing his
troops, he immediately commenced his march, which he per-
formed on foot, at the head of a feleft body of guards,
(haring with the meanell foldier all the hardihips of his rapid
advance. He entered Italy without meeting with any re-
filtance, Julianus being incapable of any confillent and
cfFeftive meafures. On his approach to Rome, his competitor
was depofed and put to death, and Severus received the de-
cree of his eleftion to the empire. His firll aft of power
was to inflift a jult punifhment on thofe of the prstorian
guards who were immediately concerned in the murder of
Pertinax, which was the only blood that his elevation
hitherto coft. Though he fpared the lives of the reft of that
mutinous and dilTolute body, he determined to difband
them, and with this view he fummoned them on a plain near
the city, ordering them to come without arms. He now re-
proached them for their want of diicipline, llripped them of
their ornaments, and ordered them, on pain of initant death,
to depart to the diftance of one iiundred miles from the
capital. Severus was not fecure on his throne, having to
contend with two formidable rivals, Pefcennius Niger, go-
■vernor of Syria, and Clodius Albinus, commander in Britain.
Niger being the more powerful, Severus made the firft attack
upon him ; and in the mean time, to fecure himfelf againft
the attacks of Albinus, he flattered his vanity, conferring
upon him the title of Ca:far ; and in a letter conceived in
terms of apparent refpedl and friend(hip, he requefted him to
partake with himfelf the toils of government, which age and
infirmity rendered him unable to undergo without an aflb-
ciate. In this manner he difarmed the unlufpefling foldier.
Severus now marched out to encounter Niger, whom he
defeated in feveral battles, of which the laft was at Illus, in
Cilicia. Severui was now freed from further conteft by the
death of his rival, who was flain in his flight to the
Euphrates, but he ufed his victory with great rigour ; he
banilhed and afterwards put to death the fons of Niger,
feverely fined all the towns which had taken his part, and
executed all the fenators who had been officers in his army.
Taking Byzantium after a long fiege, he difmantlcd and
reduced it to the condition of a village, confifcating all the
property of the inhabitants. He remained in Afia fome
time after the victory over Niger, and made an expedition
into Melopotamia, where he obliged the Parthians to raife
the fiege of Nifibis, and gained other advantages over the
Barbarians on the frontiers.

Severus was now too great to think of fharing his power
with a partner : he accordingly deprived Albinus of the
prerogatives attaching to the title of Caefar, while Albinus
laid claim to the rank of Auguftus. An open rupture
enfued, and each prepared to decide the conteft. They met
at Lyons, each at the head of 150,000 men, equal in valour
and difciplinc. Severus was the conqueror, and his rival
dertroyed himfelf. This event took place in 197. Severus
being now undifputcd mafter of the empire, indulged
without reftraint his difpofition to cruelty. After putting
to death the family of Albinus, and all the prifoners of rank
taken in the battle, together with many citizens in the towns
of Gaul, which had favoured his rival, he extended his
Severity t« the Roman fcnate, which had difpUyed an

inchnation towards the caufe of Albinus. By way of infult
to that body, he conferred divine honours on the tyrant Com-
modus, whofe memory they had declared to be deteftable and
mfamous ; and when he returned to Rome, he made a
reproachful and menacing fpeech to the allembled fenate,
followed by the execution, without trial, of twcnty-ninc, or,
as another account fays, of forty-one of the molt diilinguilhed
members, whom of his own accord he pronounced guilty of
favouring the enemy. Confcious of having thus made
himfelf odious to the fuperior dalles, he endeavoured, by
all the means in his power, to ingratiate himlelf with the
people at large by public exhibitions, and by exemptions from
certain duties ; and it has been affirmed that, notwithllanding
his tyranny, peace and profperity were generally prevalent
throughout the empire during the reign of this emperor.
Severus ftudioully cultivated the affeftion of the foldiery,
by the augmentation of their pay, and by privileges and in-
dulgences which he granted them, and which have been con-
fidered as materially tending to introduce that relaxation of
military difcipline which in the end put a period to the
Roman empire.

He fupplied the place of the praetorian guards, whom he
had difbanded, by a more numerous body, feleded from all
the legions, and confifting, in great part, of the natives of
barbarous natfons ; and he conferred unufual authority on
their commander Plautianus. To his reign is chiefly attri-
buted the introduftion of thofe maxims of imperial preroga-
tive which entirely put an end to all ideas of a republic, and
placed the government upon the footing of an abfolute and
unlimited monarchy. The indolence of the capital did not
fuit the difpofition of Severus. Learning that, while he wai
engaged with Albinus, the Parthians had made an irruption
into Mefopotamia, and threatened Nifibis, he hartened into
the Eaft, and not only relieved that city, but took Seieucii
and Cteflphon. He then marched towards Armenia, the
king of which country fued for peace, and obtained it.
Some fuccefsful incurfions into Arabia concluded his eallern
expedition, from which he returned in the year 203, after an
abfence of five or fix years. He celebrated hi.s vidorics by
many fplendid fpeftacles ; and in the fame year he married his
fon Caracalla, whom he had fome years before created Au-
guftus, to the daughter of Plautianus ; his fecond, Geta,
had been elevated to the rank of Crfar, and both thefe
princes had received their honours at a very early age.
This union, which feemcd likely to exalt the favourite
minilter Plautianus to the fummit of fortune, was the caufe
of his dellruftion, for Caracalla, who had acquired a great
afccndancy over his father, fcorned his bride, and hated her
father, and procuring an accufation againll him of having
formed a conlpiracy to take away the emperor's life, he
caufed him to be killed in the prefence of Severus. His
death drew after it that of many of his relations and ad-
herents, and the cruelty of the emperor increafed with hit
years. The reciprocal hatred between his two fons, and
the ferocious charaftcr of the eldeft, were fourccs of the
utmoil difquietude to him in the midft of his external pro-
fperity. He in vain employed every argument to reconcile
them, and at length he placed them on a pcrfeit equality, by
raifing Geta, as well as his brother, to the rank of Auguftus.
It was chiefly with a view of removing thefe princes from
the liccntioufiiefs of the capital, and keeping them under
his own eye, that in the year 208 he undertook an ex-
pedition to the northern part of Britain, the uncivilized
tribes of which had made incurfions into the Roman pro-
vinces. He took his fons with him, and at the head of a
powerful army proceeded beyond the walls of Adrian and
Antoninus, and penetrated to the northern extremity of the
Y y 2 ifland.

S £ V

S E V

iHand. He was harafl'ed by the natives, who did not dare to
meet him in the field, and he fuffered much from the feverity
of the climate. At length the Caledonians purchafed peace
by furrendering all the country fouth of the Clyde and Forth,
which he fecured by raifing a rampart between thefe firths.
The attempts againft his life by his fon Caracalla, joined to
age and a declining Hate of health, fo reduced him, that he
died at York in the year 209, in the 66th year of his age.
In his lail moments he recommended concord to his fons, and
his fons he recommended to the protection of the army.
Gibbon fpeaks of Severus ending a glorious and fuccefsful
reign, but other hiftorians have doubted whether Severus
ought to be reckoned among the good or the bad emperors ;
for while his perfidy towards his competitors, his cruelty to
vanquifhed enemies, and the general feverity of his admi-
niftration, juftify a very unfavourable view of his moral cha-
rafter, it is not denied that he pofleiied in a high degree the
virtues of indullry and vigour, the love of order, attention
- to correft abnfes, ftrift and impartial adminiftration of juf-
tice, and fimple and frugal habits of life. He was a good
judge of the charafters of men, and the empire was in ge-
neral well adminiftered and profperous during his reign.

He is fuppofed to have been favourable, in the early part
of his reign, to Chriftians, but the rapid increafe of their
number feems to have alarmed him, and he is reckoned the
author of the fifth perfecution, which took place in the tenth
year of his reign, and which lafted with more or lefs violence,
according to Dodwell, two years, and according to Baf-
nage, fix years and upwards. See Lardner's Works,
vol. viii. ed. 1790. ch. 23.

Severus, Cornelius, a Roman poet, who lived in
the reign of Augultus, was author of a poem entitled
" ^tna," which has fometimes been attributed to Virgil.
He is reported by Quintilian to have given a relation in
verfe of the Sicilian war, and fome lines of his on the
death of Cicero are quoted by Seneca the orator. It is
to him that Ovid is fuppofed to have addrefled one of his
Pontic elegies, in which he is termed " Vates magnorum
maxime regum." An elegant edition of the remains of
this writer, was publifhed with notes at Amfterdam in
1703, by Le Clerc : and they are printed in Mattaire's
«' Corpus Poetarum."

Severus, Sanctus, a Chriftian rhetorician and poet,
*?as a native of Aquitaine, and flouriftied in the fourth cen-
tury. He wrote an eclogue, which is ftill extant, where,
in a dialogue between a Pagan and a Chriftian, he treats
of the mortality of cattle. It was firft printed in the
«' Poemata Vetera" of Pithxus, and has been feveral times
republifhed. Gronovius gave an edition of it, with a pre-
face, under the title " Seven Sanfti five Endeleichii Rhetoris
de mortibus Bourn Carmen, ab Elia Vinetto et Petro
Pethaeo fervatum, cum notis John Weitzii et Wolff"gang.
Lug. Bat. 17 1 J." Another edition was publifhed by
D. Richtern, with a preface, in 1747.

SEVESE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Mila-
nefe ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Milan.

SEVIAMALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 19 miles W. of Tritchinopoly.

SEVIER, a county of Tenneffee, Hamilton dittrift,
containing 3419 inhabitants, of whom 162 are flaves.

SEVIERVILLE, a polt-town and capital of the above
county ; 555 miles from Walhington.

SEVIGNAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Pyrenees ; 9 miles N. cf Morlaas.

SEVIGNE', Marie Rabutin, Marquife de, in Bio.
graphy, a diftinguiihed lady, was born in 1626. Her
father, baron of Chantal and Bourbilly, died wliile (he was

6

very young, leaving her heirefs of the houfe of Bully Ra-
butin. Her rank, and the graces of her perfon and con-
verfation, procured her many admirers, and in 1644 (he
married the marquis de Sevigne, who in 1651 was killed in
a duel. She from this time devoted hcrfelf to her children,
and to the cultivation of her own mind. She had an ex-
traordinary afFeftion for her daughter, who, in 1669, mar-
ried the count de Grignan, and accompanied him to his
government of Provence, and this feparation gave rife to
the greater part of the letters which have gained her fo
high a reputation, though (he had many other correfpond-
ents. Many of M. de Sevigne's letters are of a domeftic
nature, but others are enlivened with court anecdotes, re-
marks on men and books, and topics of the period in
which they were written, which render them very amufing ;
and ill point of ftyle, they are models of epillolary writing,
which, perhaps, have never been furpaffed. In her letters
to her daughter, the reader fometimes is hurt with the ex-
cefs of flattery on her talents and beauty, which latter quahty
appears to have been a principal fource of her maternal
tendernefs, and the prefervation of it the great objeft of
her anxiety. This lady died in 1696, at the age of 70.
Though endowed with much penetration, and, to a certain
degree, with a cultivated underltanding, (he did not rife
much above the level of her age and fex in tafte and prin-
ciples. She was attached to rank and fplendour, loved ad-
miration, and was apt to be taken with frivolous accom-
plilhments in preference to folid worth. She had a deep
fenfe of religion, but wifhed to conciliate it with the polite
world, the manners and maxims of which, according to the
rigid fyftem of the Catholics, were entirely at variance with
it. She has been cenfured for want of talle in her infen-
fibility to the poetical merit of Racine, but this has been
imputed to her prepolTcflions in favour of Corneille. The
beft editions of her letters are that in 8 vols. 1775 ; and
that in 10 vols. 180 1.

SEVIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardennes; 12 miles N.W. of Rethel.
SEVIL, in the Manege. The fevil of the branches of
a bridle is a nail turned round like a ring, with a large head,
made faft in the lower part of the branch, c ailed ^arf(?u/7/if.
See Banquet.

SEUII-, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ardennes, on the Aifne ; 12 miles S.E. of
Rethel.

SEVILLE, a province of Spain, commonly called the
kingdom of Seville, is now exclufively, but improperly,
denominated Andalufia, and occupies the weftern part of
ancient Bcetica. Its figure is irregular, 58 leagues long
from E. to W., and 27 broad from N. to S. ; a point of
it bending towards the Straits of Gibraltar, 14 leagues
from N. to S. and 9 from E. to W. It is bounded to
the E. by Cordova ; to the E. and S.E. by Grenada ; to
the S. by the Atlantic and the Straits of Gibraltar ; to the
W. by the kingdom of Algarva, &c. ; and to the N. by
Eltramadura. There are two fea-ports in this province,
the one in the Mediterranean at Algeziras, the other on
the Atlantic at Cadiz : the latter is fpacious and beautiful,
the bell known, and the moll frequented in Spain ; its
bay is eight leagues round. The principal towns of the
kingdom of Seville are its own capital, Seville, an archi-
epifcopal fee ; Cadiz, an epifcopal fee, fortrefs, and fea-
porl ; Santa-Maria, a fea-port ; Xeres, Ecija, and OfTuna,
inland towns. Its rivers are, the Saltes, Guadiana, Tinto,
Odiel, Chanca, Verde, Barbate, Guadalette, Guadalquivir,
Xenil, Guadianar, Guadayra, Las Feguas, Camdon, and
San-Pedro.

Sevillk,

SEVILLE.

Seville, in Spanifti Sevilla, and in Latin Hifpulis,
the capital of the above kingdom, is a large haiidiome
city, one of the firft in Spain, and fo ancient, that it is
mentioned by Strabo, Pomponius Mela, Pliny, and Pto-
lemy, as being ancient even in their time. Fable afcribes
its origin to Hercules, Bacchus, to the Hebrews, to the
Chaldians, and to the Phcenicians ; but its real founder is
unknown. From the Romans it obtained the privilege of
a Roman colony, and it was called " Julia Romula," or
Little Rome. This town has often changed its fovereign
and its form of government. It was formerly fubjetl to
the Gothic kings, who made it the place of their refidencc ;
and in 582 it took part in the rebellion of Ermenegild, fon
of king Leudivigild. In 711, it opened its gates to the
Moors; and in 1027 it fupported the rebellion of the
Moor, who was its governor, in favour of the king of
Cordova, whom it proclaimed king of Seville. Reltored
to the empire of the fovereigns of Cordova, it agam raifed
the ilandard of rebellion in 1 144, and chofe itfelf a king,
whofe defcendants united Cordova to their new dominions.
Aben-hut, the lall of tliofe kings, being aliaffinated at Al-
meria, and Ferdinand II., king of Callile and Leon, hav-
ing feized upon Cordova and Jaen in 1236, it threw off all
authority, formed ilfelf into a republic, and was governed
by its own laws. In its turn, however, it experienced the
power of a conqueror. Ferdinand II. ailembled his forces
before Seville in 1247, and compelled it, after a year's re-
finance, to furrender 23d of Nov. 1248. From the period
of this memorable fiege Seville has always made a part of
the dominions of the kings of Caitiie.

Seville is fituated on a beautiful and extenfive plain, on
the banks of the Guadalquivir. Its fliape is circular, and
its circumference, as it was left by the Romans, is fur-
rounded by a wall more than a league in circuit, flanked
by 176 towers: the number of gates is 12, that of Triana
being of Doric architecture, and ornamented with columns
and ttatues. Over one of the gates is the following in-
fcription :

" Condidit Alcides, renovavit Julius Urbem,
Reltituit Cl;riilo Fernandus Tertius, Heros."

The town is badly planned, the ftreets being narrow, crook-
ed, and ill-paved : the houfes, however, are tolerably well
built, and, including thofe of the fuburbs, amount to
11,820 in number. The number of inhabitants is itated
by Mr. Townfend at 80,268, contained in 30 parifhes,
84 convents, and 24 hoipitals. Laborde ellimaCes the
prefent population, fince the decline of its commerce, at
96,000. Many of the houfes have large courts, furrounded
by galleries or columns, with foimtains in the middle. In
fummcr the families live in the galleries, or courts, where
they fprcad tents. In Seville there are many fquares, the
bed of which are La Lonja, or the Exchange ; the Hotel
de Ville ; the Arfenal, at the entrance of the harbour, with
the Cullom-houfe and the Gold-houfe, in which the gold
and filver brought from the Indies are depofited : here are
alfo fcveral fine (uburbs, and a handfome promenade, called
Alameda, having three walks planted with trees, and orna-
mented with feats and fountains. This city is the fee of
an archbirtiop ; and of the public ecclefiaflical edifices, the
firll that demands attention is the cathedral, chiefly ad-
mired for its tower, conltrudted by Gtiever the Moor ;
originally, vit.. A.D. 1568, 250 feet high, and afterwards
raited loo feet. It is fo eafy of afcont, and at the fame
time fo fpacious, that two horfemen may ride up abreall ;
and on the top is the Giraldai or brazen image, whichi with

its palm-brauch, weighs near i\ ton, and yet turns with
the flighteil variation of the wind.

The dimenfions of the cathedral are 420 feet, by 263 ;
and the height is 126 feet. It was built A.D. 1401. It re-
ceives light by fourfcorewnidows with painted glafs, the work
of Arnao of Flanders, each of which coll 1000 ducats.

The treafures of this church are ineftimable : one altar
is wholly filver, with all its ornaments, as are the images,
large as life, of S. Ifidore and S. Leander, and a cuftodia
or tabernacle for the hod more than four yards high,
adorned with forty-eight columns ; yet thefe are trifling in
value, when compared with the gold and precious ftones
depofited by the piety and zeal of Catholics, during the
period in which all the wealth of a newly. difcovered world
flowed into this city. The profufion of gold, of filver,
and of gems, would be more llriking, were not the atten-
tion occupied and loll in admiration of innumerable pic-
tures, the works of thofe Spanifli mafters who flouriihed
immediately after the revival of tlie art in Seville. Every
chapel preferves fome monuments of tlieir fnperior fkill.
Of thefe, the moil confpicuous are of Luis de Vargas,
and of Fr. Zurbaran, but chiefly of Murillo. By the lall
is a Nativity in the chapel of the Conception, and, near
the baptifmal tont, S. Anthony of Padua, with the Bap-
tifm of Chriil. In the principal iacrilty, are his much
admired piflures of S. Ifidore with his brother S. Lean-
der ; and in another iacrifty his Holy Family, and an Ecce
Homo by Morales. The chapter-houfe is wholly devoted
to Murillo, and the chapel of S. Peter is given up to Zur-
baran. The works of Luis de Vargas are difperfed in
various places ; but his famous pifture called de la Gamba,
is in a chapel near the gate of S. Chrillopher, and merits
particular attention.

To the cathedral belongs a library of 20,000 volumes,
coUefted by Hernando, fon to Chrillobal Colon, the firft
difcoverer of America, a man of talte, and much admired
\\\ his day for learning. It is to be lamented, that modern
publications have not been added to complete what was
fo well begun by him.

The condrudtion of the organ is peculiar ; it contains
5300 pipes, with iio ilops, being, as it is faid, 50 more
than thofe of the famous ore at Haerlem, yet, fo ample
arc the bellows, that when ftretched they fupply the full
organ fifteen minutes. The mode of lilling them with air
is lingular ; for inllead of working witii his hands, a man
walks backwards and forwards along an inclined plane of
about fifteen feet in length, whicli ia balanced in the middle
on its axis ; under each end is a pair of bellows of about
fix feet by three and a half. Tlieie communicate with five
other pair united by a bar ; and the latter are fo contrived,
that when they are in danger of being overllraincd, a valve
is lifted up, and gives them relief. Pafling ten times along
the inclined plane lilis all thele veflels.

In the cathedral are eighty-two altars, at which are faid
daily '!\.se hundred nialles. The annual conlumption is
fifteen hundred arrohas of wine, eiglit hundred of oil, and
of wax about one tlioufand.

The wealth belonging to this chapter may be ellimatcd
by tlie numbers that are fupported by it.

The archbifhop, with a revenue of three hundred tliou-
fand ducats ; or, in llcrling, nearly thirty-three tlioufand
pounds a-year.

Eleven dignitaries, who wear the mitre on high fellivals,
amply, but not equally, provided for.

Forty canons, of forty tlioufand reals, or about four
hundred pounds each ptr annum.

Twenty

SEVILLE.

Twenty prebendaries, with an income of thirty thoufand
reals each.

Twenty-one minor canons, at twenty thoufand reaU
each.

Befide thefe, they have twenty chanters, called Veinte-
neros, with three affiftants, called Sochantres, two beadles,
one mailer of the ceremonies, with a deputy, three attend-
ants to ciU the roll and mirk the abfentees, thirty-fix
boys for fingin^ and for the fervice of the altar, with their
reftor, vice-rettor, and mufic-mafters ; nineteen chaplains,
four curates, four confeiTors, twenty-three muficians, and
four fupernumeraries ; in all, two hundred and thirty-five.

Many of the convents are remarkable for the beauty of
their architedure ; but, in Seville, the eye covets only
piftures, and amidtl the profufion of thefe, it overlooks
works, which in other fituations would rivet the attention,
and every where fixes on the pencil of Murillo. His moll
famous performances are in the Hofpital de la Caridad, and,
fuited to the inftitution, exprefs fome adls of charity ; fuch
as the Miracle of the Loaves and Fifties ; the fmiting of
the Rock in Horeb ; the Pool of Bethefda ; the Reception
of the returning Prodigal ; Abraham addrefling the three
Angels, and preffing them to enter his habitation ; the
Deliverance of Peter from the Prifon ; and Charity, in the
perfon of Elizabeth, waftiing the wounds and curing the
difeafes of the poor. Befide thefe, in the fame hofpital,
is the Annunciation of the blefled Virgin ; and two little
piAures, the one of the infant Jefus, the other of John.

The church of the Capuchins is richly furnilhed with
his works ; and although in thefe the compofition is more
fimple than in the former, yet they may be confidered as
fome of the bed of his produdions. Eleven of his pic-
tures are to be feen in a chapel called de la Vera Cruz,
belonging to the Francifcans. Thefe do much credit to
his pencil ; and not inferior to them, are many preferred
in other convents ; fuch as, an Ecce Homo, and the blefTed
Virgin, with the infant Jefus, in the church of the Car-
melites ; the Fhght into Egypt, in that of La Merced Cal-
zada ; a rich variety of fubjeds in S. Maria de la Blanca ;
and S. Auguftin writing, with S. Thomas of Villanueva,
ftripping himfelf to clothe the poor, in the convent of the
Auguftin friars, near the gate of Carmona. In the opinion
of Mr. Townfend, the moll mallerly of all his works is in
the refeAory of an hofpital defigned for the reception of
fuperannuated priells. It reprefents an angel holding a
balket to the infant Jefus, who. Handing on his mother's
lap, takes bread from it to feed three venerable priells.
No reprefentation ever approached nearer to real life, nor
is it poflible to fee more expreflion, than glows upon that
canvas. In the parochial church of Santa Cruz are two
piAures in a fuperior llyle, a Stabat Mater Dolorofa,
which excels in grace and foftnefs ; and the famous De-
fcent from the Crofs, of Pedro de Campana, which Murillo
was accu Homed daily to admire, and oppofite to which,
by his own diretlions, he was buried.

This great painter was born AD. i6i8, and died in
1682.

His name Hands high in Europe ; but to form an ade-
quate idea of his excellence, every convent fhould be vifited,
where he depofited the monuments of his fuperior fkill.

In exaftsefs of imitation he was equalled ; in claro ob-
fcuro, and in refleCled lights, he was furpaffed by Velaz-
quez ; but not one of all the Spanilh artiits went beyond
him in tendernefs and foftnefs.

Of the convents, that which is upon the moll extenfive
fcale belongs to the Francifcans. It contains fifteen cloif-

ters, many of which are elegant and fpacious, with apart-
ments for two hundred monks ; but at prefent they have
only one hundred and forty in their community. Thefe,
like all their order, are fed by charity, and are much
favoured by the people. Their annual expenditure is more
than four hundred thoufand reals, or in Iterling about four
thoufand pounds, amounting to twenty-eight pounds eleven
fhillings and five-pence for each. But then out of this mull
be dedufted the expence of wine, oil, and wax, with the
alms dillributed daily to the poor, which altogether is con-
fiderable.

Among all the hofpitals, Mr. Townfend was rood pleafed
with that of La Sangre, defigned for the reception of female
patient"!. The front is elegant, and the fculpture is much
to be admired, more efpecially the three figures of Faith,
Hope, and Charity. The wards are fpacious, and the
whole is remarkable for neatnefs.

Our limits will not allow our introducing particular de-
fcriptions of other public buildings ; fuch as the Torre del
Oro, the Plaza de Toros, the AqueduA with its four
hundred and ten arches, and efpecially the Exchange. The
latter, planned by Herrera (A.D. 1598), and worthy of
its great archited, is a quadrangle of two hundred feet,
with a corridor or fpacious gallery round it, adorned with
Ionic columns, and fupported by an equal number of
Doric.

The univerfity was founded in the year 1502, and foon
rofe into confideration. The name of Arias Montanus,
who lies buned at the convent of S. Jago, is alone fuffi-
cient to give celebrity to this feminary. His tranflation of
the holy fcriptures will be valued by the learned, as long
as the fcriptures themfelves fliall be the objeAs of venera-
tion to mankind. The number of under-graduates here is
about five hundred.

We meet at Seville with the favourite inftitutions of
count Campomanes, his academy for the three noble art$
of painting, fculpture, and architefture, and his economi-
cal fociety of the friends of their country. Both thefe
have been attended with fuccefs, and have given alTillance
not only to the arts, but to agriculture, to manufaAures,
and to commerce. About two hundred pupils attend the
former.

The alcazar, or royal palace, built by the Moors, is very
fpacious. The principal article of manufaAure in Seville is
fnuff; and it furnilhes alfo cigars to a very confiderable
amount. The filk manufaAure was alfo formerly very
flourilhing in this place ; fo that in the year 1248 item-
ployed 16,000 looms, and 130,000 perfons ; and fuch was
then the population of the city, that the Moors who left
it, when it was furrendered to the Chrillians, were 400,000,
befides multitudes who died during a fixtcen months' fiege,
and many who remained after their fellow-citizens were
gone. But in confequence of the accumulation of taxes
and other circumftances, the number of looms has been
very much diminifhed ; fo that A.D. 1740, the looms
for wide filks amounted to 462, and for other purpofes
to 1856.

The country round the city to a confiderable diftance lies
fo low, that It is frequently overflowed, and upon fome
occafions the water has been eight feet high, even in their
habitations. The foil is rich, and being at the fame time
very deep, its fertility is inexhauftible. The produce it
corn, leguminous plants, hemp, flax, lemons, oranges and
liquorice. The quantity of this exported from Spain is
faid to be annually not lefs than four thoufand quintals,
or nearly two hundred tons, a confiderable part of which
9 is

I

^r

S E V

k fuppofed to be purchafed by the porter-brewers in
London.

In confequence of vapours and miafmata, occafioned by
llagnant water, and by frequent floods, the inhabitants of
Sevilk and its neighbourhood are fubjeft to tertians, to
putrid fevers, and to hyfterical diforders. The predifpofi-
tion to fuch difeafes may be likewife fought for in the
quantity of cucumbers and melons confumed by them all
the year, in confequence of which they are likewife in-
fefted with worms, accompanied with epileplles, efpecially
in the more youthful fubjedls. Other difeafes arife from
heat, whenever they have the Solano wind, that is, when-
ever the wind blows from Africa, they become liable to
pleurifies, and alfo a very pernicious irritabihty of nerves.
N. lat. 37° 12'. W. long. 6= 8\

Sevilla dclOro. See Macas.

Seville Plantation, a place on the N. coall of Jamaica,
W. of Mammee bay, where are the ruins of an ancient town,
called " Sevilla Nueva," founded by Efquival on the fpot
where Columbus refided after his ftiipwreck in the year

SEVILLETA, a town of New Mexico ; lOO miles S.
of Santa Fe.

SEVIN, Francis, in Biography, a man of letters, born
in the diocefe of Sens, was educated at Paris, where he
purfued, with great ardour, the ftudy of the learned lan-
guages, in company with the abbe Fourmont the elder.
He became an aflbciate of the Academy of Belles Lettres in
Paris in 1714. He was fent in 1728, by the king's com-
mand, with the abbe Fourmont the younger, to Conttan-
tinople, in fearch of MSS., of which he brought back a
great number, and was, in 1737, prefented with the place
of keeper of MSS. in the king's library. His letters, de-
fcriptive of this journey, were publiflied in 1 801, in one vol.
8vo. Thefe contain feveral interefting details concerning
Turkey, Egypt, &c. Sevin died in 1 741. Several of his
papers are publi(hed in the " Memoires de I'Acad. des
Infcriptions."

SEVION, in Geography, a river of North Wales, which
runs into the Clyde ; 3 miles N.W. of St. Afaph.

SEVIR, among the Romans, an officer who, according
to Pitifcus, commanded a whole wing of horfe ; though
others make him only the commander of a troop, turmis, a
divifion anfwering to our regiments.

SEVIRI were alfo magiftrates in the colonies, fo called,
from their being fix in number.

SEURAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bundelcund ; 18 miles N. of Callinger.

SEVRE, or Se-ure Nantoife, a river of France, which
rifes about eight miles W. from Parthenay, pafles by Mor-
tagne, Tiffauges, ClifTon, &c. and runs into the Loire,
oppofite to Nantes.

Sevre Niortoife, a river of France, which rifes near
St. Maixent, pafles by Niort, Marance, &c. and runs into
the fea ; 7 miles W. of Marance.

SEVRES, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Verfailles. The place contains 2643, ^"d the canton
3485 inhabitants, on a territory of 50 kiliometres, in eight
communes.

Sevres, Two-, one of the nine departments of the weftem
region of France, formerly Lower Poitou, between Vendee
and Vienne, in N. lat. 46° 30', containing 6337^ kiliometres,
or 305 fquare leagues, and 242,6)8 inhabitants. This
department comprehends 4 dillridts, 30 cantons, and
363 communes. The dillricls or circles are. Thenars, in-
cluding 43,543 ; Parthenay, 53,020 ; Niort, 84,923 ; and

SEW

Melle, 61,167 inhabitants. Its capital is Niort. Accord-
ing to Haflenfratz, the extent is 32 French leagues in
length, and 12 in breadth : the number of circles is 6, and
of cantons 50, and the population is 259,122. The con-
tributions in the nth year of the French era amounted to
2,556,115 francs; and the expences for adminillration,
juitice, and public inftruftion, to 233,694 francs 66 cents.
The foil of this department, in general, is fertile, yielding
grain, wine, fruits, and paftures. The S.W. diftriA is
marfhy.

SEVRI, a river of Natolia, which runs into the Sa-
karia, near Sevrihifar.

SEVRIHISAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia,
at the conflux of the Sevri and Sakaria ; 60 miles W. of
Angora. N. lat. 39° 53'. E. long. 32° 2'.

SEURRE, a town of France, in the department of the
Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Beaune ; 21 miles S. of Dijon. The place contains 2777,
and the canton 11,546 inhabitants, on a territory of 280
kihometres, in 23 communes. N. lat. 46" 58'. E. long.
5° 12'.

SEVSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Orel,
on the Sev ; 56 miles S.W. of Orel. N. lat. 52° 15'. E.
long. 34° 44'.

SEUTZACH, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Zurich ; 17 miles N.N.E. of Zurich.

SEVYNVEY, a river of South Wales, which runs into
the Clethy, in Pembrokefliire.

SEW, in Sea Language, the fituation of a Ihip when the
water firit leaves her relling on the ground, or blocks in a
dock. Thus, if a fhip runs a-ground on the tide of ebb,
or by the reflux of the tide (he reils on her blocks ; and if
it be required to know flic has fewed, or how much flie has
fewed, the mark the water-line has made on her bottom
when afloat is examined, and as much as is the difference
above the furface of the water and this mark, fo much flie
is faid to have fewed.

Sew is alfo a term applied to a cow, fignifying to go dry.
SEWAD, or SowHAD, in Geography, a province of
Candahar, fituated on the W. fide of the Indus, which
feparates it from Puckhoh ; 40 cofles long and 1 5 broad.
This province, as well as Bijore, is very mountainous, and
abounds with pafles and llrong fituations ; fo that their
inhabitants have not only held themfelves generally inde-
pendent of the Mogul emperors, but have occafionally made
very furious inroads into their territories. The country
of the Aflaceni, or Aflacani, aiifwers to Sewad ; Aflienagur
being the ancient name of Sewad ; or rather Sewad was one
of the fubdivifions of Aflienagur. At prefent Sewad in-
eludes the three provinces of Sewad proper, Bijore, and
Beneer.

Sewad, the eafternmoft. and largeft of the four rivers
that unite fuccedively with the river Cabul, before it falls
into the Indus ; the other three being that which pafles by
the town of Bijore, the Penjakoreh river, feparating Bijore
on the W. from Sewad on the E., and the Chendoul river,
which is a branch of the Bijore river.

SEWALICK, or Sewa-luck, a chain of mountains
forming the northern boundary of Hindoollan, and fepa-
rating the country of Lahore from Thibet.

SEWAN, or Allic.unce, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 32 miles N.N. W. of Chuprah. N. lat. 26° 11'.
E. long 84° 32'.

SEWARD, TllO.MAs, in Biography, an Englifli divine
of the churtli of England, was born in 1708. He became
reftorof Eyam, in Derbyfliirc, and prebendary of Litchfield,
where he died in 1 790. He was a man of talte and learn-

SEW

SEX

ing, and of confiderable talents for poetry and polite lite-
rature. He publidied an edition of Beaumont and Fletcher's
works, and was author of a treatife on the " Conformity
between Popery and Paganifm." Some of his poems are in
Dodfley's coUeftion.

Seward, Anna, daughter of the preceding, a
poetefs of diftinguifhed elegance, was born about the year
1745. Her infant mind was nourifhed by her father with
the vivid and fublime imagery of Milton, and her early
education amidll the wild and alpine fcenery of the Peak,
enhanced the enthufiafm of feehng to which (he was natu-
rally difpofed. In her feventh year, her father being
appointed canon refidentiary of Litchfield, (lie removed
with the family to that city, which thenceforth became
her refidence during the whole of her life. The fruit of
her father's inttruftions appeared in fome early efforts at
poetical compofition, which, however, met with difcourage-
Hient from her mother; and Mr. Seward was afterwards
induced to withdraw the countenance he had given to her
literary purfuits ; fo that feveral years of her youth elapfed
with only ftolen and interrupted attempts to cultivate an
art of which fhe had fo ftrongly imbibed the rudiments.
As fhe advanced in life, (he of courfe followed more freely
the bent of her genius, and in 1780 fhe publifhed an
«' Elegy on Captain Cook," a performance of great merit,
as well from the harmony of its verfification, as the beau-
tiful and appropriate imagery with which it abounds, and
the force and delicacy of its fentiments. The contraft be-
tween the different mourners on this event, queen Oberea,
and the wife of the great navigator, is peculiarly (Iriking.
In the following year (he gave the world a " Monody on
Major Andre." With this lamented young officer (he was
intimately acquainted : flie accordingly wrote with pecu-
liar pathos on the occafion, and expreffed a glowing, and
we fcruple not to fay, a juft indignation againlt the adors
in that tragedy : the laws of what are called civilized war
do not and ought not to fupprefs the feelings of humanity.
Mifs Seward made herfelf known as a writer on many other
topics: in 1790 fhe publifhed " Llangollen Vale," with
other poems ; and in 1804 fhe gave the public " Memoirs
of the Life of Dr. Darwin." This is a defultory per-
formance, but it contains much entertaining matter, en-
riched with fome judicious criticifm on Dr. Darwin's poeti-
cal character. Mifs Seward died in March 1809. A col-
leftion of her letters has been publifhed fince her deceale, in
fix vols. 1 zmo. Athenzum. Monthly Mag.

Seward, William, was the fon of a brewer in London,
and born in 1797. He received his education at the Charter
Houfe, which he completed at Oxford ; this place he left
without taking a degree. Having a good fortune, he de-
voted his life to literary eafe, and antiquarian refearches.
He is known as an author by five volumes of " Anecdotes
of diftinguifhed Perfons," extrafted from curious books,
to which he added a fupplement, in tw-o volumes, under the
title of " Biographiana." Europ. Mag.

SEWARY, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in the
circar of Surgooja ; 22 miles E. of Surgooja.

SEWEE, a country of Afia, between Perfia and Hin-
dooftan, on the W. fide of the Indus.

Sewee Bay, or Bull's Harbour, a bay of the Atlantic,
on the coalt of South Carohna. N. lat. 32° 58'.

SEWEESTAN, a country of Hindooltan, between
Sewee and the Indus, about no miles long and 50 broad.

SEWEL, among Sport/men, denotes any thing that is
fet or hung up, to keep a deer out of any place.

SEVIEL-Coronde, a name given by the natives of Ceylon
to a fpecies of cinnamon, which, when chewed, is of a

mucilaginous nature, like the caffia : this dries well, and is
very firm and haid, and has the appearance of a very fine
cinnamon ; but it has very little tafte, and a difagreeable
fmell. The natives take advantage of the handfome ap-
pearance of this kind of cinnamon, and are very apt to mis
it with the good kind, to the great detriment of the buyer.
Phil. Tranf. N" 409.

SEWER, formed from the French efcuyer, efquire, gentle-
man, or ufier, in the Houfehold, an officer who comes in before
the meat of a king, or nobleman, to place and range it on
the table. Of thefe officers there are four in the king's
houfehold, and eight, called fewers of the great chamber.

Sewers, in Building, are (hores, conduits, or conveyances,
for the fuiUage and filth of a houfe.

Sewers, Clerk of the. See Clerk.

Sewers, Commiffion of. See Co.\iMissio>f.

SEWIN, in Ichthyology. See Grey.

SEWL, in ylgriculture, provincially a plough. It is
foffietimes writtenya/c. See Plough.

SEWNADY, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in
the circar of Ruttunpour ; 35 miles N. of Ruttunpour.

SEWNY, a town of Hindooltan, in Goondwanah ; 60
miles N.N.E. of Nagpour.

SEX, Sexus, fomething in the body, which diftinguifhcs
male from female. See Generation.

The number of perfons, of the two fexes, are exceedingly
well balanced ; fo that every man may have his wife, and
every woman her hufband.

Hermaphrodites have the apparent marks of both fexes.

It isexprefsly forbidden by the law of Mofes, to difguife
the fex.

SEXAGENARY, Sexagenarius, fomething relating
to the number fixty : more particularly a perfon arrired at
the age of fixty years.

Some cafuifts difpenfe with fexagenarians for not falling ;
the Papian law prohibits fexagenarii from marriage ; be-
caufe at that age the blood and humours are frozen.

Sexagenary Arhhmetic. See Sexagesimal.

Sexagenary Tables, are tables of proportional parts,
fhewing the produft of two fexagenaries that are to be mul-
tiplied ; or the quotient of two to be divided.

SEXAGESIMA, the fecond Sunday before Lent, or
the next to Shrove Sunday ; fo called, as being about the
fixtieth day before Eafter.

Sexagefima is that which follows Septuagefima, and pre-
cedes Quinquagefima.

SEXAGESIMAL, or Sexagenary Arithmetic, a me-
thod of computation, proceeding by fixties.

Such IS that ufed in the divifion of a degree into fixty
minutes ; of the mioute, into fixty feconds ; of the fecond,
into fixty thirds, &c. See Arithmetic.

SEXAGESIMALS, or Sexagesimal Fraaions, are
fraiftions, whofe denominators proceed in a fexagecuple
ratio ; that is, a prime, or the firft minute =; ^V j a fecond
^^ tttVit ! a thira =:; -jr-rj-'irtnT'

Anciently there were no other than fexagefimals ufed in
ailronomical operations, and they are Hill retained in many
cafes ; though decimal arithmetic is now much ufed in ailro-
nomical calculations.

In thefe fraftions, which fome alfo call aftronomical frac-
tions, the denominator being always 60, or a multiple of it,
is ufually omitted, and the numerator only written down :
thus, 4°, 59', 32", 50'", 1 5"", is to be read, 4 degrees,
59 minutes, 32 feconds of a degree, or 60th parts of a minute,
50 thirds, 16 fourths, &c.

SEXANGLE, in Geometry, a figure having fix fides,
and confequently fix angles.

SEXDRAGA,

SEX

SEX

SEXDRAGA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Weft Gothland ; 38 miles E. of Gotheborg.

SEXES of Plants, in Vegetable Phyfiology. See Fecun-
dation, and Fructification.

SEXT, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Blanc ; 2 miles S.E. of St. Maurice.

SEXTA Pars, Lat. a fixth vocal part in the motetti
and madrigals of old mailers.

SEXTANS, Sextant, a fixth part of certain things.

The Romans divided their as, which was a pound of
brafs, into twelve ounces : the ounce was called uncia, from
untim ; and two ounces Jextants, as being ihsi fixth part of
a pound. See As.

Sextans was alfo a raeafure which contained two ounces
of liquor, or two cyathi. Hence,

" Sextantes, Califte, duo? infundi Falerni."

Sextans, the Sextant, in Aflrononiy, a conftellation of
the fouthern hemifphere, made by Hevelius out of un-
formed liars. In Hevelius's catalogue it contains il, but
in the Britannic catalogue 41 ftars. See Constelllation.
SEXTANT, in Mathematics, denotes the fixth part of
a circle, or an arc compreiiending fixty degrees.

Sextant is more particularly ufed for an aftronomical
inltrument, made like a quadrant ; excepting that its limb
only comprehends fixty degrees.

The ufe and application of the fextant is the fame with
that of the quadrant.

In the obfervatories of Greenwich and Pekin, there are
very large and fine fextants.

SEXTARIUS, an ancient Roman meafure, containing
two cotylx, or two heminx. See Cotyla.

SEXTERy-Z,<7«i/f, are lands given to a church, &c.
for maintenance of the fexton.

SEXTILE, Sextilis, the pofition or afpeft of two
planets, when at fixty degrees dillance ; or at the diltance
of two figns from one another. It is marked thus (*).
See Aspect.

SEXTILIS, in Chronology. See August.
SEXTON, a church-officer, thus called by corruption of
the Latin facr'fla, or Saxon fegerflane, which denotes the
fame. His office is to take care of the veflels, veilments,
&c. belonging to the church ; and to attend the miniftcr,
churchwarden, &c. at church. He is appointed by the
minilter or otliers, and receives his falary according to the
cuilom of each parifh.

Sextons, as well as parifh clerks, are regarded by the
common law as perfons who have freehold in their offices ;
an^, therefore, though they may be punidied, yet they can-
not be deprived, by ccclefiaftical cenfures.

The office qI fexton in the pope's chapel, is appropriated to
the order of the hermits of St. Auguitine. He is generally
a bifiiop, though fometimes the pope only gives a bifhopric,
in partibus, to him on whom he confers the poll. He takes
the title oi prefect of the pope's facrlfly, and has the keeping
the vcifels of gold and filver, the relics, &c.

When the pope fays mafs, the fexton always taftes the
• bread and wine firft. If it be in private he fays mafs, his
holinefs, of two wafers, gives him one t» eat ; and, if in
public, the cardinal, who affilts the pope in quality of dea-
con, of three wafers, gives him two to eat. When the pope
is defpcratoly fick, he admlnilters to him the facrament of
extreme unrtion, &c. and enters the conclave, in quality of
firft coiiclavift.

Sexton's River, in Geography, a river of America, in
Vermont, which runs into the Connedicut, N. lat. 43°.
W. long. 72° 25'.
Vol. XXXIl.

SEXTULA, a word ufed by feme pharmaceutic writers
to exprefs the fixth part of an ounce, that is, four fcruples,
or one drachm and one fcruple.

SEXTUPLA, Ital. Sextuple, Fr. and Eng. in Muftc, im-
plies a compound time of triplets mixed with binary time.
Sextuple time is never properly ufed but in the faraband,
confining of fix even crotchets, or quavers, exprefi'ed by i
or J, where triplets are out of the queftion. All other indi-
cations of compound meafure, or, as formerly called, jig
time, are at prefent the folio win of ; », ", -' s, i^- all
which mealures conn It ot triplets.

Old authors mention five different fpecies of fextuple time :
as.

Sextuple of the Semiireve, by the French called triple of
6 for I, as being denoted by thofe two numbers ° ; or be-
caufe here are required fix femibreves to a meafure, in lieu of
one, viz. three rifing, and three falling.

Sextuple of the Minim, called by the French triple of
6 for 2, as being denoted by 5 ; which fhew, that fix minims
are here required to a meafure, inftead of two.

Sextuple of the Crotchet, called by the French triple of
6 for 4, becaufe denoted by C°, or *, which fhew, that there
mult be fix crotchets to a meafure, in lieu of four.

Sextuple of the Chroma, by the French called triple of
6 for 8, as being denoted by ;; ; which ftiew, that fix quavers
here make the meafure, or femibreve, inllead of eight.

Sextuple of the Semichroma, or triple of 6 for 16, fo
called, becaufe denoted by /',. ; which (liew, that fix quavers
are here required to a meafure, inftead of fixteen.

SEXTUS, Sixth, in the Canon La'zu, denotes a collec-
tion of decretals, made by pope Boniface VIII. ufnally thus
called from the title, which is " Liber Sextus ;" as if it
were a fixth book added to the five books of decretals, col-
lefted by Gregory IX.

The Sextus is a coUeftion of papal conftitutions, publifhed
after the colleftions of Gregory IX. containing thofe of the
fame Gregory, Innocent IV., Alexander IV., Urban IV.,
Clement I v., Gregory X., Nicholas I II., and Boniface VIII.,
by whole order the compilation was made. The perfons
employed in making of it were Will, de Mandegot, arch-
bifliop of Ambrun ; and Berenger, bifhop of Beziers ; and
Richard of Sienna. See Canon Law.

Sextus, in Biography, an ancient philufopher of the (lo-
ical feft, was a native of Chenmca, and the nephew of Plu-
tarch. He is celebrated as the preceptor of the emperors
Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius.

Sextus, Empiricus, in Medical Hiflory, a Roman phy-
fician, of the empiric feft, who followed Heraclides and others
in the adoption of that fyllem which Serapion and Philinus
begun. He is faid to have been the pupil of Herodotus, the
phyfician, and the preceptor of Saturninu^. 'i'liere are two
works extant, with tlie name of Sextus attached to them ;
but Le Clerc believes, that they are not both tiie produdtion
of this phyfician, who only compoled that which is entitled
" Sexti Placiti ;" and that the other work, which containt
fix books, treating of the doftrines of Pyrrhonifm, and ten
books relative to all the iciences, was the produflion of
another Sextus, of Clieronea, who was of the Platonic
fchool, a nephew of Plutarch, and preceptor of the emperor
Marcus Aureliue. See Le Clerc, Hift. de la Med. p. ii.
chap. 8.

Sextus Oculi, in Anatomy, a name given by Fallopius to
one of the mulcles of the eye, called by Albinus, and otliers,
the obliquup oculi inferior, and by fome, the obliquus oculi
brevis.

Sextus Tharacit, a name given by Fallopius, and other j,
Z z t»

SEX

SEX

to a mufcle, now generally known by the name of the tri-
angularis fterni.

SEXUAL System, in Botany, denotes that fyftem,
which is founded on a difcovery, that there is in vegetables,
as well as in aaimals, a diltinftion of the fexes ; or that plants
propagate themftlves by means of male and female organs,
either growing upon the fame tree, or upon different trees
of the fame fpecies. This fyllem is fuggelted and confirmed
by the analogy obfervable between the eggs of animals and
the feeds of plants, both ferving equally to the fame end ;
•viz. that of propagating a fimilar race ; and by the remarks
which have been made, that when the feed of the female plant
is not impregnated with the prolific powder of the male, it
bears no fruit ; infomuch that as often as the communication
between the fexual parts of plants has been intercepted, which
isthecaufe of their fecunclity,they have always proved barren.
The authors of this fyflem, after exaftly anatomizing all the
parts of the plant, allign to each a name, founded on its ufe
and analogy to the parts of an animal. Thus, as to the
male organs, the filaments are the fpermatic vefTels, the an-
therae the tefticles, and the duft of the antiierje correfpond
to the fperm and feminal animalcules ; and as to the female,
the ftigma is the external part of the female organ, which
receives the dufl ; the Ityle anfwers to the vagina ; the germ
to the ovary ; and the pericarpium, or fecundated ovary,
to the womb. See Vegbtatioji.

The fexual fyilem was not wholly unknown to the an-
cients, though their knowledge of it was very imperfeft.
Accordingly we find in the account given by Herodotus
(lib. i.) of the country about Babylon, where palm-trees
abounded, that it was a cuftom with the natives, in their
culture of thefe plants, to affift the operations of nature, by
gathering the flowers of the male trees, and carrying them
to the female. By this means they fecured the ripening of
the fruit ; which might elfe, on account of unfavourable
feafons, or the want of a proper intermixture of the trees of
each fex, have been precarious, or at leaft not to have been
expefted in equal quantities. The ancients had alfo fimilar
notions concerning the fig. Theophraftus (Hid. Plant,
lib. iii. cap. 9.) obferves, that the charatteriitic and univerfal
difference among trees is that of their gender, whether male
or female. And Ariitotle (De Plantis, lib. i. cap. 2.) fays,
that we ought not to fancy, that the intermingling of fexes
in plants is the fame as among animals. However, there
feems to have been a difference of opinion among the an-
cients as to the manner m which plants fliould be allowed to
have a difference of fex. Some apprehended that the two
fexes exifted feparately ; and others thought that they were
united in the fame mdividual. Empedocles thought, that
plants were androgynous or hermaphroditical, or that they
were a compofition of both fexes. Ariitotle exprefles his
doubt upon this head. Empedocles (vide Arill. de Generat.
Anim. lib. i. c. 23.) called plants oviparous ; for the feed or
egg, according to his account, is the fruit of the generative
faculty, one part of which ferves to form the plant, and
the other to nourifh the germ and root ; and in animals of
different fexes, we fee that nature, when they would pro-
create, impels them to unite, and like plants to become one ;
that from this combination of two, there may fpring up
another animal.

As to the manner in which fruits were impregnated, the
ancients were not ignorant that it was by means of the pro-
lific dull contained in the flower of the male ; and they re-
marked, that the fruits of trees never come to maturity till
they had been cherifhed with that duft:. Upon this fubjeft
Ariftotlefays (De Plant, lib. i. cap. 6.) that if one fliakes
the duft of a branch of the male palm-tree over the female,

her fruits will quickly ripen ; and that when the wind flieda
this dufl of the male upon the female, her fruits ripen apace>
jufl as if a branch of the male had been fufpended over
her. And Theophrailus (Hilt. Plant, lib. ii. cap. 9.) ob-
ferves, that they bring the male to the female palm, in order
to make her produce fruit. The manner in which they pro.
ceed, fays he, is this : when the male is in flower, they
feleft a branch abounding with that downy dull which re-
fides in the flower, and fhake this over the fruit of the fe-
male. This operation prevents the fruit from becoming
abortive, and brings it foon to perfedl maturity. Phny alfo
informs us (Nat. Hilt. tom. i. lib. xiii. c. 7.) that naturalifls
admit the diflinftion of fex, not only in trees, but in herbs,
and in all plants. Yet this is no where more obfervable,
he adds, than in palms, the females of which never pro-
pagate, but when they are fecundated by the dull of the
male. He calls the female palms, deprived of male afTiflance,
barren widows. He compares the conjunftion of thefe
plants to that of animals ; and fays, that to generate fruit,
the female needs only the afperfion of the dull or down of
the flowers of the male.

Zaluzianfki feems to have been the firll among the mo-
derns who clearly diftinguilhed from one another the male,
the female, and the hermaphroditical plants. About a
hundred years after him, fir Thomas Millington, and Dr.
Grew, communicated to the Royal Society their obferva-
tions on the impregnating duft of the ftamina. Grew's
Anatomy of Plants, publilhed in 1682.

Camerarius, towards the end of the lafl century, obferved,
that upon plucking off the ftamina of fome male plants,
the buds that ought to have produced fruit came not to
maturity. Malpighi, Geoffroy, and Vaillant, have alfo
carefully confidered the fecundating duft ; the latter of whom
feems to have been the firlt eye-witnefs of this fecret of
nature, the admirable operation that paffes in the flowers of
plants, between the organs of different fexes. Many authors
afterwards applied thcmfelves to improve this fyltem ; the
principal of whom were Morland, Logan, Van Royen,
Bradley, Ludwig, Blair, Wolfiu;, &c. But Linnxus had
the honour of applying this fyftem to praftice, by reducing
all trees and plants to particular dalles, diftinguilhed by the
numberof their ftamina, or male organs. See Dutens' Inquiry
into the Origin of the Difcoveries attributed to the Muderni,
1769, chap. vii. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii. art. 25.

The fexual hypothefis, on its firft appearance, was re-
ceived with all that caution which becomes an enlightened
age ; and nature was traced experimentally through all her
variations, before it was univerfally allented to. Tourne-
fort refufed to give it a place in his fyftem ; and Pontedera,
though he had carefully examined it, treated it as chimerical.
The learned Dr. Alfton, profellbr of botany in the univerfity
of Edinburgh, violently oppofed it ; but the proofs which
Linnxus has given amonglt the aphorifms of his " Fundamenta
Botanica," and farther illuftrated in his " Philofophia Bota-
nica," are fo clear, that the mind does not hefitate a moment in
pronouncing animal and vegetable conception to be the fame;
but with this difference, that in animals fruition is voluntary,
but in vegetables neceflary and mechanical. The impregna-
tion of the female palm by the farina of the male, related by
Mylius, in hit letter to Dr. Watfon (Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii.
art. 25.) eftablifhes the fad attefted by the ancient* con-
cerning the palm-tree ; and as the fruftification in other
vegetables, though it may differ in particular circumftances,
has neverthelefs a general conformity to that of the palm-tree,
with refpeft to the parts fuppofed to be the organs of ge-
neration, which are difcoverable either on the fame or in a
feparate flower, we may, from this fingle experiment, deduce

an

S E Y

an argument by analogy for the confirmation of the whole
fexual hypothefis. BeCdes, a very llriking proof of the
analogy between plants and animals may be drawn from
obfervations made in their infant ilates, at which early pe-
riod they feem nourifhed and protefted in a iimilar manner.
Thofe who defire farther fatisfaCtion, may lee the fevcral
demonftrations collected, and methodically connefted, in
the " Sponfalia Phntarum" of J. Guftavus Walhbom,
publifhed in the " Amoenitates Academics," at Leyden, in
1749. See Botany, Classification, Fructification,
Plants, and Vegetation.

SEXUALISTtE, among Botanical Authors. See Bo-
tany, Fructification, and Sexual Sjr/lan.

SEXUNX, in Pharmacy, the weight ot fix ounce.-;, or half
a pound troy.

SEYBO, or Seyvo, in Geography, a feltlement in the
fouthern part of Hifpaniola ; 70 miles N.E. of St. Do-
mingo.

SEYBORSDORF, a town of Pruflia, in the province
of Oberland ; 6 miles S. of Liebftat.

SEYCHELLES, an ifland in the Indian ocean, N.E. of
Madagafcar; high and mountainous, andeftimatedat 72 miles
in circumference. The foil appears to be rich and good, and
the ifland is covered with trees, many of which would lerve
for malls and yards for Ihips, as they are large and llraight :
among the trees are great quantities of rofe-wood, and cocoa-
nut trees. Wild goats, land-tortoifes, and Guinea-fowl, are
found in plenty ; and in the harbour abundance of good fi(h.
The harbour is well flieltered from the louth-eail wind.
When the windi are from the north and north-well, it is
rather an open road, but the ground feems to hold well.
The tide riles about fix feet, and fets about S.S.W. High
water full and ciiange, thirty minutes pall five. S. lat.
4° 34'. E. long. 55"- 35'.

SEYDA, or Sedau, a town of Saxony ; 10 miles E. of
Wittcmberg. N. lat. 51" 55'. E. long. 1 2" 59'.
SEYDE. See Saide.

SEYDEWITZ, a nver of Saxony, which runs into the
Elbe, near Pirna, in the marggravate of Meifi'en.
SEYER. See Pulo Seycr.

Seyer Oc, an ifland of Denmark, in the Cattcgat,
about eight miles long, and hardly one broad ; about five
miles from the coaft of Zealand. N. lat. 55° 5 3'. E. long.
11° II'.

SEYFFERSDORF, a town of Silcfia, in the princi-
pality of Grotkau ; 3 miles N.N.E. of Grotkau.

SEYFORTESVOLT, a town of Prulfia, in the pro-
vince ot Ermeland ; 9 miles S. of Heillberg.

SEYGAR, in tiie Materia Medka, a name ufcd by feme
authors for tlie niitmcg.

SEYGERSWALD, in Geography, a town of Pruflia, in
the province of Oberland; 4 miles N.E. of Salfeldt.

SEYLONE, a town of Hindooftan, m Oude, feated on
a river which runs into the Goointy ; 15 miles S.E. of
Barelly.

SEYMAN, an ifland in the Red fea. N. lat. 15'' 20'.
E. long. 57^^ 30'.

SEYMOUR, Edward, in Biography, brother of lady
,Tane Seymour, wife of Hknky Vlil. (lee his article), and
uncle to Edward VL, was created vifcount Beauchamp, earl
of Hertford, and duke of Somerfet. On the accedion of
his nephew to the throne he became his guardian, and pro-
teftor of the kingdom. Not thinking that the vote ot the
executor? of Henry VII L was a fuihcient foHiulation tor
the high authority wliich lie partly allumed by the intliicnce
which his relationfhip to the king gave him, he procured a
patent from Edward, by which he overfct the meaning and

S E Y

intent of the late king's will. In this patent he named him-
felf protcftor, with full regal power, and appointed a council
entirely of thofe perfons whom he thought he could trull.
The protetlor became the warm friend of the reformation,
and confulted Cranmer on the bed means of promoting the
objeft he had at heart. He appointed a general vifitation to
be made in all the diocefes in England, the vifitors confifting
of a certain number of the clergy and laity, and they had
their different circuits afligned them. The chief purport of
their inltruftions was, befides correAing the immoralities
and irregularities of the clergy, to abolilh, but with a very
lenient hand, ancient fuperftitions, and to bring difcipline and
worlhip fomewhat nearer the praftice of the reformed
churches. Somerfet made war upon Scotland, and upon his
return in Nov. 1 547, he called a parliament, and being elated
with the fuccefles which he obtained over the Scots, he pro-
cured from the young prince a patent, appointing him to fit
on the throne, upon a flool at the right hand of the king,
and to enjoy the fame honours and privileges that had ufii-
ally been poilefled by any prince of the blood, or uncle of
the kings of England. In this patent the king employed
his difpenfing power, by felting afide the llatute of pre-
cedency enafted during the reign of his father. If, however,
the proteftor gave offence by affuming too much flate, he de-
ferves high praife on account of the laws which were paffed
during this feflion, by which the rigour of former ftatutes
was much mitigated, and fonie fecurity given to thofe prin-
ciples of freedom which feem to make a part of the conllitu-
tion. All laws were repealed which extended the crime of
treafon beyond the llatuteof the twenty-fifth of Edward III.:
all crimes enadled during the late reign extending the crime
of felony ; all the former laws againft herefy, together with
the llatute of the fix articles. None, in future, were to be
accufed for words, but within a month after they were fpoken.
" By thefe repeals," fays Hume, " feveral of the moll rigor-
ous laws that were ever paffed in England were annulled, and
fome dawn, both of civil and religious liberty, began to appear
to the people."

About this time, moll violent differences fubfifted between
the proteftor and his brother, Thomas Seymour, admiral of
England. The ambition of the latter was infatiable : he was
befides arrogant, affuming, and implacable ; and though
ellcemcd of fuperior capacity to the proteftor, he did not
poflefs the fame degrceof confidence and regard of the people.
By his flattery and addrefs, he had fo far infiiiuated himfelf
into the favour of the queen-dowagcr, that fhe married him
almoll immediately upon the demife of tiie king. The credit
of this alliance fupported the ambition of the admiral, and
gave great offence to the duchefs of Somerfet, who, uneafy
that the younger brother's wite fliould have the precedency,
employed all the credit flie had with her hulband, firll to
create, and then to widen the breach between the two bro-
thers. Matters, at length, were carried fo far, that the ad-
miral was attainted of !iip;h treafon, and executed by a war-
rant, which was figned by the hand of his brother, whofc
own difgrace was at no great dillance.

After the duke of Somerfet had obtained the patent, in-
veiling him, as it were, with full regal authority, he thought
every one was in duly bound to yield to his fcntimcnts. Be-
fides his general haulcur, he gave great offence to the higher
ranks of fociety, by the attention with which he evidently
courted the api>laufe of the people at large. For the relief
of the latter he h.id erefted a court of requells in his own
houfc, and he intcrpoled with the judges in their behalf, a
circumllance that could not but be deemed illegal. Though
the protcftor had thus courted the people, to the difplcafure
and difgnft of the nobles, whom Hume reprcfents aa " the
Z z 2 fured

S E Y

fureft fiipport of monarchical authority," the intereft which
he had formed with them was in no degree anfwerablc to his
expeftations. The Catholic party, who retained influence
with the lower ranks, as might be expefted, were his de-
clared enemies, and took advantage of ever)' opportunity to
decry his conduft. The attainder and execution of his bro-
ther bore an odious afpeft : the introduftion of foreign
troops into the kingdom was reprefented in invidious co-
lours : the great eltate which he had fuddenly acquired at
the expenceof the church, and of the crown, rendered him
obnoxious ; and the palace which he was building in the
Strand ferved, by it: magnificence, and ftill more by other
circumftanccs attending it, to expofe him to the cenfure of
the public. The parifh church of St. Mary, with three
bilhops' houfes, were pulled down, in order to furniih ground
and materials for this ftrufture. Not content even with this,
which, at that period, was regarded as great facrilege, an
attempt was made to demolifh St. Margaret's church, Weft-
minfler, and to employ the ftones for the fame purpofe, but
the parifhioners rofe in a tumult, and chafed away the pro-
tedtor's tratjefmen. He then laid his hands on a chapel in
St. Paul's church-yard, with a cloiiler and charnel-houfe
belonging to it, and thefe edifices, together with the church
called the St. John of Jerufalem, were made ufc of to raife
his palace. All thefe imprudences were remarked by Somer-
fet's enemies, who refolved, when an opportunity offered, to
take advantage of them to his ruin. A confpiracy was foon
formed againlt him, and he refigned his office, hoping that
with this conceflion his foes might be fatisfied, but he was
midaken, they determined to purfue him even to the fcaf-
fold. He was committed to the Tower, with fome of his
adi>erents, and articles of indiftment were exhibited agaiiift
him, of which the chief was his ufurpation of the govern-
ment, and his taking into his own hands the whole adminillra-
tion of affairs. The claufe of his patent, which invefted him
with abfolute power, unlimited by any law, was never ob-
jefted to him, becaiife, fays Mr. Hume, " according to the
fentiments of thofe times, that power was, in fome degree,
involved in the very idea of regal authority." Somerfet was
prevailed upon to confefs on his knees, before the council,
all the articles laid to his charge, and he imputed thefe mif-
demeanors to his own rafhnefs and indifcretion, not to any
malignity of intention. He even fubfcribed a paper which
contained a full confeffion of his guilt ; he was accordingly
fined two thoufand pounds a-year in land, and deprived of
all his offices, and here the matter for the prefent ended ; the
fine was remitted, and he recovered his liberty. After this,
he was re-admitted into the council, and foon obtained a
confiderable portion of popularity, which rendered him an
objedl of jealoufy to the duke of Northumberland, who
planned his deftruftion. Under pretence of an intended
infurreftion, he had him feized, with his friends, and com-
mitted to the Tower. He was now brought to trial before
a jury of twenty-feven peers, fome of whom were his avowed
enemies, and was of courfe found guilty, and condemned to
death. Care was taken to prepoflefs the young king againll
his uncle, and left he fhould relent, no accefs was allowed to
the duke of Somerfet's friends, and the prince was, by a
continued fcries of occupations and amufements, kept from
refleftion. The prifoner was executed on Tower-hill, much
to the regret of the great body of people, who entertained
the hopes of pardon to the laft. A vail multitude of thofe
friendly to him were the witnelles of his death. Many of
them dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, which they
preferved as a precious relic ; and fome of them, when Nor-
thumberland, his great enemy and one of his jurors, met with
a like doom, upbraided him with this aft of his cruelty, and

S E Y

difphyed to him thefe fymbols of his crime. " Somerfet,
indeed," fays Hume, " though many aftions of his life were
exceptionable, feems in general to have merited a better fate,
and the faults which he committed were owing to weaknefs,
not to any bad intention. His virtues were better calculated
for private than for public life ; and by his want of penetra-
tion and firmnefs, he was ill-fitted to extricate himfclf from
thofe cabals and violences to which that age was fo much
addiaed."

Somerfet left three daughters, Anne, Margaret, and
.Tane, who were dirtinguiftied for their poetical talents.
They compofed Latin diltichs on the death of Margaret de
Valois, queen of France, which were tranflated into the
French, Greek, and Itahan languages, and printed in Paris
in 1 55 1. Anne, the eldeft of thefe ladies, married firft the
earl of Warwick, the fon of the duke of Northumberland,
already mentioned, and afterwards fir Edward Hunton. The
other two died fingle. Jane was maid of honour to queen
Elizabeth.

SEYMOaR, Arabella, better known in hiftory by the
name of the lady Arabella, was daughter of Charles Stuart,
earl of Lennox, youngell brotherof Henry Dariiley, hufband
to Mary queen of Scots. Her mother was daughter of fir
William Cavendilh of Chatfworth, in Derbyfhire. Her
affinity to the crown was the caufe of her misfortunes. Se-
veral projefts were formed for placing her on the Englifh
throne, fo that (he was kept under confinement in the reign
of queen Elizabeth. At the beginning of that of James, a
confpiracv, or rather a projeft of a conlpricacy, was formed
to raife her to the crown. She was firit coufin to the king,
being the daughter of a younger brother, which fhews how
rafh the projett was, fuppofing it to have been real ; becaufe
James did not afcend the throne of England by the right of
his father but that of his mother, confequently Arabella,
though of the Stuart family, ftood in a very remote degree of
relation to the late queen Mary, had no claim to the crown
of England, and the more fo, as James had three children.
The authors of this confpiracy were lords Grey, Cobham, fir
Walter Raleigh, and others, who were tried, convifted, and
condemned, but none were executed at the time, except a
brother of lord Cobham, and two priefts. The others
were remanded to the Tower. (See Raleigh). Ara-
bella died in the year 1615, in prifon, to which place (he
had been committed fome time before, for having contrafted
marriage, without the knowledge of the crown, with William
Seymour, grandfon to the earl of Hertford. Hume. Acta
Regia.

Seymour's Canal, in Geography, an inlet on the S.E.
coaft of Admiralty Ifiand, extending from Point Hugh,
about 28 miles N.N.W. of the entrance between Point
Hugh and Point Gambier.

SEYMS, among Farriers. See Seams.

SEYNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton,
in the diilrift of Digne ; 15 miles N. of Digne. The
place contains 2557, and the canton 5227 inhabitants, on
a territory of 307^ kiliometres, in 8 communes.

SEYNEY, a to'wn of Lithuania ; 38 miles N.N.W. of
Grodno.

SEYPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 40 miles
N.E. of Fyzabad.

SEYSSEL, Claude de, in Biography, an hiflorical and
political writer, who fiourifhcd in the beginning of the
lixteenth century, was brought up to the law, which he
praftifed with great applaufe at Turin. He obtained the
places of mailer of requefls and counfcUor under Lewis XH.
of France. He attended in the name of that prince at the
7 council

S F O

council of Lateran, and was promoted to the bifhopric of
Marleilles in 1 510, and to the archbilhopric of Turin in
1517. He died in 1520, leaving behind him a great number
of works, on theological, juridical, and hiftorical fubjefts.
He alfo tranflatcd into the French language Eufebius's Ec-
clefiaftical Hiitory, Thucydides, Appian, Diodorus, Xeno-
phon, Juilin, and Seneca. He is faid to have been the firft
who alleged the Salic law as influencing the fucceflion to
the crown of France. His " Grand Monarchic de France,"
publilhed in 1519. and tranflatcd by Sleidan into the Latin
language, maintains that the French conititution is a mixed
monarchy, and that the king is dependent on the parliament.
In his " Hilloire de Louis XII. Pere du Peuple," he is
the perpetual pancgyrill of that prince, but gives fonie
curious fadls refpefting the reign of Lewis XL, whofe
vices are expofed by way of contraft.

Seyssel, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Belley, feated on the Rhone, which here becomes navi-
gable, and divides it into two parts ; 13 miles N. of Belley.
The place contains 2260, and the canton 6032 inhabitants,
on a territory of 122^ kiliometres, in y communes.

SEZ ANE, or Cezane, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Po, on the Dora ; 7 miles E. of Briangon.

SEZANNES, a town of France, in the department of
the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Epernay ; 45 miles W. of Vitry le Fran<;ais. The place
contains 4149, and the canton 12,203 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 300 kiliometres, in 27 communes. N. lat. 48°
42'. E. long. 3° 48'.

SEZARNIK, a town of Hungary ; 4 miles W. of
Kapfdorf.

SEZENEVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Viatka ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Glazov.

SEZULFE, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Tras los Moiitcs ; 7 miles N-E. of Mirandela.

SEZZA, a town of the Campagna di Roma ; 35 miles
E.S.E. of Roma. — Alfo, a town of Naples, in Lavora,
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Capua ; 29 miles N.N.W.
of Naples. N. lat. 41° 19'. E. long. 13^ 34'.
' SFACCIA, a town of European Turkey, in Albania ;
S miles N. of Dulcigno.

SFACHIA. See Sphaciiia.

SFALASSA, a river of Naples, which runs into the
fea ; 4 miles E. of Cape Scigho.

SFASACA, a town of Japan, on the S.W. coall of
Niphon ; 18 miles E. of Amanguchi.

SFAX, or El Sfaktijfe, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Tunis, furrounded with walls. The trade of the
inhabitants in oil and cloth is confiderable ; 45 miles S.E.
ofCairoan. N. lat. 34° 49'. E. long. 10° 56'.

SFORZA, GiAcO.Mliiizo, in Biography, named alfo At-
tendolo, founder of the illullrious houfe of Sforza, was born
in 1369 at Cotignola, in Romagna. He is faid to have been
originally a peaiant, and, according to a traditionary report,
being one day at work, he was foliciled to enlift for a foldicr,
when throwing his fpade on a tree, he faid he would enter
if the fpade did not fall down again, which proving to be
the cafe, he immediately engaged in that military life which
rendered him famous. He firll fervcd under general Albcric
de Barbiano, and had for his comrade in arms the celebrated
Br.iccio. Thcfe, in the early part of their career, were as
intimate as brother's, but as they advanced in tiie profclfion,
jealoufy intervened, and they became at length fuch deter-
mined enemies, that when one engaged in the fervice of a
prince or Hate, it was a fufficient motive for the other to
engage on the oppofitc fide. Sforza was foon dillinguifhed

S F O

for his bravery, and for a difpofition to feize by force what,
ever booty fell in his way. Braccio and he perfeiSly agreed
in felling their fervices as dearly as poflible, and in confidering
war as a trade whicli was to be kept up for their benefit.
From the command of loo men he rofe to that of 7000: he
obtained the office of gonfalonier to the holy fee, and by
pope John XXIII. he was created count Cotignola, an ho-
nour that was given by way of payment of a fum of money
due to him. He commanded in the kingdom of Naples
againfl Alphonfo of Aragon, and was made conltable of
the kingdom. In marching to the relief of Aquila, he was
drowned in the pafFage of the river Aterno or Pefcara, in the
year 1424. He is reprefented to have been robuft in body,
and when elevated to his higheR rank, that he prefervedthe
peafant's difregard of luxury, and franknefs of manners.

Sforza, Francesco, firll duke of Milan of that family,
natural fon of the preceding, was born in 1401. In 142 1 he
was viceroy to Louis, duke of Anjou, who had been adopted
by queen Joan II. of Naples, and in 1424 he defeated the
troops of Braccio ; but his father, as we have feen, being
drowned, he could make no advantage of his fuccefs. Al-
though an illegitimate fon, Joan conferred upon him all his
father's eftates, and he ferved fuccefsfully againft the Arago-
nefe commanders. He afterwards entered into the fervice
of the duke of Milan, and defeated a fleet of the Venetians
in the Po, in 143 1. After the death of the queen, in 1435,
he attached himfelf to her heir, Rene, duke of Anjou, and
made himfelf mailer of feveral places in the Marche of
Ancona. He even feized fome of the pope's poflcflions,
which brought on him an excommunication from Euge-
nius IV. whom he had formerly ferved. He had long
wiflied to marry Bian^a, the natural daughter of Philip-Maria
Vifconti, duke of Milan, and being in the Venetian fervice
againft that prince, he gained fuch advantages as induced
Philip, v.'ho had often deceived him, to enter into a treaty
in 1441, by which he made peace with the Venetians, and
gave his daughter to Sforza, with Cremona and its territory
for her portion.

The father and fon-in-Iaw did not long continue united,
and Sforza commanded, as general, the troops of the pope,
Venetians, and Florentines, in a war againft Philip. He was,
however, at length, induced to go over to the party of
the duke of Milan, who, in 1447, died without legitimate
iilne. Sforza was now ambitious of fuccecding him, and
took a commiffion, as general of tlie troops of Milan, againft
the Venetians. But he foon made a treaty with the latter,
and then led an allied army to the gates of Milan, to which
he laid fiege. The diftrefs of the city occafioncd a popular
commotion, the leaders of which propofed the clcfting of
Sforza for their duke. The majority concurred in the pro-
polal, and in February 1450 he was received with great ac-
clamations in that quality. Sforza remained in policfiion of
the duchy, and in 1464 made himfelf mailer of Genoa,
Lewis XI. of France having made over to him all the right
of France to that city. Sforza died in 1466, and tranfmitted
the fovercignty to his fon. He had (hewn himfelf a brave
and (liilful commander ; but with feveral traits of grandeur
in his charaftcr, he was not a man of principle, and was
ready to change fides as fuited his inteicit. Mod. Univ.
Hift.

Sforza, Catherine, an heroine of the fame family,
the natural daughter of Galeazzo Sforza, duke of Milan,
who was allaflinated in 1476. She married Jerome Riario,
lord of Forli and of Imola, which was her own dowry ;
but fhe was left a widow at tlic age of twenty-two, with
feveral children. In 1500 Forli was bcfiegcd by the duke
of Valeutinois, fon of pope Alexander VJ. but flic defended

tht

S H A

the fortrefs with the greateft bravery, though the befieffers
threatened to put her children to death, who were in their
hands. At length the place was taken, and Catherine fent
prifoner to Rome, but fhe foon recovered her liberty, and
was married to John de Medicis, to whofe family fhe ren-
dered very eminent fervices.

Sforza, Isabella, an ingenious lady of the fame family
in the fixteenth century. Her letters were printed at Venice
in 1549, by Hortenfio Laudo.

SFRONDATI, Francis, a fenatorof Milan, and coun-
fellor of ftate to the emperor Charles V. On the death of
his wife he entered into orders, and was elevated to the car-
dinalfhip. He died in 1550, aged 56. A poem of his, on
the " Rape of Helen," was printed at Venice in 1559. His
fon Nicholas became pope by the name of Gregory XIV :
there was another cardinal of this name and family, who
wrote feveral works againft the liberties of the Gallican
church. He died in 1 696.

SFUGGITO, Ital. in Mufic, to (hun, avoid, go out at
the common way : as caden%a sfuggita, a difappointed ca-
dence. This happens when the bafe feems preparing for
a full clofe ; inftead of falling a 5th or rifing a 4th, it rifes
only one tone or femitone, or falls a 3d ; or in other
words, when all the parts avoid their natural and expefted
conclufion.

SFUMBERG, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Chrudim ; 5 miles S.S.E. of Chrudim.

SGIGATA, Sgzgata, or Stora, a town of Africa, in
the country of Algiers, anciently called Riificada ; fituated
near the coait of the Mediterranean. A few cifterns are
the only remains of its ancient fplendnur ; 30 miles W. of
Bona. N. lat. 36= 48'. E. long. 6° 40'.

SGIGATCHEE, or Suigatchee Jeung, a town of
Thibet, fituated in a narrow valley, on a ridge of rock, fo as
to command the road near the river Painom-tchieu ; 130
miles W.S.W. of LafTa. N. lat. 29= 5'. E. long. 88" 52'.
SGRAFFIT, Sgraffiata, in Painting. See Scuatch-
•WORK.

SHAAB al Tadayn, in Geography, a dry (helf in the Red
fea, extending from N.E. by E., deriving its name from
its fuppofed refemblance to two arms wide open with
their hands, fituated at the end of a great bay, far out
to fea. There is a fecure harbour on the fide towards the
land.

SHAAL Stone, in Mineralogy. See Tabular Spar.
SHAB, in /IgricuUure, a difeafe of (heep. See Scab.
Shab, or Sheb, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
county of Nubia ; 400 miles S.S.W. of Cairo. N. lat.
23° 35'. E. long. 30" 30'.

SHABADPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; ;o
miles W. of Kairabad.

SHABALA, a name of a wonderful boon-granting cow,
often fpoken of in Hindoo romance ; but more commonly
under the name of Surabhi ; which fee.

SHABALEG, in Geography, a mountain of Turkeflan ;
70 miles N.N.E. of Toncat.

SHABAMOUSHWAN Lake, a lake of Canada ;
210 miles N.N.W. of Quebec. N. lat. 49° 10'. W.
long. 75^.

SHABAT, a town of the kingdom of Charafm ; 95
miles S.S.E. of Urgheuz.

SHABAYAGAN, ariverof Canada, which runs into
lake Michigan, N. lat. 48^ 30'. W. long. 86' 45'.

SH AB AZPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad ;
16 miles S.E. of Corah.

SHABRAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Schir-
van ; 40 miles N.E. of Schamachie.

S H A

SHABUR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
6 miles S.W. of Calbin. — Alfo, a town of Egypt, on the
weft branch of the Nile, thought to be the ancient Andro-
polis; 50 miles N.N.W. of Cairo. N. lat. 30'^ 47'. E.
long. 31°. _

SHACK, in ylncient Cujlorrs, a libertv of winter-paf-
turage. In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the lord
of the manor has fliack, i. e. a liberty of feeding his (heep
at pleafure, in his tenants' knds, during the fix winter
months.

In Norfolk, (hack alfo extends to the common for hogs,
in all men's grounds, from the end of harveft till feed-
ing-time. Whence to go a /hack, is to feed at large.

Shack, in Agriculture, provincially to (hed as grain at
harvelt. See Harvesting Grain

Shack, or Shack-corn, a provincial term applied to the
waite corn left in the fields at harveft : alfo the ftock turned
upon the ftubble after harveft, and likcwife to fuch grounds
as lie open to common fields. Pigs are the ftock ufiially
employed in gathering this, and in fome parts flocks of
geefe and turkies. Where pigs are clovered through the
fummcr, they are liniflied with the (hacks and the acorns ;
but fome farmers are fo improvident, as neither to feed
their clovers in that advantageous way, nor even keep pigs
enough to pick up the wafte corn, which is fometimes ab-
folutely fuffered to rot in the fields. Young pigs anfwer
well in this ufe, as they thrive greatly, efpecially when bred
upon the farm.

SHACK-/"ori, provincially a wooden fork for fhaking
ftraw off the barn-floor, made of forked willow, &c.

SHACKLEFORD, in Geography, a poft-town of
America, in Virginia; 143 miles W.S.W. of Wafhing-
ton.

SHACKLES, in Ship-BuilJing, the fmall ring-bolts
driven through the ports, or fcuttles, and through which
the lafhings or an iron hook paffes when the ports arc
barred in. There are alfo fhackles put upon billow-bolts,
for confining feamen, &c. who have deferved corporal
punifhment.

SHACORA, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
coaft of the Red fea ; 65 miles S. of El Cofeir.

SHAD, Alalsa, in Ichthyology, the name of a fea-fifh,
called alfo the mother of herrings, and by fome authors clupea
and trijfa, by the ancients trichis, or trichias, and the cli^ea
alofa of Linnasus. See Clupea.

It very much refembles the herring in its general form,
but it is flatter and broader, and grows to a cubit long, and
four inches broad. The head flopes down confiderably
from the back, which at the beginning is very convex, and
rather fharp ; the body from thence grows gradually left
towards the tail ; the under jaw is rather longer than the
upper ; the teeth very minute ; the dorfal fin is placed very
near the centre, is fmall, and the middle rays are the longeft ;
the pectoral and ventral fins are fmall ; the tail very forked ;
the belly extremely fharp, and ftrongly ferrated ; the back
is of a duflsy blue ; above the gills begins a line of dark
fpots, which mark the upper part of the back on each fide ;
the number of thefe fpots is different in different fi(h, from
four to ten.

It is very common in many feas, and in fome of our large
rivers which lie near the fea. They run up thefe in great
numbers, and are then very fat ; they afterwards become
lean, and then go down to the fea again. They iifuallj
fwim in large fhoals together.

In Great Britain the Severn affords the (had in higher
perfeftion than any other river ; where it firft appears in
May, but in very warm feafons in April, and continues

about

S H A

S H A

about two months. The fhad at its firfl appearance, erpe-
cially near Gloucefler, is edeemed a very delicate fifh, and
fells dearer than falmon. The London fi(hmongers diftin-
guifti it from that of the Thames, by the French name of
alofe. Whether they fpawn in the Severn or Wye is not
determined, as their fry has not yet been afcertained. The
old fifh come from the fea in full roe. The iifherraen erro-
neoufly imagine that the bleak, which appears in multitudes
near Gloucefter in July and Auguft, are the fry of the
(had. Many of thefe are taken i.i thofe months only, but
none of the emaciated (hads are ever caught in their return.
Tlie Thames (had does not frequent that river till the month
of July, and is elteemed a very infipid coarfe fifh. About
the fame time, the tiuaile, a variety of the Chad, makes its
appearance near Gloucelter, and is taken in great numbers
in the Severn, but held in as great difrepute as the (had of
the Thames. The true (had weighs fometimes eight pounds,
hut their general fize is from four to (ive. The twaite, on
the contrary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds,
which it never exceeds. The twaite differs from a fmall
(had only in having one or more round black fpots on
the fides ; if only one, it is always near the gill, but com-
monly there are three or four, placed one under the other.
Pennant.

No (had is to be taken in the Thames or Medway, except
from May lo to June 30. 39 Geo. II. cap. 21.

SHADDOCK, in Boiany. See Citrus.

SHADE, in Agriculture, any fort of proteftion em-
ployed for preventing the heat, cold, and rain, from afFetl-
iiig and injuring any kind of Rock, whether of the nature
of building or plantation, of the woody kind, &c. See
ScRV^F.s-Plantation, and Shelter.

Shade, in Gardening, any thing that intervenes to ob-
fcure or proteCl plants from the rays of the fun. It
is effefted in various ways by the gardener ; as by mats,
covers, &c.

Shade, provincially a (hed for fuel, or houfe for (helter-
ing live-ftock, Sec. ; it alfo fignilies to fhed as grain, as ufed
in fome places.

Sh.'^de Mountain, in Geography, a mountain of Pennfyl-
vania, N.E. of Lewidown.

SHADENDORFF, a town of Auftria; 4 miles N.E.
of Brugg.

SHADING of Plants, in Gardening, the art of pro-
tcfting plants of young and tender growths in feed-beds,
&c. from the fun. It is a neceilary work on many occafions,
in warm, dry, funny wreatlier in fpring and fummcr, &c. in
pricking out various forts of fmall young plants from feed-
beds, into nurfery-beds, pots, &c. as well as fmall cuttings,
flips, above-gro'.uid ofT-fets, pipings, &c. as likevvife occa-
fionally in tranfplanting any kind ot more advanced plants,
flowers, &c. into beds, or pots, in a hot, dry fcafon ; and
fometimes to feed-beds of particular forts of fmall or curi-
ous feeds, in hot (uiiny days ; alfo to plants in hot-beds,
under frames and glalks, both of young and more advanced
growths. It is the moll commodioudy and efledlually per-
formed by garden mats in a fort of awning over the beds,
to plants in the full ground, or to thofe in pots placed clofc
together, or fometimes to feed-beds, cither in that way, or
by being fprcad on the furface ; in the latter method, being
occalioiially watered over the mats: or lometimej, in hot
dry we?ther, by fome loofe draw htter (Ircvved over feed-
beds, which by fcreening the furface from the parching fun,
and prefcrviiig the moilliire in the earth, promotes a more
^uick, regular, and free germination in the feed ; and when
the plants are come up, the covering is foon drawn off
Kglitly with a wooden or other rake. To plants under

glafles in frames, &c. the occafional (hading is efFeAed
either by mats fpread thinly over the glades, or fometimes
by a little loofe, long litter, (haken lightly over them, juft
during the fiierce heat of the lun. In all cafes the (hade
diould not be m.ade too thick, fo as to darken the plants too
much.

Alfo in the bufinefs of occafional (hading, it it in general
only to be continued in the warme/l time of funny days, ge-
nerally longer to plants, cuttings, &c. which have not (truck
root, than thofe that are in a growing date ; and iu common
with all plants in the full ground, or others defigned for
placing in the open air, where occafional (liading is necef-
(ary, it (hould be difcontinued on evenings, mornings, and
niglits, that they may enjoy the benefit of the full fre(h air
at thefe times ; as alio the tender forts, ftriking or advanc-
ing in growth under glades, having occafional (hading when
the fun is powerful, in the warmer part of the day, (hould
remain unihaded before and after that time, that they may
receive the neceffary beneficial induence of light and air in
a proper degree. But in plants, cuttings, (lips, &c. that
have had occafional (hading till they have ftruck good root,
and begin to advance a little in a renewed growth, the
(hading (hould be modly dilcontinued gradually, efpecially
for thofe in beds, pots, &c. in the open ground, or others
defigned for tranfplantation, or for placing in pots, in the
full air for the fummer, according to their kinds : but in
fome fmall tender plants of fieiider growth, the occafional
(hading mav probably be neced'ary in longer continuation, as
till they acquire more drength ; and to plants remaining all
fummer in hot-beds, or under frames and glades, the con-
tinuance of occafional moderate (hading in hot funny days
will be proper ; but in mod young plants, cuttings, &c.
pricked out or planted as above, and defigned for the full
ground or open air, not continued under glades, the having
the benefit of occafional (hade till well (truck is all they
require.

The forts of plants which require this kind of manage-
ment are very numerous ; but it is condantly mentioned in
their culture where necedary.

SH ADMAN, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia;
36 miles N.N.E. of Termed.

SHADOW, Shade, in Optics, a certain fpace deprived
of light, or where the light is weakened by the interpofition
of fome opaque body before the luminary.

The doftriiie of (hadovvs makes a confidcrable article in
optics, adronomy, and geography ; and is the general found-
ation of dialling.

As nothing is feen but by light, a mere (hadow is invifi-
ble : when, therefore, wc fay, we lee a (hadow, we mean
partly, that we fee bodies placed in the (hadow, and illu-
minated by light refiefted from collateral bodies ; and
partly, that we fee the confines of the light.

If the opaque body, that projedts the (hadow, be per-
pendicular to the horizon, and the plane it is projefted on
be horizontal, the fliadow is called a rigl>t (hadow. Such
are the (hadows of iikmi, trre<, buildings, mountains, &c.
If the opaque body be placed parallel to the horizon, the
diadow is called a verfed diadow ; as the arms of a man
Itrctched out, &c.

SilADOWtiyVom opaque Bodies, I.aius of the Projellion of.
I. Every opaque body projects a (hadow in the fame direc-
tion with the rays o( light ; that is, towards the part oppo-
fite to the light. Hence, as cither the luminary or the body
changes place, the diadow likcwife changes its place.

2. Every opaque body projects as many (hadows, as there
are luminaries to enlighten it.

3. As the light of the luminary is more intcnfe, the (ha-

dow

SHADOW.

dow is the deeper. Hence, the intenfity of the (hadow is
meafured by the degrees of light that fpace is deprived of.
In reahty, the {hadow itfelf is not deeper, but it appears
fo, becaufe the furrounding bodies are more intenfely illu-
minated.

4. If a luminous fphcre be equal to an opaque one, which
it illumines, the (hadow this latter projefts will be a cylin-
der ; and, of confequence, will be propagated ftill equal to
itfelf, at whatever diftance it extends ; fo that, if it be cut
in any place, the plane of the feftion will be a circle equal
to a great circle of the opaque fphere.

J. If the luminous fphere be greater than the opaque one,
the Ihadow will be conical. If, therefore, the {hadow be
cut by a plane parallel to the bafe, the plane of the feftion
will be a circle ; and tliat fo much the lefs as it is at a greater
diftance from the bafe.

6. If the luminous fphere be lefs than the opaque one, the
fliadow will be a truncated cone : confequently it grows ftill
wider and wider ; and therefore, if cut by a plane parallel
to its bafe, that plane will be a circle fo much the greater
as it is farther from the bafe.

7. To find the length of the (hadow, or the axis of the
fhady cone, projefted by a lefs opaque fphere, illumined by
a larger ; the femidiameters of the two, as C G and I M,
[Plate XX. Optics, Jig. 1.) and the diftances between their
centres G M, being given :

Draw F M parallel to C H ; then will I M = C F ; and
therefore F G will be the difference of the femidiameters
G C and I M. Confequently, as F G, the difference of the
femidiameters, is to G M, the diftance of the centres ; fo
is C F, or I M, the diameter of the opaque fphere, to M H,
the diftance of the vertex of the (hady cone, from the cen-
tre of the opaque fphere. If then, the ratio of P M to M H
be very fmall, fo that M H and P H do not differ very con-
fiderably, H M may be taken for the axis of the fhadowy
eone : otherwife the part P M muft be fubtrafted from it,
to find which, feek the arc L K, which is the meafure of
the angle L M K, or M H I, and this angle is one of the
angles of the right-angled triangle M H I, the fides of
■which, M I and M H, are known ; for this, fubtrafted from
a quadrant, leaves the arc I Q, which is the meafure of
the angle IMP. Since then, in the triangle M I P, which
is reftangnlar at P, befides the angle I M Q, we have the
fide I M ; the fide M P is eafily found by plain trigono-
metry.

E. g. If the femidiameter of the earth be M I =:; I ; the
femidiameter of the fun will be r= 117; and therefore G F
= 111; and of confequence M H = 217; fince then M P
is found by calculation to bear a very fmall ratio to M H ;
for the angle M I P = K M L, may be taken equal to the
apparent femidiameter of the fun, becaufe of the fun's
great diftance, and its confiderable magnitude, in propor-
tion to the globe M ; and therefore, MP: MI :: fine of
16' : radius, i.e. :: 217 : l, nearly; and as M H is about
217 times M I, P M may be neglefted, and P H may be
taken to be 217 femidiameters of the earth. See Eclipse
of the Moon.

Hence, as the ratio of the diftance of the opaque body,
from the luminous body G M, to the length of the fhaduw
M H, is conltant ; if the diftance be diminilhed, the length
of the fhadow muft be diminifhed hkewife. ConCcquently,
the fhadow continually decreafes as the opaque body ap-
proaches the luminary.

8. To find the length of the fhadow projefted by an
opaque body T S {Jig. 2.) ; the altitude of the luminary,
t. gr. of the fun above the horizon, viz.. the angle S V T,
and that of the body, being given. Since, in the reftangled

triangle S T V, which iS reftangular at T, we have given
the angle V, and the fide T S ; the length of the fhadow
T V is had by trigonometry.

Thus, fuppofc the altitude of the fun 37° 45', and the
altitude of a tower 178 feet ; T V will be found 230 feet
nearly.

9. The length of the (hadow T V, and the height of the
opaque body T S, being given ; to find the altitude of the
fun above the horizon.

Since, in the reftangled triangle STV, reftangular at
T, the fides T V and T S are given ; the angle V is found
thus : as the length of the (hadow T V, is to the altitude
of the opaque body T S, fo is the whole fine to the tangent
of the fun's altitude above the horizon. Thus, if T S be
30 feet, and T V 45, TVS will be found 41^ 49'.

10. If the altitude of the luminary, e. gr. the fun above
the horizon TVS, be 45 ', the length of the (hadow T V
is equal to the height of the opaque body, the triangle in
this cafe being ifofceles.

1 1. The length of the (hadows T Z and T V of the fame
opaque body T S, in different altitudes of the luminary, are
as the co-tangents of thefe altitudes.

Hence, as the co-tangent of a greater angle is lefs than
that of a lefs angle ; as the luminary rifes higher, the (hadovr
decreafes ; whence it is, that the meridian (hadows axe longer
in winter than in fummer.

12. To meafure the altitude of any objeft, e. gr. a tower
A B {Jig. 3.) by means of its (hadow projefted on an hori-
zontal plane.

At the extremity of the (hadow of the tower C, fix a
ftick, and meafure the length of the (hadow A C ; fix an-
other ttick in the ground of a known altitude D E, and
meafure the length of the fhadow thereof E F. Then as
E F is to A C, fo is D E to A B. If, therefore, A C be
45 yards, E D 5 yards, and E F 7 yards ; A B will be
3 2 J- yards.

13. The right (hadow is to the height of the opaque
body, as the cofine of the height of the luminary to the
fine.

14. The altitude of the luminary being the fame in both
cafes, the opaque body A C {Jig. 4. ) will be to the verfed
fhadow A D, as the right fhadow E B to its opaque body
D B Hence, 1. The opaque body is to its verfed (hadow,
as the cofine of the altitude of the luminary to its fine ;
confequently the verfed (hadow A D is to its opaque body
A C, as the fine of the altitude of the luminary to its cofine.

2. If D B = A C ; then will D B be a mean proportional
between E B and A D ; that is, the length of the opaque
body is a mean proportional between its right fhadow and
verfed fliadow, under the fame altitude of the luminary.

3. When the angle C is 45', the fine and cofine are equal ;
and, therefore, the verfed (hadow is equal to the length ot
the opaque body.

15. A right fine is to a verfed fine of the fame opaque
body, under the fame altitude of the luminary, in a dupli-
cate ratio of the cofine to the fine of the altitude of the
luminary.

Right and verfed (hadows are of confiderable ufe in mea-
furing : as by their means we can coinmodioufly enough
meafure altitudes, both acceffible and inacceffible, and that
too when the body does not projeft any fhadow. The
right (hadows we ufe, when the fhadow does not exceed
the altitude ; and the verfed fhadows, when the fhadow is
greater than the altitude. On this footing is made an in-
ftrument called the quadrat, or line of Jhadows ; by mean*
of which the ratios of the right and verfed fhadow of any
object, at any altitude, are determined. This inftrument ii

ufually

I

SHADCn\^.

iifiially added on the face of the quadrat. Its defcription
and life, fee under Quadrat, and Altitude.

Shadows, The DoBrlne of, in PerfptR'ive, is the theory
and praftice of reprefeiiting fhadows, as projefted from a
given point at a finite diilance, fuch as a candle, or as pro-
jected from the fun, where the diftance, thougli not infinite,
is, for the fake of fimplicity, coiifidered as luch, in order
that the rays may be all parallel ; or othcrwife, for this pur-
pofe, the rays may be fuppofed as proceeding from all points
of fpace in parallel lines.

A line of fhade is the line deprived of light by an opaque
point oppofed to the luminary.

A plane of fhade is an opaque or dark plane, occafioned
by the privation of light from the intcrpofition of a ttraight
line oppofed to the luminary ; and hence it is evident, that
every plane of fhade will pafs through the luminary.

To find the fhadows upon the furfaces of bodies occa-
fioned by the privation of the fun's rays.

Given the vanifliiiig line of a plane, the vanilhing point
of the fun's rays, the vanifliing point of the feat of a ray
on the plane, the reprefentation of a point in fpace, and the
repreientation of the feat of the point in the plane whofe
vanifliing line is given ; to find the reprefentation of the flia-
dow upon the plane of the piftiire.

Join the vanifliing point of the line to the vanifhing
point of lines perpendicular to the plane, whofe vanifliing
line is given, and you will thus obtain the vanifliing line of
another plane, in which is the original of the feat of tlie
point, and the original of the line in projeftion ; and there-
fore the interfeftion of the vanifhing line given of the plane
on which the feat of the line required to be drawn and the
vanifhing line found is the vanifhing point of the feat of the
line. Therefore, draw a (traight line through the feat of
the point given in projedlion to the vanifliing point found,
and the line thus drawn will be the whole reprefentation of
the feat.

This propofition is evident, fince the vanifhing line of
every plane perpendicular to the plane whofe vanifliing line
is given, will pafs through the vanifhing point of lines per-
pendicular to that plane ; and fince the feat of the original
line, on the original of the plane given, is formed by a plane
paffing through the original line perpendicular to the given
plane interfefting therewith ; therefore the vanifliing line of
this perpendicukr plane will pafs through tlie va!iifliing
point of lines perpendicular to the original of the plane
given ; but when two points in a vanifliing line are given,
the whole of the vanifhing line is given, being the ftraight
line pafling through thefe points.

A general knowledge of the fhadows of lines upon
planes in any pofition ought firft to be acquired ; but as
the relation of lines and planes to the horizon is generally
given, it will be neceflary to find the relation of thefe lines
and plane? to one another; and here it will be proper to ob-
ferve, that whatever be the number of planes, the vanifliing
point of the fun's rays will remain unchangeable, or in the
fame pofition in refpeft of the firll vanifiiing line, and will
be common to all the different planes ; but every difierent
plane will have its own vanifhing point for the feat of the
fun's rays in that plane, and that vanifliing point will
be in the vanifhing line of that plane. As vertical and ho-
rizontal planes occur moil frequently in praAice, thtl'e will
require particular attention.

Given the inclination of a plane to the plane of the
pifture, both being perpendicular to the ori;/iiial plane, and
the feat and inclination of a ftraight Inn- in the plane of the
horizon ; to determine the vanifhing point of the feat of the
line on the vertical plane, and the vanifhing point of the line.
Voi..XXXn.

Let the fcheme, N" i. {Plate I. Shadows, Jig. i.) repre-
fent the vanifiing plane, and N° 2. the pl-iie of the piAure.
In the vanifhing plane, N° I, let v 1 be the vanifhing
line, e the point of fight or place of the eye, yl B the in-
terfeftion of the original vertical plane, inclined to the plane
of the pifture in the angle A g\. Let yl D he the feat of
the line, as given in pofition, to the horizon : make the angle
D AF equal to the inclination of the line to the plane of the
horizon; draw Z) 7^ perpendicular to AD, and D B per-
pendicular to A B ; produce I) B to K ; make B K equal
to D F, and join A K, which is the feat of the line on the
vertical plane. • Draw el parallel to A B, and draw Ih per-
pendicular to v 1 : in V 1, make 1 m equal to 1 e, and make
the angle 1 m h equal to B A K, and h will be the vanifh-
ing point of the feat of the line. Draw e v parallel to
D A, and V i perpendicular to v 1 : make v n, in the vanifh-
ing line, equal to v e ; make the angle v n i equal to the
angle D A F, which the original line makes with the plane
of the horizon. Draw e © perpendicular to v I, meeting
vl in 0.

In the plane of the pifture N" 2, let V L be the vanifh-
ing line anfwering to v 1, N° i : in V L make choice of any
convenient point, 0> for the centre of the pifture : make
0 L equal to o I, N° i, and 0 V equal to o v, N'' i : draw
L H and V I perpendicular to V L, then H is the vanifh-
ing point of the feat of the line, and I the vanifhing point
of the line itfelf.

The points H and I will be both on the fame fide of the
vanifhing line of the horizontal planes.

This problem is the fame when the feat and altitude of a
ray of the fun arc given, and the inclination of a vertical
plane to the plane of the pifture ; to find the vanifhing point
of a ray of light, and the vanifliing point of the feat of the
fun's rays.

When the fun is on the fame fide of the piftnre with the
fpedlalor, the vanifliing point of the feat of the rays, and
the vanifliing point of the rays, will be below the vanifliing
line V L ; but when on the other fide of the pifture, the
vanifhing point of the rays and the vanilhing point of their
feat will be above V L.

The following problem unites that of finding the vanilh-
ing points of the feat of a line, and the vanifliing point of
the line itfelf, with the vanifhing point of the feat of the
fun's rays and the vanifliing point of the rays, as relatinr
to the plane given.

Given the inclination of a plane to the plane of the pic-
ture, both being perpendicular to the original plane, the
feat and inclination of a llraight line, and the feat and in-
clination of the fun's rays, both to the plane of the horizon ;
to determine the vanifliing point of the feat of the fun'j
rays, the vanifliing point of the feat of the line on the ver-
tical plane, as alfo the vanifhuig point of the fun's rays and
vanifiiing point of the line itfelf.

It is evident, that the vanilhing point of the feat of the
fun's rays, and the vanifiiing point of the feat of the line,
are both in the vanifhing line of the plane, which is a ftraight
line perpendicular to the vanifliing line of the horizon ; fince
the original of the feat of a ray, and the original of the
feat of the line, arc both in the original plane : and if the
line be parallel to the original ])lane, the vanilhing point of
the feat of the line will be in the interfeftion of the vanilh-
ing line of the vertical plane with thai of the horizon.

Join V S, {fi^- 2.) and let it meet A B in / ; draw b s and
a S, cutting each other in c, and h c \i the fiiadow of the liue
required.

For the vanifiiing point of the line that projcfls the

fhadow and the vanilhing point of the fun'« rays, are in the

3 A vanifhing

SHADOW,

vanilhingline of the plane of (hade ; and becaufe the plane
of (hade is fuppofed to cut the original plane, the interfec-
tion, which is the (hadow, will be a line in the original plane,
and therefore the vanifhing point of the Ihadow will be in
the vanifhing line of the original plane ; and as it has been
fliewn that it is alfo in the plane of (hade, it will therefore
be in the interfcftion of the plane of ftiade, and the vaniiTi-
ing line of the plane on which the fhadow is thrown.

This problem is general for planes and lines in all fitua-
tions, but in the following examples the centre and dijlance
of the pifture are fuppofed to be given, and the pofition of
the pidure is that of being perpendicular to the primary
plane or firft original plane : the objeas themfelves are
folids, whofe edges or planes are fuppofed to be perpen-
dicular to the plane on which they Hand. As oblique pofi-
lions very feldom occur in praftice, we fhall fuppofe the
vanifhing line of the original plane, on which the objeft is
placed, to be given.

To find the fhadow of a prifm placed on the primary
plane.

Let AB (fgs. 3, 4, and 5.) be the vanifhing line of the
plane of the bafe, and fince the pifture is fuppofed to be per-
pendicular to the primary plane, the vanifhing line of the plane
of fhade, occafioned by the vertical lines which form the
concourfe of the fides of the objeft, will be perpendicular
to the vanifhing line A B. Let S J, therefore, be the va-
nifhing line of a plane of fhade, occafioned by any line of
concourfe, S being the vanifhing point of the fun's rays,
and s the interfedion of the vanifhing line of the plane of
fhade, with that of the plane on which the fhadow is to be
thrown.

'Let g d, b a, mn, be the edges of the folid ; join bs and
a S, cutting each other in c ; and I c i?. the fhadow, occa-
fioned by the edge or line of concourfe b a. Draw c B and
d?>, cutting each other in e; or, if iiecefTary, produce them
to cut in c, and c e\i the fhadow, occafioned by the edge a d,
parallel to the plane of the original plane ; alfo draw ; A
and S/, cutting each other in i ; or, if neceflary, produce
them to cut each other in », then el will be the fhadow of
the edge df. L:iflly, draw i s, which will complete the
(hadow of the prifm, as required.

Fig. 3. fhewi the fhadows of the objeft when the fun
is before the pifture ; Jig. 4. inews the fliadow when the fun
is behind the pidurc ; and Jig. 5. when the fun is in the
plane of the pifture.

To find the fhadow of a building with a break. Let V L
(Jig. 6.) be the vanifhing line of the horizon, V the vanifliing
point of the horizontal lines, reprefented by a c and b d,
that form the end of the building, alfo of ef, g h, which
reprcfent the horizontal lines forming the fides of the break.
Let the fun be fuppofed to be in the plane of the piflure,
or its rays parallel thereto, and let the planes abdczwA
eghfhe in fliade, and the plane e g /j f v:\\\ throw a
ftiadow upon the plane ablk, and the plane abde upon
the horizon. As the fun's rays are parallel to the pifture,
they will have no vanifhing point, but ftill the rule will hold
in this cafe alfo. Through the vanifhing point L, draw
L M perpendicular to V L, then L M is the vanifhing line
of the plane abl h, on which the fhadow is to be thrown ;
through V draw V M parallel to the fun's rays, or make
the angle L V M equal to the angle which the fun's rays
make with the plane of the horizon. Thus M is the va-
nifhing point of the fhadow of all lines vanifhing in V,
upon the plane abli: therefore, to find the fhadow of the
line hg, join M h, and produce it to m ; and draw g m paral-
lel to M V, then m will be the fhadow of the point g, and
h m of hg. Draw m n parallel to g e, and m n will be the

fhadow of ge: therefore hmnf will be the whole fhadow of
the plane hgef, upon the plane ablk.

To find the fliadow of the end abed upon the plane of
the horizon : draw a o parallel to L V, and b 0 parallel to
M V ; then a 0 is the fhadow of the vertical line A B : join
0 V, and draw dp parallel to M V, and op is the fhadow of
bd: join^L, and draw r q parallel to M V, and /> 5 will be
the fhadow of the line dr, not feen : join s q, or draw it pa-
rallel to L V, then aopqs will be the fhadow of the build-
ing upon the plane of the horizon.

Many more examples of fhadows might be givi^n, but if
the principles here fliewn are underflood, the artiil will not
be at a lofs to find the (hadow of any right-lined objeCl
whatever: for to find the fhadow of an objeft contlituted by
planes, and confequently terminated by ftraight lines, is no
more than to find the fhadow of thefe lines. If a circle be
given, the circumference may be divided by parallel lines
into parts, and the fhadows of the points of divillon may
be found by finding the fhadows of the intercepted hues,
and drawing a curve round the extremities.

If it were required to find the fliado%vs upon feveral planes,
firft find the fliadow in the plane on which the objcdl Hands,
and obfcrve where the fhadow meets the next plane ; then
having the vanifhing line of this fccond plane, oblerve where
the vanifhing line of the plane of fliade cuts the vanifhing line
of thi'; fccond plane, then the point of interfedion is the
vanifhing point of the fliadow on the fecond plane.

The principles fliewn under the article Pkojectios, will
apply equally to the reprefentation of objeds in perfpeflive,
particularly where the planes which throw the (hadow inter-
ItSl the plane on which the fliadow is to be throv/n ; for by
continuing the line that throws the fhadow, and the inter-
fedion of the plane to meet each other, you have the point
where the fliadow terminates ; and therefore, it a point be
given in the fhadow, the diredion of the fhadow will be
known. Thus in the lafl: example, fuppofe the line ao ob-
tained ; and fince the point 0 is the beginning of the fliadow
of the line b (•/„ produce ac and b d to meet in V : join 0 V,
and draw the ray of the fun dp, then op is the fhadow of
id: produce f/r and f J to meet in L, and ]oin p I ; draw
the ray rq from r, then pq n the fhadow of dr, not feen.

To find the vanifhn^g hue of a pole upon feveral planes.

Let A B C D E F G H I K, {Plate II. Shado-jus, fg. i.)
be the outline of a building, with a lean-to or pent-houfe
D E N P Q : V is the vanifhing point of all horizontal lines,
in the g^atsle ABL IK of the main houfe, and alfo of the
gable D MQ C of the pent-houfe ; L' is the vanifliing point
of all the horizontal lines in the parallel fronts BFGLand
DENM; and as all vertical planes have vertical vanifliinrj
lines, V Ris the vanifhing line of the parallel gables ABLI K
and C D M Q ; LU the vanifliing line of the fronts B F G L
and D EN M ; I L G H is the reprefentation of the roof of
the main building, and OMN P that of the pent-houfe.

Produce L I to m.eet V R, its va^iifhing point, in S : draw
S L', which will be the vanifhinj line of the inclined plane
L G H I, for S and L are the vanilTiing points of two lines
in that plane : produce M Q to meet V R in T, and draw
T L ; then T L is the vanifhing line of the uicjined plane
M N P Q of the roof of the pent-houfe, becaufe T and L
are the vanifliing points of two lines in that plane.

Let W X be a pole, relling upon the end of the houfe in
the fame plane with the gable A B L I K ; and let 0 be the
vanifhing point of the fun's rays : produce the pole X W
t") meet V R in R, then R is the vanifhing poist of the pole,
or of the line tliat throws the fliadow : therefore by drawing
0 R, 0 R will he the vanifhing line of the plane of fhade,
which let cut V I, the vanifhing line of the horizon, in Y; and

LU,

SHADOW.

L U, the vanifhing line of the vertical planes B F G I and
D E M N of the walls, in U ; V R, the vanifhing line of the
gables, in R ; S L, the vanifhing line of the main roof, in Z ;
and T L', the vanifhing line of the pent-houfe,' in Z'. We
are now prepared for drawing the (hadow of the pole W X
upon the horizontal plane and upon the building.

Produce A B to meet W X in X, then X will be the point
where the pole rells upon the ground or horizontal plane :
draw X Y, cutting D E in a ; draw U a, cutting D M in
b ; draw b R, cutting M Q in r ; draw c Z', cutting P Q in
d; draw U d, cutting G I at I ; and draw I Z, cutting the
ridge I H aty"; then y^abc def will be the whole fhadow
of the pole.

For, fince the fhadow firft begins at the foot of the pole
or line in the plane of the horizon, and fince the interfedtion
of the vanifhing line of a plane on which the fhadow is to
be thrown, and the interfeftion of the vanifhing line of the
plane of fhadc, gives the vanifhing line of the fhadow upon
that plane ; now Y is the interfeftion of the vanifhing line
of the plane of fhadc with the vanifhing line of the horizon ;
therefore Y is the vanifhing point of the fhadow of the line
W X upon the plane of the horizon. The next plane on
which the fliadovv is thrown is D E N M ; now L U is the
vanifhing hne of the plane D E N M, and U is the point
where the vanifliing line of the plane of fhade cuts L' U ;
therefore U is the vanifhing point of the fhadow upon the
plane DEN M. The next plane on which the fhadow is
projefted is the plane C D M Q : now V R is the vanifhing
line of the plane C D M Q, and it interfefts the vanifhing
line of the plane of fhade in R ; therefore R is the vanifhing
point of the fhadow upon the plane C D M Q. The next
furface on which the fhadow is projefted is the plane,
M N P Q, of the roof of the pent-houfe : now Z ' is the
interfedtion of the vanifhing line of the plane of fhade
with the vanifhing line of the plane M N P Q ; therefore
Z ' is the vanifhing point of the fhadow on the plane
MNPQ. Tlie next furface on which the fhadow is pro-
jedled is the plane B F G I of the wall ; but U has already
been fhewn to be the vanilliing point of the fliadow. The
plane of the roof is the lafl furface on which the fhadow
I is projedled : now S L is its vanifhing line, and it meets the
vanifhing line of the plane of fliadc in Z, therefore Z is the
vanifhing point of the fhadow upon the roof.

In carrying the fhadow of a line acrofs feveral planes, it
will not be furprifing if fome little inaccuracy takes place
from the obliquity of interfedtions : it might be a great
chance, that when the part of the fliadow d I, which falls
upon the plane B F G L, is drawn from the vanifhing point
U, through the point <•/, that it will meet the pole at I, as
it ought to do. To remedy this, begin with the fhadow I d,
and proceed in the reverfe order, until it meets the line W X
at X, which it mijfl in principle, and will not be liable to
vary much in pradtice.

The points which diredl the fhadows upon the feveral
planes might alfo be found by the methods fhewn in the
article Projection'.

The following obfervations will be ufeful in the pradlice
of fliadows.

When a ftraight line that throws a fhadow is parallel to
the pidture, it is then reprcfented parallel to the original.
In this cafe it has no vaniflung point ; or, in other words,
the vanifhing point of the line may be faid to be at an in-
finite diilance : and, therefore, inflead of the vanifhing point
of the line being joined to the vanifhing point of the fnn's
rays, draw a ilraight line from the vanifhing point of the
fun's rays parallel to the projedtion of the line winch throws
fhe fhadow, which will be the vanifhing line of tlic plane of

fhade ; and therefore the interfedtion of the vanifhing line
of the plane of fhade with the vanifhing line of tlie plane on
which the fhadow is to be thrown, will give the vanifhing
point of the fhadow on that plane, after the fame analogy
as lines which are inchned to the pidlure. This cafe is
fimilar to that of the fun's rays being parallel to the
pidlure : for here alfo the vanifhing point of the rays is at
an infinite diflance ; but as the plane of fhade will ftill have
a vanifhing line, this line will be found by drawing a ftraight
line through the vanifhing point of the line that throws the
fhadow parallel to the fun's rays, as already fhewn in a
former example.

ShaJoius projeSed from a given Poirt ; as by the Light of a
Candle or Lamp. — It is evident, if the reprefentation of the
luminous point be given, and its feat upon any plane, alfo
the reprefentation of any point in fpace, and its reprefenta-
tion upon that plane, the fhadow of the point will be found
by drawing a ftraight line from the luminous point through
the point in fpace, and by drawing another ftraight line
from the feat of the luminous point through the feat of
the point in fpace ; and the interfedtion of the two lines thus
drawn will reprefent the fhadow of the point upon the plane.
But when the relation of feveral planes reprefented in a
pidlure, the reprefentation of the light with its feat, and
the reprefentation of a point in fpace with its feat, are
given, to projedl the fliadow of the point on the other planes,
other confiderations become neceflary.

For this purpofe, let A B C D (Jig. 2.) be the infide of
a room, confiiting internally of the vertical planes, A H, E I,
F K, G C, and of the horizontal planes A E F G B and
D H I K C : alfo, let L be the luminous point, and M its
feat in the plane A E F G B. In order to form an idea of
the point L, in refpedl of the other planes, it is necefTary
to have the interfedtion of a line drawn through L, in a
given pofition with one of the planes. Thus, if it is known
that the ftraight line L a, parallel to the pidlure, cuts the
plane of the wall B K, in the point a ; the pofition of the
point L to any of the other planes may be eafily deter-
mined, as follows.

Through a draw ab parallel to the vanifhing line NO,
of the plane B K, cutting B G, the interfeftion of the
planes B K and A G, in i ; through b draw b M parallel to
P Q, the vanifliing line of the floor, cutting A E, tlie inter-
fedtion of the planes A G and A H, in c ; alfo F E, the in-
terfedtion of the planes A G and E I, in d. Draw ce pa-
rallel to N O, the vanifhing line of the plane A H ; and df
parallel to R S, the vanifhing line of the plane E I. Then,
becaufe the interfedling and vanifliing lines of any plane are
parallel to each other, and becaufe a line drawn parallel to
the interfedling line is parallel to the pidlure ; therefore the
reprefentations of all the hncs, ab, be, or bd, ce, and ejy
are all parallel to the pidlure, and in a plane pafling through
the luminous point L.

Given the reprefentation of any ftraight line T H, and
the points V and W, where the lines T V and U W,
drawn parallel to the pidlure and to each other, meet the
plane AG, whofe vanifliing line, P Q, is given, to find
the vanifhing point, X, of the line T U.

Draw W V, cutting P Q, the vanifhing line of the plane
A G, in Y ; and draw Y X parallel to T V or U W, meet-
ing the line U T, produced in X, the vanifhing point re-
quired.

To make this appear, it is evident thst the vanifliing line
of a plane pafTing through W and V, mufl alfo pafs
through Y ; and likewife the vanifliing line of a plane pafling
through UW, mud be parallel to it : wherefore Y X is
the vanifliing line of the plane, which paffcg through V< W.
^ A 2 Now

SHADOW.

Now let W Y cut the plane A X in Z ; and in this ex-
ample the vai ilhinjr lino. V X, is parallel to the van>(hing
line of the plane E I : therefore the planes, roprefenced by
E I and X U W Y, interfedt each other in a line parallel
to the pifture ; and, therefore, the reprelentatioii of fuch
an interfeftion is parallel to X Y, or to R S, the vaniihing
line of the plane E I.

Given the vanilhing lines, A B, CD, E F, {Jig. 3.)
of three planes, G H I K, L M N O, and M N I Q R,
the common interfeftion, NO, of the planes GHIK
and L M N O ; alfo the interfeaions, N I and M N,
of the planes GHIK and L M N O, with the plane
M N I Q R ; the reprefentation, ab, of a line in the plane
L M N O ; the point of light, c ; c ci, z line parallel to
the pifture ; and </, the point where it interfefts the plane
M N I Q R : to find the fhadow of the line on the plane
G H I K.

Firft, find the reprefentation of a ray of light parallel to
the pifture, thus : draw dc parallel to A B, cutting M N
at e ; draw ef parallel to E F : then if ab be not parallel
to ef, produce ba to /, and join fc, which is the ray
required. Secondly, find the vanifhing line of a plane of
ihade palling through the line ab, and the ray /c, thus:
produce a b to meet C D in D, which is the vanifhing
point oi ab; through D draw DF parallel to / c, and
D F will be the vanifhing line of the plane required. And,
laftly, find the (hadow of A B upon the plane GHIK,
thus : produce O N and ab to meet in g ; from F, through
g, draw the line Y hi; and from the point of light, c, draw
cbh and cat; then h i will be the (hadow of the line, as
required.

For de being parallel to A B, the vanilhing line of the
plane M N I Q R, de will be parallel to the pifture ; and
Cnce ef is drawn parallel to E F, the vanifhing line of the
plane L M N O, ef will be parallel to the pidure ; and
becaufe ba meets ef in/, fc is a ray of light parallel to
the pifture, meeting the line a b ; and becaufe C D is the
vanifhing line of the plane L M N O, and ab is in the
plane LMNO, therefore the vanifhing point of a'b is in
C D, and confequently at D, where a b produced meets
C D : and becaufe D is the vanifhing point of a b, the
vanifhing line of the plane of fhade will pafs through D
parallel to fc : but F is the interfeftion of the vanifhing
line of the plane of fhade, with the vanifhing line E F of
the plane GHIK, on which the fhadow is projefted,
therefore F is the vanifhing point of the fhadow on the
plane GHIK; and becaufe g is the interfedlion of ab
with the plane GHIK, the fhadow wiU commence at g,
and confequently drawing ¥ghi gives the direflion of the
fhadow ; and lailly, becaufe e is the luminous point, the
rays cat znd cbh will terminate the fhadow.

As D would be the vanifhing point of all lines parallel
to the original of a i in the plane reprefented by L M N O ;
and as different reprefentations could not meet the hne ef
in the fame point, the ray cf will have different pofi-
tions, and confequently D F, which is drawn parallel
thereto ; and as the point D is ilationary, the point F will
be variable.

Given the reprefentation of three reftangular planes,
forming a folid angle, the reprefentation of a point of
light or candle, and the feat of the light on one of the
planes ; to find the feat of the light on the other two
planes.

Let the three planes be A B C D, A B G F, A F E D,
(Jig. 4.) it is evident that every two adjoining planes have three
edges parallel to each otl)er, one common to both, which is
their line of concourfe j thefe edges will therefore vanifh in

a point or be parallel to each other, according as the origi-
nal planes are oolique or parallel to the pitture ; let the ori-
ginal planes be obliquely fituated ; therefore produce the
fides CD, BA, GF, of the two adjoininjr planes A BCD,
A B G F, and they will all meet in V, their vanifhing point ;
alio produce the fides D E, A F, B G, of the two ad-
joining planes D A F E, F A B G, and they will meet in
W, thi'ir vanifhing point ; likewite produce the fides C B,
DA, E F, and they will meet in X, their vanifhing point.

Ltt L be a luminous point, and S its leat in the plane
A B C D : draw S X, cutting A B in a ; draw a W, and
draw L X, cutting aW in S', then S' is the feat of the
luminous point in the plane A B G F : draw S V, cutting
A D in ^ ; draw b W, and L V, cutting each other in S -,
then S* is the feat of the luminous point in the plane
ADEF.

Becaufe the plane A B C D reprefents a reftangle, and V
is the vanifhing point of the one fide, and X that of the other ;
all the lines drawn to X will reprefent right angles with the
lines which vanifh in V ; therefore Sa and A B reprefent a
right angle in the plane A B C D. For the fame realon, a S
reprefents a right angle in tlie plase A B G F, and fince the
planes A B G F and A B C D are at right angles, the angle
S a S' will reprefent a right angle ; and becaufe a S reore-
fents a perpendicular to A B, a S ' and S L will reprefent
parallel lines ; and fince L S ' and S a have the fame vanifh-
ing point X, the original cf L S' is parallel to the original
of S a ; but S a reprefents a perpendicular to the plane
A B G F, therefore L S ' alfo reprefents a perpendicular to
the plane A B G F ; and becaufe the point S ' is in the plane
A B G F, S" is the feat of the luminous point L, in the
plane A B G F. In the fame manner it may be fhewn that
S ' is the feat of the luminous point in the plane ADEF.

Given the reprefentation c d o( 3. line perpendicular to the
original of the plane A B C D, and the vanifhing point W
of the line, and the point d, where the line meets the plane
A B C D, a luminous point L, with its feat S, alfo upon
the plane A B C D ; to find the fhadow of the line CD upon
the faid plane.

Draw S<^ and L<r to meet each other in e, then de will be
the fhadow of the line cd, as required. In the fame manner,
if /^ reprefent a line perpendicular to the plane A B G F,
and g the point where it meets the plane A B G F, g /> will
be the fhadow of the line, by drawing Ly and S'g to meet
in /;.

This method is general for any pofition of the original
planes, with refpeft to the pifture ; and this pofition of the
planes, in refpeCl of each other, is that which moft fre-
quently occurs in praftice.

Let A B C D {Jg. 5.) be the infide of a room, fhewing
five fides, one, E F G H, being parallel to the pifture, and
the other four perpendicular to it ; C' is the centre of the
pifture.

Let L be the light of a candle, S its feat upon the floor ;
then to find the feat of the light on all the other four fides.
Through S draw ab parallel to V L', the vanifhing line of
the horizon, cutting B F at a, and C G at b ; draw a S ' and
^S' parallel to YZ, the vanifhing line of the two vertical
planes ; through L, the point of hght, draw S ' S ', then S '
is the feat of the light in the plane A B F E, and S' the
feat of the light in the plane C D H G. Produce C S to
meet BC in c ; draw c ^ parallel to Z Y, and join dC }
draw S S^ parallel to Y Z ; then S^ is the feat of the light
in the plane A E H D ; let C S cut the line F G in ^ ; draw
fS* parallel to Z Y, cutting LC' in S-», then S'* will be the
feat of the light on the plane E F G H. Then to projedt a
prifm flandiag perpendicular to any of thefe planes, fuppofe

that

S H A

SUA

that which (lands on the floor. From the feat S draw S i, appearance of Drj-den'a tragedy, entitled the " Duke of
meeting CG m 0 ; draw or parallel to Z Y, and draw ihe Giiife," in 1683, Shadwell was charged with havinjx the
ray Lmr, and r will Hl- ll.e fhadow of the point m; draw S/j, principal hard in writing a piece, entitled •' Soinc Rofledlions
cutting C Gin/.; draw/j parallel to Y Z, and draw L «, on the pretended Parallel in the Play called the Duke of
cutting /. J at X ; then s is the (hadow of the point n ; alfo Guife, in a Letter to a Friend," which was printed the lame
draw S^, meeting C G in y; draw qt paralU to Z Y. and year. Dryden wrote a vindicition of the Piirallel, and a
draw hi, meeting ql at /, then / is the fiiadow of the point i ; confiderable ftorm was raifcd both againft S: adwcll and hi»

join rs and s t, which complete the whole fludow of the friend Hunt, who aflilied him in it, and who on this occa-

prifm upon the floor, and on the wall.

The principle of finding the fliadows of the prifms on the

other fides, is the fame, and will be obvious to infpedtion.

The truth of the method has already been fliewn.

Shadow, in Geography. The inhabitants of the globe

are divided, with refpedl to their fhadowp, into Afcii, Am-

phifcii, Heterofcii, and Perifcii.

Shadow, in Painlitig, denotes an imitation of a real (ha-
dow, effected by gradually heightening and darkcnintj the

fion was forced to fly into Holland. Dryden, bj way of
revenge upon Shadwell, wrote the bittereil latire againit
him that ever was penned; this was the celebrated Mac-
Flecknoe.

fn 1688 Shadwell was appointed to fucceed his rival
Dryden in the laureatlhip, an honour which he did not enjoy
many years. He died fuddenly in the year 1692, in the
fifty-fecond year of his agf, at Clieliea, and was interred in
the church there. Dr. Nicholas Brady preached his funeral

colours of fuch figures as by their difpofition cannot re- fermon, in which he allures us, " that the fubjeft of his dif-

ceive any direft rays from the luminary fuppofed to en- courfe was a man of great honefty and integrity, and had

lighten the piece. The management of the fliadows and a real love of truth and fincerity ; an inviolable fidelity and

lights makes what painters call the clair-obfcure : the laws Itriftnefs to his word ; an unalterable friendihip wherever he

profelied it ; and a much deeper fenfe of religion, than
many others have who pretend to it .more openly." The
titles of Shadwell's plays are given in the Biographia Dra-
matica. An edition of his works, confiding of thofe plays
and mifceilaneous poems, was printed in 1 720, in four vols.
8vo. The rarl of Rocheftcr, in fpeaking of Shadwell, fays,
" If he had burnt all he had written, and printed all he

of which fee under the article Clair-obscure.

Shadows, Gene/is of Curves by. See CuRVE.

Shadows, Blue. See Blueness.

SHADUAN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Red
fea N. lat. 27" 28'. E. long. 33° 58'.

SHADWELL, Thomas, in Biography, a dramatic
writer, and poet-laureat to king William 111., was de-

fcended of an ancient family in StaflFordfhire, and was born fpoke, he would have had more wit and huinour than any
about the year 1640, at Lauton-hall, in Norfolk, a feat otiier poet."

belonging to his father, who was bred to the law, but hav- Shadwell, in Geography, a parifli in the Tower divifion
ing an ample fortune did not praftife, choofing rather to of the hundred of Offulfton, and county of Middlefex, Eng-
ferve his country as a magiftrate. He was in the commiflion land, is fituated about two miles and a half E. by S. from
for three counties, w'z. Middlcfex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, St. Paul's cathedral. It was formerly called Cliadwcll, as
and difcharged the duties of the office with diftinguifhed is fuppofed from a fpriiig dedicated to St. Chad, and con-
abihty, and the moft perfeft integrity. In the civil wars ftituted a hamlet in the parilh of Stepney, till fcparated
he had been a confiderable fufferer for the royal caufe, from it, and made parochial, in 1669. The extent of this
fo that having a numerous family, he was reduced to the parilh is very fmall, being only 910 yards in length, and
necellity of felling and fpending a confiderable part of his 760 in breadth, and is wholly covered with houfes, except a
eftate to fupport it. In thefe circumltances he refolved few acres, called Sun Tavern fields, which are appropriated

to educate his fon to his own profeflion. He was fent
for preparatory lUidies to Caius college, Cambridge, and
was afterwards entered at the Temple, but becoming ac-
quainted with fome of the wits of that time, he deferted his
profeffion and devoted himfelf to literature. It was not

ppropriate_
as rope-walks. That portion of it which adjoins the Thames,
and is called Lower Shadwell, is chiefly inhabited by
tradefmcn, and manufadurers connefted with the (hipping ;
fuch as (hip. chandlers, bifcuit-bakers, wholefale butchers,
malt-makers, fail-makers, anchor-fmiths, coopers, &c. A

long before be became eminent in dramatic poetry, and he market which had been formerly held at Shadwell under
appeared before the public as the writer of a comedy en- the authority of a charter of king Charles II., but which
titled " The fuUen Lovers," or " The Impcrtinents," which
was a£led in the duke of York's theatre, and in 1668 it wr.s
printed. The fuccefs of this piece encouraged the author
to proceed, and he from this period rapidly brought out
plays, chiefly of the comic kind, till he had reached the
number of feventeen. His model was Ben Jonfon, whom

was long dilufed, has been revived within the lall few years.
The church, dedicated to St. Paul, is a modern Ihudure of
brick. The living is a rcdlory in the gift of the dean of
St. Paul's. In STiakfpeare's walk is a mceting-houfe for
Prefbyterian dilienters, opened only on Sunday evenings,
when fermons arc delivered by dilfenting minilters of different
he imitated in drawing humorous charafters, rather from his denominations, for the fupport of a cliarity-fchool, in which
own conceptions than from nature ; and though his name 50 boys and 20 girls are clothed and educated. Here are
has not been traufmittcd to pollerity with much encomium, alfo a Calvinill meeting-houfe, and a chapel for Willeyan
and his works have long fince difappearcd from the Itage, Methodills, who have a Sunday-fchool attended by above
yet fome of his delineations are faid to diiplay much real lOO children. A third chanty-fchool, founded in 17 12,
humour. Lord Roehcller has given him a refpeftable place and partly endowed by queen Anne, provides clothes and
'' ' ' "^ education for 80 boys and girls.

The Shadwell water-works, which were eftabliflied in

among his contemporaries ; he fays,

" None feem to touch upon true comedy.
But bally Shadwell, and flow Wycherly."

As every one in thofe days was of necelFity a party man,
Shadwell ranked himfelf among the Whigs, and in confe-
quence of this he was fet up as a rival to Dryden. Hence
there grew a mutual diilike between them, and upon the

1669, and lerved a dillrict containing 8000 houfci, have
been lately dilufed ; the premiles having been purchafed by
the Eall London Water-works' company, by whom this
parilh and its neighbourhood are now fupplird with water.
In Sun Tavern fields is a mineral Ipring, c.dled the Shadwell
Spa, which long fullained a high charaiter for its mrdu 'nal

qualitiei.

S H A

S H A

qualities, but it has lately fallen into difrepute. Barracks
for the accommodation of the Chinefe and Lafcar failors,
during their Itay in England, have been recently ere£ted
here, and frequently lodge upwards of a thoufand perfons.
According to the parliaraentary returns of iSll, Shadwell
parifh contains 1694 houfes, and 9855 inhabitants. Lyfons'
Environsof London, 4to. 1795. Supplement, iSi I. Stow's
Hiftoi-y of London, folio.

SHADWICKS, a town of America, in North Caro-
lina ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Hillfborout^h.

SHAFEITES, in the Hyhry of Mahometamfm, the
followers of Mohammed Ebn Edris al Shafei, the author
of the third orthodox feft, who were formerly fpread into
Mawara'lnahr, and other parts eaftward, but are now
chiefly of Arabia. Al Shn.fei was born either at Gaza or
Afcalon, in Paleltine, in the year of the Hegira 150, on
the fame day in which, as fome fay, Abu Hanifa, the
founder of the Hanefites, the firlt of the four orthodox
fefts, died ; and was carried to Mecca at two years of age,
where he was educated. He died in 204, in Egypt,
whither he went about live years before, though Abulfeda
fays he lived 58 years. This doclor was very highly
efteemed for liis excellency in all parts of learning, infomuch
that his contemporary, Ebn Henbel, ufed to fay that he
was as the fun to the world, and as health to the body.
Al Shafei is faid to have been the firll who difcourfed of
jurifprudence, and methodized that fcience ; and accord-
ingly it was wittily faid of him, that the relators of the
traditiojis of Mahomet were afleep, till Al Shafei came and
awoke them. He was a great enemy to the fcholaltic
divines. It is faid of him, that he ufed to divide the nigiit
into three parts ; one for lludy, another for prayer, and the
third for fleep. It is alfo related of him, that he never fo
much as once fwore by God, either to confirm a truth, or
to affert a falfehood ; and that being once allied his opinion,
he remained filent for fome time ; and when the meaning of
his filence was demanded, he anfwered, " I am confidering
firll whether it be better to fpeak or to hold my tongue."
The following faying is alfo recorded of him, " Whoever
pretends to love the world and its creator at the fame time
is a liar." Sale's Koran, Int.

SHAPE RS, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania ;
48 miles N.E. of Eafton.

SHAFT, in Building. T\ie JJjaft of a column is the
body of it ; thus called from its llraightnefs ; but by ar-
cbitefts more frequently the fujl. See the dimenfions under
Column-.

Shaft is alfo ufed for the fpire of a church-fteeple ; and
for the (hank or tunnel of a chimney.

Shaft, or Tunnel-Pit, is the well through which the
ftufF, excavated from a tunnel, is drawn up to the fur-
face.

Shaft of a Mine, is the hollow entrance or paflage into
a mine, funk or dug to come at the ore.

In the tin-mines, after this is funk about a fathom,
they leave a little, long, fquare place, which is called a
fhamble.

Shafts are funk fome ten, fome twenty fathoms deep into
the earth, more or lefs. Of thefe fliafts, there is the land-
ing or working-lhatt, where they bring up the work or ore
to the furface ; but if it be worked by a horfe engine or
whim, it is called a whim-fliaft ; and where the water is
drawn out of the mine, it is indifferently named an engine-
(haft, or the rod-fhaft. See Mine and Quarry.

Shaft, in Agriculture, a name provincially applied to a
handle of a tool ; as a fpade, fork, &c.

jShaFTS of Carls and Waggons, the parts or poles be-

tween which the thill-horfes draw. The manner in wliich I
the fore-horfes are attached to thefe (hafts, when there arc
more than the thill-horfes in the team=, is a matter of great
confequence ; as the weight or preffure on them is more or
lefs, according to its nature, and the way in which it is
performed. See T Hihh-I/orfes and Waggon.

SnAFT-Z)/v3i«, that fort which is effected by ca-'rying a I
fort of fhaft or pit down to the porous llratum below, and
wliich IS in ufe where a luperticial delcent cannot be had
for the coUefted waters, and an open ftratum lies beneath
the fubfoil, ready to receive it. A communication between
them becomes here of high advantage, as the colt and at-
tention of raifing the water by machinery may thereby be
avoided. In cafes of this kind, Mr. Marfhall advifes the
drainer to afcertain the loweil point of the fcite to be im-
proved ; and there, fays he, fmk a (haft down, and into,
the receiving ftratum, and fill it up to within a few feet of
the furface, with rough Hones, the roots of trees, or other
(ipen materials ; and, on the top of thefe, form a filter,
with heath and gravel, or other lubltances, that will pre-
vent earthy matter, or water in a foul (late, from entering
the (haft : and to this filter lead the collefted waters. And
that where the water is colletled by the means of covered
drains, and where the filter alio has a covering placed over
it, the entire procefs will be free from external injury j and
a work of tliis kind may remain unimpaired for ages. But
even if the waters were collefted by open drains, and the
filter were fuffered to remain in a ft ate of negleft, until the
(haft, in procefs of time, fhould become defeftive, the re-
medy would be eafy. Embrace, fays he, a dry feafon to
re-open the fhaft, and to cleanfe it, and the materials with
which it may be filled, from their impurities ; and thus
rellore it, at a fmall expence, to its original (late of per-
feftion. It is further llated alfo, that if the fcite of im-
provement be liable to any other furface-water, than what
(alls on its own area, fuch water ought to be conducted
away from it fiiperficially, by cutting it off at fuch a height
as will gain a fufficient fall. And that where the quantity
of water, which defcends into it fubterraneoufiy, (or would
defccnd, if a free paffage were opened for it,) (hould be
found to be too copious to be readily difcharged by a
fliaft-drain, in the manner here piopofed, proper efforts
(hould be ufed to cut off the fupply, or as much of it as
may be, by a perforated trench or otherwife, at a fufficient
height to be able to convey it away fuperficially ; and with
a fufficient fall, to prevent its entering the area to be im-
proved ; which will thus have only its own fuperfluous
waters to difcharge by the fhaft. He is defirous to clear
the way which leads to this valuable improvement, as he is
convinced that there are many inftances in which it might
be applied with great profit. Many of the low, flat-lying,
moory vallies of Norfolk, from whofe bafcs fuperficial
drains would be difficult to make, have for their lubftruc-
tures, it is probable, he fays, infatiable depths of fand ;
and that, in every diflridt of the ifland, fuch objedls as are
proper for this practice may be found.

SHAFTESBURY, Earl of, in Biography. See Cooper.

SHAFTSBURY, or Shaftesbury, in Geography, a
borough and market-town in the hundred of LTpwimborne,
Shalton divifion of the county of Dorfet, England, is
at the diftance of 28 miles N.N.E. from Dor-
and loi miles W.S.W. from London. Concern-
origin of this town much difference of opinion
While fome authors afcribe its foundation to
Cicuber, Lud, or CafTibelan, fuppofed kings of the Bri.
tons, many years previous to the birth of Chrift ; others
limit its antiquity to the reign of Alfred. This lail opinion

is

fituated
chefter,
ing the
prevails.

S H A

18 fupportcd by Camden, upon the evidence of an infcrip-
tion mentioned by William of Malmfbiiry, which feems to
point out Alfred himfelf as the founder, and is. certainly
much more probable than thole which rell on the fanciful
fpeculations of Jeffrey of Monmouth. There are circum-
ilances, however, indicating Roman habitation on the fcite
cif Shaftlbiiry ; and afluming this as a faft, feme later
'vritcrs contend that the words of the infcription, " Ael-
icdus rex fecit hanc urbe.m," are only intended to denote
that Alfred renewed or repaired this city. But whatever
may have been its condition previous to that monarch's
ru.'^.t, it was then only that it lirll attained any authenti-
c i', il degree of celebrity, by the foundation of a monaitery
Kr nuns of the Benedicline order. This convent was in-
dubitably the work of the great prince above-mentioned,
a"; the charter of foundation, appointing his daughter
Ethelgeda abbcfs, is yet extant. It was orig-inally dedi-
cated to the Virgin Mary, and became one of the richeft
and bell endowed nunneries in .England, occupied a great
extent of ground, and poflefl'ed a vaft number of offices'
and apartm.ents within its precinfts. The abbefs was among
the number of thofe who held a whole barony in capite,
a:id was in confequence liable to ferve in parliament, though
excufed on account of her fex. She had writs, however,
diredled to her, to fend her quota of men into the field,
according to her knight's fees. On the tranflation of the
body of Edward the Martyr hither, from Wareham, this
monaftery allumed the name of that faint, which it retained
till the dilfohition. Many miracles are faid to have been
wrought at his flirine, which was vifited by an inimenfe
concourfe of pilgrims, among whom was the illuflrious
Canute, who died here. After the Conqueft, this convent
was for fome time neglcAed ; but the patronage of fuc-
cceding monarchs foon reltored it to celebrity, and con-
ferred upon it fuch extenfive donation-i in land, that it be-
came proverbial to fay, " tiiat if the abbot of Glallonbury
might marry the abbefs of Shaft (bury, their heir would
have more land than the king of England. " At the dif-
ihition, the nuns amounted to fifty-four in number, and
enjoyed u revenue valued by Speed at 1329/. is. ^d. The
lalt abbefs was Elizabeth Zouche, who had an yearly pen-
fion afTigned to her of 133/.

Shaflfbury is a very ancient borough by prefcription,
being mentioned as fuch in Domefday Book. It was not,
however, incorporated by regular charter till the reign of
queen Elizabeth, wlio confirmed all tlie privileges it enjoyed
by cnllom, and veiled the government in a corporation,
oo;iiillir,g of a mayor, recorder, twelve aldermen, a bailifi,
and common council-men. That charter has fince been
confirmed by kings .Tames I. and Charles II., with little
variation. Henry VIII. made this town the feat of a
luffragan bifliop, but it did not retain its epifcopal dignity
above a few years. Shaftfbitry has fent two members to
parliament fince the 25th year of Edward I. They are
elcftcd by the inlubitants paying fcot and lot, who are
rllimated at about 300 in number, and are returned by the
mayor. Shaftlb'iry has a weekly market on Saturday,
and one annual f^ir ; and according to the parliamentary
returns of 181 li contains 515 houfes, and a population of
2159 p'^rfons.

The town of Shaftfbury is moll pleafant'.y fituated, being
built on a very lofty eminenci-, whch eonunands an cxtcnilve
profpetl over the three adjoining counties of Dorfct, So-
merfet, and Wilts. From ttie irregularity and n:irrownefs of
mofl of the (treets, and the mean chaiador of the buildings,
however, it prefents but au indiffer-.-nt appearance. In an-
cient times it was more flounlhing and important than at

S H A

prefent ; containing, befides the abbey-church, twelve
others, feveral chantries and fraternities, and a priory or
hofpital of St. John the Baptifl. Of thefe pubhc llruftures
only four churches remain, refpedtively dedicated to St.
Peter, the Holy Trinity, St. James, and St. Rumbald. The
principal of them is St. Peter's, wl-.ich is a building of con-
iiderable antiquity, and difcovering much elegance in its
fymmctrical proportions and ornaments ; but the greater part
of it is defaced by modern alterations. Of the abbey
fcarcely a veltige is vifible, the whole fiaving been demolifhed
foon after the dillolution, except the high embattled wall,
fupported by buttreffes, which formerly inclofed the park,
and is llill in part Handing on the fide next the town. The
other principal buildings of Shaftfbnry are the town-hall, a
free-fci'.ool, two alms-houfe tenements, and three raeeting-
houfes, for Prefbyterians, Methodills, and Quakers.

The manor of Shaftfbury appears from Domefday Book
to have been very anciently divided into two moieties, one of
which belonged to the crown, and the other to the abbey.
The abbey manor was furrendercd in the 30th year of
Henry VIII., whofe fucctfTor granted it to Thomas
Wriothefley, earl of Southampton, together with the town,
borough, fcite, and precincls of the monallery. From him
it pafl'ed to fir Thomas Arundel, and afterwards to the earls
of Pembroke, by one of whom, Philip, the royalty of the
manor, and borough manor, were fold to Anthony Afhley
Cooper, earl of Shaftfbury, in whofe family they flill
continue.

Welt from the town is an eminence called Caflle Green,
which is fnppofed to have received that appellation from its
having been the fcite of an ancient callle, though hiltory is
filent refpefting any fuch ftrudture belonging to Sh,aftfbury.
On the brow of this hill is a fmall mount, furroundcd by a
fhallow fo.'le, which may have belonged to it, but it is com-
monly regarded as a Roman intrcnchment. Tradition re-
ports that the old town Hood here, and it is certain that it
occupied fomewhat different ground from the fcite of the pre-
fent buildings. The immediate vicinity of Shaftfbury is
noted as the birth-place of the Rev. James Granger, au-
thor of the celebrated Biographical Hiilory of England.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. by John Britton
and E W. Brayley, 8vo. 1805. Hutchins's Hiilory of
Dorfeilhire, fol. 1776, 2d. edit. 1797. Hiltory of the
Ancient Town of Shaftfbury, i2mo. 1808.

Sh.\ftsburv, a confiderable and lionriHiing poll-town
of America, in the county of Bennington, Vermont, having
Arlington on the north, and Bennington on the fouth, and
containing 1973 inhabitants.

SHAG LsL.VND, an ifland near the entrance into Chrifl-
mas found, on the S. coall of the ifland of Terra del Fuego ;
4 miles N.E. of York Minitcr.

SHAGGE, or SiiAc, in Ornithology, a name by which
we call a water. fowl common on the northern coails, and
called by Mr. Ruy corviis aquaticus minor, or the lefler
cormorant, being properly a bnd of the cormorant kind, or
ihe pelicanus graculus of Liniixus.

It is fomewhat larger than the common duck, and weighs
about four pounds ; its beak is ftraight and flender, and
is not flattened, but roundifh ; it is four inches lont;, and is
hooked at the end ; its mouth open,^ very wide, and its eyes
are fmal! ; the h-ad ls adorned with a crelt, two inches long,
pointing backward ; tlie wh.le plumage of the upper part
of tliis bird is of a tine and very (bining green, the edges of
the featliers a purphfh-blaek ; but the lower part of the
back, head, and neck, wholly green ; the belly diifky, and
the legs black. It builds in trees as the common cormo-
rant, fwims with the head erect, and it very dilBcuU to be
r (hot;

S H A

(hot ; becaufe, when it fees tlie fla(h of a gun, it pops under
water, and does not rife but at a confiderable diitance.

SHAGR, in Geography, a town of Syria, in the pa-
chalic of Aleppo ; 40 miles W. of Aleppo. N. lat. 35° 45'.
E. long. 36° 25'.

SHAGREEN, or Chagreen, derived from the Tartar
fighre, a kind of grained leather, prepared in Aftraclian,
chiefly by Tartars and Armenians, and moftly ufed in the
covers of cafes, books, &c. It is very clofe and fohd, and
covered over with little roundifli grains, or papilla. It
is brought from Conllantinople, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers,
and fome parts of Poland.

There has been a difpute among authors, what the animal
is from which the fliagreen is prepared? Rauwolf afTures
us it is the onager, which, according to him and Bellonius,
is a kind of wild afs. Vide Ray, Sj-nopf. An. Quad.
p. 63.

It is added, that it is only the hard part of the (Icin which
is ufed for this purpofe. Or, it is that part of the flcin
that grows about the rump : that of horfes is faid to be
equally good. There are large manufaSures of it at Aftra-
chan, and in all Ptrfia. Borel fays, it is the fl<in of a fea-
calf ; others, of a kind of fifh, called by the Tmks fiagrain,
whofe flcin is covered with grains ; and thofe fo hard, that
they will rafp and polilb wood.

There is alfo a fort of fliagreen, which was formerly made
of the fkin of the fquatina : in Englifh, the monk or angel-
filli, but now of that of the greater dog-ii(h. Vide WiU
lughby Ichth. p. So.

Shagree.v, Manner of preparing. The procefs for
making fhagreen is as follows : of horfe-hides and afs-hides
the hinder back-piece, cut off immediately above the tail in
nearly a femi-circular form about an arlhine and a half upon
the crupper, and rather lefs than an arfhine along the back,
is felefted as the only part that is ufeful, and the rell is
thrown away. The back pieces thus cut out are laid in a
vat filled with clean water, and left in it feveral days fuc-
ceflively, till they are thoroughly foaked, and the hair comes
freely off. Then the hides are taken one by one out of the
vat, fpread againft a board fet (lanting againft the wall, one
corner of it reaching over the edge of the board where it is
faftened ; and in this pofition the hair is fcraped off with a
blunt fcraper, urak, and with the hair the upper pellicle ; and
the cleanfed fltin is laid again in clean water to foften. This
done, they take it a fecond time out, fpread one piece after
mother in the manner before defcribed, fcrape now the flefti-
fide with the fame fcraping-iron, and the whole ikin cleaned
again on the hair-fide with great care, fo that nothing now
remains of the foftened fl(in but the clean finewy web which
ferves for parchment, confifting of thick fafciculi of mellow
fibres, refembhng a hog's bladder foftened in water. After
this preparation they immediately take in hand certain
frames, pjeltzi, eompofed of a ftraight piece and a femi-
circular bow, forming therefore nearly the fliape of the
fkin, which is ilretched in it with itrings a' even and uniform
as poflible ; and during this operation is fprinkled between
whiles with fair water, that no part of it can dry and occa-
fion an unequal extenfion. In like manner they finally wet
them when the whole (lock of (kins is Ilretched, and carry all
the thoroughly wetted (kins into the work-room. There
the frames are one by one laid flat on the floor, fo that the
flefl'.-fide of the Ilretched fl<ins is turned undermoft. The
other fide is now thick ftrewed over with the black, very
fmoeth, and hard feeds of a fpecies of the herb goofe-foot,
or the greater orach (chtnopodium album), which the
Tartars call alabuta, and which grows in great abundance,
and almoft to man's height, about the fouthern Volga in farm-

S H A

yards and gardens ; and that thefe may make a ftrong im-
preffion on the flcin, a felt is fpread over them, and the feed*
trod in wjth the feet, by which means they are impreded
deeply into the very yielding flcins. Then, without (baking
off thefe feeds, the frames are carried again into the opeQ
air, and fet leaning againft a fence or a wall to Ary, in
fuch manner that the fides covered with the feeds face the
wall and cannot be (hone on by the fun. In this lituation
the Ilretched flcins muil dry for feveral days fucceffively ia
the fun, till no trace of moillure is perceptible in them, and
they may be taken out of the frames. Then, when the im-
preded feeds are beaten off from the hair-fide, it appears full
of httle pits and roughneffes, and has got that imprefllon
which the grain of the fhagreen ought to produce when the
true polidi has been given to the (kin by art, and the ley
now to be mentioned has been ufed previous to the uaining.

The polilh is done on a ftretching-ber.ch, or a board on
tredels, furni{hed with a fmall iron hook, and covered with
fome thick felts or voiloks of (beep's wool, on which the
dried (hagreen-flcin may lie foft. This is hung in the
middle, by a hole which has been occafioned by the firing
in the llretching, to the hook, and fattened at the end by a
firing with a weight or a (lone, by means of which the fkin
is allowed to move to and fro, but cannot eafily be (hoved
out of its proper fituation. This done, the polifhing oc
rafping is performed by two feveral inflruments ; the firft it
called by the Tartars tokar, bein^ an iron, crooked at one
end like a hook and (harpened. With this the furface of the
fhagreen is fcraped pretty fharply, in order to remove the
mort prominent rugofities, which from the horny hardiiefs
of the dried flcin is no eafy matter, and in which great care
muft be taken not to (have away too deeply the impreffions
of the alabuta-feeds, of which there is imminent danger if
the iron be kept too fharp. As the blade of this iron is
very narrow, it will make the fhagreen rather uneven, and
therefore after it, muft be ufed the other fcraper, or urak, by
which the whole furface acquires 3 perfeft equality, and
only a flight impreflion remains of the feed?, exaftly as it
ought to be. After all thefe operations the fhagreen is laid
again in water, partly for rendering it fupple and partly to
make the elevated grain appear ; for the feeds having cauled
pits in the furface of the flcin, the interftices of thefe pits
have loft their prominent fubftance by the polifhing or
fhaving, and now the points that were preffed down, having
loft nothing of their fubftance, fpnng up above the (haved
places, and thus form the grain of the fhagreen. To this
end the pieces of fhagreen are left to foften twice 24 hours
in water, and are floated feveral times afterwards in a ftrong
and hot ley, which is obtained by boihng from an alkalefcent
faline earth, fchora, found about Aftrachan. From this ley
the flcins are bundled warm one on another, and thus fiifiered
to lie fome hours, by which they fwell up and are foftened
in an extraordinary manner. Again, they are left to lie
24 hours in a moderately ftrong brine of common fait, by
which they are rendered fine and white, and excellently
adapted to receive any agreeable colour, which the work-
man haltens to give them as foou as they are come out of
the pickle. The colour moft commonly communicated to
the fine (hagreen is the fea-green, as the moft beautiful.
But the expert (hagreen-makers have the art of making alfo
black, red, blue, and even white (hagreen.

For the green dve, nothing more is neceffary than fine
copper-fihngs and fal-ammoniac. As much of the latter
is melted in hot water as the water will admit. With this
fal-ammoniac water the fliagreen fkins, ftill moift from the
brine, are bruflied over on the ungrained flefh-fide, and when
they are thoroughly wetted, a thick layer of copper-filings

6 is

S' H A

S H A

a llrewed over them, the ll<ins doubled together, fo that
the ftrewed fide lies inwards, and then each, being rolled
apart in a little felt or voilok, they lay all thefe rolls orderly
on one another, and prefs them equally by a confiderahle
and uniformly prefling weight, under which they muft lie
twenty-four hours. In this time the fal-ammoniac water
dilTolves enough of the cupreous particles for penetrating
the ikin with an agreeable fea-green colour ; and though it
be not ilrong enough the firft time, yet a fecond layer of
copper-du!!;, wetted witii fal-ammoniac water, with which
the flcins muft lie again twenty-four hours, will be quite
fufficient for ftaining them thoroughly ; when they may
be properly cleaned, fprcad out, and dried. For giving
the blue colour to fhagreen, they ufe only indigo, which
to this end i? not fo prepared as for the filk and cotton-
dyers, but entirely without bones, only by ftrenuous fric-
tion, is mingled and dillolved with the other ingredients.
They put about two pounds of finely grated indigo in the
kettle, pour cold water on it, and itir it till the dye begins
to diffolve. They next didolve in it five pounds of pounded
alakar, which is a fort of barilla, or raw foda-falt, burnt by
the Armenians of Kitzliar, and a worfe kind by the Kal-
mucks, adding two pounds of lime and one pound of virgin
honey, all thoroughly itirrcd, and fet in the lun for feveral
days, during which the Itirring is frequently repeated. The
(hagreen flcins which are to be made blue muft be put only
ill the natrous ley, fchora, but not in the brine made of
common fait. They are again folded up wet, and fewed
clofe together round the edges, with the flefh-fide turned
inwards, and the fhagreened hair-fide outwards, upon which
they are three times dipped in fucceflion in an old ftore-dye
kettle, at every time prelling out the fuperfluous dye ; laftly,
they are all brought into frefh dye, which muit not be
prefled out, and with which the ikin is hung up in the ftiade
to dry ; they are, for the laft time, cleaned, ornamented on
the edges, and reduced to order. For the black (hagreen
they employ nut-galls and vitriol in the following manner :
the Ikins, llill moift with the brine, are thick Itrewed with
finely powdered nut-galls, folded together, and laid one on
another twenty-four hours. In the mean time a new ley
of bitter earth-falts or fchora is boiled and poured hot in
little troughs or trays. In this ley each ficin is waved to
and fro fcvcral times, is again ftrewed with pulverized nut-
galls, and again laid in heaps for fome time, that the virtue
of the galls may thoroughly penetrate the fliins, which are
then fuffered to dry, and are beat out to clear them from
the galls. When this is done, the fkfn is fmeared on the
Ihagrecn-fide with mutton fuet, and laid a little in the fun,
that it may abforb the fat. It is tiie cuftom, likewife, with
the fliagreen-makcrs to roll up each fkin apart, and to
fqiieeze and prefs it againll fome folid body, in order to
promote the abforption of the unftuous particles. Tiie
furplus is again fcraped oft^ with a blunt wooden fcraper.
This being done, and the ll<in having lain a httle while, a
fufficient quantity of iron-vitriol is dilfolved in water, with
which the ftiagreen is rubbed on both fides, by which it
ioon acquires a beautiful black colour : and now the edges
and other defedtive parts are dri (led. To obtain white
(hagreen, the flcin muil firft be fteepcd in ftrong alum-water
on the fhagreened fide. Irving imbibed this, the (kin is
well rubbed on both fides with a pallc of wheaten flour, and
left to dry with it ; then all the paftc is wafhcd away with
alum-water, and the (kin fet to dry completely in the fun. As
foon as the flcius are dry, tliey arc gently fmjared over with
clean melted mutton fat, leaving them in the (un to imbibe it,
and are worked and prelFed with the hands to promote this
cfFeft. Afterwards the (kins are falleiied one by one on
Vol. XXXII.

the above-mentioned ftretchiug-bench, warm water is poured
over it, and the fuperfluous fat fcraped off with obtnfc
wooden inftruments, to which the warm water juft poured
on has much affilted. By this procefs the (hagreen receives
a fine white colour, and needs only, in conclufion, to be
drefl'ed and rubbed. This whitenefs, however, is given to
the fhagreen, not fo much that' it may continue in that
ftate, but in order to impart to it a beautiful high red hue,
as this end could not be obtained to fuch perfeftion without
that preparation. But the (hagreens intended to be ftained
red mult not be brought out of the natrous bitter fait ley
into the brine, but muft be made white, in the manner above-
defcribed, and afterwards fupplied with the brine, in which
they are left to he about twenty-four hours, or lefs, from
the dye. The dye is made with cochenille or kirmifs, as
the Tartars call it. The operation is begun by boiling
for a full hour about a pound of the dried herb tfchagan,
which grows plentifully on the fait rteppes about Attrachan,
and is a fort of kah, in a kettle large enough to contain
about four common vedros of water, by which the water
acquires a greeni(h colour. The herb is then taken out,
and about half a pound of grated cochenille put into the
kettle, with which the above decottion mult boil another
full hour, diligently itirring it on the fire, that the kettle
may not boil over. Laftly, to this are added fifteen or
twenty grains of the material which the dyers call lutter
(perhaps orpiment), let the dye boil a little more, and then
take the fire from under the kettle. Tlien the fliins taken
out of the brine are laid feparately in trays, pouring the dye
upon them four times, rubbing it in with the hands, that
it may be equally fpread and imbibed, prcfTing it out every
time, which done, they are ready for drying and ornament-
ing, and fell much dearer than the others.

The beft (hagreen is that brought from Conftantinople, of
a brownifh colour ; the white is the worft. It is extremely
hard ; yet, when Iteeped in water, it becomes very foft and
pliable ; whence it is of great ufe among cafe-makers. It
takes any colour that is given it, red, green, yellow, or
black. It is frequently counterfeited by morocco, formed
like (hagreen : but this laft is dilUnguiihed by its peeling
off, which the firlt does not.

SHAGUM, in Geography, a river of America, which
runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 41° 49'. W. long. 81'-" 21'.

SHAH, the Perfian title correfponding to king, and
equivalent to khan. (Sec Cham.) Neverthelefs, the
moft abfolute Perfian monarciis, who have never adumed
any other title than that of (hah, have permitted the go-
vernors of provinces in tiieir empire to take that of khan,
which is its equivalent, and which they have ever afFefted.
Even in our time, the governors of the provinces of Ghilan,
Mazanderan, &c. who have no more authority in Pcrfia,
than the pachas in Turkey, take the title of khan, the
reafon of which it is not eafy to alTign.

SHAHABAD, in Geography, a town of the kingdom
of Candahar ; 40 miles S.W. of Cabul. — Alio, a town
of Hindooltan, in the circar of Sirhind ; 42 miles E.S.E.
of Sirhind. — Alfo, a town of Hindooltan, in Oude ; 4;
miles W. of Kairabad. N. lat. 27° 40'. E. long. 80° 20'.
— Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 25 miles S.W.
of Mahomdy.

SHAHAMA, a name given to a colollal ftatuc, cut in a
mountain in the neighbourhood of the ancient city of Bami-
yan, in the Eaft Indies. This city, (which is defcribed in our
article Bamian,) is eight days' journey north-wcfterly Irom
Cabul, and is rarely vilited by Europeans, though highly
deferving of examination. The (tatue in quellion is ac-
companied by another, called Salfala. Native traveller*

3B differ

S H A

differ as to their height ; from fifty cubits to eighty ell?.
Their origin, age, and fex, are alfo varioufly related. The
few Hindoos who live in the neighbourhood, fay, they are the
ftatues of one of their heroes named Bhini, and his confort.
Bhim is one of the five famous Pandu;;. (See Pandu.)
The followers of Budha call them by the names firll men-
tioned. The Mahommedans lay, they are of Adam and
Eve ; and a third ftatue, half a mile diftant, about twenty
feet high, they fay is of Seth, their fon. The author of a
celebrated Perfian didionary, entitled " Farhang Jehangiry,"
fays they exifted in the time of Noah ; but gives them
other names. There can be little doubt but thefe llatues,
and the wonderful excavations of the city of Bamian,
fcooped, like Thebes, oiit of a mountain, were executed
by the fame indefatigable race of workmen, who in the
more fouthern parts of India conftrufted the gigantic
ftatucs ill the fimilar caverns at Kenera, on the ifland of
Salfettc, near Bombay, in the province of Kanara, and
at Karly ; all believed to be of Jaina or Budhaic origin.
See Jaina, Karly, and Kenera.

SHAHBUNDER, in Geography, a town of Hin.
dooftan, in the province of Tatta ; 4; miles S.S.W. of
Tatta.

SHAHDOURAS, a town of Hindooftan, m the cir-
car of Sirhind ; 10 miles N. of Tannafar.

SHAHG, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 18 miles
S. of Vencatighery.

SHAHJEHAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
18 miles N.W. of Bahar.— Alfo, a town of Hindooftan,
in Rohilcund ; 45 miles S. of PiUibeat.

SHAHJEHANPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in
Malwa ; 20 miles N.E. of Ougein. N. lat. 23° 26'. E.
long. 76" 18'. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 30
miles S.E. of Fyzabad. N. lat.. 26^ 26'. E. long. 82°
40'. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat ; zo miles
W. of Alvar. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
14 miles S.S.E. of Patna. N. lat. 25° 24'. E. long.

85° 3°'-

SHAHIGIAN, a town of Perfia, in the provmce of

Khorafan, near Maru, which fince is called Maru Sha-

hig'mn.

SHAHJOLE, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the
north by Raujelhy, on the eaft by Mahmudftii, on the fouth
by Jeflbre, and on the weft by Kiflienagur ; about 30 miles
long, and from 5 to 10 broad.

SHAHISABI, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Khorafan, on the borders of Bucharia ; 80 miles N. of
Maru.

SHAHI-SHAK, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Khorafan, on the borJersi of Bucharia ; 5 miles N. of
Maru.

S H A

SHAHPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 30
miles W. of Nagorcote. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore ; 27 miles E. of Sealcot.

SHAHR and Van, the ancient /Ipollonla, a town of
the pachalic of Bagdad, 27 miles from Bacouba, which
is nine furfungs from Bagdad, peopled by about 40CO
Turks and Kurds, and is, upon the whole, a handfome
little town, watered by two canals drawn from the Diala.
At the diftance of i8 miks is Kuzil Roobat, not fo large
as the former, fituated in a fandy plain, about one mile
from the river Diala. Khanakie is alfo a handfome little
town, built on that branch of the Diala, which has its
fource in the mountains of Kurzend, i8 miles from Kuzil
Roobat ; it occupies both banks of the river, over which
is a handfome bridge, and is furrounded by numerous gar-
dens and plantations. Mendeli, about the fame fize as
Soly mania, is fituated in one of the roads leading to Ker-
manftiaw ; and four furfungs on the Bagdad fide is a foun-
tain of naphtha. Thirteen leagues from Mendeli, and four
from the foot of the mountains, is Bedri, the frontier town,
in this quarter of the Turkifti empire.

SHAIGI, a town of Nubia, on an ifland in the Nik;
130 miles E. of Dongala. N. lat. 20° 20'. E. long.

50' 45'-

SHAIGOL, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
rafan ; 10 miles S.W. of Maru.

SHAIMA, a tovs-n of Perfia, in the province of Me-
cran, on the fea-coaft ; 200 miles W.S.W. of Kidge.

SHAINT, or HoLV, Isles, three fmall iflands of
the Hebrides, or Weftern ifles, are fituated in the chan-
nel between the ifles of Lewis and Skye, in the parifh
of Lochs and diftrict of Lewis. Thefe iflands are well
known to mariners, and are remarkable for their fine ftiecp
pafturage. One of them, called St. Mary's ifland, has a
fmall chapel upon it, dedicated to the Virgin, and bears
marks of having been formerly better inhabited than at
prefent. Sinclair's Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xix.
8vo.

SHAINYMALY, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbe-
tore ; 12 miles S. of Erroad.

SHAIZAR, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Da-
mafcus, on the Orontes ; 20 miles N. of Hamah.

SHAK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Schirvan ;
20 miles N.W. of Schamachie.

SHAKE, in Mufic, is a grace, an embellifliment of
melody, of wh'ch the indication is a h, or fometimcs
only /, the initial of the Italian term trillo, which im-
plies the fame thing. There are two kinds of fhakes, the
continued, and the tranfient. The continued fliake, upon
a long note, mull be pradlifed at firft by incipients, flow,
and accelerated by degrees. The efteft of a ftiake is a
rapid motion of two adjoining notes : as de, be, Sec.

In our dida£^ic and elementary articles, we fliould not
wifh to confine ourfelves to mere dry definitions of terms
of art ; but, having had fome little experience, we would
gladly aflift ftudents, by pointing out the means of acquir-
ing the praftical ufe of what we defcribe.

With regard to a vocal fliake, we can do young fingers no
greater kindnefs, than in referring them to the 3d chap,
of Tofi's " Obfervation? on florid Song," as admirably
tranflated by GaUiard, and illuftrated with the notes of
that able and experienced matter.

I of

Tofi, after informing the ftudent of the importance cf
the ftiake to fingers, fays, " Let the matter ftrive to enable
his fcholar to attain a fliake that is equal, diftinftly marked,
eafy, and moderately quick, which are its moll beautiful
requifitcs."

This excellent author defcribes the different kinds of
fliakes, and their preparation, that are worth cultivating,
as well as thofe that are to be avoided. The free and open
fhake on the whole tone and the femitoney are certainly the
principal.

The

S H A

S H A

The two tones or femitones that conftitute the fliake
major or rainor, fhaiild be equally loud and dillinft ; but
above all, pcrfeftly in tune with the notes of the general
fcale and particular k'^y in which the performer is finding.
The Italians call a bad (hake, or no fhakc at all, but a
c^uivcring upon the fame note, toffe da capra, a goal's
cough. If the finger is not podeded of a true and good
fnake, he or fhe had bell refrain from ever attempting it ;
and if accuRomed to elegant melody, and poflefled of
good talle and ornamental embelli(hments, the (hake in
longs of expreflion and pathos may be avoided with advan-
tage.

As the acquiring of a good (hake in fuiging is a work of

-S

=:z=zzii:£:z*:;

time, difficulty, and uncertainty of fucccfs, foveral ingeni-
ous and elegant cadences have been invented in order to
evade the fliake. A good (hake well applied is certainly
a great ornament ; but it is a matter of brilliancy more
than expre (Tion ; non due niente, it fays nothing — according
to modem Italian critics, and is feldom wanted except at
the end of a formal clofe. Thofe who have a good (hake,
like perfonj with a fine fet of teeth, are too ambitious of
letting you know it. The different kinds of (hakes are
exprefied in notes on the mufic-plates. The plain note
and trill are at prefent thought more elegant, and are more
frequently iifed than the fudden and long continued rapid
motion of the common (hake.

igte^^^^^

Clofe without a (hake.

mms^^^^m

Shakes upon keyed inllruments arc bell praftlfed at firfl
with the fecond and third fingers ; holding down at the fame
time the fifth below with the thumb, to keep the hand
and the writt quiet. And we recommend, contrary to
the ufual praftice and precepts, beginning tlie (hake with
the lowelt note ; othcrwife, m rapid tranfient (hakes on
(emiquavcrs, there is not time for returning to the upper
note ; fo that the fliake is reduced to a mere appoggiatmra.
See Gkuppo and Trill.

SHAKE R-PiGEO\, in Ornithology, a kind of pigeons, of
which there are tvio forts, the broad-tailed, and the narrow-
tailed.

The firfl is the fined, and moll valued. It has a beau-
tiful long thin neck, which bends like the neck of a fwan,
leaning towards the back. It has a full bread, a v;ry
(hort back, and a tail confiding of a great number of fea-
thers, feldom lefs than four-and-twenty, which it fpreads
in an elegant manner, like the tail of a turkey-cock, and
bends it up fo, that it meets the head. It is commonly
all white, but fometimes is red, yellow, or blue-pied.
The longer the neck of this bird is, the more it is
valued.

The fecond, or narrow-tailed fhaker, has a (horter and
thicker neck and a longer back. It is edeemcd by many
a different fpecies, but fecms only a mixed breed with
fome other pigeon. They are called fhakers, from a tre-
mulous motion which they have with their necks when
courting.

SHAKERS, in Ecchjiajlical Hiftory, a feft which ori-
ginated in Lancafhirc, with fome deferters from the fociety
of Quakers, or Friends, about tlie year 1747, and which
continued for fome time unconnefted with every denomina-
tion of Chridians. During this period, their tedimony,
derived, as they fancied and pretended, from what they faw
by vifion and revelation from God, was, «' that the fecond
appearing of Chrift was at liand, and that the church was
rifing in her full and tranfcendant glory, which would e ffedt
the final downfall of Antichrift." From the (haking of
their bodies in religious excrcilcs, they were denominated
Shakers, and by (ome perlons they were called Shaking
Quaker.;. The feft fcems to have made no great prugrcis
until the year 1770, when the tedimony originally announced
was fully opened, accordmg to the fpccial gift and revelation

of God through Ann Lee, who was born of obfcure pa-
rentage, at Mancheder, about the year 1736; and who,
having joined the fociety in 1758, became afterwards a dif-
tinguidied leader among them. Her cxercifes, both of
body and of mind, were Angularly trying and fevere for
about the term of nine years ; but (he was thus prepared for
receiving the tedimony of God, againll the whole corrup-
tion of man, in its root and every branch. Accordingly,
her tedimony vvas in the power of God, attended with
the word of prophecy, and fuch energy of the Spirit,
as penetrated into the fecrets of the heart, and was irre-
fillible, cfpecially in thofe with whom (he was united.

And from the light and power of God which attended
her minidry, and the certain power of falvation tranfmitted
to thofe who received her tedimony, (he was received and
acknowledged as the frjl Mother, or fpiritual parent in the
line of th« female, and the fecond heir in the covenant
of life, according to the prefent difplay of the gofpel.
Hence among believers, fiie hath been dilUnguifhed by
no other name or title than that of Mother, from that
period to the prefent day. To fuch as addrelTed her with
the cudomary titles ufed by the world, flic would reply,
" I am jinn the Word ;" fignifying that in her dwelt tlie
Word.

In 1774, Ann Lee, with foms of her followers, having
been thought mad, and forely perfecuted, fettled their tem-
poral affairs in England, and fet fail from Liverpool for New
York. .Tames Wardley and his wife remaining behind, were
nmoved into an alms-houfe, and there died. The others,
we are told, " being without lead or proteftion, lod their
power, and fell into the common courfe and prafticc of the
world I" Ann Lee and the brethren reached New York,
after working a fort of miracle, for the fiiip fprung a leak ou
the voyage, and it is more than hinted, that had it not been
for their exertions at the pump, the veflcl would have gone
down to the bottom of the ocean ! She, however, lelt
New York, and fixed her refidence up the Hudlon river,
eight miles from the city of Albany. In this retired fpot,
her followers greatly multiplied, but (lie was not without
bitter reproaches and manifold per(\ cutions. She and the
elders would delight in midionary journies, being out for
two or three ycara, and returning with wonderlul accounts
of their fuccefa.

? B 2 After

S H A

S H A

After Mother and the elders were releafed fromprifon, they
again colk-fted together at Watcr-Vliet, where they were
vifited by great numbers from dillant parts of the ftate of
New York, Ma(T?,chufett3, Connefticut, New Hampfhire,
and the diilritt of Maine, who received faith ; and through
the power and gifts of God, which were abundantly -mani-
fefted for the dellruclion of iin, and the falvation of fouls,
many v/ere filled with joy unfpeakable and full of glory, and
increafed in their undcrftanding of the way and work of God.

Ann Lee died on the eighth day of the ninth month
1784. • From the year 1780 to 1787 the credit of this feft
revived in America, and the number of its adherents confi-
derably increafed.

The creed of the Shakers is very obfcurely and myftically
exprefled. They feem to be believers neither of the Trinity
Bor of the Satisfaftion. They deny alfo the imputation of
Adam's fin to his pofterity, as well as the eternity of future
pmiifhment. The tenets on which they moll dwell are
thofe of human depravity, and of the miraculous effufion
of the Holy Ghoft ! Their leading praAical tenet is the
abolition of marriage, or indeed the total feparatkn of the
fexes. This circumltance of courfe attracts great attention,
and they pride themfelves on their fuperior purity. l*he
eflence of their argument is, that the refurreS'ion fpoken
of in the New Tellament means nothing more than conver-
fion ; our Saviour declares that in the refumaion they neither
marry nor are given in marriage, therefore, on converfion or
the refurreilion of the individual, marriage ceafes ! ! ! To
fpeak more plainly, the Jlngk mull continue ^yTfif/?, and the
married mull feparate. Every paflage in the gofpel and in
the epiftles is interpreted according to this ftrange and unna-
tural hypothefis.

The fyftem of the Shakers is thus pretty plainly defcribed.
" In the fulnefs of time, according to the unchangeable
purpofe of God, t!iat fame Spirit and Word of power,
which created man at the beginning — which fpake by all the
prophets — which' dwelt in the man Jefus — which was given
to the apoillcs and true witnciles as the Holy Spirit and
Word of promife, which groaned in them waiting for the
day of redemption — and which was fpoken of in the lan-
guage of prophecy as a woman travailing with child, and
pained to be delivered, was revealed in a woman.

" And that woman, in whom was manifetted that Spirit
and Word of power, who was anointed and chofen of
Godj to reveal the myftery of iniquity, to Hand as the firit in
her order, to accompli(h the purpofe of God, in the reftora-
tion of that which was lolt by the tranfgreffion of the firft
woman, and to finidi the work of man's final redemption,
was ^nn Lee.

" As a chofen veflel, appointed by divine Wifdom, file,
by her faithful obedience to that fame anointing, became the
temple of tlie Holy Gholl, and the fecond heir with Jefus,
her lord and head, in the covenant and promife of eternal
life. And by her fufl'erings and travail for a loft world, and
her union and fubjeciion to Chriif Jefus, her lord and head,
file became xhefrjl bom of manyfifters, and the true mother
cf all living in the new creation.

" Thus the perfedion of the revelation of God in this
latter day, excels, particularly, in that which refpefts the
moft glorious part in the creation of man, namely, the
woman. And herein is the moft condefcendina; goodncfs
and mercy of God difplayed, not oiily in redeeming that
moft amiable part of the creation from the curfe, and all the
forrows of the fall, but alfo in condefcending to the loweft
eftate of the lofs of mankind.

" So that by the firll and fecond appearing of Chrift,
the foundation of God is laid and completed, for tlie full

reftoration of both the man and the woman in Chrift, ac
cording to the order of the new covenant, which God hath
eftablilhed in them for his *wn glory, and the mutual good
and happinefs of each other.

" And in this covenant, both male and female, as brethren
and fillers in the family ot Chrift, jointly united by the bond
of love, find each their correlpondent relation to the firit
caufe of their exiftence, through the joint parentage of their
redemption.

" Then the man vvho was called Jefus, and the woman
who was called Ann, are verily the two firft foundation
pillars of the church of Chrift — the two anointed ones —
the two firft heirs of promile, between whom the covenan'
of eternal life is eftablifned — the firft father and mother o
all the children of regeneration — the two firft vifibU
parents in the work of redemption — and the invifible joint
parentage in the new creation, for the increafe of that feed
through which all the families of the earth (hall be blefted."

The Shakers record feveral cafes which they pretend to bc
miraculous, but it is needlefs to enlarge on a fyftem that is
wholly founded in delufion.

SHAKERTOWN, in Geography, ztovin of Kentucky,
in Mercer county, containing 298 inhabitants.

SHAKES, in Ship-Building, a name given to the cracks
or rents in a plank, &c. occafioned b)' the fun or weather.

SHAKING, a difeafe in (heep, confifting of a weaknefs
in their hind quarters, fo that they cannot rife up when they
are down. There has not hitlierto been found anv remedy
for this difeafe. It is probably of the nature of palfy, and
to be removed by ftrong nervous ftimulant remedies.

SHAKLES, on board 5'^/. See Shackles.

SHAKRA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Nedsjed ; 120 milei N.E. of Faid.

SHAKSPEARE, William, in Biography, an Englifli
dramatic poet, isjuflly efteemed the molt eminent and moft
interefting author of the ancient or modern world. His
writings have progreflively rifen in popular eftimation in pro-
portion as they have been ftudied and analyfed. Some of
his dramas are continually aCted on the London and pro-
vincial ftages ; many critics and commentators, both Englilh
and foreign, have employed their pens, and exerted.their fa-
culties, in differtations on the merits and defects of his pro-
ductions. From tlie moft trying and fsltidious ordeal of in-
veftigation he has rifen in glory and greatnefs ; and may, at
the prcfent time, be juftly pronounced pre-eminent and un-
rivalled as a dramatic poet.

To Englifhmen his writings are fingularly eflimable ; for
they have confen-ed on the country a literary immortality,
which nothing lefs than the diflolution of " the great globe
itfelf" can annihilate. Nor is he exclufively endeared and
valuable to the man of letters ; but airdaffes of artifts, and
even many artizans, have derived both fame and emolument
through the medium of his works. It has been often re-
marked, that the prophet is never honoured in his own
country, or appreciated by iiis contemporaries. Although
this maxim is now merely confidered as figurative, and the
age of, and confidence in, prophecy is pall, yet it may b*;
fully and ftriftly applied to the meritorious author. After
deceafe, his whole merits are gradually unfolded ; his talents
and genius command admiration, and each reader and com-
mentator feem eager to difcover new beauties, and to point
outbidden excellencies. Am.ong the literary "worthies"
of the world, from the days of Homer to Milton, no one has
attained equal celebrity with Shakfpeare. He now fhines as
the fun of the intcllettual hemifphere, and every other poet
feems to derive a reflected light from him, or moves in a lefs
circumfcribed orbit. Like divine nature, which was at once

his

SHAKSPEARE.

his guide and goddefs, his writings excite admiration and
delight, the moie intenfely they are lludied. Prompted by
infpiration, and impreiled with profound knowledge, with
the keen and acute " poet's eye," he commanded every re-
gion of the terrellrial globe, penetrated the hidden thoughts
of man, gave to " airy nothing a local habitation and a
name," and alligned to every paiiion and fenUment " its true
form and feature."

'Tis wonderful,

That an inviiible inltinft (hould frame him

To poetry unlearned ; honour untaught ;

Civility not fcen in other ; knowledge

That wildly grew in liini, yet yielded crops

As though it had been fown : for he could find

" Tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,

" Sermons in Hones, and good in every thing." —

Do not fmile at me that I boaft him off.

For ye fhall find he will outllrip all praife,

And make it halt behind him. Dovaston.

Heaven has him now : let our idolatrous fancy therefore
fanftify his reliques. Defpairing to be his equals, let us
profit by his precepts ; feek to acquire his wiidom ; emu-
late his gtntlenefs, talents, and honours. Confcious of the
comparative frigidneis of our own faculties, let us warm our
hearts at his celeitial fire, and kindle our fouls at his unex-
tinguilhable flame ! If enthufialm be jullifiable on any fub-
jeft, the writer of the prefent article hopes to Hand excufed
' in giving this latitude to his feelings and exprefllons. He has
to regret, with thoufands of others, that the fubjett of this
memoir is only known in his writings, and that his perfonal
hiftory is as obfcure as that of Homer or Archimedes. In-
deed, before we proceed farther, it is neceffary to premife,
that a Angular and unaccountable myilery is attached to
Shakfpcare's private life ; and, by fome llrange fatality, alnioft
every document concerning him has either been deilroyed, or
ftill remains in oblcurity. Tlie firfl publifhed memoir of him
wa; drawn up by Nicholas Rowe, in 1709, nearly 100 years
after the deceafe of the poet ; and the materials for this were
furnirtied by Betterton, a player. It fhoilld be remembered,
that the age in which he lived was not the age of minute in-
quiry. From Rowe's account, and from other evidence, it is
clear that our poet was not ambitious of pofthumous fame ;
that he difregardcd the cllimat'ion of after ages ; that he was
unconfcious of the high merit of his own writings ; and that,
though he was much in the public world, and died in com-
parative affluence, his private life and charafter were fcarcely
noticed by the biographer or critic. To the man of talte
and refined fenfibility, he has, however, bequeathed an ex-
haulllcfs treafnre in his dramatic produftions ; and as thefe
conftitute an cfTential part of the well-llored library, it is
equally eflential to record every fadt, and invelligate every
problematic (tatemcnt, relating to the incllimable author.

That he was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, in Warwick-
(hirc, on the a^d of April 1564, is well afcertained ; and
that he- v>-as bapli/.cd on the 26th of the fame month, appears
by the ])arifh regilfer. He is there defcribed as the fon of
John Shakfpearc, who, according to Rowe, and moll fub-
feqiieiit biographers, was "a cnnfiderable dealer in wool,"
and whofe " family were of good figure and falhiou." Op-
pofed to this Itatement is that of John Aubrey, who entered
himfelf as a Undent in the univerfity of Oxford, 1642, only
26 years after our poet's death, who derived his information
from "fome of the neighbours" of Shakfpesre, and who
appears to hav<; made a practice of writing down every fadl
and tradition that he heard relating to public charadlers.

His account is entitled not only to recital, but to cautious
confideration.

" Mr. William Shakcfpear was borne at Stratford-upon-
Avon, in the county of Warwick ; his father was a butcher ;
and I have been told heretofore hy fom: of the neighbours, that
when he was a boy he exercifed his father's trade, but when
he kill'da calfe, he would doe it in a high Ityle, and make
a fpeech. There was at that time another butcher's fon in
this towne that was held not at all inferior to him for a
naturall witt, his acquaintance and coetanean, but dyed
young. This Wm. being inclined naturally to poetry and
afting came to London, J guefle about 18, and was an aftor
at one of the play-houfes, and did act exceedingly well.
Now 13. Jonfon was nerer a good adlor, but an excellent
inftruftor. He began early to make efiayes at dramatique
poetry, which at that time was very lowe, and his playe«
tooke well. He was a handfome well-fliap'd man, very
good company, and of a very readie.and pleafant fmooth

witt. The humour of the conftable in ji Midfummer

Night's Dreame he happened to take at Grendon in Bucks,
which is the roade from London to Stratford, and there
was living that conftable about 1642, when I firft came to
Oxoii. Mr. Jos. Howe is of that parifh, and knew him."
(See Warton's Life of Sir Thomas Pope.) " Ben Jonfon
and he did gather humours of men dayly wherever they
came. One time, as he was at the tavern at Stratford-upon-
Avon, one Combes, an old rich ufurcr, was to be buryed ;
he makes there this extemporary epitaph :

' Ten in the hundred the devill allowes
But Combes will have twelve, he fweares and vowes :
If any one alkes who lies in this tombe,
'Hoh!' quoth the devill, ' 'tis my John o'Combe.*

" He was wont to goe to his native country once a ycare.
I thinke I have been told that he left 2 or 300 lib. per annum
there and there-about to a filler. I have heard fir Wm.
Davcnant and Mr. Thomas Shadwell (who is counted the
bell comoedian we have now) fay, that he had a mod pro-
digious witt, and did admire his#naturall parts beyond all
other dramaticall writers. He was wont to fay that he
never blotted out a line in his life : fayd Ben Jonfon ' I
wilh he had blotted out a thoufand.' His comedies will
remain witt as long as the Englilh tongue is underllood, for
that he handles mores hominum ; now our prefent writers re-
fleCk fo much upon particular perfons and coxcombeities,
that twenty yeares hence they will not be underllood.

" Though, as Ben Jonfon faycs of him, that he had but
little Latino and lefl'e Greek, he underllood Latine pretty
well, for he had been in his younger yeares a fchoolmaller
in the country." The latter fa6t was communicated by
Mr. Bcefton.

In another memorandum Aubrey dates, that

" Mr. William Sliakefpeare was wont to goe into War-
wicklhire once a yeare and did comonly in his journey lye
at this houfe in Oxon" (1. e. the Crown tavern, kept by the
father of fir William Davenant,) "where he was exceed-
ingly rcfpefted. •»*»*» Now fir Wm. would fome-
times, when he was pleafant over a glafle of wine with his
mod intimate friends, — e.g. Sam. Biitlor (author of Hu-
dibras) &c. fay, that it Icemod to him that he writt with
the very fpirit that Shakefpeare, and feemed contented
enough to be thought his fon • * * * " — Thefe anecdotes
are now piiblilhed in " Letters written by eminent Perfons
in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," three vols.
8vo. 181J!.

This account is truly curious and intere!ling ; and in

fpite

SHAKSPEARE.

fpite of the rceptlcifm of Dr. Farmer, in his «' EfTay on the
Learning of Shakfpeare," and of fome othpr writers, the
impartial reader mull admit that it allumcs the air of pro-
babihty, candour, and truth. Aubrey might have erred in
fome points ; particularly in faying, Shakfpeare vifited Lon-
don at the age of eighteen, when the regiltry of his own
baptifm, and that of his twin-children, fhew that he muft have
remained at home till the age of twenty. Again, it is very
probable that he met with a conftable at Grendon, or Long-
Crendan, in Buckinghamfhire, whofe charafter he dra-
matifed, not in " A Midfummer Night's Dream," but in
" Much ado about Nothing," or in" Love's Labour's Lolt."
The extempore epitaph on John o'Combe is reprefented
by Rowe, who gives it different to the above, as having been
made during the life-time, and in the prefence of the perfon
commemorated, who is alfo faid never to have forgiven the
poet. In Aubrey's relation there is nothing improbable,
nor unreafonable, in a poet producing fuch Imes fportively
over his cups, and among convivial friends : it is a fmart
epigram on an ufurious charafter. Inftead of leaving 300/.
per annum to a fifter, he bequeathed as much to his daughter,
as will be (hewn in the fequel. If there be any lurking
prejudice againft the profeffion of a butcher, let it be re-
membered, that the proud and oftentatious cardinal Wolfey
was the fon of a butcher ; and that the parentage of a
Homer, a Milton, and a Shakfpeare, cannot be honoured
or degraded by their anceftors.

" Honour and fame from no condition rife ;
Aft well your part, there all the honour lies."

The houfe in which our poet was born has been occupied
by a fucceffion of butchers from time immemorial. Befides,
it is not at all improbable that the butcher and the wool-
ftapler were united in one perfon. Admitting this, we
fhall find Rowe and Aubrey in harmony, and one great
difficulty removed.

The early education of Shakfpeare, a-, well as his pa-
rentage, is not afcertained : on this topic all the biographers
and commentators have fupplied us with conjeftures and
opinions. Chalmers, in his " Apology," is at once inge-
nious, intelligent, and learned on this fubjeft. Rowe ob-
ferves, and molt of his followers repeat the fame, that he
" was bred for fome time at a free fchool, where it is
probable he acquired what Latin he was mailer of."
They proceed to remark, that " on leaving fchool, he
feems to have given entirely into that way of living which
his father propofed to him." About the age of eighteen he
married Anne Hathaway, daughter of a fubllantial yeoman,
then refiding at Shottory, a hamlet to Stratford. In the
pariih regifter we find that " Sufanna, daughter of William
Shakfpeare, was baptifod May 26, 1583." By the fame
record we learn that his wife produced him twins in 1584-3; ;
as on the 2d of February in that year, the names of Judith
and Hamnet are entered in the regifter. It muft have been
foon after this event that our poet vifited the metropolis ;
but the caufe of leaving his native place, as well as his
objeft, conneftion, and profpcfts in London, are alike un-
known. Rowe relates, and others have adopted the opinion,
with fome variation as to fentiment and inference, that,
" falling into ill company," he was induced, " more than
once," to affift his adociatcs in itealing deer from a park
belonging " to fir Thomas Lucy, of Charlcote, near
Stratford. For this he was profecuted by that gentleman
fo feverely," that he was firft impelled to write a fatirical
ballad on him, and afterwards fly from his home to avoid
arreft and imprifonment. This Itory, however, is not

entitled to full credence ; for though our young poet
might have afTociated with fome idle youths, and have ac-
companied them to the neighbouring park, cither for the
fake of catching deer, or for fome lefs ilifflcuit and Irfs
hazardous enterprife, yet the circumllanee feems impro-
bable, and comes in fuch " a quellionable (hap?," that
before it be admitted as hiftorical evidence againft an
amiable man and fuper-eminent author, it (liould be fup-
ported by " confirmations ilrong as proofs of holy writ."
Without refting on this circiimftancc, or crediting another
abfurd ftory, of his holding horfcs at the door of a tlieatre for
his livelihood, we (hill find a rational motive for his vifiting
London, and reforting to the theatre, by knowing that lie
had a relative and townfman already eftablifiied there, and in
fome eftimation. This was Thomas Green, " a celebrated
comedian."

We now come to that era in the life of Shakfpeare,
when he began to write his immortal dramas, and to de-
vclope thofe powers which have rendered him the delight
and wonder of fucccflive age?. At the time of his be-
coming, in fome degree, a public charafter, we naturally
cxpefted to find many anecdotes recorded of his literary
hiftory : but, ftrange to fay, the fame deftitution of au-
thentic incidents marks every ftage of his life. Even the
date at which his firft play appeared is unknown ; and the
greateft uncertainty prevails with refpeft to the chronological
order in which the whole feries were written, exhibited, or
publifhed. As this fubjeft was juftly confidercd by Ma-
lone to be both curious and intcrelting, he has appropriated
to its examination a long and laborious elfay. Chalmers,
however, in his " Supplemental Apology," and in a recent
pamphlet, 18 15, endeavours to controvert fome of Malone's
dates, and alTigns them to other eras ; as fpccified in the
fecond column, below. Malone fays, the " Firft Part of
King Henry VI." publifhed in 1589, and commonly at-
tributed to Shakfpeare, was n.it written by him, though it
might receive fome correftions from his pen at a fubfequent
period, in order to fit it for reprefentation. The " Second
Part of Kmg Henry VI." this writer contends, ought there-
fore to be confidered as Shakfpeare's firft dramatic piece ;
and he thinks that it might have been compofed about the
year 1591, but certainly not earlier than 1590. The other
dramas are placed in the following order of time by him and
by Mr. George Chalmers.

The Third P..rt of Hj"ry VI. '

was written in - -

A Midfummer Night's Dream
Comedy of Errors
Taming of the Shrew
Love's I..abour's Loft
Two Gentlemen of Verona
Romeo and Juliet
Hamlet . - . .

King John - . .

King Richard II.
King Richard III.
Firft Part of Henry IV.
Second Part of Henry IV.
Merchant of Venice
All's Well that ends WeU -
King Henry V. - -

Much ado about Nothing
As you like it -
Merry Wives of Windfor
King Henry VIII. -

Accor-Ting to

Avoiding 10

Malir.t.

C'halmtTS.

1 59 1

1595

1592

1593

1593

J59I

1594

1598

'594

1592

1595

1595

1595

1592

1596

1597

1596

1598

1597

1596

1597

1595

1597

1596

1598

1597

1598

1597

1598

1599

1599

1597

1600

'599

1600

'599

1601

1596

j6oi

1613

Troilu-i

SHAKSPEARE.

Accor.liiig to

According to

M:.\.Mc.

l-'lliilmtMS.

Ti-oilus and CretTidi -

r6o2

1600

Me;\fure for Meafure -

1603

1604

The Winter's Tale -

I 604

160I

King Lear ...

1605

1605

Cymbeline ...

1605

1606

Macbeth ....

1606

1606

Julius Csfar . . -

1607

1607

Antony and Cleopatra

1608

1608

Timon of Athens

1609

160I

Coriolarius

1610

1609

Othello ... -

161I

1614

TheTemoeH .

1612

1613

Twelfth Night -

1614

1613

Belides the above thirty-five plays, Shakfpeare wrote fome
poetical pieces, which were at firft publiflied feparately, -viz.
" Venus and Adonis," printed in 1593 ; " The Rape of
Lucrece," 1594; "The Paflionate Pilgrim," printed in
1599; "A Lover's Complaint," not dated; and a Col.
leftion of Sonnets, printed in 1609. The firft and fecond
of thefe poems were dedicated, as " the firft heir of my
invention," to Henry Wriothefley, earl of Southampton ;
who, according to fir William d'Avenant's llatement, pre.
fented the poet with the fum of 1000/. to make fome pur-
chafe. If this be a faft, it is honourable to the liberality
and good tafte of the nobleman, and fhews that the " poor
Warwickfhire lad" met with a munificent patron in an early
ftage of his literary career. Other circumftances tend to
prove that his merits were known to, and admired by, fome
illuftrious perfonagcs. Queen Elizabeth, whofe ear was
perpetually availed by fulfome panegyric, and who en-
couraged all forts of filly fhows. May-games, and buf-
fooneries, was not infenfible of Shakfpeare's talents ; for (he
commanded feveral of his plays to be adled before her ; and
having been much delighted with the charafter of FalltafF,
as delmeated in the firit and fecond parts of " Henry the
Fourth," recommended, or perhaps commanded, the bard
to portray the fat knight in love. Hence originated
" The Merry Wives of Windfor ;" fome incidents in which
may have pleafed the daughter of Henry VHI., although
they are juftly repulfive to modern tafte and delicacy.
King James I. alfo attended the reprefentation of many of
our author's plays. Sir WiUiam d'Avenant told Sheffield,
duke of Buckingham, that the monarch wrote the poet
" an amicable letter" with his own hand ; probably to
thank him for the compliment contained in the play of
Macbeth.

Shakfpeare, as already hinted, was an aftor, as well as
author of plays, and performed fome of the charadlers in
his own dramas. As late as the year 1603, only 13 years
before his death, his name appears among the players of
Ben Jonfon's tragedy of Sejanus. Thus it is evident that
he continued to perform many years ; but of his hiftrionic
merits we have no fatiiiai:lory evidence. Hence on this
point there is much diverlity of opinion ; fome contending
that he was an excellent actor, and others that he was only
equal to the perfonificalion of his own charaftcr of the
gholl in Hamlet. Some pafTages in his own writings prove
that he was well qualified to appreciate and to defcribe the
eflentials of good afting. See Hamlet's admirable advice to
the players ; the fcenc between Hamlet and his mother ; and
alfo the defcription of a tragedian in " King Richard HI."
Aubrey ftates that Shakfpeare vifited his native town
periodically ; but we do not learn when he finally returned
home. From a document in the polIeiTion of Mr. R. B.
Wheler, the hiftorian of Stratford, it appears that he was
in London in November, 16 14. At that time Mr. Thomas

Green, a profeffional gentleman of that town, and a relative
of Shakfpeare's, vifited the metropolis, to obtain an aft of
parliament, or to fettle fome bufincfs relating to the inclo-
fure of an open field, in which our poet was a party con-
cerned. His memorandums are ;

" Rec. 16. No. 1614, at 4 o'clock afr. noon, a Ire
from Mr. Bayly & Mr. Alderman, [the bailift' and chief
alderman of Stratford-upon-Avon] dated 12. No. 1614,
touchyng the inclofure bufynes. Jovis 17. No. [16143
my cofen Shakfpeare comyng yefterdy to town, I went to
fee him how he did. He told me that they" [the parties
wifliing to inclofe] " aflured him they ment to inclofe no
further than to Gofpel bufh, & fo upp ilraight (leavyng
out pt. of the Dyngles to the field) to the gate in Clopton
hedg & take in Salifbury's peece ; & that they mean in
Aprill to fvey. the land & then to gyve fatisfaccion & not
before : & he & Mr. Hall" [Shakfpeare's fon-in-law, pro-
bably prelent] " fay they think yr. [there] will be no-
thyng done at all." It appears that Mr. Green, after his
return to Stratford, made the foUowing entry, which is
partly illegible. "23. Dec. [1614 ] a Hall. I.res. wryt-
ten, one to Mr. Manyring — another to Mr. Shakfpeare,
with almoft all the company's hands to eyther. I alfo
wrytte myfelf to my cfn. [coufin] Shakfpear, the

coppyes of all our then alfo a note of the incon-

venyences wold by the inclofure." Another part

of the memorandum ftates, that the town of Stratford was
then " lying in the aflies of defolation."

We find that Shakfpeare had purchafed a houfe, called
" New-place," at Stratford, about three years before his
death, where he refided in the llyle and charafter of a pri-
vate gentleman, Here he died on the anniverfary of his
birth-day, April 23, 1616, and was interred on the fecond
day after his death, in the chancel of Stratford church,
where a monument ftill remains to his memory. It is con-
ftrufted partly of marble and partly of ftone, and confifts
of a half-length buft of the deceafed, with a cufhion before
him, placed under an ornamental canopy, between two co-
lumns of the Corinthian order, fupporting an entablature.
-Attached to the latter is the Shakfpeare arras and creft,
fculptured in bold relief. Beneath the buft are the fol-
lowing lines :

Judicio Pylivm, genio Socratem, arte Maronem,
Terra tegit, popvlvs roxret, olympus habet.

Stay, pallenger, why goeft thov by fo faft.
Read, if thov canft, whom cnviovs death hath plaft
Within this monvment, Shakfpeare : with whome
Qvick natvre didc ; whofe name doth deck ys tombe
Far more than colte ; fieh all yt he hath writt
Leaves living art, bvt page to fervc his witt.

Obiit Ano. Doi. 1616, .lEtatis 53, die 23 Ap.

On a flat ftone, covering the grave, is this curious in-
fcription :

Good frcnd for Jefvs' fake forbeare,
To digg the dvft eiicloafed heare ;
Bleft be ye man yt (pares thefe ftones,
And cvrft be he yt moves my bones.

The common tradition is, that the four laft lines were
written by Shakfpeare himfelf ; but this notion has perhaps
originated folcly from the ufe of the word " my," in the lalt
line. The imprecation, fays Mr. Malone, was prob.ibly fug-
geilcd by an apprchenfion " that our author's remains might
inarc the fame i^ate with thofe of tlie reft of his countrymen,
and be added to the immenle pile of human bones dcpofitcd
in the charncl-houfc at Stratford."

Mrs.

SHAKSPEARE.

Mrs. Shakfpeare, who furvived her hufbaiid eight years,
was buried between his grave and the north wall of the
chancel, under a itone inlaid with brafs, and infcribed thus :
" Heere lyeth interred the bodyc of Anne, wife of Mr. Wil-
liam Shakefpeare, who depted. this life the 6th day of Avgvll,
1623, being of the age of 67 yeares."

Vbera, tv Mater, tv lac vitamq. dedilli,
V^ mihi ; pro tanto mvnere faxa dabo !
Qvam Mallem, amoveat lapidem, bonvs angel'ore'
Exeat vt Chritti Corpvs, imago tva,
Sed nil vota valent, venias cito Chrifte refvrget,
Clavfa licet tvmvlo mater, et aftra petet.
The family of Shakfpeare, as already mentioned, confifted
only of one ion and two daughters. The fon died in 1596;
but both the daughters furvived their father. The eldcft,
Sufanna, married Dr. John Hall, a phyfician of Stratford,
who is faid to have obtamed much reputation and praftice.
She brought her huftiand an only child, Elizabeth, who was
married, lirft to Thomas Nafhe, efq. and afterwards to fir
John Barnard, of Abingdon, in Northamptonthire ; but had
no iffue by either of them. Judith, Shakfpeare's fecond
daughter, married Thomas Quiney, a gentleman of good
family, by whom (he had three children ; but at none of
them reached their twentieth year, they left no poUerity.
Hence our poet's laft defcendant was lady Barnard, who was
buried at Abingdon, Feb. 17,1669-70. Dr. Hall, her father,
died Nov. 2J, 1635, andher mother July 1 1, 1649 ; and both
were interred in Stratford church under flat ftones, bearing
infcriptions to their refpeftive memories.

Shakfpeare, by his ivi/l, yet extant in the office of the
prerogative court in London, and bearing date the 25th day
of March, 1616, made the following bequefts.

To his daughter Judith he gave 150/. of lawful Englifh
money ; one hundred to be paid in difcharge of her marriage
portion, within one year after his deceafe, and the remaining
fifty upon her giving up, in favour of her elder filler, Sufanna
Hall, all her right in a copyhold tenement and appurtenances,
parcel of the manor of Rowington. To the faid Judith he alfo
bequeathed 150/. more, if Ihe, or any of her iflue, were living
three years from the date of his will ; but in the contrary
event, then lie direifted that 100/. of the fum (hould be paid
to his niece, Elizabeth Hall, and the proceeds of the fifty to
his filler, Joan, or Jone Hart, for life, with refidue to her
children. He further gave to the faid Judith a broad filver
gilt bowl.

To his filler Joan, befides the contingent bequeft above-
mentioned, he gave twenty pounds and all his wearing ap-
parel ; alfo the houfe in Stratford, in which fhe was to
refide for lier natural life, under the yearly rent of twelve

pence. To her three fons, Wilham Hart, Hart, and

Michael Hart, he gave five pounds a-piece ; to be paid
withm one year after his deceafe. To his grand-daughter,
Elizabeth Hall, he bequeathed all his plate, the filver bowl
above excepted.

To the poor of Stratford he bequeathed ten pounds ; to
Mr. Thomas Combe, his fword ; to Thomas Rufiel five
pounds ; to Francis Collins, efq. thirteen pounds fix fliillings
and eight-pence; to Hamlet (Hamnet) Sadler twenty-fix
(hillmgs and eight-pence, to buy a ring ; and a like fum, for
the fame purpofe, to Wilham Reynolds, gent., Anthony
Na(h, gent., John Heraynge, Richard Burbage, and Henry
Cundell, his " fellows ;" alfo twenty (hiUings in gold to his
godfon, William Walker.

To his daughter, Sufanna Hall, he bequeathed New-place,

with its appurtenances ; two mefTuages or tenements, with

their appurtenances, fitviated in Henley-ftreet ; alfo all his

" barns, ftables, orchards, gardens, lands, tenements, and

IS

hereditaments whatfoever, fituate, lying, and being, or to
be had, received, perceived, or taken within the town*,
hamlets, villages, fields, and grounds of Stratford-upon-
Avon, Old Stratford, Bifliopton, and Welconibe, or in any
of them, in the faid county of Warwick ; and alfo all that
mefluage or tenement, with the appurtenances, wherein one
John Robinfon dwelleth, fituated, lying, and being in the
Blackfriara, London, near the Wardrobe ; and all my other
lands, tenements, and hereditaments whatfoever : to have
and to hold all and fingular the faid premifes, with their ap-
purtenances, unto the faid Sufanna Hall, for and during the
term of her natural life ; and after her deceafe, to the firll
fon of her body lawfully ifliiing, and to the heirs male of the
body of the faid firll fon, lawfully ifluing ; and for default
of fuch iflue, to the fecond fon of her body lawfully ilTuing,
and to the heirs male of the body of the faid fecond fon law-
fully iffuing ;" and fo forth, as to the third, fourth, fifth,
fixth, and feventh fons of her body, and their heirs male :
" and for default of fuch iflue, the faid premifes to be and
remain to my faid niece Hall, and the heirs male of her body
lawfully ilTuing ; and for default of fuch ifl'ae, to my daugh-
ter Judith, and the heirs male of her body lawfully in"uing ;
and for default of luch iflue, to the right heirs of me the faid
William Shakfpeare."

To the faid Sufanna Hall and her huftand, whom he ap-
pointed executors of his will, under the direftion of Francis
Collins and Thomas RufTcl, efqrs. he further bequeathed
all the rell of his " goods, chattels, leafes, plate, jewels,
and houfehold Huff whatfoever," after the payment of his
debts, legacies, and funeral expences ; with the exception
of his " fecond bell bed with the furniture," which con-
flituted the only bequeft he made to his wife, and that by
infertion after the will was written out.

Among the mylteries connected with our poet's private
life and actions is one, which has hitherto efcaped the in-
veterate refearches and countlefs opinions of his biographers
and commentators. We have already feen, that his wife
bore him three children in lefs than two years after mar-
riage. In the Stratford regifter is an entry of " Thomas
Greene, alias Shahfpears," in 1539-90, which excites
fome fufpicion refpetling the fidelity of our bard's wife :
and it may be inferred from his will, that his lady could
not have enjoyed much of his affeftion, to have been put
off with only the bequeft of a " fecond beft bed :" be-
fides, we do not hear of any other children by the poet.

The firft colleftion of Shakfpeare's plays was publiftied
in 1623, with the following title: " Mr. William Shak-
fpeare's Comedies, Hiftories, and Tragedies. Pnbhflied
according to the true original copies. London, printed by
Ifaac Jaggard and Ed. Blount, 1623, folio." This volume
was edited by John Hemynge and Henry Condell, and was
dedicated to " the moll noble and incomparable pair of
brethren," William, earl of Pembroke, and Philip, earl o^
Montgomery. In the title page is a portrait, faid to be a
likeneTs of the author, with the engraver's name, " Martin
Droefhoot, fculpfit, London ;" and on the oppofite page
are thefe lines by Ben Jonfon, addrefled to the reader :

" This figure that thou here feeft put,
It was for gentle Shakefpeare cut.
Wherein the graver had a ftrife
With nature to outdoo the life :
O, could he but have drawne his wit
As well in brafle, as he hath hit
His face ; the print would then furpaffe
All that was ever writ in brafle.
But, fince he cannot. Reader, looke
Not on his pidure, but his Booke." B. I.

The

I

SHAKSPEARE.

The above volume was carefully reprinted, in clofe imi-
tation of the original, a few years back, by J. Wright,
for Vernor and Hood, London. A fecond edition of
Shakfpeare's plays was pubhrtied, in folio, in 1632, a third
in 1664; and a fourth in 1685. Thefe feveral impreffions
are ufually denominated " ancient editions," becaufe pub-
lifhed within the llrlt century after the death of the poet,
and before any comments or elucidations were employed
to expound the original text. Some of his dramas were
publifhed, in 4to., during his own life.

Of thofe editions which are diiHngui(hed by the title
" modern," the earliell was publiflied by Nicholas Rowc,
in 1709, in 7 vols. 8vo. This was followed by an edition
in 9 vols i2mo. by the fame author, in I 7 14; and to both
were prefixed a biographical memoir of the illultrious bard.
In 1725, Pope, who Hrlt introduced critical and emendatory
notes, publifhed his edition in 6 vols. 410. with a preface,
which Johiifon charaftenzes as valuable alike for compoli-
tion and jullnefs of remark. A fecond edition by the fame
editor was publifhed in 10 vols. i2mo. with additional
HOtes and corrections, in 1728. The fuccedbr of Pope
was Theobald, who produced a very elaborate edition in
7 vols. 8vo. in 1733 > ''"'^ ^ fecond, with correflions and
additions, in 8 vols. l2mo. in 1740. Sir Thomas Hanmer
next turned his attention to the illuilration of Shakfpoare, and
in 1744 gave the world an edition of his plays in 6 vols. 410.
Warburton publiflied his edition in 8 vols. Svo. in 1747 ;
from which time no critic attempted the taflc till the year
1765, when Dr. Johnfon's firft edition made its appearance
in 8 vols. 8vo. It was preceded by an able and ingenious
preface, in which the charafter of Shakfpeare's writings are
commented on in a powerful ftyle of eloquence, but with a
feverity far removed from accuracy and iullice. Indeed
Johnfon did not fully undi'ritand t'ne varied merits of his
author. In 1766, Steevens publifhed the twenty " Old
Plays," in 4 vols. 8vo. This was followed, in 1768, by
an edition in 10 vols, crown 8vo. by Mr. Capell. Next
came out, in 1771, a fecond and improved edition in
6 vols. 4to. by fir Thomas Hanmer, which was fucceeded
by an edition in 10 vols. 8vo. in 1773, by Johnfon
and Steevens, conjointly. Of this laft, a fecond edition
was publifhed in 1778 ; a third, revifed and correfted by
Reed, in 1785. In the year following was produced the
firft volume of the dramatic works of Shakfpeare, with
notes by Jofeph Rann, A.M. which work was completed
in 6 vols. 8vo. in 1794. In 1784 was publiflied, in i vol.
royal 8vo. an edition by Stockdale, with a very copious
index of pailages, by the Rev. Mr. Ayfcough. liell's
edition appeared in 1788, in 20 vols. i8mo. ; and in 1790
Malone's was ufhered into the world in 10 vols, crown 8vo.
In 1793, a fourth edition, " revifed and augmented," in
15 vols. 8vo. was produced by Mr. Steevens. A fifth edi-
tion, in 21 vols. 8vo. was publiflied in 1803, from the
text and with the notes of .lohnfon, Steevens, and Reed ;
and another edition of 2 1 vols, with correftions, &c. ap-
peared in 1S13.

Many other impreffioMs of our author's plays have been
publiflied by different bookfcllers, in different fi/.es, and of
various degrees of typographic merit. Molt of tliem, how-
ever, arc unauthentic.itrd reprints: but many have the popu-
lar attraftion of embellinimcnts. The moil fplc-ndid of this
tlafs was publKlied by Boydell, in 9 vols, folio, embelliflied
with 100 engravings, executed by and from artills of the
firfl eminence. The fame work was alfo printed in 410.
In 1805 was putilifhcd an edition of Shakfi)care'3 plays in
10 vols. 8vo., with a prefatory ellay by Alexander Chal-
mers, I'.S A. and a print to each play from a defign by
"Henry Fufeli, cfq. R.A, The laft edition of this kind
Vol. XXXII.

has jult appeared in 7 vols. iSmo. with 230 engravings on
wood, from the tafteful prefs of Whittingliam.

Steevens eftimated, at the time he publifhed his notes on
Shakfpeare, that " not lefs than 35,000 copies of our au-
thor's works" had been tl.t-a difpcrfed ; and it may now be
confidently faid, that nearly loo.cco of them have been
printed and fold.

From wliat has been already ttatcd, it is evident that
the writings of Shakfpeare have progredively acquired con-
fiderable publicity ; and that they now rank as chief, or
in the firft lift, of Britifh claffica. Thi$ high celebrity is
to be attributed to various fecondary caufes, as well as to
their own intrinfic merits. To players, critics, biographers,
and artiits, a large portion of this popularity is to be af-
cribed ; for had tiie plays been rcprefented by Garrick,
Kemble, &c. as originally pubhfhed by Condell and He-
mynge, or reprinted verbatim from that text, the fpefta-
tors to the one, and readers of the other, would have been
comparatively limited. It is talent only that can proper'.y
reprefent and appreciate talent. The birth and prod'jrtions
of one man of brilliant genius, will llimulate the emulation
and call into aftion the full powers of a correlative mind.
Hence the Britifli theatrical liemifpherc- has been repeatedly
illumined by the corrufcations of Garrick, Henderfon,
Pritchard, Kemble, Siddoni, Cooke, Young, and Kean ;
and thefe performers have derived no fmall portion of their
juftly acquired fivne from the exquifite and powerful writ-
ings of the bard of Avon. Whilft the one may be'con-
fid.eved as the creator of thought and inventor of charafter,
the others have perfonified and given " local habitation"
and exiftence to the poetical vifion. The painter has alfo
been ufefully and honourably employed in delineating in-
cidents, and portraying characlers from the poet : while the
engraver has tranflated thefe defigns into a new language,
and given them extenfive circulation and permanent record.

The confummate atiing of Garrick tended, in a great de-
gree, not only to revive the fame of Shakfpeare, but to
augment and extend it. The peculiar powers of Betterton,
and of his other dramatic predeccffors, have not been fuf-
ficiently defined to enable us to eftimate their real talents ;
but thole of the Enghfh Rofcius have been commented on
and dclcribed by fo many able critics, that we are certain
they were of the mnft accomplifhed kind. He was there-
fore amply qualified to perfonify, arid give life and effedl
to the charafters of Macbeth, Hamlet, Lear, Richard the
Third, Romeo, Sec. ; and by his exquifite reprefentation of
thefe hiftrionic perfoiiagcs, the public were additionally de-
lighted and aftoniflied with the amazing genius of the
author. Sjnce Garrick's time other aftors have judicioufly
chofen fome of Shakfpeare's charafters, as beft calculated
to (hew their own talents ; and as the moll certain touch-
ttone of paflion. A Kemble and a Siddons have en-
wreathed their brows with never-fading laurel by dih-
gently iludying and fuccefsfully perlonating many of
our poet's great charafters. As the former has acquired
a well-earned fame in portraying Macbeth, Lear, Co-
riolanus, Profpcro, Cardinal Wolley, Richard, Hamlet,
and Othello ; the latter has aftoniflied and gratified many
thoufand Ipeftators by her horrifying reprefentation of
lady Macbeth, her dignified playing of the queen in
Henry VIII., and the queen in Hamlet ; by her com-
manding [lowers in Portia ; and in her pathetic eloquence
of Defdemona. Cooke difplaycd the charafters of Richard
the Third, lago, and Shylock, with great (kill and excel-
lencc : and in the prtfent day, Kean lias perfunated thefe
charafters, with that of Richard II. and H;imlet, fo at
to command the approbation of the moll acute and intelli-
gent critics,

3C The

SHAKSPEARE.

The number, variety, and verfatility of commentaries
that have been fucceffively publiflied on the text of Shak-
fpeare's plays almoft exceed credibility ; and a foreigner, or
ftranger to the fubjeft, would be more than aftonifhed, were
the whole brought in one mals before him. It is true, that
many of them are unimportant and ufelcfs, but it is equally
true, that feveral of his critical ar.notators have difplayed
much refearch, learning, and acutenefs ; and to fuch the
philologift and poetical antiquary are much indebted.
It was our intention to have given a concife account of
thefe; becaufc the whole conftitute the Shakfpearian library ;
and all may be regarded as fatellites to the vaft and refplendent
poetical planet. The chief editors of liis plays have been al-
ready noticed, as well as the refpeftive eras of their different
writings. Rowe was the firft to add any thing to the ori-
ginal text, by prefixing a memoir of the author. This
memoir has been reprinted with almoft every fiicceeding
edition, and without any alteration or comment, till Ma-
lo.ne accompanied it with notes to his edition of 1790. Mr.
Alexander Chalmers, in an edition of 1805, has prefixed a
" Sketch of the Life of Shakfpeare," in which he has
adopted moft of the Itatemeuts of Rowe, with the addi-
tional and correftive remarks of Malone and Steevens.
" The whole, however," he remarks, " is unfatisfaftory.
Shakfpeare in his private chjrafter, in his friendships, in
his amufements, in liis clofet, in his family, is no where
before us."

The plays of Shakfpeare are divided into three dalles,
and called in the firit edition «' comedies, hiftories, and tra-
gedies." Each is of a dillinft charafter ; but in fome of
them there is a mixture of the three in one. " The Merry
Wives of Windfor," " The Comedy of Errors," and
" The Taming of the Shrew," are all comedies; the reft have
fomething of both kinds. It is not eafy to determine in
which way of writing he moft excelled. His Falft.ifr is
univerfally allowed to be a mafter-piece : the character is
always well f\iftained, thougli drawn out into three plays ;
and even the account of his death, given by his landlady,
Mrs. Quickly, in the firft aft of Henry V. is as natural and
diverting as any part of his life. " If there be any fault,"
fays the critic, " in the draught he has made of this lewd
old fellow, it is, that thougti he has made him a thief, a
liar, and a coward, and, in fhort, every way vicious, yet
he has given him fo much wit, as to make him almoft too
agreeable ; and I do not know whether fome people have
not, in remembrance of the amufcment which he had for-
merly afforded them, been forry to fee his friend Hal ufe
him fo fcurvily when he comes to the crown, in the end
of the fecond part of Henry IV. Among other extrava-
gancies in the ' Merry Wives of Wmdfor,' he has made
him a deer-ftealer, that he might have the opportunity of
remembering his Warwickfliire profecutor under the name
of Jiiftice Shallow." The whole play is admirable, the
hnmours are various and well oppoied ; the main defign,
which is to cure Ford of hi, unreafonable jealoufy, is ex-
tremely well condufted.

Another of the characters which has been fixed on as
ene of Shakfpeare's fine delineations, is that of Shylock,
the Jew, in " The Merchant of Venice," in whicii there
appears fuch a deadly fpirit of revenge, fuch a favage
fiercenefs, and fuch a bloody defignation of cruelty and
mifchief, as cannot agree either with the ftyle or charafter
of comedy, though ufually ranked as fuch. Taken alto-
gether, it is perhaps one of the moft finiftied of Shak-
fpeare's pieces ; the tale indeed is improbable in fome of its
parts ; but taking the fafts for granted, the ftory is beauti-
fully written. There is fomething in the friendfhip of An-
tonio and Badanio very great and generous. The whole

fourth aft is extremely fine, but there are two paffages
that are univerfally known and applauded, the one is rn
praife of mercy, and the other is on the power of miific.

The melancholy of Jaques in the comedy of " As yoti
like it," is as Angular and odd, as it is amufing, and if, ac-
cording to the maxim of Horace,

" Difficile eft proprie communia dicere,"

it will be a hard taflc for any one to go beyond him in the
defcription of the feveral degrees and ages of a man's life.
See the article Age.

His images are indeed every where fo lively, that the
thing he would reprefent ftands full before you, and you
pofTefs every part of it. Rowe mentions his image of
Patience, in the perfon of a young woman in love, as one
of the fineft and moft uncommon things ever written ; it it
as follows :

She never told her love ;

But let concealment, like a worm I'th' bud,
Feed on her damaft cheek : flie pin'd in thought,
And fat like Patilxce on a monument
Smiling at grief."

The ftyle of his comedy is, in general, natural to tlie
charafters, and cafy in itfelf ; and the wit moft commonly
fprightly and pleafing, except in thofe places where he
runs into doggrel rhimes. But the greatnefs of this au-
thor's genius does ho where fo much appear, as where he
gives his imagination the entire loofe, and raifes his fancy to
A flight above mankind, and beyond the limits of the vifible
world. Such are his attempts in the Tempcft, Midfummer
Night's Dream, Macbeth, and Hamlet. Of thefe, the
Tempeft is thought by able critics to be the moft perfeft
in its kind of any thing that Shakfpeare has left behind
him. His magic hath fomething in it very folemn, and
very poetical : and that extravagant charafter of Caliban
is extremely well fuftained, and {hews a wonderful inven-
tion in the author, who could ftrike out fuch a particular
wild image, and it is certainly one of the fineft tliat was
ever exhibited to the human imagination. It has been faid
by able judges, that " Shakfpeare had not only found out
a new charafter in his Caliban, but had alfo devifed and
adapted a new manner of language for that charafter."

It is tlie fame magic that raifes the fairies in the Mid-
fummer Night's Dream, the witches in Macbeth, and the
ghoft in Hamlet, with thoughts and language fo proper
to the parts they fuftain, and fo peculiar to the talent of
this writer. " If," fays the author whom we have fo often
quoted, " one undertook to examine the tfreateft part of his
tragedies by thofe rules which are eftablifhed by Ariilotle,
and taken from the model of the Grecian ftage, it would
be no difficult tafk to find a great many faults ; but as Shak-
fpeare lived under a kind of mere light of nature, and had
never been made acquainted with the regularity of tiiofe
written precepts, fo it would be hard to judge him by a
law of which lie was ignorant. We are to coufider him as ■
a man, that lived in a ftate of almoll univerfal licence and
ignorance ; there was no ellabliflied judge, but every one
took the liberty to write according to the diftates of his
own fancy. When one confiders, that there is not one
play before him of a reputation good enough to entitle it
to an appearance on the prefent ftage, it cannot but be a
matter of great wonder, that he ftioiild have advanced
dramatic poetry as far as he did.

" It is now a received article of literary faith in Eng-
land, that notvvithftanding the faults and defefts with
which Shakfpeare abounds, and which were chiefly thofe
of his age, 110 dramatift in any country has difplayed fuch

intimate

SHAKSPEARE.

'intimate knowledge of the human heart ; fach extenfive
acquaintance with nature in its various forms, an imagina-
tion fo powerful and poetical, and fuch a copioufnefs of
moral fentiment exprefled in the moft forcible language."
Dryden fays, " he was a man, who, of all modern and,
perhaps, ancient poets, had the largelt and moft comprehen-
five foul. All the images of nature were flill prefent to
him, and he drew them not laborioufly, but luckily. When
he defcribes any thing, you more than fee it, you feel it
too. He needed not the fpeftacles of books to read nature ;
he looked inwards, and found her there. I cannot fay he
is every where alike; were he fo, I fhould do him injury
to compare him with the greateft of mankind. He is
many times flat and infipid : his comic wit degenerating
into clenches, his ferious fwelling into bombaft. But h^
is always great, when fome great nccafion is prefented to
him. No man can ever fay, he ever had a fit fubjeft for
his wit, and did not then raife himfelf as high above the
reft of the poets,

" Quantum lenta folent inter viburna cuprefii."

Shakfpeare, like moft men of pre-eminent talents, is faid
to have been much afiailed by the attacks of envious rivals,
notwithftanding, that gentlenefs and good nature were the
peculiar charafteriftics of his perfonal deportment. Among
thofe who are faid to have treated him with hoftility was the
celebrated Ben Jonfon ; but Dr. Farmer departs from the
received opinions on this fubjeft, and thinks that, though
Jonfon was arrogant of his fcholarfhip, and publicly pro-
felfed a rivalfhip of Shakfpeare, he was in private his friend
and aifociate.

Pope, in his preface, fays, that Jonfon " loved" Shak-
fpeare " 35 well as honoured his memory ; celebrates the
honefty, opennefs, and franknefs of his temper ; and only
diftinguifties, as he reafonably ought, between the real merit
of the author, and the filly and derogatory applaufes of the
players." Mr. Gilchriit, whofe dramatic criticifms are ge-
nerally profound and acute, has publifhed a pamphlet, to prove
that Jonfon was never a harlh or an envious rival of Shak-
fpeare ; and that the popular opinion on this fubjeft is
founded in error. The following Itory refpefting thefe two
great dramatifts is related by Rowe, and has been generally
credited by fubfequent biographers. " Mr. Jonfon, who
was at that time altogether unknown to the world, had
offered one of his plays to the players, in order to have it
afted ; and the perfons into whofe hands it was put, after
having turned it carclelsly and fupercilioudy aver, were j nil
upon returning it to him with an ill-natured anfwer, that it
would be of no fcrvice to their company, when Shakipcare
luckily caft his eye upon it, and found fomething fo well in
it, as to engage him firft to read it through, and after-
wards to recommend Mr. Jonfon and his writings to the
public."

The oppofition or rivalfhip of Shakfpeare and Jonfon
produced, as might naturally be expefted, much contention,
concerning their relative merits, between their refpeftive
friends and admirers ; and it is not a little remarkable, that
Jonfon feems to have maintained a higlier place in the elli-
mation of the public in general than our poet, for more tlian
a century after the death of the latter. Within that period
Jonfon's works are faid to have palled through fevoral edi-
tions, and to have been read with avidity, while Shakfpeare's
were comparatively neglcAed till the time of Rowe. This
circumftance is in a great mealure to be accounted for on
the principle that clafiical literature and collegiate learning
were regarded in thofe days as the chief criteria of merit.
Accordingly Jonfon's charge agaiiitl Shakfpeare was the

want of that fpecies of knowledge ; and upon his owii pro-
ficiency in it, he arrogated to himfelf a fuperiority over him.
That all claffical fcholars, however, did not fanftion Jon-
fon's pretcnfions, is certain ; for among the greateft ad-
mirers of Shakfpeare, was one of the moft learned men oi
his age, the ever-memorable Hales. On one occafion, the
latter, after liftening in filence to a warm debate between fir
John Sucklinorand Jonlon, is reported to have interpofed by
obferving, " That if Shakfpeare had not read the ancients,
he had likewife not ftolen any thing from them ; and that if
he (Jonfon) would produce any one topic finely treated by
any one ot them, lie would undertake to (hew fomething
on the fame fubjedl, at leaft as well written, by Shakfpeare."
A trial, it is added, being in confcquence agreed to, judges
were appointed to decide the dilpute, who unanimoufly
voted in favour of tiie Englilh poet, after a candid examina-
tion and comparifon of the paffages produced by the con-
tending parties.

In September, 1769, was celebrated the Shakfpeare ju-
bilee, at Stratford, under tlie direction of Garrick.

In pointing out the authorities for the preceding article,
and noticing a few of the moll interefting works that have
been publiihed in illuftration of the writings of the " bard of
Avon," we mull conclude this eflay, which may be deemed
too prolix by fome, and too brief by other?. " Some Ac-
count of Shakfpeare," by N. Rowe. Malone's, S.eevena's,
and Reed's " Prolegomena." " Remarks on the Life and
Writings of W. Shakfpeare," by John Britton, F.S.A. pre-
fixed to Whittingham's edition of his plays, with wood-cuts,
1814. "A Guide to Stratford-upon Avon," by R. B.
Wheler, i2mo. 18 14. " Critical, hillorical, and explanatory
Notes on Shakfpeare ; with Emendations of the Text and
Metre," by Zachary Grey, LL.D. two vols. Svo. 1755.
" Obfervations and ConjeClures on fome Paffages of Shak-
fpeare," by Thomas Tyrwhitt, el'q. Svo. 1764. "AnEfTay
on the Learning of Shakfpeare," by the Rev. Dr. Rich.
Farmer, Svo. Three editions of this were publifhed by the
author, and it has, fince 1789, been reprinted in different edi-
tions of Shakfpeare's plays. " An Eflay on the Writings and
Genius of Shakfpeare, compared with the Greek and French
dramatic Poets ; with fome Remarks upon the Mifrepre-
fentations of Monf. de Voltaire," by Mrs. Montagu, 8vo.
A fixth edition of this eloqAcnt and interelliiig volume was
printed in 1810. " Eliays on Shakfpeare's Dramatic Cha-
rafters," by W. Richardfon, MD. Svo. iSll, are replete
with judicious criticifm and appofitc comment. " Remarks,
critical and ilhiftrativc, on the Text and Notes of the laft
Edition of Shakfpeare," ( 1778,) by Mr. Ritfon, Svo. 1783.
" An Inquiry into the Authenticity of certain mifcellaneous
Papers, publifhed Dec. 24, 1795," &c. by Edmond Ma-
lone, Elq. Svo. 1796. Tins inquiry called forth two
vols, called " An Apology for the Believers in the Shak-
fpeare Papers," by G. Chalmers, Svo. 1797 : and a " Sup-
plemental Apology for the Believers, &c." by the fame au-
thor, Svo. 1799. " lUullrations of Shakfpeare, and of
ancient Manners, Sic." by Francis Douce, 2 vols. Svo.
1807, is a work of very confiderablc merit.

Shakfpeare was fond of inufic, and not wholly ignorant
of the art. He not only frequently introduces mafqius for
niuftc in liis plays, but finging in almoll all his fourteen
comedies ; and even in moll of his tragedies, where this
wonderful and cxquifite dramatilt has manifelted the fame
predileftlon for mufie as poetry.

In the " Tempcft," the ufe that he has made of it is ad-
mirable, as well as the defcription of its effcds. Aft i.
(c. 5. Ariel, invifible, playing and ftnging to Ferdinand,
fays,

3 C 2 " Where

SHAKSPEARE.

«' Where fhould this mufic be, i' th' air or earth ?
It founds no more : and fure it waits upon
Some god o' th' ifland."

And afterwards :

" This is no mortal bufinefs, nor no found

That the earth owns : I hear it now above me.'

Queen. " Firft rehearfe this fong by rote,
To each word a warbhng note ;
Hand in hand, with fairy grace,
Will we iing, and blefs this place."

" Two Gentlemen of Verona."
Though this comedy furnilhes fewer occafions for mufic
than the two preceding dramas, yet muficians are employed
in it as well as mufical allulions. As Ben Jonfon, in his
mafque of " Cynthia's Revels," fpeaks of the gamut or
fyllables of folmifation, vt, re, mi, fa, Jul, la, which pfalm-
fingers had made well known to his audience ; fo Shak-
fpeare, in this play, ad i. fc. 3. introduces all the mufical
terms then in ufe : as, a tune, a «o/c, a light, a heavy tune,

-„ _^ >_ - r 1 burden, melodious, to reach high, keep in tune, fing out, too

play. Dr. Wilfon, who refet and publifhed two of them, p^^p^ too flat, concord, harfl} defcant, the mean ba/e, isfc.
tells us, in his "Cour^Ayres, or Ballad:,'' publilhed at Aft iv. fc. lall, there is a laboured dcfcription of the

Indeed, the ferious part of this moft fanciful play is very
fortunately calculated for an opera. Shadwell, in the laft
century, made one of it, in the manner of what were then
called operas on our ft age. It has been performed of late
years more as a mufical mafque, than opera or play, at
Drury.lane, to the mufic of the late Mr. T. Linlcy, as it ufed
to be to that of Dr. Arne, and others. The fongs in this

Oxford', 1660, that " Full' fathom five," and " Where the
bee fucks," had been firll fet by Robert Johnfon, a com-
pofer contemporary with Shakfpeare.

Aft ii. fc. I. " Enter Ariel playing folemn mufic."
We never could underftand this indication : no mufic feems
to be heard by the charafters on the ftage, nor do they take
any notice of it through the whole feene. Afterwards,
when with mufic and a fong he acquaints Gonzalo of the
danger he is in, his miflion has meaning. " While you here
do fnoring lie," &c.

Even Caliban talks well about mufic :

«« the ifle is full of noifcs.

Sounds and f«eet airs, that give dehght and hurt not."

Ariel never appears or is employed without mufic, which
is fweetly defcribed, and introduced with perfeft propriety.
Profpero calls for medicinal mufic :

" A folemn air, and the bell comforter
To an unfettled fancy, cure thy brains."

" Midfummer Night's Dream."
Aft ii. fc. 5. " Come now a roundel, and a fairy fong."
If, as Dr. Gray fays, a roundel is " a dance in a ring," a
roundelay was the fong and tune to fuch dance ; as ballad,
from ballata, Italian ; lo roundelay, from rondclet, old French,
rondeau, modern.

The ideas and language of fairyifm are wonderfully
imagined and fupported in this play ; and the ufe afTigned to
mufic happy and fercile.

Aft iv. fc. I. «' Rural m.ufic, tongs, &c." Poker and
tongs, n.arrow-bones and cleave'S, falt-box, hurdy-gurdy,
&c. are the old national inllruments of mufic on our
ifland.

Queen. " Mufic, ho ! mufic : fuch as charmeth fleep."

Still mufic, meaning fuch foft and gentle mufic as tran-
qu;llizos, foothes, and lulls to mufic.

Aft V. ic. I. In the lift of fports ready for the nuptial
feaft of Thefeus, is »' llie battle with the Centaurs ; to be

powers of poetry and mufic ; Orpheus's lute, concert, fpelt
as now :

" to their inftruments

Tune a deploring dump,"

or lament {lamentatione), fung by a wretched and forrowing
lover in the dumps.

Sc. 2. A ferenata, or notturno, is introduced:

" now muil I to her window.

And give fome evening mufic to her ear."

Enter Muficians.

-now, gentlemen,

Song.

Let's tune, and to it luftily."

Who is Sylvia ? what is fhe ?"

" Meafure for Meafure."

&c.

Though this play has lefs mufic in it than the three pre-
ceding, yet at the beginning of aft iv. a fong, from his own
Pallionate Pilgrim : " Take, oh, take thofe lips away," n
fung to Mariana by a boy, who is fent away on the arrival
of the duke, in the charafter of a friar ; when apologizing
for the feeming levity of liltening to mufic, file fays ;

" I cry you mercy, fir, and well could wilh
You had not found me here fo mufical."

To which the duke anfwers :

" 'Tis good ; though mufic oft hath fuch a charm,
To make bad good ; and good provoke to harm."

This is a heavy charge, which it would not have been
eafy for Shakfpeare to fubftantiate, and does not very well
agree with what he fays in the " Tempeft," of the innoxiout
efficacy of mufic. " Sounds and fweet airs, that give de-
light, and hurt not." Mufic may be apphed to licentious
poetry ; but the poetry then corrupts the mufic, not the
mufic the poetry. It has often regulated the movements
of lafcivious dances ; but fuch airs heard, for the firit time.

fun^ by an Athenian euuMch to the harp." This feems to - without the fong or dance, could convey no impure ideas to

imply a more ancient practice of caftration for the voice than
can be found in opera annals.

Speakinir of Quince, in the clown's prologue, Hippolita
fays, " indeed, lie hath play'd on his prologue, like a child
on a recorder ; a lound, but not in government."

Two fongs alluded to in the lalt fcene of this play are
loft.

Oberon. " And this ditty after me

Sing and dance it trippingly."

an innocent imagination ; fo that Montetquleu's aflertion is
ftill m force : ihst " mufic is the only one of all the arts,
which does not corrupt the mind."

" Merchant of Venice."

Aft ii. fc. I. A flourilh of cornets when the Moorifh
prince comes in.

Aft ii. fc. 6. " The vile fqueaking of the wry-neck'd

Aa

fife,

SHAKSPEARE.

A& Hi' fc. 2. " Let mufic found, while he doth make
his choice ;

Then, if he lofe, he makes a fwan-like
end,

Fading in mufic.

he may win ;

: And what is mufic then ? then mufic is

As are thofe dulcet founds at break of
day,

That creep into the dreaming bride-
groom's ear,

And fummon him to marriage."

Mufic within.

A fong while BafTanio examines the ca(kets :

" Tell me where is fancy bred," Sec.

The pafTages in the fifth aft of this interefting play are
beautiful, numerous, and celebrated :

" And bring your mufic forth into the air," &c.

" foft ftillnefs and the night

Become the touches of fweet harmony."

Jellica " I am never merry when I hear fweet mufic."
This is the initial of a well-known, and now proverbial,
eulogium on modulated found : " The man that has no
I mufic in his foul," &c.

" As you like ft."
Aft ii. fc. 1. A fong:

" Under the green-wood tree," &c.
Remarks on mufic by Jacques. Then another fong :

" Blow, blow, thou winter's wind."

Mufic. Song : " What fhall he have that kill'd the
deer."

Song : " 'Twas a lover and his lafs."

Still mufic. Song : " Then is there mirth in hcav'n."

Another fong : " Wedding is great Juno's crown."

" Love's Labour's loll."

Aft iii. Armado. " Warble child ; make paflionate
my fenfe of hearing."

This is a moil beautiful and comprehcnfive requeft : none
of the fine arts can fubfift, or give rapture, without ^/t^oh.
Hence mediocrity is more intolerable in them than in otiier
inventions. Mufic without paffion is as monotonous as the
toUing of a bell.

But no foiig IS printed : though the author tells us there
is Jiri^ini;. Dr. Johiifon fays, " here is apparently a fong
lolt.''

Mufic as for a mafquerade.

Songs for fpring and autumn ;

" When daifies pied." — And, " When icicles hang
on the wall."

«' Winter's Tale."

Two nonfenfical fongs, by the rogue Autolychua :

" When daffodils begin to peerc." — " Jog on, jog on,
the footpath w.;y."

" He's main muficat." This Autolyrhus is the true an-
cient miiillrcl, as dofcribtd in the old Fabtiaux. See Gen.
Hill. Muf vol. ii. p. 208.

A hrLC-part catch, ready planicd by the pott, and
another pedlar's fong ; " Will you buy any tape ?"

I

« Twelfth Night."

Aft i. fc. I. This play opens with a beautiful eulogium
on mufic :

" If mufic be the food of love, phy on," &c.

The ufe of Eviratl, in the fame manner as at prefent,
feems to have been well known at this time (about l6oo).

For Viola fays :

" I'll ferve the duke ;

Thou (halt prefent me as a eunuch to him,
It may be worth thy pains, for I can fing,
And fpeak to him in many forts of mufic,
That will allow me very worth his fervice."

And the duke's fcnfibility to the power of mufic is dif-
clofed in the firll interview, when he fays to Viola :

" thy fmall pipe

Is as the maiden's organ, (hrill and found.
And all its femblative — a woman's part.
I know thy conitellation is right apt
For this affair ;"

fuppofing her to be a eunuch.

Aft ii. fc. 3. The clown is afked for a love-fong, and

fings :

" O millrefs mine, where are you roaming J" &c. And
" What is love ; 'tis not hereafter," &G.

Ibid. They fing a catch, beginning,
" Hold thy peace."

Sc. 4. Scraps of fongs and catches are roared out by
fir Toby, fir Ai.drew, and clown, as " Three merry men
be we." — " Tilly, valley, lady !" — " There dwelt a man
in Babylon, lady, lady." — " O the twelfth day of De-
cember."— " Farewel, dear heart, fince I mud needs be-
gone."— " His eyes do (hew his days are almoft done." —
" Shall I bid him go ? what, an' if you do ?" — " Shall I
bid him go, and fpare not ? O no, no, no, you dare not."
Ail thefe, probably, were well known in Shakfpeare's
time.

Sc. 5. The duke, who is as conllant in his paffion for
mufic, as for Olivia, fays :

" give me fome mufic now —

Now, good Ccfario, but that piece of fong,
That old and antique fong, we heard lall night ;
Methought, it did revive my paflion much ;
More than light airs, and recollefted terms
Of thelc moll brifli and giddy-paced times :

how dolt thou like this tune? —

It gives a very echo to the feat
Where love is throii'd."

Ibid.

- the fong we had lad night —
' it is old and plain ;

The fpinllers and the knitters in the fuu,

And the free maids that weave their thread with

bones,
Do ulc to chaunt it : it is filly footh.
And dallies with the innocence of love,
Like the old age."

Song : " Come away, come away, death."

Aft iv. fc. 4. The clown, as elfewhcre, is much ad-
difted to finging. Song, by the clown :

" When that I was a little tiny boy," &c.

ferves a> an epilogue to this entertaining play.

lo

SHAKSPEARE.

In " The Taming of the Shrew," no other ufe is made
of mufic than to introduce minftrels at the wedding^, and
difiiuife Hortenfio in the charafter of a man well feen in
mufic, to facilitate his admilfion to the prefence and court-
(hip of Bianca ; an expedient, however, which was unfuc-
cefsful.

More fracrments of old ballads are here quoted than in any
other of Shakfpeare's plays ; though, as Dr. Warburton
faid, " he feemed to bear the ballad-makers a very parti-
cular grudge, and often ridicules them with exquifite hu-
mour."

Ih " The Comedy of Errors," mufic has no admiflion or
concern.

" Much ado about Nothing."

Miific at the mafquerade, aft ii. fc. 2. And in Bene-
dift's dainty defcription of fuch an all-accompli(hed woman
as could ever incline him to wed, he adds to her qualifica-
tions, mufic: " — of good difcourfe, an excellent muficiaii,
and her hair of what colour it Ihall pleafe God." Sc. 8.

Aft ii. fc. 9. The fong, " Sigh no more, ladies, figh
no more," is introduced by feveral refleftions on mufic, and
the affeftation of fingers. Baltazar, the mufician and fer-
vant to Don Pedro, was perhaps thus named from the cele-
brated Baltazarini, called " Dc Bcaujoyeaux," an Italian
performer on the violin, who was in the higheil fame and
favour at the court of Henry III. of France, 1577- In
the lalt aft, fc. 8, the epitaph and fong are beautiful, and
well calculated for mufic.

" All's Well that ends Well."

Aft i. fc. 5. Flourilh of cornets for the king of
France's entrance and exit.

Aft iii. fc 8. A tucket afar off. Ibid. A march afar
off.

Aft V. fc. 3. Sound trumpets.

Hiftorical plays. " King John."
No mufic but trumpets and the din of war.

« King Richard II."

Aft 1. fc. 4. Military inflruments are admirably de-
fcribed :

" rous'd up with boift'rous untun'd drums,

And harlh refounding trumpets dreadful bray."

Ibid. Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, on being ordered
into banifhment, fays :

" My native Englilh, now I mull forego ;
And now my tongue's ufc is to me no more,
Than an unllringed viol, or a harp ;
Or, like a cunning inltrument cas'd up,
Or being open, put into his hands
That knows no touch to tune the harmony."

Aft ii. fc. I. " the tongues of dying men

Inforce attention, like deep harmony :

— more are men's ends mark'd, than their lives

before ;
The fetting fun, and mufic in the clofe.
As the latt tafte of fweets, is fweeteft lad "

Ibid. fc. 3. Speaking of John of Gaunt's death :

«' all is faid.

His tongue is now a ftringlefs inftrument."

Aft V. fc. 10. Richard, in his prifon, fayi ;

" Mufic do I hear ?

Ha, ha ! keep time : how fow'r fweet mufic is.
Where time is broke, and no proportion kept ?"

Here he plays on raufical terms for feveral lines.

All inllruments played with the bow, in Shakfpeare's
time, were fretted, except violins.

In " The Taming of the Shrew," aft li. fc. 3, he could
not refill the temptation of quibbling on the term fret.

" Frets call you them,' quoth (lie: I'll fume with
them."

" then call'd me rafcal, fidler.

And twangling Jack ;"

alluding to a famous ilreet mufician of the time.

» Firll Part of Henry IV."

Aft i. fc. 2. Falftaff fays he's as melancholy as the
" drone of a Lincolnfhire bagpipe."

Aft ii. fc. 3. " An I have not ballads n»ade on you
all, and fung to filthy tunes, k-t a cup of fack be my
poifon."

Aft iii. fc. 3. " thy tongue

Makes Welch as fweet as ditties highly penn'd.
Sung by a fair queen in a fummcr's bower,
With ra'uiflnng divfion to her lute."

Induftion.

" Second Part of Henry IV."
Rumour is a pipe.

Blown by furmifes, jealoufies, conjeftures ;
And of fo eafy and io plain a Hop,
That the blunt monller with uncounted heads,
The itill difcordant wavering multitude.
Can play upon it,"

We advanced no farther in hunting through the pleafant
wilds of Shakfpeare ; but in dipping accidentally, the fol-
lowing pallages Itruck us as worthy of notice.

" Henry V." Aft i. fc. 2. There is a manifeft allu-
lion to the different parts of mufic.

" For government, though hi^h, and lo'!u, and lowery
Put into parts, doth keep in one confent, v
Congreeing in a full and natural clofe,
Like mufic."

In " Othello," aft iv. fc. 13. Defdemona fays :

" My mother had a maid, called Barbara ;

She was in love ; and he, fhe lov'd, prov'd mad (falfe),
And did forfake her : (he had a fong of wiUoiv,
An old thing 'twas, but it exprefs'd her fortune,
And (he died finging it. That fong, to-night,
Will not go from my mind ; I've much ado,
Not to go hang my head all o' one fide.
And fing it like poor Barbara."

" King Lear," aft i. fc. 7. " O, thefe eclipfes portend
thefe divifions ! fa, fol, la, mi."

None of the commentators have hitherto been fufficiently
(killed in mufic to fee the meaning of thefe fyllables in fol-
milation, which imply a feries of founds fo unnatural, that
ancient muficians prohibited their ufe. " Mi contra fa elt
diabolus." Shakfpeare, however, (hews by the context,
that he was well acquainted with the property of the mufical
interv.ils contained in the Iritonus, or (harp 4th, which
confining of three tones, without the intervention of a
femitone, is extremely difficult to fing, and difagreeable

wheH

S H A

S H A

when fung-, if m'l, or fa, is the laft note of the phrafe or
palTage.

ShaKspeake's C/if, or Hi^h Clif, in Geography, a lofty
chfF on the E. coaft of Eng-land, in the county of Kent ;
fo called from the beautiful defcription of it given by
that poet in the tragedy of King Lear ; 2 miles S. of
Dover.

SHAKY, or Shaken, a natural defeft in timber when
it is full of fplits or clefts, and will not bear the faftening,
or when lawn into plank the caulking.

SHAL, ill Geography, a diltrift of Perfia, in Balouchiftan,
the country of the Balouches, which is confidered by fonie as
a province diflinft from Mekran (the ancient Gedrofia), and
which commences at Koohinee (the hilly road), 25 miles
N.E. of Bayla, or in N. lat. 26' 35', and extends to
Noolhky, 79 miles N.W. of Kelat, or in N. lat. 30°. This
country is a confufed mafs of mountains, ttirough which
the road generally leads in water-courfes. Flocks of fheep
.and cattle abound in every part of this country, and it alfo
produces great quantities of wheat. It is divided into the
two mountainous provinces of Jhalawan and Sarawan, the
low country of Cutch Gandava to the E., and the pro-
vinces- of Zuhrce and Anund Dijd ; and to thefe may be
added the fmall dlltridts of Shal and Muttung, lying N.
of Kelat. Shalawan is the moll fouthern province of Ba-
louchiftan, and Sarawan (which fee) is the moft northern
province. Cutch Gandava, fituated at the bottom of the
mountain lying S.E. of Kelat, is about 150 miles long,
and 40 or 50 broad. Its foil is rich, black, and loamy,
and produces every fpccies of grain, as well as cotton, in-
digo, madder, &c. Cutch Gandava exports great quan-
tities of grain to the fea-ports of Curachee and Sonmeany,
whence it is (hipped to Mufcat, the coaft of Mekran, &c.
Anund Dijel lies N. of Cutch Gandava : its climate is
good, the (oil excellent, and the produftions abundant ;
fo that the khan of Kelat derives a large revenue from this
fmall diftritt. Shal and Muftung are (mailer than Anund
Dijel, but they are remarkable for their fruits, which are
excellent and cheap. The climate is warmer than that
of Kelat ; the foil is more fandy ; but the grain and other
produfts are the fame. (See Zihkee.) The capital of
Balouchiftan is Kelat, a town iurrounded by a mud-wall,
and containing 4000 houfes, and about 7000 inhabitants, of
whom about 500 are Hindoos. The bazar of Kelat is
■well fupplied, and the town appears opulent, being fre-
' quented by merchants, and carrying on a coiifiderable
trade. N. lat. 29° 6'. E. long. 67^ 57'.

SHALBERG, a mountain of Switzerland ; 4 miles N.
of Sargans.

SHALBERIS, a circar of Hindooftan, bounded on
the N. by Goragot and Bettooriah, on the E. and S. by
Bettooriah, and on the W. by Bettooriah and Dinagepour ;
about 18 miles from N. to S. and nearly as much from E.
to W. The chief town fecms to be Cartee.

SHAI>DEAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 7
miles S.W. of Rotafgur.

SHALE, in Natural Hlflory, a variety of fchiftofe clay:
the firft variety is denominated (late clay, the fchiefer Ttion
of Werner. (See Clay.) The (econd variety is bituminous
date, the brand fchiefer of Werner, of a browiiifti-black,
or blackilh-brown, colour, appearing like bad coal ; it is
found in confidcrable (tratifitd mallcs ; luftre, o or i ; tranf-
parency, o; fraCture (laty ; fragments tabular ; h.irdncis, 5 ;
fp. gr. about 2,oco; (Ircak foniewhat gloliy ; effervelc-
ing, though very (lowly, with the mineral acids : feeling
rather greafy ; placed on burning coals, it burns with a
weak flame and fulphureous fincll, the reliduum bcintj light-

grey ; it fecms to differ from the former variety, in con-
taining bitumen. Kirwan. See Tabulau Spah.

The acid emitted from (hale, during its calcination, unit-
ing itfelf to the argillaceous earth of the (hale, forms alum.
About a hundred and twenty tons of calcined (hale will
make one ton of alum. The ftiale, after being calcined, is
(leeped in water, by which means the alum, which is formed
during the calcination of the (hale, is diflblved : this diffolved
alum undergoes various operations, before it is formed into
the alum of the (hops. Watfon's Chem. Eft", vol. ii. p. 315.
See Alum.

This kind of flate forms large ftrata in Derbyfhire ; and
that which lies near the furface of the earth is of a fofter
and more (hivery texture than that which lies deeper. It is
alfo found in large ftrata, generally above the coal, in moft
coal counties of this kingdom. Dr. Short informs us, that
the fhale waftes the lead ore near it, by its ftrong acid ; and
that it corrodes and deftroys all minerals near it, except iron
or coal, of whofe vitriol it partakes. See Slate.

SHALG, in Geography, a town of Turkeilan ; 10 miles
S. of Turkcftan.

SHALLOP, SiiALLoop, or Sloop, is a fmall light veffel,
with only a fmall main-maft, and fore-maft, and lug-faib, to
hale up, and let down, on occafion.

Shallops are commonly good failers, and are therefore
often ufed as tenders upon men of war.

The French (liallop is a large-decked floop of burden,
ufed in Holland and Flanders, having one maft, carrying a
gaff-mainiail. On the fore-iide of the maft, above the gaff,
is a fliort fpar projefting forwards ; to which is bent a long
narrow fail, the tack of which is made faft to the ftem, and
the fheet to the fide near the (hrouds. On the bowfprit are
(et two or three jibs, and a fmall maft is often fixed abaft
that carries a mizen.

SHALLOT, in Gardening, the common name of a very
ufeful culinary plant. See Allium.

To what has been faid under the above head, it may here
be neceflary to add fome improvements, which have fince
been made, in the culture of thefe fmall bulbous roots. As
the habits of growth in roots of this nature differ greatly in
the different forts, fome requiring to be nearly or quite on
the furface of the ground, while others (land in need of
being a confiderable depth below it, which has not been
well attended to in the garden culture of fuch roots ; it
muy be readily fuppofed that thefe have confiderable in-
fluence and effedt on the growth of fuch root crops. In
confequence of finding that crops of this root generally be-
came mouldy and periftied, and that they were ufually
planted, from the dircdtions of garden cultivators, at the
depth of two or three inches from the furface ; the injury,
failure, and deftruft ion of fuch crops, were naturally afcribed
to this caufe. A few bulbs or buEichcs of this root were
confequently divided, as far as pofTible, into fingle buds or
bulbs, and planted upon or rather above the furface of the
ground, fome very rich foil being placed underneath them,
and the mould on each fide raifed to fupport them, until
they became firmly rooted. This mould was then removed
by means of a hoe, and the ufe of the watering-pot, and
the bulbs of conrfe left wholly out of the ground. The
growth of the plants had now fo near a refemblancc to that
of the common onion, as not readily to be diftinguiflicd
from it, until their irregularity of form, the confequence
of the nnmertnis germs within each bulb, became evident.
The forms of the bulbs, however, continued conllantly
dirterent from all thofe railed in the ordinary method, being
much more broad, but of lefs IcHgth. '1 he crop was a
great deal better in quality, and at the fame time much
2 mure

S H A

more abundant in quantity. It may confequently not be
unworthy of the gardener's attention. See the Tranfaftions
of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. li. p. 97.

Shallot Creek, in Geography, a river of North Carolina,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 33° 53'. W. long.
78^ 28'.

SHALLOW. See Shoal.

SHALTOCH Cairn, in Geography, a mountain of
Scotland, in Ayrlhire ; 12 miles E. of Girvan.
SHAM, El. See Damascus.
SHAMADE, in W.ir. See Chamade.
SHAMALAPALEAM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doftan, in Coimbetore ; 15 miles N.E. of Coimbetore.

SHAMARASHUP-, a town of Hindooftan, in Coim-
betore ; 18 miles S.W. of Erroad.

SHAMBE, a river of Weft Florida, which runs into
Penfacola bay.

SHAMBLE, or Shammel, in Mining, a term ufed to
exprefs a fort of nich, or landing place, kit at certain dif-
tances in the adits of mine^, and formed by a Itage of
boards. The method of digging the tin-mines in Devon-
ihire, and fome parts of Cornwall, is this ; they fink their
^a^- in fueh a breadth as is fufBcient for them to Hand and
..,r.'rV ^n,' at every fathom they leave a fquare place vacant,
to which the 0>C 'S to be thrown up with (hovels as it is
duK. This they do tr^\^ caft to call ; that is, as far as a
mjm can conveniently throV up the ore with his (hovel.
Thus the ore, as it is dug by the bvTlmen, is thrC^'U up by
the (hovellers, who follow them from fhsmble to (hamtJe,
till it comes to the top of the mine. This, however, is but
an inconvenient way, and the ufe of thefe (liambles is gene-
rally fupplied by a winder at the opening of the nnne,
which manages two buckets, the one of which is fent down
empty, while the other is font up full; and one man em-
ployed below to load, and another to empty. Phil. Tranf.
N° 60. See Mining.

SHAMBLES, or Shingles, in Geography, a bank of
fand in the Englifli Channel, near the coail of Dorlet(hire,
about four miles E. by S. from Portland Bill, with 14
feet at low water.

SHAMBRIER, in the Manege, ia a long thong of
leather, made fall to the end of a cane, in order to animate
a hoi-fe, and punilh him, if he refufcs to obey the rider.

SHAMBYPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doollan, in the Carnatic ; 36 miles S. of Tanjarc.

SHAMDARA, a town of AfTam, on the Burhampoo-
ter ; 65 miles N.W. of Gerghonge.
SHAME, in Ethics. See Passion.
SHAMERAN, in Geography, a town of Curdiftan ; 18
milee S. of Sherezur.

SHAMMY, Chammy, or Chamois, a kind of leather,
either drelTed in oil, or tanned ; much efteemed for its foft-
nefs, pliancy, &c.

It is prepared from the fl-cin of the chamois, or fhamois, a
kind of rupicapra, or wild goat, called alfo Ifard, inhabiting
the mountains of Dauphiny, Savoy, Piedmont, and the
Pyrenees. See Chamois.

■ Beiides the loftnefs and warmth of the leather, it has the
faculty of bearing fo.ap without damage ; which renders it
very ufeful on many accounts.

In France, &c. fome wear the (Icin raw, without any
preparation. Shammy leather is ufed for the piu-ifying of
mercury ; which is done by paffing it through the pores of
the (Icin, which are very clofe.

The true chamois leather is counterfeited with common
"•oat, kid, and even with (heep-(lcins ; the praftice of which
makes a particular profeffion, called by the French chamoi-

S H A

fure. The laft, though the lead efteemed, is yet fo popular,
and fuch vaft quantities of it are prepared, efpecially about
Orleans, Marleillcs, and Touloufe, that it may not be amifs
to give the method of preparation.

Manner of Shamoifing, or of preparing Sheep, Goat, or
Kid-Jhins in Oil, In Imitation of Shammy. — The (kins, being
wa(hed, drained, and fmeared over with quick-lim.e on the
fle(hy lide, are folded in two lengthwife, the wool outwards,
and laid in heaps, and fo left to ferment eight days ; or, if
they had been left to dry after (laving, then lifteen days.

Then they are wa(hcd out, drained, and half dried ; laid
on a wooden Ic:^, or horfe, the wool ftripped off with a
round ftaff for that purpofe, and laid in a weak pit, the lime
of which had been ufid before, and has loft the greateil part
of its force.

After twenty-four hours they are taken out, and left to
drain twenty-four more; they are then put in another
flronger pit. This done, they are taken out, drained, and
put in again, by turns ; which begins to difpofe them to
take oil ; and this pradlice they continue for fix weeks in
fummer, or three months in winter : at the end of which
they are wafhed out, laid on the wooden leg, and the fur-
face of the (l<in on the wool-fide peeled off, to render them
the foftcr ; tlien made into parcels, fteeped a night in the
river, in winter more, ftretched fix or feven over one another,
on the wooden leg, and the knife palled llrongly on the fie(h-
fide, to take off any thing luperfluous, and render the (kin
fmooth.

Then they are fteeped, as before, in the river, and the
fame operation is repeated on the wool-fide ; they are then
thrown into a tub of water, with bran in it, which is brewed
among the (Icins till the greateft part (licks to them, and
then feparated into diilindt tubs, till they fwell, and rife of
themfelves above the water.

By this means the remains of the lime arc cleared out ;
they are then wrung out, hung up to dry on ropes, and fent
to the mill, with the quantity of oil necelTary to fcour them :
the beft oil is that of (lock-filh.

Here they are iirll thrown in bundles into the river, for
twelve hours, then laid in the mill-trough, and fulled with-
out oil till they be well foftened ; then oiled with the hand,
one by one, and thus formed into parcels of four (Icins each ;
which are milled and dried on cords a fecond time ; then a
third ; and then oiled again, and dried. ^

This proceis is repeated as often as necefTity requires ;
when done, if there be any moifture remaining, they are
dried in a ftove, and made up into parcels wrapped up in
wool : after fome time they are opened to the air, but
wrapped up again as before, till fuch time as the oil feems
to have loll all its force, which it ordinarily does in twenty-
four hours.

The (Ivins are then returned from the mill to the cha-
moifer, to be fcoured ; which is done by putting them in a
lixivium of wood-afhes, working and beating them in it
with poles, and leaving them to fteep, till the ley hath
had its effect ; then they are wrung out, fteeped in an-
other lixivium, wrung again ; and this is repeated till all
the greafe and oil be purged out. When this is done,
they are half dried, and palled over a (harp-edged iron
inftrument, placed perpendicular in a block, which opens,
foftens, and makes them gentle; laftly, they are ^tho-
roughly dried, and palled over the fame inftrument again ;
which finifiies the preparation, and leaves them in form of
(liammy.

Kid and goat-fkins are (hamoifed in the fame manner
as thofe of (heep, excepting that the hair is taken off
without the ufe of any hme ; and that when brought from

tlie

S H A

S H A

the mill, they underojo a particukr preparation called
rnmalling ; the moft deUcate and difficult of all the others.
It confills in this, that, as foon as brought from the mill,
they are Iteeped in a fit lixivium, taken out, itretched
on a round wooden leg, and the hair is fcrapcd off with
the knifej this makes them fmooth, and, in working, to
caft a kind of fine knap. The difficulty is in fcraping them
evenly.

SHAMOKIN, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania,
in Northumberknd county, containing 2027 inhabitants.

Shamokin Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which runs
into the Sufquehaiina. N. lat. 40'' 51'. W. long. 76° 53'.

SHAMZANGl, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Lariftan

SHANCORl, a town of Perfian Armenia; 1 2 miles
W.N.W. of Kanja.

SHANDECAN, Big, a town of New York, in the
county of UUter, 14 miles N.W. of Kinglton.

Shandecan, Little, a town in the fame county ; 12 miles
N.W. of Kinglton.

SHANDYMUNGULUM, a town of Hindooltan, in
Baramaul ; 8 miles E. of Namacul.

SHANEDI, atownof Nubia, on the right bank of the
Nile ; 45 milts S.W. of Nubia.

SHANGOLDEN, a fmall poll-town of Ireland, in the
county of Limerick ; 115 miles W.S.W. from Dublin.

SHANGRA, a country cf Africa, W. of Mocaranga.

SHANGRAPOY, a town of Hmdooftan, in Marawar ;
20 miles S.S.E. of Trumi^n.

SHANK, in Conchology, the Shanfcrit name of that
fpecies of (hell, which gives its name in Europe to this
branch of natural hiftory. French and other foreign vcriters
fpell the word chank. The eafy fubltitution of a hard
for a foft initial, has led to a fuppofition that conch may
by early writers have been taken from the fame fource as
(hank, or even derived from it. The fliank, or chank, or
conch, is the large buccinum, and is often feen beautifully
coloured like a pheafant's breaft. With the Hindoos, the
fhank is an objert of myllical reverence. It is feen in one
of the four hands of their deity Vishnu, and is one of his
commoncit attributes. Im.ages and piftures of him are
indeed dillinguilhcd more by this than by any other mark.
It has of courfea fabulous or mythological origin ; and we
accordingly find it amung the " fourteen gems" that were
recovered from the ocean, after a general deluge, as related
under the article Kurmavataka of this work, where
the fiiank is laid to be " a (hell conferring viftory on
any one wiio (liould found it." In the diftribution of the
precious articles, the (hell feems to have fallen to the (hare of
V](hnu.

Sliells, as aroufing implements, were much ufed in early
Indian wars, as trumpets and drums are with us. In the
terrible civil wars between the Pandus, and their kinfmen
the Kurus, as Homerically defcribed in the Mahabarat,
Kriflina ufed a (hell named Panchajanya, obtained in the
manner related under our article Kasya, from a fea-
monllcr named Sanhafura, which fee. Each chief in the
wars alluded to bore a (hell, to which, like thefwcrds of our
chivalrous knights, dittindt and fignificant names are given.
In the portion of the Mahabarat tranflated by Mr. Wilkins,
called Bhagavat Gita, the following paffage occurs. " The
ancient cliief, and brother of the grand (ire of the Kurus,
then (lioutiiig with a voice like a roaring lion, blew his (hell
to raife the ipirit of the Kuru chief ; and inllantly innumer-
able (licUs, and other warhke inflruments, rcfounded on all
fides, — the clangour was excelfive. Kri(lina and Arjun,
(landing in a fplendid chariot drawn by white horfes.
Vol, XXXII.

founded their (hells of celeftial form ; that blown by Kri{hna
was named Panchajanya ; Arju'.'s, Devadata. Bhim, of
dreadful deeds, blew his capacious (hell Powndra ; and
Yudilhtira, the royal fon of Koonti, founded Ananta-Vijaya.
Nakrl and Sahadeva blew their (hells alfo, the one called
Sugu(ha, the other Manipu(hpaka ; fo that their (hrill
founding voices pierced the hearts of the Kuru's, and re-
echoed with a dreadful noife from heaven to earth." P. 20.

The (hells in quellion are articles of commerce in India,
to no iiiconfiderable extent. A chank fi(hery on the ifland
of Ceylon is noticed by Mr. Cordiner. It is in the neigh-
bourhood of Manaar, (fee Manaar,) and yields, Mr. Cor-
diner fays, a confiderab'e revenue to government. The
(hells, he fays, are brought from the depth cf two fathoms
by divers, who in a calm day can, from a boat, fee them
crawling at the bottom. Such as are of a fpiral form are
chiefly exported to Bengal, where thev are fawed into ringi
of various fizes, and worn on the arms, legs, fingers, and
toes of the Hindoos, both male and female. A chank
opening to the right, that is with its fpiral line contrary to
its ufual diredlion, is rarely met with, and is highly valued
by myftics and zealots. They always fell, Mr. Cordiner
fays, for their weight in gold. Hillory of Ceylon, vol. ii.
p. 6.

Univalves of the fort here alluded to, called heterojlrophous
byconchologiils, are very rarelyof any fpecies, and are looked
on with admiration in all countries ; but with the enthu-
fiaftic Hindoo in a degree unequalled. A Yogi, or Saniafli
of the Vaiihnava fe£l, deems himfelf extremely happy in fuch
an acquifition. The (liell in quedion is frequently leen in the
hands of itinerant holy beggars, and it is founded in fome
of the temples and rehgious ceremonies of the Hindoos.

Shank cf an Anchor, on board a Sh'ip. See Anchor.

Shank of a Horfe, in the Manege, the name of that part
of the fore-leg which is between the knee and the fetlock,
or paftern joint. The larger and broader the (hank is the
better. It is known to be fo, by the back finew being at a
diftance from the bone, or well feparated from it, and hav.
ing no kind of fwelling betwixt it and the bone, which may
caufe the leg to appear round.

Shank, or Shank-painter, in a Ship, is a (hort chain fat-
tened under the foremall-flirouds, by a bolt, to the (hip's
fides, having at the other end a rope fadened to it. On
this fliank-painter the whole weight of the aft-part of the
anchor refts, when it lies by the (liip's fide. The rope by
which it is hauled up, is made fall about a timber-head. See
Painter.

Shank, Sheep, a fort of knot made on backftays, &c. to
(horten them.

SHANKER, m Medicine. Sec Chankre.

SH ANKLIN Chine, in Geography, a ledge of rocks on
the E. coalt of the I(le of Wight, N. of Ludcomb Chine.

SHANMUKA, a name of a celebrated hero in Hindoo
Mythology, more commonly called Kartikya ; which fee.
The name Shanmuka means with fix mouths or faces, he
being fo reprcfcnted ; the rcafon of which is given under
the article referred to. See alfo StsHTi-MAxniYA, another
of his names.

SHANNON, in Geography, the chief river of Ireland,
and the largcd in any ifland in the world.. The name is fup-
pofed to be derived from the Irilh worda Jhan, old, and
avon, a river. Other derivations, however, are given, all of
which (eem equally fanciful and uncertain ; as the names of
rivers are in general more ancient than even the names of
the countries through which they flow. Ptolemy calU
the Shannon Senus ; Orofius, Scena ; and .£thicus, Secana.
It i? called by Giraldus Camhrenfis Flumen Seneufe ; who
3 D alfo

SHANNON.

alfo dignifies it, as Virgil did the Po, with the title of
Fluviorum Rex. Spenfer too celebrates

" The fpacious Shenan fpreading like a fea."

And other poets have been eloquent in defcribing its ma-
jeftic courfe, holy iflands, and fublime fcenery ; but geo-
graphers are, in general, very brief, and fometimes con-
tradiftory in their accounts of this river. They do not
even agree as to its fource. According to Camden and
Ware it rifes in Slkve-en-eron, (;'. t. tlie mountain of iron
mines,) in the county of Leitrim ; but Gough and Ferrar
make it fpring from the plains of Quilka, in the county of
Cavan. Again, Dr. Beaufort fays. Lough Clean is the
fountain-head ; while Boade, Pinkerton, and mod other
writers on the fubjeft, make it Lough Allen. Thefe dif-
ferences, however, may be in fome meafure reconciled by
obferving, that Lough Allen receives the waters of the other
fources above-mentioned, and that the Shannon does not
take its name until it has pafTed this lake. As it is likewife
the receptacle of mod of the other current waters of the fur-
rounding country, every flream that falls into it may claim
fome (hare in the difpiited honour; but Lough Clean has the
higheft title, as contributing moil largely by means of the
river Duff. Lough Allen is nearly in the centre of the
county of Leitrim ; it is about twenty fquare miles in ex-
tent, and in fome parts is faid to be unfathomable. From
this grand refervoir and copious fpring, the Shannon iffues
in great force at a place called Balatnara. The diretlion, at
firft, is fouth and fouth-welt, dividing the provinces of
Leinfter and Munfter from Connaught. It pafTes Limerick,
where it turns nearly to the weft, and, fixty miles below this
city, falls into the Atlantic ocean, between Kerry Head and
Cape Lean, after a courfe of two hundred miles. It is na-
vigable nearly to Limerick for (hips of the greateft burden,
and for fraaller veffels throughout the whole extent of its
courfe.

This noble river traverfes feveral large lakes, and forms
many extenfive bays and eftuaries, interfperfed with beau-
tiful iflands. It receives above thirty other rivers in its
courfe, and diffufes verdure and fertility over the banks
of ten counties ; namely, Leitrim, Rofcommon, Gal-
way, and Clare, on the right ; and on the left, Longford,
Weftmeath, King's County, Tipperary, Limerick, and
Kerry,

The principal towns fituated on its banks are Leitrim,
Carrick, Jameftown, Laneftorough, Atlilonc, Banagher,
Portumna, Killaloe, Caftleconnel, Tarbert, and Kilrufli; be-
fides the city of Limerick, which it encompafles by different
branches, and in fome meafure infulates.

The largeft lakes which it paffes throMgh are. Lough
Boffin, Lough Ree or Regith, and Lough Derg or Derg-
art. The firit, which is about ten fquare miles in extent, is
fituated at the confines of the counties of Leitrim, Long-
ford, and Rofcommon, Lough Ree extends nearly from
Lanefborough to Athlone, a diitance of about fixteen miles,
and is from two to five miles in breadtli. It contains above
fifty iflands, many of which are covered witli wood and good
palturage. Lough Derg is eigliteen miles long, and from
two to feven broad. It is diverfified with about fixty iflands,
one of which, called Innifmore, contains above a hundred
acres of good land ; and on another, called the Holy Ifland,
are the ruins of feven churches, and a round tower. This
lake extends nearly from Portumna to Killaloe. There is
alfo below Limerick, at the confluence of the Fergus
river, an immeiife eftuary, or firth, of many fquare miles
in extent, interfperfed with feveral rich and romantic
iflands.

The principal rivers that fall in from the right bank, ct
Connaught fide, are the Key, Suck, Scariff, and Fergus.
The confluence of the Key is at Carrick, and the Suck,
which divides the counties of Rolconimon and Galwav,
flows in at Clonfert above Banagher. Several fmaller rivers
fall in from the county of Galway ; and from Clare flow U
the Scariff and Fergus ; but the great weight of water \
comes from the other fide by rivers running from ead to
weft, which, it may be remarked, is difi^erent to the ufual
courfe in other parts of the world. The Inny is the firft
great river on the left bank : it is the boundary between
the counties of Longford and Weftmeath, and falls into
Lough Ree, where it forms a large eftuary. The fecond
river on this fide is the Great Brofna, which forms a fin&
confluence with the Shannon above Banagher ; and the Lefler
Brofna, united with the Birr river, falls in a few miles below
that town. From hence to Limerick many fmaller rivers
flow in on the Ormond fide, and below that city there are
fome larger ones : the principal are the Maig, Deel, Ovan, g
Cummage, Feale, Gale, and Cafliin. Several of the above I
are navigable to a confiderable diftance from the Shannon.

From fucli an accumulation of rivers, lakes, and fprino-s,
the mouth of the Shannon is increafed to an immenfe magni-
tude, being nearly ten miles in breadth, for the laft fifteen miles,
and from twenty to thirty fathoms deep. It is not only larger
than any other infular river, but difcharges much more water
into the ocean than any continental ftream whatever, running
fo fhort a diftance as two hundred miles. Camden feems to
credit a tradition, commonly believed in his time, of a gradnal
increafe in the number and fize of the lakes and rivers of
Ireland. The fuppofition is curious, and may not be wholly
unfounded.

As the Shannon from Limerick to the ocean is of great
and increafing importance to the commercial world, we
fhall here give fome particulars of its navigation from an
hydrographical furvey lately made. The diitance is above
fixty Englifh miles, and the bearing nearly W. by S. The
breadth of the river is various. If the length be divided
into three parts, the firft will be found to meafure from one
to three miles broad ; the middle divifion incrcafes to about
fix, and the third to ten miles in breadth. The foundings of
the month have been already mentioned : they decreafe to-
wards Limerick; but in all parts the river is of confiderable
depth, and is remarkable for its tranfparency.

The tides in the mouth of the Shannon rile from nine to
fourteen feet perpendicular height ; and they increafe as the
river becomes narrower, infomuch that at the pool of Li-
merick, they are from twelve to twenty feet high. The
current of the tide varies confiderably in diflferent parts of
the ftream, running at the rate of from two to five miles
an hour. It is not, however, perceptible far above the
city, owing to feveral catarafts.

There are many fine bays on the Clare fide, which afford
fafe anchorage and good flielter for fhipping. The principal
are Kilbahan, Carigahault, Clonderlaw, and LabilTieda, be-
fides the commodious harbour of Poolanifhary, near Kilrufh,
and Tarbert bay on the Kerry fide. It may be men-
tioned, that Kerry Head, alfo called Ballyhcigh Puint, is a
long and narrow promontory ; and that Cape Lean, or Loop
Head, on the other fide, is flill narrower ; having at its ex-
tremity a light-houfe, in N. lat. 52° ^o'. W. long. 10 °2o'.
The navigation between the Upper and Lower Shannon
was formerly impeded by the noted cataraft near Caftlecon-
nel, called the Salmon's Leap, but of late years canals have
been drawn round this rock as well as others called the Falls.
An important communication has been likewife opened be-
tween the Shannon and Dubhn by means of the grand canal,

which

S H A

\«hich forms itsjunftinn above Banagher. (See our article
Canal.) It may be obferved, that the Shannon nearly
infulates Connaught with the county of Clare ; and that
if a canal, of about four miles in length, were cut from
Lou^h Clean to the river Bonnet, which falls into Sligo
bay, the infular boundary would be complete, and the Shan-
non rendered navigable from fea to fea.

The bridges over this river are chiefly at the forementioned
towns, but there are none below Limerick. In this city
there are three, one of which, called Thomond bridge,
contains fourteen arches ; and about ten miles higher is
O'Brien's bridge, which has nineteen arches.

The fifheries on the Shannon are numerous and produflive,
particularly for fabnon, which is of the fined flavour.
Mr. Arthur Young, in his Tour through Ireland, p. 359,
obferves of this river, that " befides affording all forts of
wild fowl, the quantity and fize of its fifli are amazing.
Pikes fwarm and rife to the weight of 5olbs. each. Trout,
bream, eel, gillaroos. Sec. are large and abundant, and perch
are fo plentiful, that, in fome years, the poor almoll live
upon them." It may be added, that not only river fifli,
but even fuch as are generally denominated pond and lake
fifli, abound here ; fo that what Spenfer fays of the Trent
may be truly applied to the bounteous Shannon, which

" Within itfelf enfeames

Both thirty forts of fifh, and thirty fundry ftreames."

The Shannon forms a very important fubjeft in the an-
cient hiftory of Ireland. Ptolemy mentions three large cities
on its banks, called Rcgia, Macolicum, and Regia Altera.
But his editors, Mercator and Ortellius, do not exadlly
agree in their maps as to the fituations, and no veftiges re-
main to fettle the queftion. The general opinion is, that
Regia was on the eatl fide of Lough Ree, and the names
correfpond, as Ree fignifies a king, in the Irifli language.
Macolicum is fuppofed, from the name, to have been at Me-
lick, a village in the county of Galway, and Regia Altera
at or near Limerick.

This river was of great political and military ufe
before the Englilh power was eftabliflied in Ireland.
It long ferved as a barrier between the territories of
provincial kings, and not unfrequently was made the fcene
of naval engagements, particularly below Limerick. The
following curious inilance is recorded in the Annals of
Munfter, and quoted by Archdall. "This year (1065),
Hugh O'Ruark, king of Briefne, in company with Thady
O'Kelly, king of Maine, were defeated by Hugh O'Con-
nor, king of Connaught, who totally overthrew their whole
ai'my, and funk and difperfed their fleet on the Shannon."
(Monafticon Hibernicum, p. 280.) Even in modern times this
river has been occafionally found of great military importance.
See our articles Athlone, and Limehick.

The iflands on the Shannon add an interefting feature to
the hiltory of the early progrcfs of Chrillianity in Ireland;
particularly from the fourth to the eighth century, when
that country enjoyed a repofe unknown on the continent, and
was famed the " Infula Sacra el Sanaorum," or, to ufc the
words of Dr. Johnlon, " the pious and hofpitablc fchool
of the well." During that period many of thofe iflands were
dedicated to the fervicc of religion, and numerous veftiges
Itill are feen in the remains of churches, abbeys, and
other monallic inlUtiitions. The holy ifland in Lough
Dcrg has been already noticed, and there are many others of
a fimilar dcfcription, which are Hill held in pious venera-
tion by the multitude, and are much reforted to on certain
feftivals. We fliall mention only another, which is Innif-
eattery, in the mouth of the Shannon, about twenty miles

S H A

from the ocean, and which is thus defcribed by Archdall.
P.49-

" On the rich and beautiful ifland of Scattery, are the
ruins of a monaftery dedicated to St. Senan, who founded
here an epifcopal fee about the time of St. Patrick. There
are likewife the ruins of feven churches, out of eleven which
were here in queen Ehzabeth's time. An ancient round
tower of one hundred and twenty feet in height, and in com-
plete repair, graces the fcene." For a more particular ac-
count of thefe " Infula; facrit Sent," fee Gough's Camden ;
alfo Ware, AVilfon, Archdall, &c.

The views of the Shannon are in many parts highly pic-
turefque and fublime. We fliall briefly notice three. The
firfl; id from a beautiful hill in Lov/er Ormond, called Knock-
fliegowna, /. e. Oonagh's hill, fo named as being the fabled
refidence of Oonagh, Spenfer's Fairie Queen. From this
eminence the river is feen to an extent of nearly twenty miles,
apparently afcending in its courfe. The fccond is from the
admired ruins of Carrick O'Gunnel, beyond Limerick ; and
the third from Knockpatrick, a lofty hill in the fame
county, and much nearer to the fea. It is celebrated by fe-
veral writers as commanding the moft grand and interefting
profpeft that can be imagined both of the river and the
ocean. Among thefe authors may be mentioned Necham,
an Englifli poet and divine of the twelfth century ; whofe
verfes on tlie Shannon are thought worthy of quotation by
Camden, and which we fliall here tranfcribe, annexing a free
tranflation.

" Fluminibus magnis Ixtatur Hibernia, Sineus
Inter Connatiam, Momoniaraque fluit.
Tranfit per muros Limerici, Knoc Patric ilium
Oceani claufum fub ditione videt."

<' Amid majeftic ftreams, Hibernia's pride,
The noble Shannon bids her plains divide.
Leinlter and Munlter to the ealtward bear,
With Connaught to the right, and lofty Clare ;
By Lim'rick's walls he bends his lordly way,
While tributary ftreams their homage pay.
Till proud Knockpatrick views, from Defmoud's coaft,
This world of waters in the ocean loft."

Shannon, a river of Canada, which runs into the N.E.
part of lake Ontario.

SHANSCRIT, Sanscrit, Samfcrit, Samfcretam, or
Hanfcrit language, is the original language of the Hindoos
or Gentoos, in which their Shajlah, or Sbajlcr, is writ-
ten, &c.

The grand fource of Indian literature, the parent of
almoft every dialeft, from the Perfian gulf to the China
fcas, fays the learned Halhed, in the Preface to his Gram-
mar of the Bengal Language, is the Shanfcrit ; a language
of the moft venerable and unfathomable antiquity, which,
although at prefent fliut up in the libraries of Bramins, and
appropriated folely to the records of their religion, appears
to have been current over moft part of the oriental world ;
and traces of its original extent may ftill be difcovcrcd in
alinott every diilrift of Afia. It is aftonifliing to find the
fimilitude of Shanfcrit words with thofe of Perfian and
Arabic, and even of Latin and Greek; and thofe not in
technical and metaphorical terms, which tlie fluftuation of
refined arts and improved manners might have occafionally
introduced ; but in the main ground-work of language, in
monofyllables, in tiie names of numbers, and in the appel-
lations of fuch things as would be firft difcriminatcd in the
immediate dawn of civilization. The coins of Adam, Na-
paul, Caflimire, and many other kingdoms, are all llanipcd
3 D 2 viitb

SHANSCRIT.

with Shanfcrit letters, and mottly contain allulions to the old
Shanfcrit mythology : the fame conformity is alfo obferv-
able in the impreflions of feals from Bootan and Thibet.
Befides, the arrangement of the Shanfcrit alphabet is very
different from that of any other quarter of the world.
This extraordinary mode of combination ftill exills in the
greateft part of the Eaft, from the Indus to Pegu, in dialefts
now apparently unconneiSed, and in charafters completely
dilBmilar ; and affords a forcible argument that they are
iiU derived from the fame fource. Moreover, the names of
perfons and places, of titles and dignities, which are open to
general notice, and which are found even to the furtheft
limits of Afia, prefent manifeil traces of tlie Shanfcrit.
Another circuraftance deferves to be mentioned, and that is,
that the raja of Kifhenagur, a very learned and able anti-
quary of Bengal, affirmed, that he had in his own poffeffion
books which give an account of a communication formerly
fubfilling between India and Egypt, in which the Egyptians
are defcribed as difciples, and not as inllruftors ; and as
feeking that liberal education and thofe Iciences at Hin-
dooftan, which none of their own countrymen had fufficient
knowledge to impart. But though thefe feveral proofs of
the former prevalence of the Shanfcrit are now thinly fcat-
tered over an immenfe continent, and interfperfed with an
infinite variety of extraneous matter, arifing from every
podible revolution in the manners and principles of the
nations who have by turns cultivated or deilroyed it ; that
part of Afia, between the Indus and the Ganges, ftill pre-
ferves the whole language pure and inviolate ; ftill offers a
thoufand books to the perufal of the curious, many of
which have been religioufly handed down from the earlieft
periods of human exiftence.

H. T. Colebrooke, efq. has given us in the Afiatic Re-
fearches (vol. vii. p. 199, &c.), a literal tranflation of two
paflages cited from a treatile on rlietoric, compiled for the
life of Manicya Chandra, raja of Tirabhufti, or Tirhut, in
which are enumerated the languages ufed by Hindoo poets.
The firft is as follows : " Sanfcrita, Pracrita, Paifachi,
and Magad'hi, are in fhort the four paths of poetry. The
gods, &c. fpeak Sanfcrita ; benevolent genii, Pracrita ;
wicked daemons, Paifachi ; and men of low tribes and the
reft, Magad'hi. But fages deem Sanfcrita the chief of
thefe four languages. It is ufed three ways ; in profe, in
verfe, and in a mixture of both." Again, " Language,
the virtuous have declared to be fourfold, Sanfcrita, or
the polifhed dialeft ; Pracrita, or the vulgar dialeft ;
Apabhranfa, or jargon ; and Mifra, or mixed. Sanfcrita
is the fpeech of the celeltials, framed in grammatical in-
lUtutes ; Pracrita is fimilar to it, but manifold as a pro-
vincial dialed, and otherwife ; and thofe languages which
are ungrammatical, are fpoken in their refpedlive diftridls."
Tlie Paifachi, fays Mr. Colebrooke, feems to be gibberifh,
which dramatic poets make the daemons fpeak, when they
bring thefe fantaftic beings on the ttage. The mixture of
languages, noticed in the fecond quotation, is that which
is employed in dramas, as is exprefsly faid by the fame
author in a fubfequent verfe. It is not then a compound
language, but a mixed dialogue, in which different perfons
of the drama employ different idioms. Both the paffages
above quoted are therefore eafily reconciled. They, in
faft, notice only three tongues, i. Shanfcrit, a polifhed
dialeft, the inflexions of which, with all its numerous
anomalies, are taught in grammatical inftitutes. This the
dramatic poets put into the mouths of gods and of holy per-
fonages. 2. Pracrit, confifting of provincial dialefts, which
are lefi refined, and have a more imperfect grammar. In
dramas it is fpoken by women, benevolent genii, &c.
j6

3. Magad'hi, or Apabhranfa, a jargon deftitute of regular
grammar. It is ufed by the vulgar, and varies in different
diftrifts : the poets accordingly introduce into the dialogue
of plays a provincial jargon, fpoken by the loweft perfons
of the drama.

Sanfcrita is the paflive particle of a compound verb,
formed by prefixing the prepofition fam to the crude verb
cri, and by interpofing the letter s, when this compound
is ufed in the fenfe of embcllifhment. Its literal meaning
then is " adorned ;" and when applied to a language, it
fignifies " poliflied." Pracrita is a fimilar derivative from
the fame crude verb, with pra prefixed : the molt common
acceptation of this word is " outcail, or man of the loweft
clafs :" as applied to a language, it fignifies " vulgar."
Apabhranfa is derived from bhras, to fall down : it fignifies
a word, or dialeft, which falls off from correft etymology.
Grammarians ufe the Sanfcrita as fignifying " duly formed
or regularly inflefted ;" and Apabhranfa far falfe grammar.

The languages of India are all comprehended in thefe
three claffes. The firft contains Shanfcrit, a moft polifhed
tongue, which was gradually refined until it became fixed
in the claflic xvritings of many elegant poets, moft of whom
are fuppofed to have flourifhed in the century preceding
the Cliriflian era. It is cultivated by learned Hindoos
throughout India, as the language of icience and of litera-
ture, and as the repofitory of their law, civil and religious.
It evidently draws its origin (and fome fteps of its pro-
grefs may even now be traced) from a primeval tongue,
which was gradually refined in various climates, and be-
came Shanfcrit in India ; Pahlavi in Perfia ; and Greek on
the fhores of the Mediterranean. Like other very ancient
languages, Shanfcrit abounds in inflexions, which are, how-
ever, more anomalous in this, than in tlie other languages
here alluded to ; and which are even more fo in the obfolete
dialeft of the Vedas, than in the polifhed fpeech of the
claflic poets. It has nearly fhared the fate of all ancient
tongues, and is now become almoft a dead language ; but
there feems no good reafon for doubting, that it was once
univerfally fpoken in India. Its name, and the reputed dif-
ficulty of its grammar, have led many perfons to imagine,
that it has been refined by the concerted efforts of a few
priefts, who fet themfelves about inventing a new language;
not like all other tongues, oy the gradually improved praftice
of good writers and polite fpeakers. The exquifitely re-
fined fyitem by which the grammar of Shanfcrit is taught,
has been miftaken for the refinement of the language itfelf.
The rules have been Tuppofed to be anterior to the prac-
tice, but this fuppofition is gratuitous. In Shanfcrit, as in
every other known tongue, grammarians have not invented
etymology, but ha've only contrived rules to teach what was
already effabhfhed by approved praftice.

There is one peculiarity of Shanfcrit compofitions which
may alfo have fuggefted the opinion, that it could never be a
fpoken language. Mr. Colebrooke alludes to what might be
termed the euphonical orthography of Shanfcrit. It confifts
in extending to fyntax the rules for the permutation of let-
ters in etymology. Similar rules for avoiding incompatible
founds in compound terms exift in all languages ; this is
fometimes effefted by a deviation from orthography in the
pronunciatiori of words, fometimes by altering one or more
letters to make the fpelling correfpond with the pronunci-
ation. Thefe rules have been more profoundly invefligated
by Hindoo grammarians than by thofe of any other nation,
and they have completed a fyftem of orthography, which
may be juftly termed euphonical. They require all com-
pound terms to be reduced to this ftandard, and Shanfcrit
authors, it may be obferved, delight in compounds of in-
ordinate

SHANSCRIT.

ordinate length ; the whole fentence too, or even whole
periods, may, at the pleafure of the author, be combined
like the eltmeiits of a firigle word, and good writers gene-
rally do fo. In common (peech this could never have been
praftifed. None but well-known compouads would be
ufed by any fpeaker who wiflud to be underftood, and
each word would be dilUnftly articulated, independently of
the terms which precede and follow it. Such indeed is the
prefent practice of thofe who ftiU fpeak the Shanfcrit lan-
guage ; and they deliver themfelvcs with fuch fluency as is
fufficient to prove, that Shanfcrit may have been fpoken
in former times with as much facility as the contemporary
dialefts of the Greek language, or the more modern dia-
iefts of t..j Arabic tongue.

The father of Shanfcrit grammar, who firft compofed thofe
grammatical inftitutes in which this language is formed, or
by which words are correftly formed or inflcfted, was
Panini, who lived in fo remote an age, that he ranks among
thofe ancient fages, whofe fabulous hrftory occupies a con-
fpicuous place in the " Puranas," or Indian theogonies.
According to the Pauranica legends, Panin was the grand-
fon of Devala, an infpired legidator ; but whatever may be
his hiitory, to him the Sutras, or iuccinft aphorifms of
grammar, are attributed by uiiiverfal confent.

His fyllem is grounded on a profound invelligation of
the analogies in both the regular and the anomalous in-
flexions of the Shanfcrit language. He has combined thofe
analogies in a very artificial manner ; and has thus com-
prelfed a moft copious etymology into a very narrow com-
pafs. His precepts are indeed numerous, but they have
been framed with the utmoll concifenefs ; and this great
brevity is the refult of very ingenious methods which have
been contrived for this end, and for the purpofe of aflilUng
the Undent's memory. In Panini's fyftem the mutual re-
lation of all the parts marks tiiat it mult have been com-
pleted by its author ; it certainly bears internal evidence
of its having been accomplifh^d by a fingle effort, and even
the correftions, which are needed, cannot be interwoven
with the text. It mult not be hence inferred, that Panini
was unaided by the labours of earlier grammarians ; in many
of his precepts he cites the authority of his predccelfors,
fometimes for a deviation from a general rule, often for a
grammatical canon which has univerfal cogency. He has
even employed fome technical terms without defining them,
becaufe, as his commentators remark, thofe terms were
already introduced by earlier grammarians. None of the
more ancient works, however, feem to be now extant ;
being fuperfedcd by his, they have probably been difufed
forages, and are n;)W perhaps totally loll.

The inaccuracies of the Paniniya grammar were correfted
by Catyayana, an infpired faint and lawgiver, whole hillory
is involved in the impenetrable darknefs of mythology.
The amended rules of grammar have been formed nito me-
morial vcrfcs by Bhartrihari, whofe metrical aphorilms,
entitled " Carica," have almoft equal authority witli the
precepts of Panini, and emendations of Catyayana. Bhar-
tri-hari is faid to have lived in the century preceding the
Chriftian era. The text of Panini being concife and am-
biguous, many commentaries were compofed to elucidate
it, of the chief of which Mr. Colebrooke has given an ac-
count. The belt and mofl concife commentary now extant,
is entitled the " Cafica vritti," or commentary compofed at
Varanali. Within a few centuries pall, a grammar, well
adapted for aiding the lludent in acquiring a critical know-
ledge of the Shanfcrit tongue, has been compiled by Rama-
chandra, entitled " Pracriyacaumndi."

When Shanfcrit was the language of Indian courts, and
was cultivated not only by perfons who devoted themfelvcs

to religion and literature, but alfo by princes, lawyers,
foldiers, phyficians, and fcribes ; in fhort, by the firll three
tribes, aiid by many clallcs included in the fo\;rth ; an eafy
and popular grammar mufl have been needed by perfons
who could not vvaile the belt years of their lives in the fludy
of words. Such grammars muit always have been iu ufe ;
thofe, however, which are now ftudied are not, we believe,
of very ancient date. The molt efteemed is the " Saraf-
wata," together with its commentary named " Chandrica."
It feems to have been formed on one of the Caumudis, by
tranflating Panini's rules into language that is intelligible,
independently of the glofs, and without the neccflity of ad-
verting to a different context.

Another popular grammar, which is in high repute in
Bengal, is entitled " Mugd'habod'ha," and is accompanied
by a commentary. It is the work of Vopadeva, and pro-
ceeds upon a plan grounded on that of the Caumudis ; but
the author has not been content to tranflate the rules of
Panini, and to adopt his technical terms. He has, on the
contrary, invented new terms, and contrived new abbre-
viations. The fame author likewife compofed a metrical
catalogue of verbs alphabetically arranged. It is named
" Cavicalpadruma," and is intended as a fubftitute for the
" D'hatupata."

The befl and mofl efteemed vocabulary of the Shanfcrit
is the " Amera cofha," which, like moll other Shanfcrit
diftionaries, is arranged in verfe to aid the memory. Nu-
merous commentaries have been written on this vocabulary ;
the chief objeft of which is to explain the derivations of the
nouns, and to fupply the principal deficiencies of the text.
Shanfcrit etymologiits fcarcely acknowledge a fingle pri-
mitive amongll the nouns. When unable to trace an ety-
mology which may be confillent with the acceptation of the
word, they are content to derive it according to grammatical
rules from fome root to which the word has no affinity iti
fenfe. At other times they adopt fanciful etymologies from
Pin-anas or from Tantras. But in general the derivations
are accurate aud inllrutlive.

Amera's dictionary does not contain more than ten thoO-
fand different words. Yet the Shanfcrit language is very
copious. The infcrtion of derivatives, that do not at all de-
viate from their regular and obvious import, has been very
properly deemed fu peril uous. Compound epithets, and
otiier compound terms, in which the Shanfcrit language it
peculiarly rich, are likewil'e omitted ; excepting fuch as are
cfpecially appropriated, by a limited acceptation, either as
titles of deities, or as names of plants, animals, &c. In fact,
compound terms are formed at pleafure, according to the
rules of grammar ; and mull generally be interpreted in
ftrift conformity with thofe rules. Technical terms too
are molUy excluded from general diftionaries, and conligncd
to feparate nomenclatures. The " Amcracofh" tiien is lefs
defective than might be inferred from the fmall number of
words explained in it. Still, however, it needs a fnpplement.
The remaining deficiencies of the Aineracolh are fiipplied by
conlulling other diftionaries and vocabularies, which are
very numerous.

The Shanfcrit language is very copious and nervous ; but
the ftyle of the belt authors wonderfully concife. It far
exceeds the Greek and Arabic in the variety of its etymo-
logy, and, like them, has a prodigious number of derivatives
from each primary root. The grammatical rules are alfo
numerous and difficult, though there are not many ano-
malies. " The Shanfcrit language," fays fir William Jonei,
( Afiat. Ref. vol. i, p. 422.) " whatever be its antiquity, is of
a wonderful flrufture, more perfeft than the Greek, more
copious than the Latin, and more exquifitely refined than
cither ; yet bearing to both of ihem a llronger afHnity,

both

SHANSCRIT.

both in the roots of verbs, and in the forms of grammar, than
could poflibly have been produced by accident ; fo ftrong,
indeed, that no philologer could examine them all. three
without believing them to have fprung from fome common
fource, which, perhaps, no longer exifts. There is a fimilar
reafon, though not quite fo forcible, for fuppofing that
both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very
different idiom, had the fame origin with the Shanfcrit, and
the old Perfian might be added lo the fame family."

The fundamental part of the Shanfcrit language is divided
into three clailes ; viz. dhaat, or roots of verbs, Jhuhd, or
original nouns, and evya, or particles. The latter are always
indeclinable, as in other nations ; but the words compre-
hended in the two former clafles muft be prepared by cer-
tain additions and inflexions to fit them for a place in com-
polition. Here the art of the grammarian interpofes, as not
a fyllable, nor a letter, can be added or altered but by regi-
men, nor the moft trifling variation of the fenfe in the minnteil
fubdivifion of declenfion or conjugation can be effefted with-
out the application of feveral rules ; and all the different forms
for every change of gender, number, cafe, perfon, tenfe,
mood or degree, are methodically arranged for the affidance
of the memory ; refembling, though on an infinitely more
extenfive fcale, the compilations of propria qux maribus and
as in prxfenti.

In the Shanfcrit language, the three diftinAions of genders,
v/z. mafcuUne, feminine, and neuter, are preferved in their
common number and order. A Shanfcrit noun, in its firll
formation from the general root, exifts equally independent
of cafe as of gender. It is neither nominative, nor geni-
tive, nor accufative, nor is imprefled with any of thofe mo-
difications, which mark the relation and connexion between
the feveral members of a fentence. In this ftate it is called
an imperfeS, or crude noun. To make a nominative any noun,
the termination mult be changed, and a new form fupplied.
Thus we fee that, in the Shanfcrit at lealt, the nominative has
an equal right with any other inflexion to be called a cafe.
The Shanfcrit has feven declenfions of nouns, which are all
ufed in the Angular, dual, and plural number, and differently-
formed, as they terminate with a conionant, and with a long
or fhort vowel ; and alfo as they are of different genders.
The feven changes of inflexion are exclufive of the vocative,
and therefore the Shanfcrit comprehends two more than even
thofe of the Latin : they are as follow, w'z. i . The nomina-
tive, or agent in a fentence ; 2. The palFive cafe, or fubjeS oi
the adlion ; 3. The caufal cafe, pointing out the cauie by
which a thing is done ; or the inftrument -with which it is
done ; or the fubjeft in or by which it is fuffered ; 4. The
dative, with the fign to or for ; 5. The ablative, implymg
the fubjedl from whence any thing proceeds ; 6. Tiie pof-
feji-ve cafe, called by us the genitive ; 7. The locative cafe,
definitive of fituation, and generally known by the fign in.
The vocative is excluded from the number of cales, as no
inflexion is employed in its formation.

The Shanfcrit, the Arabic, the Greek, and the Latin
verbs are furniihed with a fet of inflexions and terminations
fo comprchenfive, and fo complete, that by their form
alone they can exprefs all the different diilinftions both of
perfon and time. Three feparate qualities are in them per-
feAly blended and united. Thus by their root, they denote
a particular atl ; and by their inflexion, both point out the
time when it takes place, and number of the agents. Every
Shanfcrit verb has a form equivalent to the middle voice of
the Greek, ufed through all the tenfes with a refleftive
fenfe ; and the former is even the moft extenfive of the two
in its ufe and offices ; for in Greek the refleflive idea can
only be adopted intranfitively, when the aftion of the verb
defcends to no extraneous fubjeft ; but in Shanfcrit the

verb is both reciprocal and tranfitive at the fame time.
The verb fubftantive of the Shanfciit very nearly refembles
thofe of the Greek and Latin ; but perhaps it would not
be fnfpefted that all the verbs in mi are formed exaftly
upon the fame principle with the Shanfcrit conjugation.',
even in the minutell particulars. All the terms which
ferve to qualify, to diftinguifh, or to augment either fub-
Jlance or aBion, are clafied by the Shanfcrit grammarians
under a head, literally fi^nifying increafe or addition. Ac-
cording to this arrangement, a (imple fentence confifts of
three numbers : the agent, the aftion, and the fubjeft j
which, in a grammatical fenfe, are reduced to two, vi%.
the noun (whether agent or fubjeft) and the verb. All
fuch words as tend to fpecificate or to amplify the noun,
are denominated by a term which fignifies adjeilives or
epithets ; and fuch as are applied to denote relation or con-
neftion, are called conneBives of nouns, and by European
grammarians, prepofttions : thofe particles which in any man-
ner affeft the verb are denominated attributes of verbs.

The Shanfcrit alphabet contains fifty letters ; and it is
one boait of the Bramins, that it exceeds all other alphabets
in this refpeft. But vihen wc confider that of their thirty-
four coiifonants, nearly half are combined founds, and that
fix of their vowels are merely the corrcfpondent long ones
to as many which are fhort, the advantage feems to be little
more than imaginary. The Shanfcrit charafter, ufed in
Upper Hiiidoollan, is faid to be the fame original letter
tttat was firit dehvered to the people by Brihma, and is
called Diewnagur, or the language of angels ; whereas the
charafter ufed by the Bramins of Bengal is by no means fo
ancient, and is evidently a corruption of the former. In.
the four beids, or vedas, which conftitute the original and
facred text of the great Hindoo creator and legiflator
Brihma, tfie length of the vowels is expreffed by a mufical
note or fign placed over every word ; and in reading the
beids, thefe diilinftions of tone and time muft be nicely ob-
ferved ; fo that they produce all the effeft of a laboured
recitative. It is remarkable, that the Jews in their fyna-
gogues chant the Pentateuch in the fame kind of melody,
and it is fuppofed that this ufage has defcended to them
from the remoteft ages. Some writers have erroneoufiy
afterted, that the four beids are in verfe ; whereas they are
written in a kind of meafured profe ; and they are nowr
fcarcely intelligible to the motf learned pundits or lawyers ;
they are alfo fcarce, and difficult to be found. However,
comments have been written upon them from the carlielt
periods ; of which one of the moft ancient and approved
was compofed by Bifefht Mahamome, or the Moll Wife,
a great writer and prophet, who is faid to have lived in the
futtee jogue, or firll age of the world. See Halhed'g Pre-
face to his tranflation of the Code of Gentoo Laws, printed
in 1776.

Dr. Leyden, in his account of the languages and litera-
ture of the Indo-Chinefe nations, (Afiatic Refearches,
vol. X.) has flicwn, that the " Pali," as it is generally
written, or " Bali" language, as it is commonly pro-
nounced, occupies the fame place among the Indo-Chinefe
nations, which Shanfcrit holds among the Hindoos, or
Arabic among the followers of Iflam. Throughout the
greater part of the maritime countries, which lie between
India and China, it is the language of religion, law, litera-
ture, and fcience, and has had an extenfive influence in
modifying the vernacular language of thofe regions. La
Loubere, on the authority of d'Herbelot, has ftatcd that
the ancient Perfic language was termed Pahalevi (Pahlavi),
and that the Perfians do not diftinguifh in writing between
Pahali and Bahali. P. Paulinus, however, applies this
term Bali inaccurately to the fquare Bali charafter, inftead

of

I

SHANSCRIT.

of the lan^juage. This language, notwithftanding its ex-
tenfive ufe amonij fo many nations, and the degree of culti-
vation which it has received from the different tribes by
whom it is employed, has hitherto attrailcd little attention
amo:.£r Europeans. The Bali alphabet, according to Dr.
Leydee, feems, in its origin, to be a derivative from the
Deva-nagari, though it has not only acquired confiderable
difference of form, but has been alfo modified to a certain
degree, in the power of the letters, by the monofyllabic
pronunciation of the Indo-Chinefe nations. The form of
the Bali charadter varies ed'entially among the different na-
tions by whom it is ufed.

The Bali is an ancient dialeft of Shanfcrit, which fome-
times approaches very near the original. When allowance
is made for the regular interchange of certain letters, the
elifion of harlh confonants, and the contraftion of fimilar
fyilables, all the vocables which occur in its ancient books,
feem to be purely Shanfcrit. In Cheritas and later com-
pofitions, however, fome words of the popular languages
of the country fometimes infinuate themfelves, in the fame
manner as Tamul, Telinga, and Canara vocables occafionally
occur, in the later Shanfcrit compofitions of the Deichin.
The Bali, while it retains almoll the whole extent of
Shanfcrit flexions, both in nouns and verbs, neverthelefs
employs this variety rather fparingly in compofition, and
affefts the frequent introduttion of the preterite partici-
ple, and the ufe of imperfonal verbs. It alfo ufes the
cafes of nouns in a more indeterminate manner than the
Shanfcrit, and often confounds the aftive, neuter, and paf-
five tenfes of verbs. Like other derivative dialefts, it oc-
cafionally ufes Shanfcrit nouns and particles in an oblique
fenfe ; but notwithftanding all thcfe circumtlances, it ap-
proaches much nearer the pure Shanfcrit, than any other
dialetl;, and exhibits a clofe affinity to the Prakrit, and the
Zend.

Thefe three dialefts, the Prakrit, the Bali, and the
Zend, aie probably the mod ancient derivatives from the
Shanfcrit. The great mafs of vocables in all the three, and
even the forms of flexion'^, both in verbs and nouns, are
derived from the Shanfcrit, according to regular laws of
clifi on, contraftion, and permutation of letters. Some-
times, in purfuing thefe anahigies, they nearly coincide,
fometimes they differ confidcrably, fometimes one, and
fometimes another of them approaches nearelt to the origi-
nal Shanfcrit. Their connexion with this parent language
was perceived, and pointed out by fir W. Jones, and has
alfo been alluded to by P. Paulinus, who derives his infor-
mation, concerning the Bali, from Carpanius and Mante-
gatius. Tlie fate of thefe three languages is alfo, in fome
degree, fimilar. The Prakrit is the language which con-
tains the greater part of the facrcd books of the .fainas ;
the Bali is equally revered among the followers of Budd'ha ;
while the Zend, or facred language of ancient Iran, has
long enjoyed a fimilar rank among the Parfis or worfhippers
of fire, and been the depofitary of the facred books of Zo-
roafter. It is perhaps, however, more accurate to confider
all the three, rather as different dialefts of the fanne deriva-
tive language, than as different languages ; and conformably
to this idea, the Bali itfelf may be reckoned a dialed of
Prakrit. The term Prakrit, both in books, and in common
ufe among the Bramins, is employed with fome degree of
latitude. Sometimes the term i? confined to a particular
dialctl employed by the .lainas, as the language of rchgion
and fcience, and appropriated to females, and reipeitable
charadfers of an inferior clafs, in dramas. Sometimes it
includes all the dialcds derived immediately from the Shan-
fcrit, whether denominated Prakrit, Magad'h', Surafeni,

Paifachi, or Apabhranfa ; and fometimes it is even extend-
ed to the Defa-b'halhas, or popular tongues of India, as
Mahrafht or Mahratta, Canara, Telinga, Udia and Ben-
gali. According to the extended ufe of the term Prakrit, it
may certainly include both Bali and Zend ; and if more ex-
tenfive refearch (hould jultify the idea derived from an im-
perfect inveftigation. Dr. Leydcn apprehends that the Bali
may be identified with the Magad'hi, and the Zend with
the Surafeni, of Shanfcrit authors.

Thefe three dialefts, the Prakrit, Bali, and Zend,
have been regularly cultivated and fixed by compofition.
The fame laws of derivation are applicable to the forma-
tion of all the three; but yet there is often confiderable
diverfity in the forms which particular words affume, as
appears from the comparative fpecimen given by Dr.
Leyden.

The learned Mr. Colebrodke has publifhed in the loth
volume of the Afiatic Refeaiches, an elaborate elfay on
Shanfcrit and Prakrit poetry. He obferves, that the profody
of Shanfcrit will be found, from the examples which he has
adduced, to be richer than that of any other known language,
in variations of metre, regulated either by quantity or by
number of fyllables, both with and without rhyme, and
fubjeft to laws impofing in fome inftances rigid reftriftions,
in others allowing ample latitude. The rules relative to
Prakrit profody, are applicable, for the moft part, to Shan-
fcrit profody alfo ; fince the laws of verfification in both
languages are nearly the fame.

Shanfcrit profody admits of two forts of metre ; one
governed by the number of fyllables ; and which is moitly
uniform or monofchematic in profane poetry, but altogether
arbitrary in various metrical paffages of the Vedas. The
other is in fail meafured by feet, like the hexameters of
the Greek and Latin : but only one fort of this metre,
which is denominated Arya, is acknowledged to be fo regu-
lated ; while another fort is governed by the number of fyl-
labic initants or malras.

The moft com.mon Shanfcrit metre is the ftanza of four
verfes, containing eight fyllables each ; and denominated
from the name of the clafs " Anufluubh," for an account of
which, and of other kinds of metres, we refer ubi fupra.

The Shanfcrit writers notice different fpecies of profe.
They difcriminate three and even four forts, under diibinft
names, i. Simple profe, admitting no compound terms.
It IS denominated " Muftaca." This is little ulcd in pohflied
compofitions ; unlefs in the familiar dialogue of dramas.
It mull undoubtedly have been the colloquial ftyle, at the
period when Shanlcrit was a fpoken language. 2. Profe,
111 which compound terms are fparingly admitted. It is
called " Culaca." This and the preceding fort are by fome
confidered as varieties of a fingle fpecies named Churnica.
It is of courfe a common llyle of compofition: and, when
polifhed, is the moft elegant a? it is the cliafteft. Cut it
does not command the admirmion of Hindoo readers.
3. Profe abounding in compound words. It bears the
appellation of " Utcalica praya." Examples of it exhibit
compounds of the molt inordinate length : and a fingle
word exceeding- a hundred fyllables is not unprecedented.
This extravagant (lile of compofition, being luitable to
the taile of the Indian learned, is common in the moft ela-
borate works of their favourite authors. 4. Profe modu-
lated fo as frequently to exhibit portions of verfe. It is
named " Vrittagand'lii." It will occur without lludy, and
even againft delign, in elevated compofitions ; and may be
expected in the works of the bell writers.

Some ef the moft elegant and highly wrought works in
profe are reckoned among poems, as already intimated, in

like

S H A

S H A

like manner as tlie " Telemache" of Fenelon and " Tod
Abels" of Gcfner. The moft celebrated are the " Vafava-
datta" of Suband'hu, the " Dafa Cumara" of Dandi, and
the " Cadambari" of Vana.

For a further account of the Shanfcrit, fee Language of
Bengal, or Bengalese.

Exclufive of the Shanfcrit, there are three different dia-
lefts in the kingdom of Bengal, tox. the Perfian, the Hin-
dooftanic, and the proper Bengalefe. See Persia and Per-
sian Language, Hindoostannee, and Bengalese.

SHAN-SI, in Geography. See Chan-si.

SHAONA, a town of Egypt, on the W. coaft of the
Red fea ; 90 miles S.S.E. of Cofleir.

SHAOSUMRE, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Hedsjas ; 25 miles from Calaat el Moilah.

SHAOUN, a town of Arabia, in the province of Heds-
jas ; 45 miles S. of Jambo.

SHAPARY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gangpour ; 30 miles S.W. of Pada.

SHAPE, Itiflammaiian of, among neat cattle, an affeftion
in cows, arifing in hot weather ■ after taking the ball; and
which is fliewn by a fwelling of the parts with boils or
eruptions. It is obfervable by the animal rubbing her hind
parts in the hedges, &c. In the cure Mr. Downing ad-
vifes, after free bleeding, the following : Nitre in powder,
tw6 ounces ; cream of tartar, three ounces ; Callile foap,
one ounce ; and anifeed powder, one ounce ; which are to
be mixed for a dofe, and to be given in a quart of warm
whey, repeating them as there may be occafion.

To Shape the Courfe, in Sea Language, is to direft
or appoint the track of a fliip, in order to profecute a
voyage.

SHAPINSAY, in Geography, one of the Orkney iflands,
Scotland, is fituated to the N. of the Mainland of Orkney,
at the diftance of three miles from Kirkwall, the capital of
all the iflands. It meafures about feven miles in length and
five in breadth, and formerly conftituted part of the tem-
poralities of the bifhopric of Orkney. Almoft the whole
of it is capable of cultivation ; but a great part yet re-
mains in a neglefted Itate, to the detriment, as well as the
difgrace of the proprietors. Neverthelefs, fufficient grain
is raifed for the fupply of the inhabitants. Kelp is pro-
duced in great abundance, and is much ufed as a manure.
Lead ore is likewife abundant in the fouth-well corner of
this ifland, and was for fome time wrought, but the work is
now entirely abandoned.

In common with moft of the Orkney iflands, Shapinfay
exhibits fome monuments of antiquity : among thefe may
be reckoned, befides feveral Popifh chapels, a numerous
coUeftion of Pifts-houfes ranged along the (hores, like fo
niMy forts, together with tumuli, or barrows, in various
fituations. A momiiAental ftone of large dimenfions raifes
its venerable head in a plain near its eaftern extremity ; and
on ehe northern fhore is the itone Odin.

To the fouth of Shapinfay, at the diftance of a furlong,
is fituated the beautiful iflet of Elgar or EUerholm, which
bears evident traces of former habitation, and of having
been, at no very diltant period, attached to the principal ifland.
At prefent it furnifties pafture for a number of (heep and
young cattle during (ummcr, and ferves to give, by its
favourable pofition, the utmoft fecurity to the harbour of
Elwick, which is one of the iineil in the Orkneys. Barry's
Hiftory of the Orkney Iflands, 2d edit, by J. Headrick,
Lond. 4to. 1808.

SHAPLEIGH, apoft-town of America, inMaffachu-
fetts, in the provinct of Maine, incorporated in 1785 ; 108
miles N. of Bofton.

SHAPOOTA Hills, a mountainous ridge of Hindoo-
ftan, hetweai the Nerbuddah and Taptee ; 60 miles E. of
Surat.

SHAPORA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Rantampour ; 45 miles W. of Rantampour.

SHAPOUR, a city of Perfia, in the province of Farfif-
tan, is faid to have been originally founded by Taimuras
Devebund, who called it Deen Dar ; it was deftroyed by
Alexander the Great, and fubfequently built by Sapor, the
fon of Artaxerxes Babegan, who named it after himfelf.
The ruins of this ancient city are diftant about 16 miles
from Kazeroon : and if we may form an idea from the
breadth and circumference of the ramparts, and the remains
of fome other public buildings, it muft have bees a city of
great extent and magnificence. It. is fituated immediately
under the eaftern range of mountains, on the banks of a
fmall but rapid river, and in a wild, romantic fpot, amidfl:
rocks and precipices, many of which are decorated with
pieces of fculpture fimilar to thofe near Perfepolis, for
a defcription of which we refer to Kinneir's Memoir of the
Perfian Empire, p. 66. The hills in the immediate vici-
nity of thefe ruins appear to have been formerly fortified ;
and an extraordinary cavern, further up the river, has given
rife to many fabulous ftories.

SHAPS, an idand in theChefapeak ; 27 miles S.S.E. of
Annapolis. N. lat. 38^46'. W. long. 76^ 25'.

SHAR, or Shear-//o^, in Agriculture, a term fignifying
a yearling ftieep, which has been once ftiorn. The fame as
Iamb-hog. See Sheep.

SHARAF Beni Gatei, in Geography, a town of
Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ; 25 miles N. of
Madian.

SHARBASHI, a town of Turkilh Armenia ; 18 miles
S.E. of Moufti.

SHARBIN, a town of Egypt; 16 miles S.S.W. of
Damietta.

SHARD, in floriculture, a term applied to a fragment
of an earthen veflel, or the gap in a hedge.

SHARE of a Plough, that part which enters, cuts, and
breaks up the ground, the extremity forward being formed
with a ftiarp-pointed iron, called the point of the ftiare ; and
the end towards the wood behind, the tail of the ftiare.
This part conftitutes a portion of what is ufually denomi-
nated the throat, which is of very great importance in the
conttruftionof this implement. (See Plough.) The dimen-
fions are thefe: the length of the whole fliare from point to
tail, according to TuU, fliould be three feet nine inches,
but in modern ploughs much ftiorter ; at the top of the iron
it hath fometimes an upright piece called the fin ; and near
the iron, at the other end, there is an oblong-fquared hollow
called the focket ; the ufe of which is to receive the bottom
of the ftieat. Near the tail there is a thin plate of iron,
well rivetted to the wood ; by means of this plate, the tail
of the fliare is held firmly to tlie hinder flieat of the plough
by a fmall iron-pin, with a fcrew at the end, and a nut
fcrewed on it, on the inner or right fide of the iheat. But
fliares are made in different forms.

The point of the fliare is that part in which it does not run
up to the fin ; this point is generally made three inches and
a half in length, and ftiould be flat underneath, and round
at the top, and the lower part of it muft be of hard fteel.
The edge of the fin fliould alfo be well ftecled, and iliould
make an acute angle with the fliare. The focket is a fort
of mortilc : it fliould be a foot long and about two inches
deep : the fore-end of it muft not be perpendicular, but
obhque, conformable to the end of the fheat which en-
ters into it. The upper edge of the fore-part muft be

always

S H A

S H A

always made to bear up againil the (heat ; but if this end
of tlie Iccket (hould not be quite fo oblique as the (heat,
it may be lielped by paring off a fraall part of the wood at
the point.

However, in modern ploughs, the (hares, as has been feen,
are very different, according to their conllruftions and the
ufes for which they are intended.

Lately, improved caft-iron plough-(hares have been made
by R. Ranfome, of Iplwich, Suffolk, for which he has ob-
tained a patent. Tliefe (hares are made hard on one fide
and foft on the other, which affords the great advantage of
wearing thin, as it is found by farmers that thofe made in
the common way wear thick, with a bafil on the under fide,
which obftrufts their entering into hard or llrong foil?, and
at the fame time increafe the labour of the team, as well as
pafs over weeds without cutting or eradicating them. The
fame perfon alfo makes plough-grounds, which are fo con-
trived, as that by turning a fcrew the plough is made to work
more or lefs to the land with the greatcft eafe and facihty.
And botli thefe contrivances are faid to be capable of being
applied to all forts of ploughs which have betn already con-
ilrufted, and are in ufe upon farms.

The broad fiare, which is uied in Sufl'ex, is faid to be a
capital contrivance, whether invented in that di(trift or in
Kent. Its great ufe is in cutting over pea and bean ftub-
Ijles, or fuch weedy fallows as do not require ploughing.
It cor.fifts of an oblor.g (hare two feet long, and four or five
inches wide, fixed to the ftock or front of the ground rift,
by an iron fliank in the middle, and occafionally bolted to the
fide of the fame rift of a wheel-plough. It is pitched with
an inclination into the ground, capable of being raifed or
funk at pleafure, by the elevation or deprefiion of the beam
on the gallows, anfwering the purpofe of the great (Ivim of
theifleof Thanet,defcribed in Young's EafternTour. When
the ihibbles have been cut over with this tool, they are har-
rowed, raked, and burnt, the land being left in excellent
order for wheat.

On caft-iron plough-fiiares a very fimple and beneficial
improvement has lately been made by a perfon of the name
of Morland, in Bcrkfhire. It is well known that when the
point, or lock, of wrought-iron plough-lhares wears out,
they are capable of being renewed ; but that, in caft-iron,
the cafe is otherwife. By this invention and improvement,
however, which is much approved of in the above county,
the blunt point is capable of being dipped or depreffed in
fuch a manner as to produce every cffcft which is wanted
by the ploughman, when the (hare muft have become quite
tifelefs without it. The cheapnefs and durability of caft-
iron plough-ftiares render them highly defirable in all farm-
ing concerns where there is much ploiighing to be done.

The whole i.i accompli(hcd by the (hare having a fort of
joint, and the top part taking in and out, and tiy a tuck
that goes through the beam of the plough, which raifcs or
falls the point of the (hare.

SliAnE-G/vr/J, proviricially a fort of fedge.
SHAREMAN'S Ckeek, in Geography, a river of Penn-
fvlvania, which runs imo the Sufquehanna, N. lat. 40" to'.
\V. long. 77° ,-'.

SHARK, in the Linnrean fyftem of Ichthyology, is a
fpecics of the fqualus. Pennant makes it a diftinft genus,
the charaAers of which are thefe ; the body is (lender, and
grows lels towards the tail ; it has two fins on the back ; a
rough (kin ; five apertures on the fides of the neck ; the
mouth generally placed far beneath the end of the nofe ;
and the upper part of the tail longer than the lower. We
know two different fifti under the fame name of (liark, with
the addition of their colour, blue and white.
Vol. XXXII.

The blue fliark is that fpecies of fqualus called glaucui,
and gahiis glaurus, by authors, and diftinguilhed by Artedi
by the name of the fqualus with a triangular dent, or furrow,
in the extremity of the back, and with no foramina about
the eyes. It is of a fine deep blue colour on the back, and
of a bright filver white on the belly ; the (l<in is fmoother
than that of the white (hark, and the nofe long pointed, and
fomewhat flattened, and extending far beyond the mouth ;
the noftrils are long, and placed tranfverfely ; the tail is
bifid, and one portion of it is much larger than the other ;
it is very voracious of human fle(h, and will follow clofe
under the (hore if there be depth enough, and a man is walk-
ing there. It is fometimes found on the Englilh fhores, and
has been caught on the Cornwall coaft, during the pilchard
feafon, with large iron hooks, made on purpofe. .Elian in-
forms us, that this fi(h will permit the fmall brood, when in
danger, to fwim down its throat, and take (belter in its
belly ; and the faCl has been confirmed by Rondelctius.
Mr. Pennant apprehends that this care of their young is
not pecuhar to this fpecies, but comm.on to the whole genus
of (hark.

The other is the lamia, or canis carcharias of authors, the
fquahis carcharias of Linnxus, commonly called by us fimply
thefiark. This is diftinguiihed by Artedi by the name of
the fqualus with a flat back, and with numerous teeth, fer-
rated at the edges.

The white (hark, or hmia, is a very dreadful and voracious
fi(h, the largeft of all the (liarks. They have been feen of
four thoufand weight, with throats capable of fwallowing
a lufty man whole ; nay, men have been found whole in
them when opened. Some have, for this reafon, imagined
this, and not the whale, to have been the fifti in whofe belly
the prophet Jonah lay. Swimmers very often perifh by
them ; fometimes lofing an arm or leg, and fometimes being
bit quite afunder, and fcrving only for two morfels for this
ravenous animal. Its teeth are very (harp and terrible ;
they are dilpofed in fix rows, and are all triangular, and
notched like a faw on their edges ; thefe are, in the whole,
a hundred and forty-four in number, and are placed in va-
rious direftions ; their number is not exaftly determinate ;
thefe teeth, when the fi(h is in a (late of repofe, lie quite
flat in the mouth, but when he feizes his prey, he has power
of erefting them, by the help of a fet of mufcles that join
them to the jaw ; the mouth is placed far beneath ; on
which account thefe filhcs, as well as the reft of the kind,
are faid to be obliged to turn on their backs to feize their
prey ; which is an obfervation as ancient as the days of
Pliny : its back is fliort and broad, in comparifon of the
other fifli of this kind, and its tail, which is of a femi-
lunar form, compofed of two fins of a cubit in length each.
This fifli has furprifing ftrength in its tail, and can ttrike
with great force ; fo that the failors inftantly cut it off with
an ax, as foon as they draw one on board. The pertoral fins
are very large, which enable it to (wim with great fwiftnels ;
the colour of tlie whole body and fins is a light afli ; its (kin
is rough, and its eyes large and round. It is found both in
the ocean and in thi.- Mediterranean, and is of all filh the molt
voracious of human flelh.

It has its name fiom tlie Greek Xnif^o;, a voracious feeder,
or ghilloii. The foililc bodies, called gloffopetrx, or (cr-
pents' tongueti, and fuppofed to be real Itoncs, are the teeth
of this fifli.

Shark, liajhing, Squalus maximus of Linna;u8, the
name given by Mr. Pennant to a fifll which inhabits the
northern leas, as high as the :irS.\c circle, and which was
taken for a fpecies ot whale, till he pointed out the branchial
orifices ill the fides, and the perpendicular file of the tail.
3 E Thin

S H A

S H A

This fpecies has been long known to the inhabitants of the
fouth and weft of Ireland and Scotland, and thofe of Caer-
narvonfhire and Anglefea ; they quit the bays of thefe
Welih counties about Michaelmas, and the frith of Clyde,
and the Hebrides, about the latter end of July. They have
nothing of the fierce and voracious nature of the (hark
kind, but are fo tame as to fuffer themfelves to be ftroked ;
lying motionlefs on the furface of the water, commonly on
their bellies, but fometimes on their backs, as if to fun
themfelves ; whence they are called bafliing Iharks. Their
food feems to confift entirely of fea-plants. Linnseus lays
they feed on medufa;. At certain times they are feen fport-
ing on the waves, and leaping with great agihty feveral feet
out of the water ; they Iwim deliberately, with the dorfal
fins above water ; their length is from three to twelve yards,
and they are fometimes longer ; their form is flender ; the
upper jaw much longer than the lower, and blunt at the
end ; the mouth placed beneath, and each jaw furnifhed
with numbers of fm all teeth ; thofe before being much bent,
and thofe more remote in the jaws being conic, and fharp-
pointed ; on the fides of the neck there are five large
tranfverfe apertures to the gills ; on the back two fins ; the
firll very large, nearer the head than the middle ; the other
fmall, and fituated near the tail ; on the lower part there are
five others ; tvz. two peftoral fins, two ventral fins, and a
fmall anal fin ; near thefe, tiie male has two genitals, as in
other (harks ; and between thefe fins was fituated the
pudendum of the female ; the tail very large, having the
upper part much longer than the lower ; the colour of the
upper part of tlie body a deep leaden, and the belly white ;
the (kin rough, like (liagreen, but lefs fo on the belly than
on the back ; withinfide the mouth, towards the throat,
was a very (hort fort of whalebone ; the liver is of a great
fize, that of the female being the largell, and is melted into
a pure and fweet oil, fit for lamps, and much ufed by the
people, who take it to cure bruifes, burns, and rheumatic
complaints. A large fi(h will yield eight barrels of oil.
Thefe fi(hes are viviparous, a young one, a foot in length,
having been found in the belly of one of them. When
they are (Iruck with a harpoon, and wounded, they fling
up their tails, and plunge headlong to the bottom, coiling
the rope round them, and attempting to dilengage them-
felves from the harpoon, by rolling on the ground. They
fwim away with (tich rapidity and violence, that there has
been an inftance of a vetlel of fcventy tons having been
towed away againft a fre(h gale ; and they will employ the
filhers for twelve, and fometimes twenty-four liours, be-
fore they are fubdued. Pennant's Britilh Zoology, vol. iii.
p. loi, &c.

Shark, Hummer-headeJ, Squalus zyg<!na, a fifh of the
(hark kind, called alfo the lalance-fjh.

It is an extremely Angular and remirkablc fi(h, and diflFers
not only from all the other iharks, but from all the fifh in
the world, in the figure of its head : this is not placed, as
in all other filhes, longitudinally, or in a line with the body,
but is fet on traiifverfely, as the head of a hammer or mallet
upon the handle. This is femicircular at the front, and
runs to fo thin and (harp an edge, that as the fi(h fwims for-
ward with violence, it may cut other filhes, and is terminated
at each end by an eye ; thefe are very large, and fo placed,
that they more conveniently look down than either upward
or fideway. In the farther part of the forehead alfo, near
the eves, on each fide, there is a large oblong foramen,
ferving either for hearing or fmelling, or perhaps for both ;
the mouth is very large, and placed under the head, and
armed with four rows of extremely (harp and llrong teeth,
flat, and ferrated at their edges ; the tail is compofed of

two fins, one vaftly larger than the other ; the body is
rounded and very long, and is not covered with fcales, but
a thick fKin ; the back is alb-coloured, and the belly white.
Rondelet. de Aquat. p. 549.

It is caught in the Mediterranean, and fometimes in dif-
ferent parts of tlic ocean. Some authors have called it
■^y^xna, and others libella ; which lall anfwers to the Englilh
name of the balance-JiJJ}.

Shark, Picked. See Acanthias and Squalu6.

Shark, Long-tailed. See Sea-Yo\ and ScjUALus
Vulpa.

Shark, Spotted, Squalus Canicula of Linnatus. See
StiUALL'ft Catulus.

Shark, I-e/fer /potted, called the morgay, or rough
hound-jij}}, Squalus Calulus of Linnasus. See Squalls Ca-
tulus.

Sjiakk, Smooth, Squalus Mujlelus of Liniiseus. Sec
Squalus Mujlelus.

Shark, called the tope, Squalus Galcus of Linnxus. See
Squalls Galeus.

Shark, called the angel or monk-jijh, Squalus Squatina of
Linnseus. See Squalu.s Squatina.

Shark River, in Geography, a river of New Jerfey,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 40° 10'. W. long.

74° 4'-

SHARKIND, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland;
9 miles S.S.W of Nordkioping.

SHARKSTOWN, a town of Maryland, on the ifland
of Kent ; 28 miles S.E. of Baltimore.

SHARM el Kiman, or Sharm el Kaman, a port on the
Red fea, on the coaft of Egypt. N. lat. 24° 44'.

SHARM A, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hadra-
maut ; 30 miles E.N.E. of Sahar.

SHARMAGOL, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Chorafan ; 12 miles S. of Nefa.

SHARMAK, a fea-port of Africa, on the Gold Coatt ;
13 miles W. of Commendo.

SHARMALIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Diarbekir ; i j miles S.W. of Ourfa.

SHAROKIE. See ScHON.

SHARON, a town of the province of Maine ; 40 miles
N. of Portland — Alfo, a town of Connefticut ; 12 miles
N.W. of Litchfield. — Alfo, a poft-town of the (late of
New York ; 2J miles W. of Albany. — Alfo, a townlhip
of Maflachufetts ; 10 miles S.W. of Boilon. — Alfo, a
townlhip of Vermont, on White river ; 6 miles N.W.
of Norwich.

SHARP, Abraham, in Biography, an eminent mathe-
matician, mechaniil, and aftronomer, was defcended from a
family of Little Horton, near Bradford, in Yorklhire,
where he was born about 1651. After he had received a
good education, he was put apprentice at Mancheftcr, but
being fteadily attached to mathematical purfuits, he quitted
biifinefs and removed to Liverpool. Here he applied with
great diligence to his favourite lludy, and to pr'^curc a fub-
fiftence he opened a fehool, where he taught writing and the
elements of arithmetic. He next went to London, with
the view of ailociating with Mr. Flamftead, by whofe in-
terelt he obtained a profitable employment m the dock-yard
at Chatham, where he remained till he was invited to become
the alUftant of Flamltead at the Royal Obfervatory at Green-
wich. In this fituation he continued to make obfervations,
and had a large (hare in forming a catalogue of 3000 fixed
(tars, with their longitudes and magnitudes ; their right af-
cenfion and polar diftance, and the variations of the fame,
while they change their longitude by one degree. In this
employment he injured his health, and was obliged to retire

to

SHARP,

to his native air, at Horton, where he fitted up an obfervatory
of his own, having conltrudled a very curious machine for
turning all kinds of work in wood and brafs. He con-
ttruded moil cif the tools ufed by joiners, clock-makers, op-
ticians, and mathematical inltrument-makcrs. He manu-
fedlured entirely his own telefcopes and other attronomical
inllruments.

He next materially afiifted Mr. Flamftead in calculating
mod of the tables in the fecond volume of his " Hiltoria
Celeiti?," and made curious drawings of the conftellations,
which were fent to Amfterdam to be engraved, and though
executed by a malterly hand, the originals were faid to have
exceeded the engravings in beauty and accuracy. In 1689
Mr. Flamftead completed his mural arc at Greenwich, in
which he had been greatly aflillcd by his friend Mr. Sharp,
who had been fome time in the obfervatory as his ama-
nuenfis. Mr. Smeaton, in a paper pubhflaed in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaftions for the year 1786, fpeaking of this
mural arc, fays, it may be confidered as the iirft good in-
ftrument of the kind, and that Mr. Sharp was the iird
perfon who cut accurate and delicate divifions upon attro-
nomical inltruments.

In 1717, Mr. Sharp publifhed a work entitled "Geo-
metry Improved," in which he engraved the figures as well
as compoied the work. This treatife contains i. A large
and accurate table of fegments of circles, with the method
of its conllruftion, and various ufes in the folution of diffi-
cult problems. 2. A concife treatife of polyedra, or folid
bodies of many bafes, both the regular and irregular ones,
to which are added twelve new ones, witli various methods
of forming them, and their exaft dimenfions in words or
fpecies, and alfo in numbers. In the year 1699 he under-
took, for his own private amufement, the quadrature of the
circle, deduced from two diflerent feries, by which the truth
of it was demonftrated to 72 place;i of figures. Mr. Sharp
maintained an epillolary correfpondence with the moll emi-
nent mathematicians and attronomers of the day ; among
thefe were the illullrious Newton, Dr. Halley, and Dr.
Wallis. It appears fro.ii a great variety of letters which
remained after his death, written to hun by thefe celebrated
men, that he fpared neither pains nor time to piomote the
interefts of real fcicncc Being jultly reckoned one of the
abled calculators of his time, his affiiiance was required by,
and freely given to Flamftead, fir Jofias Moore, Dr. Halley,
and others, in all difficult calculations. When he quitted
Mr. Flamftead, he retired to Little Horton, in Yorklhire,
where he fpent the remainder of his days, and where he
died in July 1742, in the 9 lit year of his age. He was of
very retired habits, and admitted few vilitors, excepting
two gentlemen, at Bradford, one a mathematician and the
other an ingenious apothecary. Many of his fingularities
are recorded in the General Biography, and r.lfo in Hutlon's
Mathematical Dictionary, to which the reader is referred.

Shaiii', John", archbilhop of York, a celebrated divine
of the church of England, was the fon of a rcfpectable
tradefman at Bradford, in Yorkftiiie, where he was born in
1644. He was admitted of Chrill's college, Cambridge,
in 1660, and in 1667 he commenced mailer of arts, and
was ordained. He was now appointed private tutor to the
four fons of fir Heneage Finch, a ilation which he occupied
about five years, when he obtained, through his patron'g
recommendation, the archdeaconry of Berkdiire. When
fir Heneage was raifed to the poll of keeper ot the great
fea), he maiiifelled fuch confidence in the fidelity and judg-
ment of his friend, as to commit to him the tcrutiny of
the characters of applicants for church livings in the gift
of the crown. A fermon which he prenclicd in 1674, re-

flefting upon thofe who diftcnted from the church, gave
rife to a controverfy, in which Dodwell, Baxter, and others
engaged. In 1677 he was inftituted to the reftory of
St. Giles-in-the-Fields, in which parifti he refided ten years.
Among his parilhioners was Richard Baxter, who, though
he was himielf a preacher on Sunday evenings, was a con-
itant hearer of the reftor in the mornings ; and thefe two
excellent men, notwithftanding their differences in fome
points, lived together upon the moft friendly terms. In
1679 Mr. Sharp commenced D.D., and in 1681 he was
promoted to the deanery of Norwich. On the death of
Charles II., to whom he had been a chaplain, he drew up
the addrefs of the grand-jury of London to his fucceffor,
to whom he was alfo nominally chaplain. After this he
preached againft popery, and thus exciting the royal dif-
pleafure, he was obhged to quit the metropolis, and refide
altogether at his deanery. He employed himfelf in form-
ing a cabinet of coins, chiefly Britilh, Saxon, and Engliih.
Being wearied with his exclufion from his function in Lon-
don, he prefented a very humble petition to the king, in
confequence of which, he was allowed to return to his
duty in the metropohs, and he was extremely careful never
after to give offence, as he had done before. After the
abdication of the monarch. Dr. Sharp irritated the ad-
herents to William, by fome offenfive paftages in a prayer
and fermon, which he delivered before the houfe of com-
mons, who at firil refufed him their accullomed thanks,
which, however, were voted afterwards. In 1689, Dr.
Sharp was appointed the fuccefibr to Dr. Tillotfon in the
deanery of Canterbury, and he was nominated one of the
commiffioners for reviling the liturgy. At this period
fevcral bifhops had been deprived of their fees for refufing
to take the oaths to AVilliam and Mary, and Dr. Sharp
might have fucceeded to almoll any of them, but he re-
fufed, not through any fcruple of confcience, but on ac-
count of his friendfhip for the perfons deprived. When,
however, the archbifhopric of York became vacant in a dif-
ferent way, he readily accepted the high office, and he was
confecrated in July 1691. He filled this exalted ftation in
a manner, which has caufed him to be rcprefented as a
model of prelatical virtues, and which procured him gene-
ral rcfpedt and eflecm. He died at Batli in 1714, in the
69th year of his age. His only writings were iermons, of
which were publifhed two volumes, confifting of fuch oc-
cafional difcourfes as he had printed during his life-time,
and live others, that were felefttd after his deccafe. He
was reckoned an excellent preacher, and his ftyle and doc-
trine are faid to be equally of the ilandard purity. Biog.
Brit.

Sharp, Thomas, younger fon of the preceding, was
born in Yorkfliire, and admitted of Trinity college. Cam-
bridge, about 1703, when he was of the age of 15. He
obtained a fcUowlhip in 1729, and took his doctor's degree
the fame year. Archbilliop Dawes appointed him his
chaplain, and in 1720 he was collated to the redtory ot
Rothbury, in Northumbcrlaiul. He was afterwards pre-
ferred to a prebend in Durham cathedral, and alfo to the
archdeaconry of Northumberland. He died in 1758. Dr.
Sharp wrote two differtatious concerning the etymology ot
the Hebrew words Elohim and Berilh — " Difcourfes on
the Antiquity of the Hebrew Tongue and Character."
He left a fon, Granville, to whofe fine charadter as a
genuine Englidi patriot, we Ihall endeavour to do juilice
in the next article.

SiiAiti', GuANVitr.K, fon of the preceding, a moft dii-
tinguiihed jihilanthropill and friend to the liberties of man-
kind, was born in tlie year 1734. He was educated for
t E 2 the

SHARP.

the bar, but did not praftife at it. When he quitted the
legal profefhon, he obtained a place in the ordnance office,
which he refigr.ed at the commencement of the American
war ; the principles of which were abhorrent from his mind.
He now took chambers in the Temple, and devoted himfclf
to a hfe of lludy ; at the fame time, laying himfclf out for
public utility. He firft became known to tiie pnblic in the
cafe of a poor and friendlefs Negro, of the name of 60-
merfet. This perfon had been brought from the Welt
Indies to England by a mafter, whofe name we fliould
gladly hand down to the execration of pollerity, if it were
in our power ; and falling into bad health, was abandoned
by him as a ufelefs article of property, and turned into the
ftreets, either to die, or to gain a miforable fupport by
precarious charity. In this deftitute Itate, almolt, it is
faid, on the point of expiring on the pavement of one of
the public ftreets of London, Mr. Sharp chanced to fee
him. He inttantly had him removed to St. Bartholomew's
hofpital, attended pcrfonally to his wants, and in a fhort
time had the happinefs to fee him reftorcd to health. Mr.
Sharp now clothed him, and procured him comfortable em-
ployment in the fervice of a lady. Two years had elapfcd,
and the circumitance almolt, and the name of the poor
NepTo, had efcapcd the memory of his benefaftor, when
Mr. Sharp received a letter from a perfon, figning himfclf
Somerfet, confined in the Poultry Compter, Hating no
caufe for his commitment, but intreating his interference to
fave him from a greater calamity even than the death from
which he had before refcned him. Mr. Sharp inttantly went
to the prifon, and found the Negro, who in ficknefs and
mifery had been difcarded by his mailer, fent to prifon as a
runaway flave. The excellent patriot went immediately to
the lord mayor, William Nafli, efq., who caufed the parties
to be brought before him ; v.-hen, after a long hearing, the
upright magiltrate decided that the mailer had no property
in the perfon of the Negro, in this country, and gave the
Negro his liberty. The malter inllantly collared him, in
the prefencc of Mr. Sharp and tlie lord mayor, and infilled
on his right to keep him as his property. Mr. Sharp now
claimed the protedlion of the Enghth law, caufed the mailer
to be taken into cuftody, and exhibited articles of peace
againtt him for an alTault and battery. After various legal
proceedings, lupported by him with moil undaunted Ipirit,
the twelve judges unanimoiilly concurred in an opinion that
the mafter had afttd criminally. Thus did Mr. Sharp
emancipate for ever the race of blacks from a Hate of
flavery, while on Britifli ground, and in faft banilhed flavery
from Great Britain. Such an incident could not fail deeply
to imprefs a benevolent mind ; and flavery, in every fliape
and country, became the objeft of his unceafing hoftility.
In 1769 he publifhed a work, entitled "A Reprcfentation
of the InjulHce and dangerous Ter.dency of tolerating
Slavery, or of admitting the lead Claim of private Property
in the Perfons of Men in England." Having fuceeeded in
the cafe of an individual Negro, he interelted himfelf in the
condition of the many others, who were feen wandering
about the ilreets of London, and at his own expence col-
lei£tcd a number of them, whom lie fent back to Africa,
where they formed a colony on th.e river Sierra Leone. He
performed a Hill more efTential fcivice to humanity, by be-
coming the mllitutor of the " Society for the Abolilion of
the Slave Trade ;" which, after contending againlt a vaft
mafs of oppofition, at length glorioufly fucceeded, as far as
this country was concerned in the horrible traffic.

Mr. Granville Sharp is mentioned in connexion with this
bufinefs, in terms of the higheft commendation, by Mr.
Clarkfon, in his " Hillory of the Abolition of the Slave

Trade." (See vol. i. p. 63 — 70.) The following fhort
account of him is cxtrafted from the Edinburgh Review,
vol. xii.

" We think it a duty to mention the name of Mr. Gran-
ville Sharp. Regardlefs of the dangers to which he ex-
pofcd himfclf, botii in liis perfon and his fortune, Mr. Sharp
ilood forward in every cafe as the courageous friend of the
poor Africans in England, in diredl oppofition to an opinion
of York and Talbot, the attorney and folicitor-general for
the time being. This opinion had been aCted upon ; and
fo high was its authority, that, after it had been made
public, it was held as the fettled law of the land, that a flave,
neither by baptifm, or arrival in Great Britain or Ireland,
acquires freedom, but may be legally forced back to the
plantations. Difcouraged by judge Blackitone, and feveral
other eminent lawyers, Mr. Sharp devoted three years of
his life to the Englifh law, that he might render himfelf the
more effectual advocate of thefe friendlefs ilrangers. In
his work, entitled " A Reprefertation of the Injullice and
dangerous Tendency of tolerating Slavery in England,"
publifhed in the year 1769, and afterwards in his learned
and laborious " Inquiry into the Principles of Villenages,"
he refuted the opinion of York and Talbot by unanswerable
arguments, and neutralized their authority by the counter
opinion of the great lord chief jullice Holt, who many
years before had decided, that as force could be ufed againlt
no man in England without legal procefs, every flave com-
ing into England became free, inafmuch as the laws of
England recognized the diflinftion between perfon and pro-
perty as perpetual ar.d facred. Einally, in the great cafe
ef Somerfet, which was argued at three different fittings,
in January, in February, and in May, of the year 1772,
(the opinion ot the judges havinjj been taken up on the
pleadings,) it is at laft afcertained and declared to be the
law of the land, that as foon as ever any flave fet his foot
upon Englifh territory, he became free. Among the heroes
and fages of Britifh flory, we can think of few whom we
fiiould feel a greater glow of honefl pride in claiming as an
anceflor, than the man to wham we owe our power of re-
peating with truth,

" Slaves cannot breathe in England ; if their lungs
Receive our air, that mom.ent they are free :
They touch our country, and their fhackles fall."

Similar principles led Mr. Sharp to ufe his endeavours to
rellrain the arbitrary practice of marine impreffment ; and a
citizen of London having been carried off by a prefs-warrant,
Mr. Shaip obtained a habeas corpus from the court of king's
bench, to bring him back from a veliel at the Nore ; and
by his arguments obliged the court to hberate him. In his
political principles he was always the ardent and zealous
friend to liberty, a!id he negledled no opportunity to defend
its principles, and affert the rights of the people. He was
the warm advocate of " parliamentary reform," and pub-
lifhed, in 177!:!, the fccor.d edition of an excellent little
work, full of conllitutional knowledge ar.d found reafonin^,
entitled " A Declaration of the People's natural Right to
a Share in the Lcgiflature, which is the fundamental Prin-
ciple of the Britifh Conflitution of State." He was, in
1794, as zealoufly attached to the caufe as he had been
twenty years before ; though, perhaps, he did not feel him-
felf fufficiently adlive to engage in it as a partizan, when it
was a fubjefl of obloquy. He was not, however, an un-
concerned fpeftator of the dreadful tyranny, which, but
for the intervention of an honeft Englifh jury, would have
overwhelmed the land. He fent, to one of the perfons at
that time confined in the Tower of London, a copy of the

work

S H A

S H A

xvork referred to, with all'urances of a readinefs to do any-
thing in his power to ftem the torrent fetting in againll the
liberties of the country.

Mr. Sharp's phm of reform recommended to the pubhc,
was founded on the earhelt principles and praftices of the
Britifh conUitution. He propofed to reftore the ancient
t'tlhings, hundreds, &c. ; and the whole body of the people
were to form a national militia, each thouland to conltitute
a regiment, the alderman or magittrate to be the colonel;
and each hundred to conftitute a company, the conltable of
each for the time being to be their captain. So many of
the thoufands to be fummoned once in every year, by their
magillrate, as would have a right to vote in their refpeftive
hundreds, before the couftable, in the choice of their part of
the reprelcntative legiflature. Mr. Sharp has ftiewji that
the divifion of tliis kingdom into tythings and hundreds was
inftituted by the immortal Alfred ; that fuch a divifion is
confiitent with the moll perfeft ftate of liberty that man is
capable of enjoying, and yet fully competent to anfwer all
the purpofes of mutual defence, to fecure the due execution
of the laws, and maintain public peace.

Mr. Sharp was educated in the principles of the eila-
blinied church, and through life flicwed a warm attachment
to them. He always, even at the clofe of life, had a tho-
rough dread of Poperv, but was candid and liberal to Pro-
tellant didentero of all parties. His zeal for the eltabliflicd
religion of the country led him to recommend an epilcopal
church in America ; and he introduced the firll bidiops from
that country to the archbiihop of Canterbury for confe-
cration.

Mr. Sharp died in July 1813, and like Cato, though ad-
vanced to the age of 79, lie purfued his lludies with all the
ardour of youth. He was an able linguill, deeply read in
theology, and was well acquainted with the fcriptures in the
original tongues. He was pious and devout, without
gloom, ilrictly moral and temperate, a great lover of mulic,
and cheerful in converfation. His fervices to humanity
were very dillinguiihed, and few perfons in private life have
deferved a higher or more honourable commemoration.

As a writer, his pieces are very numerous. From thefe
wc learn that he was a believer in the dodlriiies as fet forth
in the articles of the church, as that of original fin, the ex-
iftence and operations of the devil on the human mind, and
of the Athanafian myftery of the Trinity. He alfo, from
ftudying the book of Revelation, fully expe6led tiie com-
mencement of the Millenium, or perfonal reign of Chrilt on
earth, in the fpring of iSii ; but he lived long enough to
fee his error. He poflefled a very cxtenhve library, in
which the theologian, lawyer, claltical fcholar, politician,
antiquary, and orientalill, might find almoll every thing of
which they could iland in need ; and his coUeition of bibles
was citecmed the bell in tlie kingdom.

The princij)al works of Mr. Slurp, befides thofe already
mentioned, are *' Remarks on feveral very important Pro-
phecies ;" " Remarks on the Ufes of the definitive Article
in the Greek of the New Teftament, containing many new
Proofs of the Divinity of Chrilt," &c. Tliis occafioned
" Six Letters" to be addrelled to him, in vindication of his
theory ; and alfo " Six more Letters, &c." by Gregory
Blunt, efq., which is a work of great talent, profound
learning, and mallerly wit. It has long fince been out of
print, and the author is probably known only to two or
three perfons ; the defignatioii Bhint beiiig ailumed to con-
ceal the real name. Mr. Sharp's lalt work was entitled
" Remarks on the 68th Pfalm, addreficd to tiie Confidera-
tion of the Houfe of Ifrael." Monthly Mag. Gentle-

man's Mag. Edin. Rev. Clarkfon's Hill, of the Abolition
of the Slave Trade.

Sharp, Samuel, an able and diitinguillied fnrgeon in
the middle of the lall century, was a pupil of the celebrated
Chefelden, and afterwards iludied his profeffion with great
zeal at the hofpitals of Paris. He is faid to have com-
menced his profeflion rather late in life; neverthelefs, after
fettling in London, and obtaining an apj«ointment as fur-
geon of Guy's holpital, his genius and affiduity foon ob-
tained for him a high degree of celebrity, and extenfive
praftice. He was elefted a fellow of the Royal Society,
and a foreign member of the Academy of Surgery at Paris ;
and he contributed to the improvement of his art by two
valuable publications, which pafled through many editions,
and were tranflated into ieveral foreign languages. The
firll of thele was " A Treatife on the Operations of Sur-
gery, with a Dcfcription and Reprefcntation of the Inflru-
ments ; and an Introdudlion on the Nature and Treatment
of Wounds, Abfceffes, and Ulcers ;" firll printed in 1739.
Our edition, printed in 175 1, is the ilxth. The fecond
work was entitled " A critical Liquiry into the prefent
State of Surgery;" firll printed, we believe, in 1750.
Our edition of 1761 is the fourth. See Eloy Ditt. Hift.
de la Med., and Sharp's Works.

Sharp, in Mujic, is a chromatic fign, marked thus, %(. ;
and elevates the note before which it is placed half a tone,
without changing its name or place on the ilafF.

A fliarp on a line or Ipace, at the beginning of a move-
ment, affeiils all the notes of the fame name throughout the
piece, contradifted by a natural, ^. See Natukal.

An accidental fharp affedls no note beyond the fingle bar
in which it occurs ; but it always, when accompanied by a
bafe or lower part, implies a new modulation, except in
minor keys, the (harp to the feventh of the key, which is a
thing of courfe.

Ill the key of C * with a (harp third, there are feven
fliarps at the clef, which implies that every note in the Icale
is elevated a femitone above its ufual pitch.

-*-

-M.

-*■

m

'-K.

-*-

See BowLiXG.

a learned divine,
He received his

111 this key, an accidental rtiarp is marked by a double
diarp X , ufualiy called a d'lefis, or enharmonic fliarp ;
which fee.

Sharp the Bo'Ui-hnc, in Sea Languiige.

Sharp Nnih. See Nail.

SHARPE, Grugokv, in Biography,
was born in Yorkfhire in the year 1713.
education firll at Wellminlltr fchool,and afterwards at Ab?r-
dcen, undei- the learned lil.ickwr-ll. Upon his-entering orders
he became minittcr of St. Margaret's chapel, We'lmin-
iler ; after this, he was appointed chaplain to the king, and
mailer of the Temple. lie was alfo clefted a fellow of the
Royal and Antiquarian Societies; and died in 1771. He
united to great learning a talle for the fine arts, and etched
feveral plates in the edition of Dr. Hyde's Syntagma. His
own works are, I. A Review of the Controverfy about the
Meaning of the Demoniacs in the New Tedamcnt. 2. A
Defence of Dr. Clarke againll Leibnitz. 3. Two Did'er-
tations upon tlic Origin of Lang-tiages, and the Power 'if
I-ettcrs ; with a Hebrew I>exicon. 4. A Dilfertatiun on
the Origin and Strudlure of the Latin Language. 5. Two
Arguments in Defence of Clirillianitv. 6. Tranflation of
Holbcrg's Introdudion to Univerfal Hillory. 7. Sermons.

Ts

S H A

S H A

To which is prefixed a biographical preface, from which the
foregoing fafts have been extrafted.

SHARPING Corn, a cuftomary prefent of corn,
which, at every Chrillmas, the farmers in fome parts of
England make to their fmith, for iharpening their ploughing-
irons, harrow-tines, &c.

SHARPLING, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of
the gaflerofteus. See STlCKLE-5ac;E.

SHARPSBURG, in Geography, a town of America,
in Maryland ; 69 miles N-W. of Baltimore.

SHARUM, a town of Arabia, in Hadramaut ; 15 mileo
S.W. of Kefchim.

SHARUT, Shaiirat, or Sharoot, a fmall town of
Perfia, in Aiterabad, called alfo Bittan, is farrouiidcd in
fome parts with a flight earthen wall. Tiie houfes, from a
want of wood, are built of unburnt brick"?, and covered
■with a flat arch of the fame materials. In its vicinity are
feen many people, whofe nofes, fingers, and toes have been
deftroyed by the froft, which is laid to be feverer at this
place than in any part of Perfia. This town, wi'h its de-
pendencies, yields a revenue of 1969 tomanns. The pofi-
tion of the town is determined by two routes, one from
Tehraun and the other from Tar(hi(h.

SHASAD, or Siiazadbauy, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sumbul ; 16 miles S. of Sumbul.

SHASAVA, a town of Hindooltan ; 18 miles S. of
Agra.

SMASH, Al. SeeTASHKUSD.

SHASHTI, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god-
defs Parvati ; which fee.

SHASK, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bag-
lana ; 15 miles S. of Bahbelgong.

SHASSAIR, a town of Africa, in Biledulgerid ; 7
miles N. of Fighig.

SHASTAH, Shaster, or Snjlra, which latter is faid
to be the corredt fpelling and pronunciation, the name of
a facred book, in high eftimation among the idolaters of
Hindooftan, containing all the dogmas of the religion of the
Bramins, and all the ceremonies of their worlhip, and
ferving as a commentary on the Vedam.

The word is derived from a root fignifying to ordain, and
means generally an ordinance, and particularly a facred
ordinance dehvered by infpiration : properly, therefore, the
word is applicable chiefly to facred literature.

The term Shatter ienotei fcience or fyjlem ; and is applied
to other works of allronomy and philofophy, which have
no relation to the religion of the Indians. None but the
Bramins and rajahs of India are allowed to read the Vedam;
the priefts of the Banians, called Jhuderers, may read the
Shatter ; and the people, in general, are allowed to read
only the Paran or Pouran, which is a commentary on the
Shatter.

The Shatter is divided into three parts ; the firft con-
taining the moral law of the Indians ; the lecond, the rites
and ceremonies of their religion ; and the third, the dittri-
bution of the people into tribes and clafTes, with the duties
pertaining to each clafs.

The principal precepts of morality contained in the firtt
part of the Shatter, are the following : that no animal be
killed, becaufe the Indians attribute fouls to bri.te animals
as well as to mankind ; that they neither hear nor fpeak
evil, nor drink wine, nor eat flefh, nor touch any thin<^
that is unclean ; that they obferve the feafts, prayers, and
wafhings, which their law prefcribes ; that they tell no lies,
nor are guilty of deceit in trade ; that they neither opprefs
nor offer violence to one another ; that they celebrate the

folemn feafts and fafts, and appropriate certain hours of
ordinary fleep to cultivate a diipofition for prayer ; and that
they do not tteal, or defraud one another.

The ceremonies contained in the fecond part of the
Shatter, are fuch as thefe : that they wath often in the
rivers, hereby obtaining the pardon of their fins ; that they
mark their forehead with red, in token of their relation to
the Deity ; that they prefent offerings and prayers under
certain trees, fet apart for this purpofe ; that they pray
in the temple, make oblations to their pagodas, or idols,
fmg hymns, and make proceflions, &c. ; that they praftife
pilgrimages to diltant rivers, and efpecially to the Ganges,
there to wafh themfelves, and make offerings ; that they
make vows to particular faints, according to their refpec-
tive departments ; that they render homage to the Deity,
at the firft fight of the fun ; that they pay their refpeft
to the fun and moon, which are the two eyes of the Deity ;
and that they treat with particular veneration, thofe ani-
mats that are deemed more pure than others, as the cow,<
buffalo, &c. becaufe the fouls of men have tranfmigrated
into thefe animals.

The third part of the Shatter records the diftribution of
the people into four claffes ; the firll being that of the
Bramins, or priefts, appointed to inttruft the people: the
fecond, that of the Kutteris, or nobles, who are the ma-
giftrates : the third, that of the Shudderis, or merchants :
and the fourth, that of the mechanics. Each perfon is
required to remain in the clafs in which he was born, and
to purfue the occupation afligned to him by the Shatter.
According to the Bramins, the Shatter was imparted by
God himfelf to Brahma, and by him to tiie Bramins, who
communicated the contents of it to the people.

Modern writers have given us very different accounts of
the antiquity and importance of the Shatter. Mr. Holwell,
who had made a confiderable progrefs in the tranflation of
this book, apprehends, that the mytliology, as well as the
cofmogony of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were
borrowed from the doctrines of the Bramins contained in it,
even to the copying of their exteriors of worttiip, and the
dittribution of their idols, though grofsly mutilated and adul-
terated. With refpeft to the Vedam and Shaftah, or fcrip-
tures of the Gentoos, this writer informs us that Vedam, in
the Malabar language, fignifies the fame as Shattah in the
Shanlcrit ; and that the firft book is followed by the Gen-
toos of the Malabar and Coromandel coaits, and alfo of the
ifland of Ceylon. The Shaftah is followed by the Gentoos
of the provinces of Bengal, and by all the Gentoos of the
reft of India, commonly called India Proper, along tlie courfe
of the rivers Ganges and Jumna to the Indus. Both thefe
books, he fays, contain the inttitutes of their refpective reli-
gion and worlhip, as well as the hittory of their ancient rajahs
and princes ; often couched under allegory and fable : their
antiquity is contended for by the partifans of each ; but he
thinks, that the fimilitude of their names, idols, and great
part of their worttiip, leaves little room to doubt, nay, plainly
evinces, that both thefe fcriptures were originally one. He
adds, if we compare the great purity and chatte manners of
the Shattah, with the great abfurdities and impurities of the
Vedam, we need not hefitate to pronounce the latter a cor-
ruption of the former.

With regard to the high original of thefe fcriptures, the
account of the Bramins is chiefly as follows. Brahma, q. d.
Mighty Spirit, about four thoufand eight hundred and fixty-
fix years ago, affumed the form of man, and the government
of Hindooltan. He tranflated the divine law (defigned for the
reftoration of mankind, who had offended in a pre-exiftent

ftate.

SHASTAH.

ftate, and who arc now in the laft fcene of probation, to the
dignity fnim which thi^-y were degraded,) out of tlie lan-
guage of angels into the well-known Shanfcrit language, and
called his tranflation the " Chartah Bhade Shallah" of Bir-
mah, or the Six Scripfure';of the Divine Words of the Mighty
Spirit. He appointed the Bramins, deriving their name from
him, to preach the word of God ; and the doftrines of the
Shallah were accordingly preached in their original purity a
thoufand years. About this time there was publifhed a
paraphrafe on the Cliartah Bhade : and about five hun-
dred years afterwards, a fecond expofilion, called " Augh-
torrah Bhade Shalla," or eighteen Books ol Divine Words,
written in a charaAcr compounded of the common Hiiidoo-
ftan and the Shanfcrit. This innovation produced a fchifm
among the Gentoos ; on which occafion, u is faid, tliofe of
Coromandel and Malab.ir formed a fcripture of their own,
which they pretended to be founded on the Chartah Bhade
of Birmah, and called it the Vcdam of Birmah, or Divine
Words of the Mightv Spirit. The original Chartah Bhade
was thrown alide, and, at length, wholly unknown, except to
a few families, who can Hill read and expound it in the Shan-
fcrit charaftcr. With the ellablifhment of the Auglitorrali
Bhade, and Vedam, which, according to the Gentoo ac-
count, is three tlionfand three hundred and lixty-iix years
ago, their polytheiim commenced ; and the principles of
religion became !o obfcure, and their ceremonies lo numerous,
that every head of a family was obliged to keep a Brainin,
as a guide both in faitli and praftice. Mr. Holvvell is of
opinion, that the Cliartah Bhade, or original fcriptures, are
not copied from any other fyitem of theology, promulgated
to, or obtruded upon mankind. The Gentoos do not at-
tribute them to Zoroader ; and Mr. Holwell luppofes, that
both Zoroaller and Pythagoras vifited Hindooltan, not to
inilruft, but to be inftrutted.

From the account of Mr. Dow we learn, that the books
i which contain the religion and philofophy of the Hindoos,
arc dillinguifhed by the name of Bedas ; that they are four
in number, and, like the facred writings of other nations,
faid to be penned by the divinity. Beda, he fays, in the
Shanfcrit language, literally rignifies fcience ; and thefe books
treat not only of religion and moral duties, but of every
branch of philofophic knowledge. The Bramins maintain,
that the Bedas are the divine laws, which Brimha, at the
creation of the world, delivered for the initruftion of man-
kind ; but they affirm, that their meaning was perverted in
the firll age by the ignorance and wickednefs of fome princes,
whom they rrprefent as evil fpirits, who then haunted the
earth. The iirft credible account we have of I he Bedas if,
that about the commencement of the callug, of which era the
year 1768 was the 4886th year, they were written, or rather
collected, by a great philolopher, and reputed prophet, called
Deafs Muni, or Beafs tlie Infpired.

The Hindoos, fays Mr. Dow, are divided into two great
religious fefts : the followers of the dodtrine of Bedang,
which is the original Shaller, or commentary upon the
Bedas ; and thofe who adhere to tiie principles of the Ne-
adirfen. The originnl Shaller is called Bedang, and is a
commcntarv upon the Bedas. 'I'his, he fays, is erroncoufly
called, in Europe, the Vedam. It is alcribed to Beafs
Muni, and faid to have been rcvifed fome years after by one
Serrider Swami, fmce which it has been reckoned facred,
and not (uhjert to any farther alterations. Alinoll all the
Hindoos of the Deccan, and thofe of the Malabar and Coro-
mandel coalts, are of this left. The followers of the Cedaiig
Shaflcr do not allow that any phyllcal evil exiils ; they
maintain that God created all tilings perfectly good, but
that man, being a free agent, may be guilty of moral evil,

6

which may be injurious to himfelf, but can be of no detri-
ment to the general fyilem of nature. God, they fay, being
perfectly benevolent, never punidied the wicked otherwife
than by the pain and affliftion which are the natural confe-
quences of evil aftions ; and hell, theref )rt, is no other than
a confcioufnefs of our evil.

The Neadirfen Shaller is faid to have been written by a
philofopher called Goutam, near four thoufand years ago.
The Bramins, from Mr. Dow's account of their facred
books, appear to believe invariably in the unity, eternity,
oniniicience, and omnipotence of God ; and the polytheifra,
of which tliey have been accufed, is no more than a fym-
bolical worfliip of the divine attributes, which they divide
into three clalles. Under the name of Brimha, they worlhip
the wifdom and creative power of God ; under the appel-
lation of Bifhen, his providential and preferving quality ;
and under that of Shibah, that attribute which tends to
deflroy.

According to M. de Sainte-Croix, the Shaila, however
extolled in Europe with refpeft to its antiquity, is pollerior
to the Vedam, being no more than the explication of it.
Holwell's Intereiling Hillorical Events, Sec. 8vo. Dow's
Hiilory of Hindooltan, 4to. 1768. L'Ezour Vedam, &C.
by M. de Sainte Croix, i2mo. Paris, 1 779. See Gentoo.s,
Shan.sc'Rit, and Vedam.

Six Saftras are commonly defcribed as of fuperior fanc-
tity, and are called the proper Saftras : — in thefe are com-
priled the four Vedas, the eigliteen Puranas, commentaries
on the Vedas, called Upaveda, and others. ( See Veda, and
PuRANA.) The Sudra, or lowell of the four claifes of
Hindoos, are not permitted to Itudy thefe fix Saftras, as
being too holy for fuch prophanc contemplation. ( See
SuDUA.) As noticed under the article Ra.mayana, that
book is reckoned too fublime for the perulal of fo inferior a
claf?. The Sudra may hear it read. An ample field, how-
ever, remains for them in the lludy of prophane literature,
comprifed in a multitude of popular books, which correfpond
with the feveral Saftras, and abound with beauties of every
kind. All the trafts on medicine muft indeed be ftudied by
the Vaidyas, or thofe who are born phyficians ; and this pro-
fefiion is confined chiefly to the Sudras. The Vaidyas are
laid to iiave often more learning than m.any Bramins, with
far lefs pride than any. They are ufually poets, gramma-
rians, rhetoricians, &c. and may be elleemed in general
among the moll amiable and virtu<nis of the Hindoos. See
Vaidva.

The word Saftra i^, however, applied more extenfively than

the above account may feem to imply. For inftance, a col-

leftion of trafts on arts and mannfadlures, is called Silpi

Sallra. The name of Niti Salfra is given to a fyftem of

ethics. Tlic Deriana Saftra is indeed one of the fix fuperior,

and con-.prifes an explanation of the principles of the fix

philofophical fchool;; ; a brief notice of which is given under

the article Pnii-OSOVIIY nf the Hindoos. An analylisof tiiis

work would fliew that many <if its theories .ire either the

fource of fimilar dodrines propounded in later times in

Greece, or borrowed from the fame fource with them. Other

colleftioiis of trafts, and fome feparate works, bear alfo the

denomination of Sallra ; and it is fometimes rather vaguely

applied. A Brahman deeply verled in facred literature has

the honourable title of Saftri added to his name ; cquiv.alent

to our clerieus. Sometimes lie is diftinguiftied by it alone,

and called the Snjlrl. There is alfo the Dherma Saftra, a

body of ethics and ritual obfervaiices ; the Agama Sallra,

or occult ordinances. Thi:; latter has been fulperted to

have fume reference to the Ogham of the weft. See Ogham,

and O'm.

Safin,

S H A

Safin, which was omitted in its proper place, is a name
for t'lic Hindoo deity Budlia, or Boodh. The name figni-
fies vviidom, or a wife man; and ir, Hill applied to, or
aliumed by, individuals, efpecially Bramins, who are fup-
pofed to have acquired an extraordinary degree of learnmg
or wifdom. As all profitable wifdom is prefumed to be
comprifed in the Saftra, or facred books, the title of Saftri
is thence derived. It is fomctimes appended fimilarly to the
fcholar's name ; and he is at others called the Saftri, or
Saftri fahib,— Mr. Saftri.

SHASUMAN, in Geography, a town of Periia, in the
province of Mazanderan ; 30 miles E of Efterabad.

SHAT-EL-AMAAR, a name given by the Arabs to

the Tigris.

SHAT-EL-DEAAL, a river which runs from the north,

and enters the Tigris near Bagdad.

SHAT-EL-DEGELA, a river or canal, fo called by
the Arabs, which communicates with another named Shat-el-
Hie, which is a branch of th; Tigris.

SHAT-EL-FRAATE, a name given by the Arabs to
the Euphrates.

SHAT-KRATU, in Mythohi^y, one of the names
of the Hindoo Indra, regent of the firmament. It means
the hundred facrifices ; tiiat is, he to whom a hundred
facrifices are offered ; or rather, perhaps, he who has offered
them. Indra, it is fabled, obtained his prefent dignity by
the great facrifice of a hundred horles. An offering of a
horle is called Afwamedha, and is attended with infinite
trouble and expence, as laid down in the Hindoo rituals.
See Indra, Naramedha, andRHEMBA.

SHATNUF, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile ; 9 miles N. of Cairo.

SHATOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura; 20
miles N.N.W. of Coilpetta.

SHATORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura; 12
miles N.E. of Coilpetta.

SHAT-UL-ARAB, one of the nobleft rivers in the
Eaft, formed by the combined ftreams of the Euphrates
and Tigris. The union of thefe ftreams takes place near
Korna. or Corny, which is one of the three Apameas,
built by Seleucus in honour of his firft wife, Apama. On
the weftern bank of this river, and 70 miles from its mouth,
in N. lat. 31° 30', is fituated the city of Buft'ora or Bafra ;
and the river is navigable as far as the city for ihips of 500
tons burthen. The city is fometimes fo completely deluged
by the river, that it appears like an ifland in the middle of a
lake. The combined ftream of the Shat-ul-Arab has gene-
rally been thought to enter the Pcrfian gulf by a variety of
mouths : but the faft is, that this noble river has, at this
time, only one mouth, and probably never had any other.
The ifland, or delta, between the Shat-ul-Arab and the
Bamifhern (the ancient Mefena) was formerly included in the
pachahc of Bagdad ; but having been conquered by Sheik
Solyman from the Turks, has remained in the pofreffion of
his fucceffors. This is a low and fertile tra£t : the northern
parts of which, towards the Hafur, are interfered by a
number of canals, and are in a tolerable ftate of cultivation.
Extenfive ruins are vifible in many places, and the borders of
the Shat-ul-Arab, as far down as Chubda, are covered with
date-trees. The river " Shat-el-Ajew," fignifying in Arabic
a river of Perfia, difcharges itfelf on the Perfian fide into
the Shat-ul-Arab, near Margill.

SHATZAM, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Mekran ; 210 miles S.E. of Arokhage.

SHAVAKAT, a town of Turkettan, on the Siir ; 20
miles S. of Talhkund.

S H A

SHAUBACO, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of
the Nile ; 16 miles S. of Cairo.

SHAVE Grass, m Botany. See Eqlisetum.
SHAVING-Irons, among Gardeners, tools to keep a
garden free from weeds, otherwife called edging-irons.

SHAVINGS, Yiov.^, \n Jgrkniture. See MANURE.
SHAUL, or Shawl, an article of female drefs, much
prized in the Eaft, and now well known in England. As
the (hauls all confie from Caflimere, or Cachemir, it was ge-
nerally concluded, that the m.aterials from which they were
fabricated was of the growth of that country. It was faid
to be the hair of a particular goat, and the fine under hair
from a camel's breaft ; but we now certainly know that it is
the produce of a Thibet (heep. Bernier relates, that in his
time, (hauls made for the great omrahs of the Thibetian
wool, coft a hundred and fifty rupees ; whereas thofe made
of the wool of the country never cott more than fifty. For
an account of their manufa£ture and value, fee Cashmere.
SHAVOYA, or Chavova, in Geography, a province
of the empire of Morocco, fituated to the S. of the king-
dom of Fez, and W. of Tedla ; inhabited by moun-
taineers addifted to robbery and violence. Towards the
latter end of the laft century refufing to pay tribute to the
emperor, Muley Iflimael, he marched an army, which, fur- '
rounding their ftrong holds on the mountains, compelled
them to flight, leaving their wives and children, who were
put to the fword, and the plunder diftributed among the
foldiers.

SHAUR, a fmall ifland in the Red fea. N. lat. 27° 20'.
E. long. 34- 58'.

SHAUS. See Chaus.

SHAVUNGUNK, a mountain of New York ; 20 miles
S. of Kins;fton.

SHAW, Thomas, in Biography, was born at Kendal in
or about the year 1692. He was educated at the grammar-
fchool of that town, and in 17 11 was admitted of Queen's
college, Oxford. Soon after he had taken orders, he was "
appointed chaplain to the Englifli factory at Algiers, in
which ftation he remained feveral years, making ufe of the
opportunity which it afforded of travelling into various parts
of Barbary, and into Egypt. In 1727 he was clefted
fellow of his college, in 1733 lie commenced D.D., and in
the following year he was elefted a member of the Royal
Society in London. In 1738 he publiflied his " Travels,
or Obfervations on feveral Parts of Barbary and the Le-
vant," to which a fupplement was added in 1746 ; and about
ten years afterwards the whole appeared in a fecond edition,
with confiderable improvements. Few books of the kind
ftand higher in reputation than Dr. Shaw's Travels, which

contain many learned diflertations refpecling the countries
which lie had vifited, with divers remarks on their manners
and cuftoms, and valuable obfervations in natural hiftory.
They have been regarded as particularly ufeful in illuftrating
the Icriptures by comparifons between the ancient and mo-
dern ilate of the eaftern regions. Dr. Shaw, on his return
from his travels, brought back a large colleftion of dried
plants. He prefented to the univerfity of Oxford fome re-
lics of antiquity which he had collefted, of three of which
engravings were made in the " Marmora Oxonienfis." In
the year 1740 he was chofen principal of St. Edmund's
Hall, and was at the fame time prefented to the vicarage of
Bramley in Hampihire. Soon after the regius profeflorfhip
was conferred upon him, which he held till his death, in 1751.
His Travels have been tranflated into vai-ious modern lan-
guages. An attack, was made on them by Dr. Pocock,
which led the author to defend them in his fupplement, and
in a letter of Dr. Clayton, bifliop of Clogher.

Shaw,

SHAW.

Shaw, Peter, a phyficjan, and contemporary of the
former, was the author of feveral works, which enjoyed
a confiderable reputation in their day. His firft pub-
lication was entitled " New Praftice of Phyfic," in two
vohimes, and iirit printed in 1726: it contained a brief
defcription of difeafes and the methods of treating them.
His next work was an " Enquiry into the Virtues of Scar-
borough Spaw Waters," which he viCted during the fea-
fon ; it was printed in 1734. In the fame year he pub-
liflied alfo " Chymical Ledtures publicly read in London
173 1, 1732, and Scarborough 1733." This was deemed
a fcientific and valuable work, and was tranflated into
French. He publifhed fome minor works, " A Portable
L,aboratory," 1731; "On Scurvy," 1736; " E flays in
Artificial Philofophy," 1731 ; " On the Juice of the
Grape," 1724; and he edited the " Difpenfatory of the
College of Phyficians of Edinburgh," in 1727. See Eloy
Dift. Hift. de la Med. : and the works mentioned.

Shaw, George, the younger of two fons of the re-
verend Timothy Shaw, was born December i6th, 1 75 I, at
Bierton, in Bnckinghamfhire, of which place his father was
vicar. He (hewed, at a very early age, a great propenfity
to ftudy, and when he was only four years old, inftead of
following the amufemcnts common to young children, he
ufually entertained himfelf with books, or by the fide of
ditches and rivulets catching infefts, and taking them home,
and would fpend all his leifure time in watching their motions
and examining their ftrufture. He was educated entirely
by his father, and before he was fourteen years of age, his
proficiency was fuch as allowed him to enter with great ad-
vantage upon a courfe of college ftudies. In 1765 he was
entered at Magdalen-hall, Oxford, where he was no lefs dif-
tinguifhed by the regularity of his conduA, than by an un-
common diligent application to his ftudies. In 1769 he was
admitted to the degree of B.A. and in May 1772 to that of
M.A. In order that he might affill his father in his clerical
duties, he took Orders, and was ordained deacon in 1774,
at Buckdcn, by Dr. Green, bifhop of Lincoln, and regu-
larly performed the duty at Stoke and Biickland, two cha-
pels, each three miles apart from the mother church. As
foon as an opportunity offered, he laid afide his tiieological
career, which was never quite congenial to his mind, and
went to Edinburgh, to qualify himfelf for the pi-ofe(Iion of
phyfic. Having attended the leftures of Black, Ciillen,
and other eminent profefibrs for three years, he returned to
Oxford, where he was appointed deputy botanical lefturcr.
In this office he acquired much celebrity. He had been ap-
pointed to his office by Dr. Sibthorp, the botanical pro-
feffor, who was then upon the eve of fctting out upon his
travels into Greece. (See Sibthorp.) Upon the death of
this gentleman. Dr. Shaw became candidate for the vacant
profefforfhip, in which he would unqueflionably have been
fuccef^ful, had not an old ftatute been found, which pro-
hibits a pcrlon in orders from filling the office. In 1787 he
was admitted to the degrees of batchelor and do£lor of
medicine : it appears that at this time he had removed from
Magdalen-hall to Magdalen college. In the fame year he
removed to London, where he praftifed as a phyfician.
Shortly afccr this, feveral gentlemen, dillinguifiied for their
attachment to the Itudy of, and eminent for their acquirements
iji natural hillory, eltablifhed a fociety for the advancement
of this fcience, under the denomination of the Linnsean So-
ciety. Dr. (now fir James) Smith was elevated to the prc-
fidency, and Dr. Shaw was nominated one of the vice-
prefidents. To the Tranfaftions of this Society Dr. Sliaw
contributed the following papers. " Defcription of the
STyLEPHORi's Cordaitu," which fee ; " Defcription of the

Vol. XXXII.

Cancer Stagnalis;" " Remarks on the Scolopendra Elee-
trica and Scolopendra Subterranea ;" " A Note to Mr.
Kirby's Defcription of the new Species of Hirudo ;"
" Account of a minute Ichneun-.on ;" " Defcription of the
Species of Myfteria ;" " Defcription of the Mus Burfarius,
and Tubularia Magnifica."

Dr. Shaw at this period delivered a courfe of leftures at
the Leverian Mufeum, and never failed, as well before, as
after, that rich and magnificent colletlion was removed from
Leiceflcr Fields, to attraft very large and fcientific au-
diences. In 1789 Dr. Shaw began to publifh " The Na-
tuialill's Mifceliany," which came out in monthly numbers,
and continued to his deceafe, when 286 parts had been
publiflied, and, according to the biography of the author
given in the Gentleman's Magazine, a pofthumous number,
with an index, was to terminate the work, which is defcribed
as a moll beautiful andextenfive production, comprifing, in
1064 plates, figures of the more curious and remarkable
produitions of the three kingdoms of nature, more particu-
larly of the animal kingdom, with defcriptions in Latin and
Englifh. In this year Dr. Shaw was elefted a fellow of
the Royal Society, and in 1790 he projefted a work in
4to. entitled " Speculum Linnxum ; or Linnaean Zoology,"
but it probably did not promife fuccefs, as a fingle number
only appeared. In 1791 Dr. Shaw became a candidate for
the office of a librarian in the Britifh Mufeum, and his qua-
lifications, which were of the tirft order, procured him the
appointment of affiftant keeper of the natural hiftory. He
now quitted the duties of phyfician, and devoted himfelf
entirely to refearches in natural fcience. Between the
years 1792 — 6, appeared the following work ; " Mufsei Le-
veriani explicatio Anglica et Latina, opera et ftudio Georgii
Shaw, M.D. F. R.S. Adduntur figu;:c elegantur fculptse et
coloratx. Impenfis Jacobi Paikinfon." In 1794 Dr. Shaw,
in cnnjunftion with Dr. Smith and Mr. Sowerby, engaged
in a fptendid publication, illuflrative of the accellions which
had been made to natural fcience on the (horcs of New Hol-
land. The animals peculiar to that country were defcribed
by Dr. Shaw in a work entitled " The Zoology of New
Holland ;" the figures were delineated by Mr. Sowerby ;
and the botanical part was written by Dr. Smitli, and pub-
lifhed under the title of " The Botany of New Holland."

Sixty large plates publifhed by Miller, the editor of the
Gardener's Diftionary, under the title of " Various Siibjcifts
in Natural Hiilory, wherein are delineated Birds, Animals,
and many curious Plants," being judged dcfeftive from
want of letter-prefs, Dr. Shaw lupplicd tlie deficiency in a
work entitled " Cimclia Phyfica : Figures of rare and cu-
rious Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. together with feveral moft
elegant Plants, engraved and coloured from the Subjefts
thcmfelvcs : whh Defcriptions by George Shaw, NI. D.
F.R.S."

In the year 1800, Dr. Shaw began his great work, entitled
" General Zoology, or Natural Hiilory, with Plates from
the belt Authorities, and moft feleft Specimens." This work
had proceeded to the eighth volume during the lifetime of
the author, and a ninth was left ready for the prefs. In this
work he intended to comprifc the wliule of the hiftory of
the animal world. It began with quadrupeds, and had
proceeded through fifhes, amphibia, infcds, and part of the
birds. The Linnxan arrangement, with occafional varia-
tions, has been purfucd throughout.

In the years 1806 and 1807, Dr. Shaw delivered a courfe
of zoological Icfturcs, which were publifhed in 1809 in
two large volumes 8vo. In the firft nine leftures the author
has comprefled the lubllance of what he had delivered in the
General Zoology, and in the three remaining leftuics is
3 F a (ketch

S H A

S H A

a flcetch of what, had his life been fpared, he intended to
accomplifh in completing the General Zoology. In 1807,
upon the death of Dr. Gray, keeper of Natural Hiftory in
the Britifh Mufeum, Dr. Shaw was promoted to that office.
An abridgment of the Tranfaftions of the Royal Society was
begun in 1809, of which the department of natural hillory
fell to the lot of Dr. Shaw. It is faid he abridged 1500 dif-
tindl articles, which he rendered Hill more intcreiting than the
originals, by the infertion of Linnxan and fpecific name?, and
by occafional annotations, and confiderable references to fub-
fequent authors of mod celebrity, who had treated on thefe
fubjefts. Thii< was the lalt work in which he engaged. His
time was wholly occupied upon the " Naturaliil's Mifcel-
lany" and the " General Zoology," wlien death terminated
his aftive and very ufeful life on the 22d of July, 1813, in
the 62d year of his age. His illnefs was but of a few days'
continuance : his fenfcs and his recollection only forfook
him with his breath. He died, as he had lived, with philo-
fophic compofure and forenity of mind, which neither the
acute pains which he endured, nor the awful change which
he was well aware he was about to experience, could in any
degree difturb.

" As few men have left behind them a charafter more
eftimable, hi- name will be tranfmitted to pollerity among
thofe who give lultre to their age and country, who do
honour to human nature by their virtues, and who contri-
bute to the advancement of fcience, and the interells of
literature, by their fnperior talents. Endowed by nature
with confiderable intelleftual parts, and thefe improved by
afliduous cultivation, he acquired a vaft ftock of general
knowledge. His extenfive information was treafured up
without confufion, applied in his works with difcernmcnt,
and communicated to every enquirer with cheerfulnefs and
freedom." Gentleman's Magazine, 1813, p. 290.

SliAW, Stebbinc, a divine and antiquary, was born at
Stowe, in StafFordlhire, in 1762, and educated fird at Repton
fchool, and afterwards at Queen's college, Cambridge,
where he took his degrees and obtained a fellowfhip. In
1787 he made a tour in the Highlands of Scotland, of which
he publifhed an account without his name. In the following
year he made another tcur in the weft of England, an ac-
count of which he alfo publiflied. In 1789 he commenced,
in conjunflion with a friend, a periodical publication, called
The Topographer, chiefly coniifting of extrafts made from
curious books and MSS. in the Britifli Mufeum. This
work was difcontinued in about two years. He next under-
took tlie " Hiftory of Staffordfliire," of which the firft vol.
in folio, was publiftied in 1798 : m 1801 the firft part of
the fecond volume was given to the public, and he died in
1803.

Shaw, in our Old Writers, a grove of trees, or a wood.

Shaw Fowl, an artificial fowl made for fowlers to
fhoot at.

Shaw'j- IJlaiid, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
North Pacific ocean, at the entrance of Cook's Inlet. N.
lat. 59°. E. long. 207° 16'.

SHAWABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Rantampour ; 35 miles S. of Suifopour.

SHAWANEE, a town of America, in the county of
Randolph, and territory of Illinois, containing 830 in-
habitants.

SHAWANESE, the denomination of a tribe of In-
dians who inhabit Louifiana, on the Millifippi and St.
Francis. The number of warriors is 300 ; that of the in-
habitants 800 : their trade requires looo dollars of merchan-
dife : the value of their returns is 3000 ; their commerce
is carried on in their villages or fettlements. The Indians

of this tribe have four towns on the Tallapoofee river. By
the treaty of peace, Aug. 3, 1795, the United States
agreed to pay this tribe a fum in hand, and looo dollars
annually for ever in goods. They inhabit on the Scioto
river, and 3 branch of the Mufliingum, and have their
hunting grounds between Ohio river and lake Erie. They
are generally of a fmall fize, rather handfome in their fea-
tures, and a cheerful crafty people. CounfeUing among
the elder, and dancing among the young men and women^
take up a great part of then- time.

SHAWANGUNK, a poft-town in Ulfter county, New
York ; containing 2809 inhabitants ; 20 miles from Goflien
and 1 2 from New Pelta.

SHAWGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude, on
the left bank of Dewah, oppofite to Fyiabad.

SHAWGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad;
32 miles N. of Gazypour.

SHAWIA, in Botany, received its name in honour of
the celebrated oriental traveller, Dr. Tiiomas Shaw, who
has given a catalogue, in alphabetical order, accompanied
with rude plates, of the rarer plants, obferved by him in
Barbary, Egypt, and Arabia. The fpecies amount to
632, and the catalogue i'; enriched with fevcral fynonyms,
as well as occafional defcriptions and remarks. His dried
fpecimens arc prcferved at Oxford. The orthography of
the name is attended with difficulty to foreigners, our tv
being as unmanageable to them, as their multiplied confo-
nants are to us. Some of them blunder into Schawia,
Shaavia, or Shav'ta. Perhaps the latter might be tolerated,
were it not for the ludicrous ambiguity of Shavius itfelf,
applied by facetious Oxonians to the above famous tra-
veller and his namefakes. — Forft. Gen. t. 48. Prodr. 58.
Schreb. Gen. 595. Mart. Mill- Did. v. 4. JufT. 180.
Lamarck Diil. v. 7. 148. — Clafs and order, Syiigenrfia
Aloiwjamia, Forfter. 5. Polygam'ia-fegrcgatiz, Schreb. Nat.
Ord. Compofila difioidetz, Linn. Corymblfera, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth imbricated, cylindrical, of five
or fix oblong fcales ; the three innermoft longcll, and nearly
equal. Cor. of one patal, funncl-lhaped, fhort ; limb in
five linear fpreading fegments. Stam. Filaments five, ca-
pillary ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. P'ifl. Ger-
men oblong, below the corolla, fuperior with refpect to the
calyx ; ftyle thread-ftiaped, longer than the corolla ; ftigma
divided, fpreading. Perk, none, except the unchanged
pervious calyx. Seed folitary, oblong. Down capillary,
woolly at its bafe. Recept. naked.

Eft'. Ch. Calyx imbricated, fingle-flowered. Corolla
tubular, regular. Seed-down capillary, woolly at its
bafe.

I. S. paniculata. Forft. Prodr. n. i. — Native of New
Zealand. We have feen no fpecimen of this plant. The
younger Linnceus, in his copy of Forfter's book, has made
a note of its being referred by Banks and Solander to Soli-
dago, under the name of undulata. Perhaps this is the molt
natural way of difpofing of it ; though if the calyx never
contains but one floret, and is not in any way aggregate,
the genus fiiould ftand in Pentandrta Monogynia, along with
Ccrymblum, at leaft according to the ftrift law? oi artificial
arrangement ; but we ihould hardly, in either cale, recom-
mend fuch a meafure.

SHAWLE, in ylgrlculture, a name applied to a (hovel
ufed in winnowing corn, in fome places.

SHAWMGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
18 miles W. of RungDOur. N. lat. 25^ 27'. E. long.
88° 46'.

SHAWNAWAZ, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah
3 cf

S H E

S H E

of Moultan ; 70 miles N.E. of Moultan. N. lat. 30" 40'.
E. long. 77'^ 38'.

SHAWPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 42 miles S.E. of
Moorfhcdabad. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles S. of

Calcutta. N. lat. 22° 5'. E. long. 88° 26' Alfo, a

town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Surgooja ; 28 miles

N. of Surgooja. N. lat. 23° 35'. E. long. 83° 25'

Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 45 miles N.W. of
Maltoy.

SHAWR, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo,
fituated in a romantic country, where the river Orontes
winds majettically through the plain. The town is po-
pulous, and has a good caravanferai. Adjacent to it is a
good ftone bridge of feven arches. Thefe conveniencies
have been originally provided for the caravan, which refts
here in its route from Conftantinople to Mecca.

SHAWROWAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Chanderee ; 4^ miles W. of Chanderee.

SHAWSHEEN, a confiderable ftream of America, in
Maflachufetts, whicli rifes in Bedford county, Middlefcx,
and pafling through Billerica, Tewkfbury, and Andover,
difchgrges itfelf into Merrimack river.

SHAYE, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 33 miles
N.E. of .lunagur.

SHAYSHAR, a town of Syria, anciently called La-
njfa, on the Orontes ; 10 miles N. of Hamah.

SHAZADABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Allaha-
bad, on the right bank of the Ganges ; 30 miles N.W. of
Allahabad. N. lat. 25° 42'. E. long. 81° 43'.

SHAZADPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal;
25 miles S.E. of Nattore. N. lat. 24° 12'. E. long.

«9' 43'-

SHEADING, a riding, tything, or divifion, in the Ifle
of Man ; the whole idand beuig divided into fix (headings,
in every one of which is a coroner, or chief conftable,
appointed by the delivery of a rod at the annual con-
vention.

SHEAF, in Agriculture, a bundle of corn, as bound up
in the field. Sheafs are made of very different iizes in dif-
ferent places, but they are beft when not made too lai-ge.
See Hahvest.

SuEW-Ccrn, fuch grain as is in the ftate of ear in the
ilraw before being threfhed out. It is fometimes employed
in this ftate as fodder for different forts of live-flock.

Shkaf of Arrows, a bundle confifting of 24 in number.

SHEAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 4 miles W.N.W. of Vaniambaddy.

SHEALLINGS, in Rural Economy, the portions of
rich grafs-land in the more hilly and mountainous parts of
the country, which were fixed upon, and taken poflelTion
of, by the farming inhabitants at an early period of fociety,
for the purpofe of retiring to, and grazing their cattle-
rtock upon, at certain feafons of the year. Some fnug
well-fheltered fpot in fuch hilly ranges was always fixed
on ill this intention, which was removed from one to an-
other whenever the cattle had confumed the grafs of it ;
huts or cots being provided for the accompanying perfons
to live in, who had the care of the animals, &c. ; a trufty
fervant being ufually fent before hand to fecure the fpot,
and drive away any wandering and trefpafling cattle from
it. Thia perfon was denominated the poindler, perhaps
becaufe he was authorized to poind or confine troublcfome
ftock, and fix the fine eftabliftied for the trefpafs. In fome
cafes there were more than one fuch fpots, and where they
■were very rich, as near lakes, brooks, or in vallies, the grafs
was confumed in common by two or more of them aflb-
riating together. The (hcalling8 were by no means, aa

fome have fuppofed, dcpaftured at random, but according
to the flock, or as they were /mm^d out. See SouM.

Thefe (hcaUing farmers lived with great fimphcity, moftly
on fome oat-meal, and the produce of the dairy ; having at
the fame time a conftant occafional connection with their
farms or home-fteadiiigs for tiie fake of performing different
forts of work on them, as collefting fuel, weeding flax, &C. :
the laft was moftly done by the women.

Though fome of thefe flieallings itill exift in the fame
way in the northern parts of Scotland, they are fait falling
into difufe. In the room of fuch removals from place to
place during the fummer feafon, the diftant grazings are
frequently disjoined from the farmer's homettead, and lett
to fhepherds, who live there all the year round, attending
their flocks, in a modem houfe of fubftantial mafon-work.
In this mode of occupation, the landlord is faid to draw
more rent from his glens and mountainous property, and
the farmers are at liberty, during the beft feafon of the
year, to ply the nccefiary and variety of labours wanted,
for the improvement of their arable grounds, which, to
induftrious men, are never at an end.

The fhealling feafon was, and is, as far ae it yet continues,
that of contentment, of felUvity, of health, and of joy. The
women are employed in fpinning wool to clothe their fa-
milies, and in making butter and cheefe for part of their
winter provifions. The youth are employed in fifhing and
wreftling, or athletic exercifes, which put their Iwiftnef*
and courage to the tell, as a preparation for the more
ferious conflidts of a field of battle. When the various
labours of the day are ended, the whole hamlet retires to
reft, and to drown their fatigues in the foundeft (lumbers, on
a bed of heath, the m.elhfluous fragrance of which perfumes
the whole dwelling. See the Agricultural Report of the
County of Invernefs.

SHEALLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; 10 miles S.W. of Tanjore.

SHEAR, in Agriculture, a provincial word, fignifying
the reaping of grain. It is alfo applied to fheep, as one-
(hear or two-fhear, which lignifies one or two years old.

SiiEAR-0^ in the Sea Language. See Sheering.

Shear- IVater, in Ornithology, the procellaria pu£inus of
Linnsus, and called by fome writers amis diomedis, is a bird
about fifteen inches long, and thirty-one inches broad ; the
bill is an inch and three quarters long ; the nollrils tubular ;
the head and whole upper fide of the body, wings, tail, and
thighs, are of a footy blacknefs ; the under fide, from chin
to tail, and inner coverts of the wings, white ; the legs
weak, and comprefl'cd fideways ; duflcy behind, and whitilh
before.

Thefe birds are found in the Calf of Man, whither they
refort in February ; taking pofl'eflion of the rabbit-burrows,
and then difappearing till April ; the young, which are lit
to be taken in the beginning of Augult, are killed in great
numbers, falted, and barrelled ; and when boiled, eaten
with potatoes. They quit the ifle the latter end of Auguft,
or beginning of September ; and there is reafon to imagine,
that, like the (torm-finch, they are difperfed over the whole
Atlantic ocean. In the Orkney ifles this fpecies, called
tlie lyre, IS much valued for food, and for its feathers.
They are taken and falted in Augufl for winter provifion*
Pennant.

SHEARDAY, in Agriculture, provincially the flteep-
fhearing.

SHEARING, a term applied to the cutting of grain,
and to a fheep that has been once fliorn. See SilEEP.

Shearing, Sheep. Sec SiiKEV-Shcaring.

Shbaiunu, ill the Woollen Manufaaure. See Sheering,
3F2 SHEAR^

SHE

SHE

SHEARLING, another term commonly applied to a
fheep that has been once (horn by ftieep-mallers.

SHEARPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bengal, on the Burhampooter ; 82 miles W.N.W. of
Dacca. N. lat. 24^53'. E. long. 89° 55;'.

SHEAT, or Sheet, a name by which fome call a young
hog.

Sheat, or Sheats, in a Ship. See Sheet.

If the main-fail (heats are haled aft, it is in order to make a
(hip keep by a wind, but when the fore-(heets are haled
aft, it is that the (hip may fall off from the wind ; and if
(he will not do it readily, they then hale the fore-fail, by
the (heat, flat in, as near the (hip's fides as they can ; and
this they call flatting in the fore-fail. When they fay, eafe
thefheat, they mean veer it, or let it go out gently; but
when the word if, let fly thefloeat, they mean let it go all
at once, and run out as faft as it can ; and then the fail will
hang loofe, and hold no wind. The feamen fay, when they
would have the (heats of the main or fore-fail haled aft,
ially ihejheats. In a very great gale, or gull of wind, there
is another rope bent to the clues of the main-fail and fore-
fail, above the (heat-block, to fuccour and cafe the (heat,
and this they call a falfefheat.

Sheats, in a Ship, alfo, are thofe planks under water
which come along her run, and arc clofed into the ftern-
poft : fo alfo that part within board, in the run of the (hip,
IS called the flernfl^eats.

Sheat, Falfe. See Sheat.

Sheat, Overhak the, in Sea Language, a word of com-
mand to hale upon the ftanding part of the (heat.

SaEAT-jInehor, in a Ship. See Anchor.

Sheat of a Plough, in Agriculture, that part of the
plough which paffes through the beam, and is faiteued to
the (hare. It is fometimes cMedflieath.

And the (heat, or as it is fometimes called, the fore-fheat,
there being another piece of timber behind it, which is
called the hinder-(heat, (hould be feven inches wide, and
fattened to the beam by a retch (a piece of iron with
two legs), and by a wedge driven by it into the hole of the
beam. But in the modern conftruftion of this tool, the
(heat is faftened without having recourfe to thefe means.
The angle contained between the (heat and the beam of the
plough (hould be about forty-two degrees.

SHEATH, in Botany, is fynonimous vixxh fpatha, peri-
chditium, and vagina. In the firll inftance it belongs to the
Cngle-leaved covering, burfting longitudinally, which Lin-
mus reckons a kind of calyx, differing from a perian-
thium in being more or lefs remote from the flower. Such
occurs in Galanthus, Narciffiis, Allium, and others of the
Hexandrous clafs ; as alfo in Arum ; and more efpecially
in the natural order of Palmje. The PERicH.i;TiUM, fee
that article, is the fcaly (heath, or calyx, of Moffes. Va-
gina, which will be further explained in its place, is the
(heathing part of a leaf.

SHEATHING of a Ship, is the cafing that part of
her hull which is to be under water with fomething to keep
the worms from eating into her planks.

It is ufually done by laying tar and hair, mixed toge-
ther, all over the old plank, and then nailing on thin new
boards. But this hinders a (hip's failing ; and therefore,
of late, fome have been fheathed with milled lead, which
is much fmoother, and confequcntly better for faihng ;
and alfo more cheap and durable than the other way.
It was firtt invented by fir Philip Howard, and major
Watfon.

The (heathing with copper is a (till later invention, and
anfwers belter than any other.

It is very well worth the trying what the new (lone pitch
will do in this cafe ; if it will defend from the worm, as
perhaps it may, a (hip might be paid with it cheaper thau
with the crown pitch ; and it will not crack nor Icale oft,
as that will do, but keeps always foft and fmooth. It bag
been found to contiHue on thirteen months, and to remaia
very black and foft all the time.

SHEAVE, a cylindrical wheel, made of hard wood or
metal, moveable round a' pin as its axis in a mortife, as
being ufed to raife or increafe the mechanical powers, as a
pulley, applied to remove or lift weighty bodies. Sheaves
are either fixed in blocks, to form tackles, or let through
the (hip's fides, for aflifting to lead the tacks and (heets on
board, or in mortifes cut through the mails, yards, caps,
&c. to facihtate the working of the rigging, and outer ends
of the cat-heads, to form the cat-tackle to raife the anchor
to the bow.

SHEAVES, in Rural Economy, provincially the broken
parts of the ftcms of flax which come away in drefiing.
Alfo the fmall bundles of grain in the draw.

SHEB, in Geography, a town of Nubia, on the borders
of Egypt, on the route from Charje to Cobbe ; 175 miles
N. of Charje. This place is occafionally infelled by a tribe
of the wandering Arabs, called Ababde, who come from
the neighbourhood of the Nile. Sheb is marked by the
produftion of a great quantity of native alum, as the name
imports. The furface, from which the alum is found,
abounds with a reddifh ftone ; and in many places is feen
argillaceous earth.

SHEBAT, in Chronology, the eleveiitli month of the
Jewifli ecclefiartical year, anfwering to part of our January
and February.

SHEBBY, or Shelbv, as Morfe has it, in Geography,
a county of Kentucky, in the United States, containing
14,453 inhabitants, of whom 2996 are flaves.

SHEBBYVILLE, a town of the forementioned county,
containing 424 inhabitants, of whom 1 18 are (laves ; fo that
the total in the county and town includes 14,877 inha-
bitants.

SHEBSHIR, a town of Egypt ; 9 miles S. of Amnis.

SHEBUSTER, a town of Perfia, in the moll pic-
turefque, and, at the fame time, the moll flourilhing divi-
fion of Azerbijan, which lies along the N. and W. borders
of the lake of Urumea, from Tabreez to the confines of
Armenia. Shebufter is a large and flourilhing town.

SHECATICA Bay, a bay on the S. coail of Labra-
dor. N. lat. 51^^ 20'. W. long. 58° 20'.

SHECHALLION, or Shichallin, a lofty mountain
in the parilh of Fortingall, diftrici of Rannoch, and county
of Perth, Scotland, is fituated in the immediate vicinity of
Loch Rannoch. It rifes in a conical form, and hence de-
rives its name, which fignifies the maiden's breail. Accord-
ing to menfuration, its height is 3564 feet above the level
of its bafe, which nearly coincides with that of the ocean.
This mountain is rocky and barren ; but is particularly re-
markable from the circumllance of its having been chofen
by Dr. Mafkelyne, late allronomer royal, for afcertain-
ing the power of mountains in attrafting the pendulum.
Sinclair's Statillical Account of Scotland, vol. ii. 1792.
See Attraction of Mountains, and Mountains.

SHECHINAH, in the Jeiuifh Hiflory, the name of
that miraculous light, or vifible glory, which was a fymbol
of the fpecial prefence of the Deity. This (hechinah, after
it had conduttcd the Ifraelites through the wildernefs, had
its mere dated refidence in the tabernacle and the temple.
See Ark of the Covenant.

For a farther account of this miraculous pheaomenoa,

the

SHE

the reader may confult part ii. chap. 2. of Mr. Lowman's
Rationale of the Hebrew Ritual.

Toland, in hi-- Tetradymus, has attempted to prove, that
this appearance had nothing miraculous in it, but was only
a kind of beacon, ufed by the Ifraelites for their direflion
in their jiiurney.

SHED Building, in Af^ricuhure, a term applied to any
fort of flight temporary building.

Shed, Open, a iort of flight open building, for containing
cattle, and various other ufes in the farm-yard. See Cattle
Shid.

Shed, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying to part, with
the fingers and thumb, wool, hair, &c. as in falving (heep.

SHEDDING of the Hair, in horfes, is the calling of
the coat. Sec Moulting.

SHEDIAC, in Geography, a harbour on the E. coafl
of New Brunfwick.

SHEDMA, a province of Morocco, containing 550,000
inhabitants. This province produces wheat and barley ;
its fruits are not fo rich as thofe of the north, or of Sufe ;
it abounds however in cattle. Of goats it furnifhes annually
an incalculable number, the fl<ins of which form a principal
article of exportation from the port of Mogodor ; and inch
are often the animofity and oppolition among the merchants
there, that they have fometimes given as much for the flcin,
as the animal itfelf was fold for. Honey, wax, and tobacco
are produced in this province ; the two former in great
abundance ; alfo gum arable, called by the Arabs " Alk
tolh," but of an inferior quality to that of the Morocco
diftria.

SHEDUAN, an ifland in the Red fea, about nine miles
long and fix broad. It is high and craggy, without wood
or water ; it is fituated at about an equal diltance between
the two coafts of Egypt and Arabia. N. lat. 27° 34'.

SHEEDWOOD, in Rural Economy, provincially rough
poles of top wood. See Wood.

SHEEHY MouNTAlN.s, in Geography, the name of a
range of mountains in the barony of Mulkerry, and weftern
part of the county of Cork, in Ireland. Of thefe and other
mountains along the ceinfines of Kerry, it is obferved by
Mr. Tcwnfend, in his Statillical Survey, that though fome-
times high, they generally want grandeur, and that the in-
termediate hollows are feldom marked with ilriking or ro-
mantic fcenery. The adjoining lands are rude, rugged, and
ftony in the extreme, with a very fcanty intermixture of
any thing fair or fertile to relieve the eye amidll fucli a
dreary wafle.

SHEELAMOOLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Coim-
betore ; 14 miles S. of Erroad.

SHEELIN, or, as Arrowfmith fpells it, Shillin, a lake
on the fouth of the county of Cavan, Ireland, fituated
between it and the counties of Meath and Weftmeath. The
river Inny flows from this lake, of which Mr. Edgewortli
has faid, in his report to the Bog commiHioncrs, that it is
in many places a fine deep river, and capable of being ren-
dered navigable at a fmall expencc, and to great national ad-
vantage.

SHEEP, in Zoology. See Ovis.

Sheep, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, a well-
known fpecies or kind of live-ltock kept by the farmer.
The flieep belongs to the clafs of ruminant animals, or fuch
as chew the cud, and of which there are different fpecies,
and varieties or breeds. And in its generic charafter it is
diftinguiflied by being with or without horns, v/hich are
hollow, wrinkled, turning backward, or intorted in a fpiral
manner. Eight front teeth in the lower jaw, in the upper
none. 6

SHE

It is evident that flieep are animals of the utmoft im-
portance to mankind, whetlier confidered in the light of
affording food and clothing, or in that of the vafl improve-
ment and profit which thty produce in the various fvftems
of management to which they are fulijt ded by the farmer ;
in fome inllances conftituting a very large proportion, and
in others nearly the whole of his dependence and liipport.
There is alfo another point of view in which they appear
equally advantageous and interefting, which is that of their
becoming thus beneficial in fit nations and upon lands that
mull otherwife be nearly if not wholly ufelef?. Alfo in the
view of affording the raw material for one of the moft cx-
tenfive Itaple manufaftures of the kingdom, the advantages
which they afford are almoft incalculable.

But befidcs the wool, the fldiis and other parts of thefe
animals afford a variety of other equally ufeful and im-
portant articles and produfts, fuch as thofe of parchment,
leather, glue, fuel, and many others, which are of great
value for different intentions and purpofes in the arts and
other ways, and which employ a great number of labourers
in forming and preparing them. In fhoit, there is hardly a
part of the flieep that does not afford an ufeful and valuable
produift of fome fort or other. In ufefulnefs they may, of
courfc, be placed at leafl next to, if not before, the cow.
In difpofition, almotl all the improved breeds are extn-mely
mild, tame, and gentle, which is a proof of their value as
grazing flock : but thole which have been lefs attended to,
or which continue more in their native or original flate, are
much lefs tradable, as thofe which inhabit the downs,
heaths, and mountains in different parts of the ifland.

The character of llupidity, want of fagacity, and of fome
other valuable properties, which the naturaliil Buffon has
given thefe animals, feems by no means well-founded. It
is probably the offspring of prejudice, and the improper
examination of the fubjeft.

The increafe or growth of the fheep continues to advance
till at leafl three years old, when it is in general confidered
as in the mofl proper flate for the purpofes of the grazier,
though it is employed in this way till a much later period,
fometimes even till five or fix, and alfo with the view of
breeding ; but an early maturity is a property of much
confcquence, efpccially for the grazier. Of fhecp, the
breeds or varieties that are dii'perfcd over the globe are
almoft endlefs ; even in this country tiiey are fo extremely
numerous as fcarcely to be defcribed with any coireftnefs.
The charadleriflic circumflanccs by which they iiave been
chiefly diilinguinicd, are thofe of tlieir poiliffing horns, or
being wholly without them, and from the length or fliortnefs
andfinenels of the wool or coat, as well as the fit nation in which
they are chiefly found. It has been Hated by lord Somer-
ville, in his " Syllem of the Board of Agriculture," that all
the breeds of flieep in this kingdom may be arranged into
two chifies ; thofe which fliear the fliort or clothing, and
thofe which fliear the long or combing wool. And that
the quality of the flefli in each clafs foUovi's the cliaraiSer
of tlie wool ; the fliort-woolled fheep being clofe in the
grain a'; to flefli, confequently heavy in the fcalc, and high-
flavoured as to the talte ; the polled long-vi'oolled flieep
more open and loofe in the grain, and larger in lizo. And
by ttic author of " Tlie prefent State of Hufljandry in
Great Britain," they have been diflributcd under three
general divifions, as below :

1. The mountain breed ;

2. The fhort-woolled breed ; and

3. The long-woolled breed.

And among the firft are comprifed feveral varieties, as
the black-faced, which range on the mountains of AVales,

Wcftmore-

SHEEP.

VVeftmorcland, Cumberland, Yorkfliire, and thofe in the
fouth, well, and north of Scotland, and in the Shetland
iflands ; the Cheviot hills, in the fouth of Scotland and
north of England ; and the foreft and common (heep of
the laft-mentioned country. In the fecond divilion are in-
cluded thofe of Hereford, Dorfet, SuJiex, Norfolk, and
fome parts of Cumberland. Ai'd the third divifion com-
prehends all thofe varieties that are difperfed over the more
rich and fertile parts of England, and wiiich are diitin-

guifhed under the titles of the Durham or Tecfwaters, the
Lincohiihires, the old and new Leicclterfliire?, &c.

But others divide them into long,Jhort, and m'tddle-'woolkd
kinds.

A..d a dill more clear and concife view of the va-
rious breeds of Biitiih iheep, is afforded in the tabular
form given by Mr. CuUey, as enlarged and corrected
by the author of the " General Treatife on Cattle," and
others.

Table of the Breeds or Varieties of Sheep in England.

Names of Breeds.

I.

Teefwater.

N" horns.

2.

Lincoln.

No horns.

^■

New Leicefter.

No horns.

4-

Cotfwold.

No horns.

V-

Romney-Marfh.

No horns.

6.

Dartmoor or Bampton.

No horns.

7-

Exmoor.

Horned.

8.

Heath.

Horned.

0-

Hereford, Ryeland.

No horns.

lO.

Morf, Shropfhire.

Horned.

II.

Dorfet.

Horned.

12.

Wilts.

Horned.

I^-

Berks.

No horns.

14-

Snuth Down.

No horns.

I?-

Norfolk.

Horned.

1 6.

Herdwick.

Horned.

17-

Cheviot.

No horns.

i8.

Dun-faced.

No horns.

ig.

Sh-tland.

No liorns.

20.

Spanifh.

Rams-horned

21.

Ditto crofs.

Wci-ht
of Fleece.

W eil.ers
ptr Quar.

kilted.

I

White face and legs.
White face and legs.
White face and legs.
White face and legs.
White face and legs.
White face and legs.
White face and legs.
Black face and legs.
White face and legs.
Black and fpeckled.
White and fpeckled.
White and fpeckled.
Black and white.
Speckled and white.
Black and white.
Speckled and white.
White face and legs.
Dun face and legs.
Various coloured ditto.
White.

Lonjj wool.
Long wool.
Long wool (fine).
Long wool (fine).
Long wool (fine).
Long wool (fine).
Long wool (coarfe).
Long wool (coarfe).
Short wool (fine).
Short wool (fine).
Short wool (fine).
Short (mid.)
Long wool.
Short wool.
Short wool.
Short wool.
Short wool.
Short wool.
Fuie cottony.
Short wool i^fuper.)
Ditto fine.

9lb.
II
8

9

8

9
6

3

3

7

^h

?

2

3

>l
If
3i

3olb.

22

24
22

25

r6
15

14
12
18
20
18
18
18
10
16

7
8

14
16

2 year;

2
2
2

3^

34

2

I.
•'2

2

zh

4i
44
44
44
24

There are a few other breeds met with in different dif-
trifts, as noticed below.

Since it is found by the grazier that the more an animal
approaches towards perfeftion in its form, the better, in
general, it is adapted to the purpofe of fattening ; it is
obviouny a matter of much importance to be well ac-
quainted with the peculiar diipofition and conneftion of
parts which conrtitute fuch excellence or perfeftion of
form : thofe have been already fully explained in fpeaking
of the nature and principles of breeding animals, as well as
in confidering the nature and management of cattle. And
the fame thing is to be aimed at in fheep-llock ; as the more
any breed may approximate to fuch an excellence of fhape,
the more perfect it muft be. A fort of model to be aimed
at, in fo far as fhape is concerned, in the improvement of thefe
animals, due attention beine always har' to other properties,
has been given by Mr. CuUey, in liis defcription of a ram,
and which may be feen under that head. (See Ra.m.)
The nature and combination of the various points and
parts fhould, of courfe, be well underftood and imprefled
on the mind of the breeding and grazing farmer, in order
that he may always rear or procure thefe animals to the
greateft advantage.

The varieties of this mo'l ufeful animal are endowed with
different partlcul<<r qualities, properties, powers, and pro-
penfities, which it is neceflary to afcertain, in order for the
farmer to d''a'.v and produce the ulmofl advantage poffible
^rom the combiuing, croffing, and rearing of thera. All

the breeds of fheep are the moil diftinft while they are .
kept or left in the Itate of nature.

The common and ufual defcriptions of the feveral breeds
are the following :

Teefwater Breed or Variety. — This is a breed of fheep faid
to be the largelt in the ifland ; it is at prefent themoft preva-
lent in the rich, fine, fertile, inclofed lands on the banks of the
Tees in Yorkfhire. In this breed, which is fuppofed to be
from the fame (lock as thofe of the Liiicolns, greater atten-
tion feems to have been paid to fize than wool. It is, how-
ever, a breed only calculated for warm rich paftures, wlicre
they are kept in fmall lots, in fmall inclofures, and well iup-
ported with food in fevere winter feafons. The produce in
weight of mutton is large, but then, from their requiring fa
much longer time and richer keep, and being admitted in fo
much fmaller proportions on the acre, they are probably not,
upon the whole, fo profitable, even in fituations where they
can be kept with the greatefl chance of fuccefs, as the
fmaller more quick-feeding breeds. In the ewes there is,
however, a property which is of much confequence,
which is, that in general they are very prolific, bringing
two and frequently three lambs, and in fome cafci
a greater number each, according to Mr. Culley. He
gives the following defcription of the breed. The legs are
longer, finer boned, and fupport a thicker and more firm
and heavy carcafe than the Lincolnfhires ; the fheep are
much wider on the backs and fides, and afford a fatter and
finer grained mutton. The weight per quarter in two-years

old

SHEEP.

J

old vrethers is from 25lb5. to 35lbs., and in particular
ihrtances to 55lbs. or more. The wool is fliorter and lefs
heavy than in that breed. However, the writer of the
" Treatife on Catlle," thinks that the bre^d is nearly worn
out ; but fuggefts that there is a fimilar breid in Ir land.

This is a fort of (Keep that has been little atteridtd to,
but which, when improved by proper crofling, it is fuppofed,
would anfwer and pay well in diftrifls wliere it could be
well fupported. In the Correfted Report of tlie State
of Agriculture in the Weft Riding of Yorkflure, Mr. Par-
kinfon fuppofes that an ufeful kind is capable of being
bred by croiling tlie ewes of this fort with Difliky rams, in
a careful manner. And it is added, that by tlie life of
thefe, and thofe of the Northumberland kind, the quality
of the wool and the mutton has not only been greatly im-
proved, but the quantity of bone and offal much I'-flened ;
and, at the fame time, the fattening property conliderably
increafud ; they becoming fatter at two years old than the
others are at three. T.he wethers of this improved fort
generally fell unfhovn, at two years old, from 45.;. to jjj.
a-picce, and weigh from twenty-four to thirty pounds the
quarter. They fell a gre'it deal higher at the prefent time.

Lincohijlnre Breed or V ar'iety .—"YIxk is a breed of Ihcep
which is charafterized by their having no horns ; white faces ;
long, thin, weak carcafes ; thick, rough, white legs ; bonts
large ; pelts thick ; flow-feeding ; mutton coarfe-grained ;
the weight ^fr qviarter in ewes from i^lbs. to 2olbs. ; in
three-year old wethers from 2olbs. to 3olbs ; the wool
from 10 to 18 inches in length. And it is chiefly prevalent
in the dillritt which gives the name, and other rich grazing
ones. But the writer of the work on Live-ltock luppofes
that thi^ breed is now fo generally improved by new Leicef-
ter tups, that they are probably, in a great meafure, free
from thofe defects of the old breed, of which Mr. CuUey,
with much reafon, complained, namely, flow feeding, from
a loofenefs of form, and too much bone, and coarfe-grained
ilcih. It muft not, however, be denied, that a good old
Lincoln has ever been, and the name, at lead, Hill continues
a great favourite at Smithfield, and the flavour of the Lin-
coln mutton has been generally held fuperior, as mc^re
favory than the Difliley. The new or improved Lincoins
have now finer bone, with broader loins and trufled carcaiies,
and arc among the heft, if not aftually the belt, Inng-woolled
Itock we have. Many will recolleft the ridiculous and
indecorous fquabbli, fome years ago, between two eminent
breeders concerning thefe two breeds of fheep. About
this time, they attempted to feed Lincoln (heep on the
Elfex inarfhes, and pretended the Itock degenerated, which
might happen from infnfRciency of winter keep, or, if they
were breeding fl >cks, from croffing with other breeds, an
tverlailing and unregarded praftice in thofe not profeffedly
breeding counties. This has been fuggeiled as a breed onlv
capable of being made fat on the richelt grazing lands :
but that in fuch cafes it may probably be kept till three
years old, with greater profit than tiie new Leiceiler kind.
The [)roportion of bone to mutton is confiderable, and the
latter not very fine in quality. But the principal excel-
lence of the breed is in the large quantity which it affords,
■which pays for their being kept longer before they are
fatted. Such breeds as feed quicker fhould however be
preferred by the farmer on mod forts of land.

Nenu Lelcrjler, or D'lJIiley Breed or Variety, — This is an
improved breed of fhecp, which is readily diilm^uifhed
from the other long-wooUed forts, according to Culley, by
having fine lively eyes; clean heads, without horns; ftraight,
troad, flat backs ; round or barrel- fhaped bodies ; fine
ftnall bones ; thin pelts ; and a difpofition to make fat at

a early age ; to which may be added a fupcnority in the

finenefs of the grain and the flavour of the mutton to that
of other fheep of the large long-woolled kinds. The
weight per quarter in ewes three or four years old from
l8!bs. to 261bs.'; in two-year old wethers, from 2olbs.
to ^olbs. ; the length of wool from fix to fourteen inches.
But the author of the " Treatife on Live-Stock," cha-
rafterizes them as having a fulnefs of form and fubflantial
width of carcafe, with a peculiar plainnefs and meeknefs of
countenance ; the head long, thin, and leaning backward ;
the nofe projecting fcjrward ; the ears fomevvhat long, and
ftandmg backward; great fulnefs of the fore-quarters;
legs of moderate length, and the finelt bone ; tail tmall ;
fleece well covering the body, of the fhorlelt and fineft of
the combing wools, the length of ftaple fix or feven inches.
The fore-flai.k, a term of the old fchool, current in the time
of Lifle, or that flap of fkin and fat appended to the
ribs, and the inferior part of the fhoulder, is remarkably
capacious in this breed. New Leiceiler mutton, it is be-
lieved, is the moft finely grained of ail the large long-woolled
fpecies, but of a flavour bordering on the nifipid. And it
is added, that it is reported, and with the ftrongefl proba-
bility, from the appearance of the ilock, the finenefs of the
wool, and the grain of the mutton, that a Rycland crofs was
a prime m'trument in the Difhley improvement of fheep.
Probably the root or foundation was Lincoln. In the
ordinary and gradual courfe of improvement or alteration
of form, it mult have taken, it is thought, a long time
and vail pains, to mould the animals into that artificial and
peculiar fliape which dillinguilhes this remarkable variety,
iinlefs indeed fomethiug nearly fimilar was fuddenly and
fortuitoufly chopped upon, as will occalionally h-appen
when the fickle deity is good-humouredly difpofed to fpare
our labours.

It mull be obferved, that the great advantages of this
fort of fheep have been flated to confill in producing a better
profit to the farmer, in proportion to the quantity of food
coiilumcd, than moll others ; in being more perfectly formed,
and confequcntly more difpoled to fatten quickly ; in con-
taining a much larger proportion of meat on an equal weight
of bone ; in thriving well on fuch paltures as would not
fupport other forts of tlie fame fize ; in being capable of
being kept or fattened in larger proportions to the acre, than
other breeds of the fame fize of carcafe ; in the wool being
more valuable, though lefs in quantity ; in their being ready
for the butcher in the early part of the fpring inllead of the
autumn, by which there is a confiderablc faving in the fum-
mer's grafs ; and in the mutton, from the clofcnefs of its
texture, keeping longer than that of other equal-flzed
breeds. And that the principal dcfodts are the fattening too
much, and the mutton, in confequence, becoming lefs deli-
cate in its flavour, than in that of other breeds that require
a greater length of time in the proccfa ; the deficiency in
the quantity of wool which thev produce ; and the not being
calculated for the fold. It has alio been fuppoftd that their
peculiar rounded form, from throwing much of the fat on the
external partr, prevent? their tallowing well internally ; and
that from their great propenfity to fatten, they are liable to
early decay, becoming old looner than other breeds. There
can however be no doubt, but that it is a valuable breed on
palUires that are adapted to it, as is evmeed from its rapidly
making its way into different diflriits of the kingdom ; but
fome fuppofo that the fheep are too fmall, and that, from the
thiniK fs of their Ikiiis, or pelts, they may not be fo capable
of bearing cold, wiiich, however, experience does not appear
to fupport.

The author of the " Treatife on Cattle," who feems
chiefly to object to the Ijeicelter breed, from its too great
propenfity to fatten, winch, it i< fuppofed, alio abates the

procrc-

SHEEP.

procreative and laftiferous powers, fays, " PareDifhley fheep
are by no means the moil prolific, nor the belt nurfes."
And adds, that the heads of the improvers haWiig had time
to cool, it is no longer boafted, that new Leicefter fheep are
able to fubfift, and even thrive, on the (horteft commons. In
fine, it is contended, the merits of this flock as an improving
crofs, (their grand point of utility,) being fo undeniably
great, their difadvantages have been overlooked, and com-
parifons have been ufually made with fuch only as had a
itrong need of improvement, in which the xiew Leicelteis in
courfe were fiire to triumph. And further, that though
the Difhley crofs has made its way into every part of this
ifland, to the Land's End, to the bottoms of the Welfh
mountains, and of the Scottifh Highlands, to Ireland, and
even to Ruflia, its general fuccefs has been attended )vith
various particular indances of failure, a remarkable one of
which is given by lord Somerville, in his Fafts, in refpeft to
the Bampton or Weftern long-woolled (heep. The crofs is
fometim.ea very injudicioully ufed with fi\ort or carding wool
ftock, excepting where the intention is only forward lamb.
On dock naturally good and improveable, this peculiar
effe£l of the new Leicefter crofs has refulted, the improved
have confiderably furpaded, in the mo!l valuable properties,
their improvers. Of this many examples may be feen, it is
fuppofed, in the improved Lincoln, Northumberland, and
Midland county fheep.

The followmg is a table of the value of new Leiceller
fheep, at various ages, as given on the authority of different
eminent breeders in the Lincolnftiire Agricultural Survey.

Wether lambs, at 6 months, worth . lyj.

, at 12 months . . 30J.

, at 18 months . . 35J.

, at 24. months . . 4JJ.

, at 30 months . . 45J.

, at 36 months . . 55/.

But others, in different parts of the diftrift. Hate it thus :

Leicefters, at fix mon-ths old, worth . 14/.

, at twelve ditto . . . 22s.

, at eighteen ditto . . 28^.

, at twenty-four ditto . . ^^s.

, at thirty ditto . . 45J.

, and, if kept to thirty-fix,

would be . . . 50^.

If a three-fhear fells for 3/. it will be worth.
At 6 months, 28^.
At 12 months, 35/. Wool gilbs.

At 18 months, 4oj-.
At 24 months, 48^. Wool gibs.

At 30 months, 561.
At 36 months, 6qs. Wool 9lbs.

According to the firft of thefe tables, the fcale of receipt is ;

£ s. d.

For the firft fummer . . . 0170

For the firfl winter . . . o 13 o

For the fecond fummer, including

81bs. wool at 9</. . . . Olio

For the fecond winter . . . 0100

For the third fummer, including wool 060

For the third winter, including wool 016 o

3 '3 o
Three fleeces 018 o

As above 2 15 o
At 73*. they pay, ptr annum, 24J. 4</.

And it is remarked, that, at thefe prices, the lad half
year pays better than any ; if this is juft, there is a great
lofs, by felling at 25 years old ; for it is juft at the con-
clufion of the vvcirfl half year there is.

Mr. Da-.vfon of Berthorp, who has an excellent Hock
bred from Mr. Dalby's tups, lall year fold 200 two-fhear
wethers at 3/. round. The following is his table of fales
for feven years, of wethers of that age.

1790 Average . . 35/.

1791 . . . 35^.

1792 . . . 43/.

1793 • • • 38^-

1794 . . . 44f.

1795 . . . 50X.

1796 . . . 60J.
He tods threes. Average 2/. 3/. 6d.

And, at this average, he would thus divide it, by fup-
pofing the proportion to be,

£ s. d.
At 6 months . . . o 17 o

At 12 months . . 170

At 18 months . . . 1120

At 24 months . . . 200

At 30 months . . . 236

The advantages and difadvantages of the Lincoln and new
Leicefter breeds of fheep have been very fully cosfidered in
the Agricultural Survey of the former county ; and the
refults Hated as below in the different diftricls of it.

Circumtlances of companfon between the Lincoln and
Leicefter breeds of fheep.

Bofton. Lincoln better than Leicefter, on general

experience and particular experiment.

Brothertoft. In cxperimeBt, very little difference.

Ewerby. Leiceller tenderer than Lincoln. Lincoln

pay beft for keeping to three-fhear.

Hackington. Lall year of Lincohis pay beft.

Ewerby. Old fheep ftand the winter better, and p^y

better than young.

Owerfby. Shearling Leicellers have, at Wakefield, fold

as high as two-fliear Lincolns. Differ-
ence of wool has been as 8 to 16 Leicef-
ters tenderer in winter.

Normanby. Lincoln fleece zlbs. heavier than Leicefter.

Leicefler off-fhearlings ; Lincolns two or ■
three-fliear, but the latter pay well, if i'l
kept to three-fhear. Leicefters finer
grained mutton.
Leicefters rather thicker on the land, but

Lincolns confiderably larger.
As much wool per acre from Leicefters as
Lincolns.

Walcot. Leicefter fleece:;, though not fo heavy as

Lincoln, fold, in one inflance, for as much
money.

Barton. Leicefter not tenderer in winter than Lincoln.

Old breed of Lincoln ufed to go lean at two

years old.
Now, Leicellers fat at the fame age.
No difference in number on the fame land.
Wool the fame.

Bonby. Leicefters come to fale fooner, but will not

bear cold, wet land in winter fo well, nor
heat or cold after fhearing, as the Lincoln.

Barrow. Five Leicefters where four Lincolns; and

Leicefters have refitted hardihips on the
worft land better.

Brocklefby.

SHEEP.

Brocklefby. Lincoln more profitable than Leicefter.

Lumber, Where a man can keep, by means of mardi,

to three-fhear, Lincoln moft profitable,
but not otherwifc. Not more Leiceilers
kept on the fame land. Leicefter wool
IJ-. a tod more than Lincoln. Leicefter
more liable to the fly.

Cadney. Leicefter will feed a httle fafter, and run a

little thicker.

Beleflsy. Leicefter one in fix more on the fame land,

but both go at the fame age. Leicefters
hardier, and have lefs off^al. Tallow
equal ; wool higher priced. Gives corn
to Leicefters, but did not to Lincolns.

Alefby. Leicefters feed quicker, and have lefs offal ;

wethers and hogs lefs wool, but ewes
equal, and on the whole more per acre ;
hardier, and bear driving better. Go
oif at the fame age, but Leicefters fatter.
Five kept inftead of four. Lamb eafier ;
neced'ary to give corn.

Humberfton. More jjride than profit in the new fort.

Leicefters zlbs. lefs wool than Lincolns, and
not better ; but run one in ten thicker.

.Louth. Leicefters feed quicker, and have lighter

offals. No difference in hardinefs. Lin-
coln beft.

Tathwell. Lincolns and Leicefters being put together

into the marfti, and fent thence at fame
time to Smithfield ; the former yielded
4j. a-head more, and ^s. a-head more
wool.

Cookfwold. Marfh graziers all prefer Lincoln. No dif-
ference in number kept.

Tathwell. Lincoln wool 4lbs. heavier than Leicefter.

At two-ftiear, Lincoln heavier by zlbs. a
quarter ; at three-ftiear, 5lbs. In tallow,
61bs. at three-fhear, in favour of Lincoln.
In number per acre no difference. In
hardinefs, Lincoln beft. Leicefters lefs
wool, and lefs mutton per acre.

Drlby. No difference in number kept.

Spilfby. Leicefters as fat at Lady-day, coming two-

fhear, as Lincolns at Lammas. Same
number per acre. No difference in hardi-
nefs ; Leicefters have corn.

Horncaftle. Three-fliear better than two, as fare to find
more tallow.

Afgarby. Leicefters bred too fine ; fine-headed ones

do not yield wool enough.

Frampton. As many of one as the other ^tr acre. Lin-

. coins travel beil, and pay beft.

Ranby. Leicefters tliicker on laiiu, as five to four.

Alderkirk. In an experiment of the two breeds on the

fame land, of the fame weight and age,
the Lincolns confiderably fupcrior.

Tliorefwuy. True Lincolns moft laleable, and moft pro-
fitable to breed.

Sudbrook. One-third more Leicefters on the fame land.

Rifeholm. Bofton gra/.iers not judges, for they can get

good Lincolns, but not Leicefters, as the
breeders of theft- can fat them themfelves.
Leicefters rwn one-fourth thicker on the
land. From fix to twelve months old,
ratlu r tenderer than Lincolns ; Leicefters
travel beft.
Vol.. XXXII.

Claypool. LeicefVer? as fat at one year as Lincoln* at

two, and with lefs trouble, and one-tenth
thicker. Do as well as Lincolns in win-
ter on wet land.

Marfton. Leicefters beft, and run one-fixth thicker.

Woolfthorpe. Leicefters by far the beft ; but more apt to
be barren than Lincoln. Drape ewes far
more valuable.

Grimfthorpe. Leicefters travel beft, and are the beft ; and
much lefs lofs in lambing ; run one-third
thicker.

A clear diftinftion is to be drawn, as the writer remarks,
between the rich fouth-eaftern diftridt and inferior foils ;
for, upon the former, the information is ftrong in favour of
Lincoln. However, in general, he fhould obferve, that the
new Leiceflers are fpreading very rapidly over the country,
probably fafter than they have done in any other, one or two
only excepted, which may be attributed to the general good-
nefs of the foil ; for this breed makes a much more relpeft-
able figure here than it has done in various trials made in
counties inferior to it in foil ; and the breed driving out the
Lincolns fo much as it has done in the poorer parts of this
county, is a faft that unites with this circumftance. The
true Lincoln is a large fheep, and with a longer wool, and
therefore demands better pafturage ; where it finds fuch,
there the old breed remains ; fubjeft, perhaps, to little more
change than fafhion may caufe. Upon inferior land the
Leicefter eftablifhes itfelf ; and upon land ftill inferior in
other counties, experiments prove unfuccefsfiil for the fame
reafon ; that of the neceffity of having a fmaller fize and
fhorter wool.

But fome of the original pure long-wooUed polled breed
of fheep, are ftill to be met with in the midland diftridls,
which are a larger boned, longer formed, deeper coated, and
more coarfe flock than the improved f /rt. And that, from
the coarfenefs and larger fize of the head and neck in the
old fort, the ewes lamb with more difficulty than in the true
Dilbley breed.

The new Leicefter fort of fheep is found a very advan-
tageous breed on fome kinds of land in the counly of Oxford,
as on the Itone-brafli ; there are fome farmers indeed, who
think that no other fort comes nearly up to them, when all
their valuable properties are taken into the account.

Colfiuold or Gloucejler Breed or Variety. — This is a breed
of fheep which, according to a late writer on them, is of the
fine combing wool lort, deriving the finencfs of their fleece
from the fame fource as the new Leicefters. Tiiis part of that
county formerly, and within memory, bred, it is faid, fmal!
fine-wooUed flieep of the Ryeland kind, which in paft times
had been cotted, but the praftice was difcontinued. Thefe
flieep, being judged too fmall for the improving itate of the
county, have been, by gradual croffingswith Midland long.
wooUed rams, chiefly Warwicks, completely changed from
fliort to large long-woollcd Itock. The writer faw a picked
lot ot Cotfwolds laft year, he lays, which anfwered the
following defcription : long coarfe head, with a particular
blunt, wide note; a top-knot of wool on the forehead,
running under the ears ; rather long neck ; great length
and breadth of back and loin ; full thigh, witli more fub-
ftance in the liindcr than fore-quarters ; bone fomcwliat fine ;
legs not long ; fleece loft, like that of the Difliley, but in
clofcnefs and darkncfs of colour, bearing more refi-mblancc
to fhort or carding wool. Although very fat, they had
all the appearance of flieep that were full of folid flefh,
which would come heavy to the icale. It is added, that it
is faid, fome of thofe fheep have reached 40, and even 5olhs.
3 G a quarter,

SHEEP.

aquarter, at two years and a half old, giving l libs, to I4lbs.
of wool each fheep, and being fat, they are indubitably
among the largell breeds in England. A finglc dip, con-
tinues he, of new Leicefter gives the Cotfvvolds a fulnefs in
the fore-quarter ; but any farther crofs of that kind, it ap-
pears, diminifhea their fize. The itrange crofs of Wilts
horned (keep has been recurred to in fome parts, for no pof-
fible good purpofe, he fhould apprehend, either to the car-
cafe or wool ; and it is probable, fuppofing fuch large ilock
profitable, that the chief alteration required by the Cotf-
wolds, it to encourage length of ftaple in their fleece or
wool.

In this breed the ewes are ufually put to the tup, ib as to
have lambs at two years old, molUy producing two lambs
each, in the proportion of nearly one-third of the whole,
•where kept well, which mult always be done. They may
be kept for breeding till three or four years old, if they are
of the proper improved fort. But it is faid that the wethers
afford molt profit when killed fo early as at two years old,
as they are apt to become too fat when kept longer.

The Cotfwolds or Gloucciters, and the half Leicefters
and half Gloucefters, and other mixtures of thefe breeds,
are confidered as very excellent forts of Iheep ilock in many
parts of Oxfordfhire ; they are of a good fize, bear plenty
of wool, and Hand penning well. But penning or folding
is not thought benefici-il by fome farmers, as more and better
fheep may be kept without it.

The native Cotfwolds, if they are any where to be found,
would be, it is faid, at two-ihcar from twenty -eight to
thirty-two pounds the quarter : they are along fort of (heep,
not full in the fides, fiiarp in the chine, not full in the fore-
flank, coarfe in the bone, not ftraight but good in the hind-
quarters ; will not fatten fo early as when crolied ; and of
wool, the two-ihear wether affords three and a iialf fleeces
to the tod. The new Leicefter, it is contended, is calcu-
lated to correft every one of the deficiencies which have
been noticed, and to bring a skater difpofition to fatten.
Between all Cotfwold and all Leicefter, the average differ-
ence of wool, it is faid, is three pounds.

In Devondiire, fome, it is faid, have fucceeded in the crofs
of new Leicefter upon the Cotfwold, the equal breed of
■which is attempted to be preferved as much as pofTible.
Wethers of this kind, at eighteen months old, will average
nineteen pounds the quarter, and feven pounds of unwaflied
wool the fleece. When kept on for another twelvemonth,
the age at which they are moitly killed in this county, this
crofs will attain the fize of twenty-five pounds the quarter,
and yield nine pounds of wool to the fleece. This wool is
allowed by the ftaplers to be one penny the pound fuperior
Xo that of the Exmoor, Bampton, South Devon, and
Dartmoor fheep, yet ftill the common price of lo;/. the
pound is only allowed for it. In the young wethers of this
breed, the loofe fat is ftated to be nine pounds, with nearly
three pounds of kidney fat on each iide. The larger wethers
are faid to produce thirteen pounds of rough fat, and four
pounds of kidney fat on the fide.

Rommy-Marjh Breeder Variety. — This is a kind which is
defcribed by Mr. Young, as being a breed of (heep without
horns ; white faces and legs ; rather long in the leg? ; good
fize ; body rather long, but v.ell barrel-ihaped ; bones rather
large ; and it is faid that the weight per quarter, in fat
wethers at two years old, is ufually from 22lbs. to 281bs.
In refpeft to the wool, it is fine, long, and of a dehcate
white colour, when in its perfeft ftate. On this Marfh 2olbs.
of wool are fuppofed to be produced per acre. In this breed
there is a property of arriving at the ftate of fatnefs at an
early age, as well as that of producing a large fleece of fine

long combing wool, of courfe it is a valuable fort ; how-
ever, from the fize, and great weight of the coat, it is only
capable of being fupported and fattened on the rich kinds of
marfh pafture : and on thofe which extend from Haftings
to Rye, in Kent, according to the Suffex Agricultural
Report, the graziers find it much more beneficial than the
South Down ; the marfh wethers fattening more quickly.
The wool afforded by fuch fat wethers averaging fix pounds,
and in breeding ewes five pounds, but not equal in quality
to the wool clipped from fhearlings. And the author of the
" Synopfisof Hufbandry" remarks, that a convincing proof
of the great value of this breed of (heep, as well as of the
land on which they are fgd, is feen in the manner of ftock-
ing, which in tegs is from four to feven per acre, in fatten-
ing wethers from fix to eight, in barrens from two to three,
and in couples three ; which is certainly a great (lock.
And this is a breed that might probably undergo much im-
provement without crolfing, by proper care and attention,
and being lefs expofed in the winter feafon.

In the old Romncy-Mar(h breed, the flieep were remark-
able for having large heads ; for being large, long, and tub-
bellied ; alfo for being large in their bone, long in their
legs, and coarfe in their wool ; which form is ftill held in
eftimation by fome, in confequence of improper prejudices,
to the great injury of the grazier and community in gen?ral ;
but the pure breed of this lort, Mr. Price fays, is diftinguiflied
by a thicknefs and length of head, a broad forehead, with a
tuft of wool upon it, a long thick neck, a great length and
thicknefs of carcafe ; being flat-fided, and having a (harp
chine, tolerably wide on the loin, but the breaft narrow,
not deep, the fore-quarter not heavy or full, a good cleft ;
the thigh full and broad, the belly large and tubby ; the
tail thick, long, and coarfe, the legs thick with large feet,
the mufcle coarfe and the bone large ; the wool long and
not fine ; coarfeil on the breech : the (heep prove good, and
are great favourites with the butchers. But this defcription
is not now, it is faid, fo applicable as it was fome time ago,
when moll of them had horns.

The fame writer, in his account of the (heep management
in this marflt diftrict, has remarked, that the introduAion of
the Leicefter breed has very perceptibly altered the form
and properties of the original breed or ftock of this traft,
fo that in a few years it will fcarcely be difcernible. And
that it is probably the general opinion that it has been inju-
rious to it, in reducing the fize and value of the animal, as
well as the quality and quantity of its wool, though it has
ftill many advocates, and has certainly contributed much to
its improvement. The principal objeilions which the graziers
of this Marfh feem to have to the mixing of the Leicefters
with their own breed, are, that they have feldom or ever twin
lambs, which are very defirable and beneficial in this fitua-
tion ; that the lambs are more tender, and, of courfe, a
greater lofs liable to be fuftained, efpecially in an open ex-
pofed tradl of this fort ; that their lambs do not winter fo
well as thofe of the native breed upon the uplands : they
are much lefs hardy, confequently cannot ftand cold and hard-
(hips fo well, which is very difadvantsgeous ; that their wool
is not in fuch abundance, or fo valuable, which is a great
defeft ; that there is a want of proof in them, which renders
them a great deal lefs faleable to the butcher ; this may,
however, be no dlfadvantage to the breeder or grazier, as it
(hews other more valuable properties and difpofitions ; and
that they are too (hort in their bodies and legs, fo as to ftand
too low in their pens at the market. Thefe are, however,
probably improved valuable properties, which mull be rather
beneficial than hurtful. Some improvement has, liowever,
been given to the Mar(h breed by the Leicefter crofs, as

thofe

SHEEP.

thofe of imaller and lefs coarfe heads, a greater depth of
carcalJe, and fhorter and lefs coarfe legs, better fymmetry
or form of feveral different parts, as well as of the whole
animal.

Th;re can, therefore, be no doubt but that this breed
has been greatly benefited by the introduflion of the new
Leicefter fort, and it is probable that it has not depended
fo much upon feleAion as the ufe of this new variety, as
though the cry in the market is for the marfh kind, that
form is carefully improved, and by no means preferved, al-
though lomcthing of it may ftill exill. Something of the
South Down fort is likewife difcernible in this breed, it is
faid.

This breed of flieep is thought to be highly valuable for
cold expofed fituations, as being eafily bred, and itanding in
need of no artificial food in the moft fevere winters, except a
little hay ; they are very hardy for their fize, have now many
improved qualities, and may probably be made the mofl
profitable of any for rich paftures, as affording the largell
proportion of meat at the leall expence. In wethers, the
general average is now from ten to twelve (lone weight each ;
and in ewes, when fat, from nine to eleven.

Dartmoor, Dcvunjh'ire, Bampton and Nott Breed or Variety.
— This is a breed or fort of fheep, which is chiefly dif-
tinguiflied by having no horns ; white faces and legs, thick
necks, backs narrow, and back-bones high ; fides good ;
legs filort, and bones large : and probably without any ma-
terial objeftion, being a variety of the common hornlefs
fort. According to Mr. CuUey, the weight of ewes on the
average about 2olbs. a quarter : in wethers, at two years
and a half old, 3olbs. Length of wool much the fame as in
the Romney-Mar(h breed. It is a breed found to be preva-
lent in the diftricls from which it has derived its name. And
it is fuppofed to have received confiderable improvement by
being crofied with the new Leicefter or Dilhley improved
fort within thefe few late years.

Befides the foreft from which it takes its name, this breed
is met with in fome other parts of the county. The Dart-
moor wethers at five years old will average about l61bs./£r
quarter, and ]jroduce from four pounds and a half to fix
'lounds and a half of unwafhcd wool to the fleece. This
ijreed of flieep, though they do not feed fo quickly, when
put to good keep, as the new Leicefter fort, yet, when
fat, they conftantly prove the very beft mutton, and never
fail to command a fuperior price. They alfo ftand the
climate in a favourable manner, and the ewes are good
nurfes.

The old Devonftiire dun-faced nott fheep were formerly
held in high eilimation, as a native breed of fome parts of
this county. It is, however, a crooked-backed, flat-fidcd,

coarfely boned and wooUed animal, but which has been
much improved by croiling with the new Leicefter fort ; its
principal defefls are by thefe means removed, and a greater
difpofition to fatten at an earlier period given ; while at the
fame time, however, the fleece, as well as the weight of the
carcafe, has been leflened, the former from ten to eight
pounds of unwaflied wool the fleece, and the latter from
twenty-two to nineteen pounds the quarter. In order to
recompenfe which, the animal comes to market four montlis
earlier ; the wethers at two years old, with advantage ; that
is, after being twice fliorn as flieep, and once as lambs, equals
the average already ftated. This ifl"ue once more crofied
with the new Leicefters, will arrive, it is faid, ftill earlier
to the fame perfeftion.

In the Bampton nott breed, the wethers will, at twenty
months old, weigh twenty-two pounds the quarter, and
ftiear fix pounds and a half of wool to the fleece ; alfo
the fame flieep, well wintered, and kept on for another
twelvemonth, will average twenty-three pounds the quarter,
and yield eight pounds of unwaflied wool to the fleece. The
price of the wool at prefent is about \s. the pound.

The firft crofs of this breed with the new Leicefter is fad
growing into great efteem in this diftrift, in confequence
of its improving the form, and bringing the animal three
months fooner to market ; but though fo far ufeful and de-
firable, any more of that blood is thought difadvantageous,
as rendering them too tender while young, and to require too
much care and nurfing.

The Bampton nott crofied with the new Leicefter is alfo
a fort much approved of in feveral parts of the county, efpe-
cially when carried to the fourth degree, or four parts of the
Leicefter to one of the native nott. This crofs, it is faid,
comes earlier to market, and at two years old will generally
average twenty pounds the quarter, and eight pounds of
yoak wool to the fleece, which is worth about \od. the
pound. And the old Leicefter crofs upon the Bampton
makes a large and handfome animal, which feeds kindly and
tallows well within. The wethers of two years old will
average, with advantage, thirty pounds the quarter, and
(hear ten pounds of yoak wool to the fleece. It is much
valued in fome places. But the new Leicefter crofs upon
the fame flieep, will in fome fituations bring forward wethers
at twenty months old, weighing twenty-two pounds the quar-
ter, with a fliear of eight pounds of yoak wool to the fleece,
both of which are at this time worth \od. the pound, weigh-
ing, according to the cuitom of unwalhed wool, twenty-one
pounds for every fcore. This fort is highly valued by fome
in different parts of this county. The lialf Bampton crofs
is more hardy than the new Leicefter fort, and fuits fome
places better.

3 G 2

Tablk

SHEEP.

Table of the different Breeds, Crofles, and Produce of the Sheep of this and neighbouring Diftrifts.

Age of
Weihers

Average
Weight

Average
Weight

Condi-

Price of
Fleece yj

Rough

Kidney

Total

ChaiaAer of Breeds.

when

pn- Quar-

per

tion of

je of

Fat in

Fat in

infide

killed ill
Monllis.

ter, in
Pounds.

Fleece, in
Pounds.

Fleece.

per
Poiind.

rleece.

Pounds.

Pounds.

Fat.

Native.

Exmoor, horned, white i

s. d.
0 10

0 10

d.
ID

8

legs and face, mode- 1
rately long itaple of j
wool, pure - - )

Dartmoor, the fame, the 1
fame - - - j

South Devon Nott, brown'

3<^
3°

16

7
8

Yoak.
do.

X.

5
6

7

5
6

12

Hi

The wafhed wool
of all the long-
coated fheep is
fold from i^d.

to l^d. per lb.

face and legs, long wool, ■

3°

22

10

do.

0 10

8

4

pure - -

Bampton Nott, white face'

and legs, fhort wool, ■

20
32

22
28

?

do.
do.

0 10

0 10

5

6

5

8

10

7

17

pure . . - _

.

Neighbours.

Dorfet, horned, white "j

face and legs, fhort >

H

18

5

wafhed

J 6

7

6

wool, pure - j

Same, crofl'ed with Exmoor

i8

18

5i

do.

I 4

7

3

9

6

•5

Thefe fheep are
not fent to the

Dillant,

fore (Is.

South Down, pure

24

18

3

do.

2 4

7

0

Same, eroded with new 7
Leiceller. J

Leicefter, old, crofled with!
Bampton . . j

{i .

24

30

(0

0 10

8

4

Same, old, crofl'ed with I
Exmoor . . J

36

24

6|

do.

0 10

5

5

Same, new, pure

18

22

65

do.

0 10

5

5

Same, new, croffed withl
Dartmoor. j

In mod cafes of a

Same, new, croffed with ]
Exmoor - - J

crofs with the

24

18

6

do.

0 10

5

0

new Leicefler

Same, new, fourth crofsl
with South Devon J

upon long full
fleeced fheep, a

20

20

H

do.

0 10

7

I

Same, new, fourth crofsl
with fame - - J

do.

deficiency of

18

18

65

0 10

5

5

wool is obferv-

Same, new, croffed wiihl
Bampton . . J

able under the

20

24

8

do.

0 10

6

8

13

8

21

belly and breaft

Same, new, croffed with j
Cotfwold - - j

of the animal.

18

'9

7

do.

0 10

5

10

9

7

16

Same, new, croffed with \
fame - - j

30

2;

9

do.

0 10

7

6

13

8

21

Foreign.

Merino, crofled with Rye-I
land - . - j

24

»5

H

do.

2 9

18

6i

Same, croffed with fame

24

15

5

do.

3 0

ij

0

Same, firfl crofs with Ex- 1
moor . . j

5

wafhed

2 2

10

10

Same, fecond ditto -

5

do.

2 9

'3

9

Same, third ditto -

5

do.

3 5

17

I

SHEEP.

M/emoer Breed or Variety. — This is a fort of (heep which
is charafterized by having horns, white faces and legs ; by
being very delicate in the bone, neck and head, or what ii
fometimes denominated deer-necked ; by the form of the
carcafe being indifferent, narrow, and flat-fided. Accord-
ing to Mr. CuUcy, the weight per quarter in wethers at two
years and a half old, is from ijlbs. to iSlbs. ; and the weight
of wool much lefs than in the Devonlhire breed. It is a
fmall breed of long-woolled (heep, principally produced on
or in the neighbourhood of the moor from which it takes its
name, which is in the northern extremity of the above county.
Mr. Lawrence fuppofes that in their prefent ftate they are
by no means to be confidered as a profitable fort of flieep-
fiock, either in what relates to flefh or wool ; on which ac-
count it would be for the interell of the county to change
them for the befl fine-woolled breed. It is remarked by Mr.
Billingfley, that this breed of fneep is frequently kept two
or three years, merely for the annual profit of their fleeces,
which often do not exceed more than four pounds in weight ;
and that from their being kept upon very bare and indiffer-
ent paftures while young, they are fuppofed by many fheep-
fai'mers to be a very profitable fort of ilock.

This horned breed has a moderately long ftaple of wool,
which formerly, before the cloth manufafture of the county
of Devon fled into Yorkfhire, was much in demand by the
clothiers of feveral different places. The fattened wethers
of this breed, at three years old, will uiually weigh about
f5lbs. the quarter, and average 4ilbs. of wafhed wool to the
fleece; which is worth at prefent about i.'i^d. the pound.
Attempts have been lately made in different places to im-
prove the wool of this breed or fort of (heep, by a crofs
with the Merino or Spanifh ram, and the relults of the trials
thus made are as below :

Quantity and value of 1 ,,, ' , ,,

native fleece - | ''^^- ^' ''• "^- P'' '^- 4^'

Firft crofs with the I

Merino - | ^ " ^ "■ "°

Second crofs on this 1

produce - J ^ 9 *"

Third crofs on fame 5 — 3 5 —

lo\d.

13

17

In which improvement of the fleece the carcafe is faid to
he rather advanced than the contrary.

In the crofs of the old Leicefter upon the Exmoor breed,
the wethers, which are the produce at three years old, ave-
rage about 24lbs. the quarter, and carry 6ilbs. of yoak wool
to the fleece. The Exmoor (heep have alfo been croifed with
the new Leicefter ; the wether produce of which, at tw»
years old, will weigh i81bs. the quarter, and yield 61bs. of
UBwafhed wool to the fleece : the price of the two latter
§</. the pound. Much lofs is often, it is faid, fuftained in this
laft crofs at the time of yeaning, in confequence of the great
fize of the fhoulders of the lambs retarding or preventing
their exclufion. This will, however, be remedied in the
produce of this crofs.

The Exmoor breed is a hardy fort of (heep on wet cx-
pofed land while young. The ewes under fuch circum-
ftances, in lambing, are alfo fuperior to the Bampton nott
kind.

Corn'ijh Breed or Variety — The true breed of this fort
is faid to have grey faces and legs, coarfe fliort thick necks,
flanding lower before than behind, narrow backs, flattifh
fides, a fleece of coarfe wool, weighing about two or three
pounds, of eighteen ounces each ; their mutton, which is
leldom fat, from eight to' ten pounds the quarter.

However, from the various croffes which have been intro-
duced into the county at different timea, in confequence of

I

the ufe of rams of the Exmoor, Dartmoor, North and
South Devon, Dorfet, Gloucefter, and Leicefter kinds, the
pure breed of this defcription is, it is faid, now become rare,
but that, from the inferior nature and value of its properties
the total extinftion of it need not be lamented. The dif-
trift is now capable of fupporting a much better and more
improved breed of this fort of animal.

Black-faced Heath Breed cr Variety. — This is a kind or
breed of Iheep which, according to Mr. Culley, have large
Ipiral horns, black faces and legs, a fierce wild-looking eye,
fhort firm carcafes, from I2lbs. to l(>Vai. per quarter, covered
with long, open, coarfe fhagged wool, fleeces 3lbs. or 4lbs.
each, wool worth at prefent about %d. per pound. They are
an active hardy fort, running with amazing agility, and befl
adapted, of all other breeds, to expofed, heathy, and moun-
tainous dillrifts ; feldom fed until three, four, or five years
old, when they feed well, and make the fineft mutton, having
a high-flavoured gravy. The fheep of this wild-looking
breed are natives of the north-weit of Yorkfhire, and of
that mountainous traft of country adjoining the Irilh fea,
from Lancafhire to Fort William : they have been of late
years introduced into the Weltern highlands of Scotland.

And the writer of the " Treatife on Live Stock," fuppofes
the black-faced Linton, or fhort fiieep of Scotland, to be a
variety of the Heath fheep. They have been crofTed with
the Cheviot breed, and Mr. Culley, it is noticed, recom-
mends a Difhley crofs, meaning, doubtlefs, for the ufe of
the low lands. If he may be allowed to give an opinion, he-
would, for upland fituations, recommend a Spanifh crofs,
with good winter management, in preference to all others.
It is difgraceful, lie contends, to the rural economy of Bri-
tain, that lo excellent a breed of fheep fhould be needlefsly
compelled to brave the rigour of the feafons, in fuch loofe,
ragged, and beggarly clothing, when they might, with a
few years' pains, and without any deterioration of the car-
cafes, produce a fleece of high value and confequence to the
manufaftures of the country. And he adds, that Mr. Henry
King, falefman of Newgate market, and an eminent gra-
zier, informs him, that he once fed a lot of thefe northern
heath fheep, and made excellent mutton of them, about
l61bs. a quarter ; but that their wool hanging down their
quarters like goat's hair, was fo execrably bad, that it could
be fold only for mop yarn.

But what are termed black-faced, orfiort Jheep, are faid to
have been originally (hort-wooUed, the prefent length of it
having proceeded from crofling ; and it is not well afcertained
whether they are a native Scotch breed, or have been intro-
duced from the moor-lands of Yorkfliire. Belides the ob-
jeftion to thefe black-faced fheep, on the ground of the coarfe
loofe nature of their wool, they are faid to be fubjeA to the
braxy, a difeafe that was unknown in the Higlilands be-
fore their introduftion. And it is remarked, in the able
Agricultural Survey of Eatl Lothian, that the kindof flieep
bred and moil generally kept in Lammermuir, is the black-
faced, or more properly, what is called the /;/W'«/ faced, a
fort of dirty-looking mixture of black and white ; they are for
the moft part horned ; when they are fed, the wethers weigh
from lolbs. to izlbs.^cr quarter, and the ewes from 81bs. to
lolbs. on an average. It will take eight or nine fleeces of the
ewes and hogs, and fix or feven of the wetliers, to make a
ftone of fevenleen pounds (twenty-one ounces to the pound) ;
the quality, and conlequently the price, vary much. The
difference of quality may relult from various circumflances;
it is owing partly to the quantity of tar put upon the flicep
in falving ; partly, it is fuppofed, to the fituation in which
they pallure, as thofe fed on iiigh grounds, and toarie molly
herbage, arc thought to have inferior wool ; and partly to the

general

SHEEP.

general attention and care which farmers beftow upon their
flocks, in which fome are greatly fuperior to others. But the
black-faced fheep feem, the writer thinks, to be capable of very
confiderable improvement ; it does not, indeed, appear, that
much has been done for improving that breed, which cer-
tainly places them in an unfavourable fituation, when their
merits come to be difcufl'ed in oppofition to others which
have received great attention. There can hardly be a doubt
that the weight of the carcafe and the quantity and quality
of the wool might all be increafed, by fufficient care to fe-
left the ftrongell, hcalthieft, and belt feeding among them
for the purpofe of breeding. It has been obferved, that
thofe which feed bed have the greateft quantity of wool, and
generally of the bell quality ; and it is natural to fuppofe
that it (hould be the cafe, as tliey mull be the healthiell and
ftrongell.

Herefordjhh-e, Rofs, or Ryeland Breed or Variety. — This
is a fort of fheep which is diftinguifhed by the author of the
•' Treatife on Live Stock," by the want of horns, and having
^yhite legs and faces ; by being fmall in fize ; and the wool
growing clofe to the eyes ; by the carcafe being pretty well
formed ; and by the excellence of the mutton. Weight per
quarter from lolbs. to 1 8 lbs. Wool fine and (liort, the
lean poor-fed llieep producing the finell. It is the true
breed of this fort of flicep which is properly denominated
Ryelands. In the Agricultural Report of that diltricl,
they are faid, in fymmetry of (hape, and the flavour of the
meat, to be fuperior to molt flocks in the country. They
lamb in February and March. It is a breed which, Mr.
Knight fays, is found to be remarkably eafy in relpeft to
food, but which, in its management, requires cotting in the
winter fcafon, and being fed with hay or peas-haulm. In
fome cafes they are houied all the year round in the night-
time. The cots are low covered buildings, proportioned to
the extent of the flock'?. In the Herefordlhire Agricultural
Report, it is obferved that the eotting materially contributes
to the health of the animal and the finenels of its fleece.
The quantity fliorn from each of the fmall original breed
does not average more than two pounds ; but the quality is
fuch as almoft to rival that imported from Spain. The
price has often been as high as thirty-three (hillings the
ttone of twelve pounds and a half untrinded, when the coarfe
wool has brought but ten or twelve fhillings. They are laid,
by CuUey, to fatten the bell at four years old. The Archen-
field, or true Herefordlhire breed, is faid to afford the lineft
wool, except the Spanifh. It is fuggelled by Mr. Knight,
that the difpofition of flieep to fatten in the north-well part
of that dillrict is in the proportion to the finenefs of the
wool ; but he is not certain of its being fo in this breed ;
however, it feems to him that where the wool is clofe and
fine, there are many advantages ; lefs nourifhment is drawn
from the body in its fupport than in the contrary cafe. The
long coarfe-wooHed fleece admits the rain more freely, and
bv dividing on the back lets it down to the (kin. It alfo
takes in a larger weight of water, which mull more inconve-
nience the animal already heavily loaded. The fine clofe
fleece of this breed admits the water with difficulty, even
when immerfed in it in wafhing, and is never wet through
by rain. On account of the clofenefs of the texture, it only
lodges on the outlide, and i-, eafily removed by the animal
ftiaking itfelf. Befides, a fleece of this kind is much- more
warm and light. For thefe reafons it is fuppofed that no
breed of fheep in the iflaiid is capable of fubfifting on fo
fmall a proportion of food as this.

This animal, in Mr. Kniglit's opinion, appears to be much
more patient of hunger, and to keep itfelf in better condition
on a lefs quantity of food than any other which he has had

an opportunity of obferving. To the great fcantincfs of :
the pallure on which it is ulually condemned to feed, is to
be attributed the finenefs of its fleece ; for the quahty of
this becomes immediately impaired by a copious fupply of
food ; and this circumflance fhould be attended to, in every
county where thefe fheep are introduced.

Some attention ha-, lately been paid to its improvement,
and although the wool is fomewhat lefs fine in its quality
than it formerly was, it is Hill the fineil in the ifland, with
the exception of the Spanifh fort recently imported ; and
the animal mull be allowed, on the whole, to have been con-
fiderably benefited. The quantity of wool afforded by the
improved fort of Rvelands, although increafed, is flill far
from large ; a three -years old wether rarely yielding more than
three pounds and a half. But as a large number of fheep
will fubfill on a fmall portion of ground, and the wool is Hill
worth two Ihillings and fixpence the pound, its value, com-
pared with the quantity of foodconfumed by the animals, is
probably much greater than that afforded by any other breed.

And the Ryeland fheep readily acquires, on a very mode-
rate pallure, that degree of tatnels which renders its flefh
more acceptable, but it is wholly incapable of being loaded
with fat in tlie manner of Mr. Bakewell's. It appears to
him to fatten fomewhat more quickly than thofe he has feen
of the South Down breed.

In tlie Agricultural Survey of Herefordlhire it is fug-
gefled, that a crofs between the Ryeland and real Spanifh
feems the mofl probable mode of adding to the finenels and
value of the wool ; and amongfl many fpirited breeders who
are now making the experiment, colonel Scudamore of Kent-
church, fold the fleeces of a flock fo crofTed at forty fhillings
per Hone, in the fair at Rofs, in the courfe of lall year. The
firll ftage of the crofs materially detra<ils from tlie beauty of
the Ryeland's form, but by continued attention, this ob-
jection will probably be removed, and the flavour of the
mutton is uninjured. Lord Somerville has found that they
feed quickly, and weigh heavily, although their form be not
attractive ; but perhaps form in this animal is of little com-
parative confequence. An ox rarely fattens well, or has
flefli of good quality, unlefs it be in one particular Ihape ;
but fheep fatten well, and the meat is of prime quahty in
thofe of very different forms. Two Leicefters which were .
fed by Mr. Hewer, of Abergavenny, and flaughtered be- ff
fore the Agricultural Society of this county in March laft, '
weighed no lefs than fifty-one pounds in each fore-quarter,
and forty-five in each hind-quarter. But notwithllanding
this great weight, the Leicelters are often found lefs heavy
than they appear to be, whilll the half Spanifh weighs more
than is generally expefted from its fize.

A crofs of the Merino on the Ryeland breed has been tried
in fome parts of Dcvonfhire with an appearance of fuccefs.
The three-years old wethers of this crofs, when fattened to
their frame, being, it is faid, eltimated to run from fourteen
to fixteeu pounds the quarter, and to throw off from three
pounds and a quarter to four pounds of wafhed wool to the
fleece. In experiments made by fome on this crofs in other
parts. It appears that two-years old wethers of the firll crofs
will weigh about fifteen pounds the quarter, and Ihear from
fix pounds and a half to feven pounds of wool in the yoak to
the fleece, which is worth ts. c/d. the pound. The fheep are,
however, greatly expofed to the foot rot.

The crofs between the Ryeland and the Spanifli has been
made in fome other parts, which has completely fucceeded as
to fleece, as the produce of the third crofs of this breed
readily fells for 3^. 6d. the pound ; it is, however, objefted to
by many on account of its not affording an equal acreable
proportion of mutton with the native fheep.

In

SHEEP,

In crofling- this breed with the Difliley, an ufeful kind of
flieep lias, however, been produced, both the wool and car-
cafe being increaLd in weight, but much injured in refpeft
to finenefs ; and it is contended by fome, that the breed is
rendered much Icfs hardy by it.

Wtirton Cragg Breed or Variety. — This is a fort or variety
of (hcep which is principally met with in the diftriift of the
above name, and that of Silverdale, in the northern part of
the county of Lancafter. Thefe cragg flieep are greatly
efteemed for the fine flavour of their mutton, their ready
difpofition to fatten, and the finenefs of their wool. They
are a dole compaft well-made breed of flieep, commonly
with white or mottled black and white faces and legs.
Their fleeces are fliort and clofe in the wool, which ufually
fells high. Their pallure is chiefly that of the poor fliort
rocky lime-ftone kind. They are deferving of more atten-
tion than has hitherto been bellowed upon them by the
farmers of the neighbourhoods where they prevail.

The Shropjh'ire or Morf Breed or Variety. — This is a fort
which, according to the writer on live flock, has Imall horns,
with fpeckled dark or black faces and legs ; they have the
fwll charaftcr of real fiiic-woolled flieep, and have been, for
centuries, bred in Siiropfliire, Staffbrdlhire, Worcefterfliire,
and the vicinity. Their fleece is nearly all fine, and, it is
faid, fuperior to Ryeland wool, fince the crofling which has
taken place in that Itock. Mr. Pitt, of Pendeford, in a
letter to lord Somerville, dated 1799, eftimates the extent
of Morf common, or walle, at 3600 acres, and the number
of flieep fummered thereon, at 15,800, to the annual profit
of fifteen fliillings per acre in wool only, on a moderate
calculation, eight fleeces and a half to the ftone of 14 lbs.
Nothing is reckoned on account of carcafe, as the (heep have
fome extra keep during winter. It is added, that the
Shropftiire commons produce good fine wool, but none equal
to Morf by fixpence a pound.

The Dorfetjhire Breed or Variety. — This breed is known
by having the face, nofe, and legs white, head rather long,
but broad, and the forehead woolly, as in the Spanifh and
Ryeland lorts ; the horn round and bold, middle-fized, and
(landing from the head ; the flioulders broad at top, but
lower than the hinder quarters; the back tolerably Itraight;
carcafe deep, and loins broad ; legs not long, nor very fine
in the bone. Weight per quarter in wethers, at three years
and a half old, from i61bs. to 20 lbs. Mr. Billingfley lays,
that the wool is fine and fliort. It is a breed which has the
peculiar property of producing lambs at any period in the
feafon, even fo early as September and 0<£\ober, fo as to
fnit the purpofes of the lamb-fuckler. It has been found to
anfwer well in fome of the midland diilrifts, and, from its
clofe make, to be equally advantageous with almoft any
other. It is, however, fuppofed capable of improvement by
being crofled with rams of a larger fize. There are varieties
of it met with in feveral diftriits. And it is faid by fome,
that the Dorfet breeders pay great attention to preferve the
colour of their flocks from mixture, fince white lambs are
the moft efteemed in the London markets, from a prcfumcd
fuperior delicacy in the meat. It is believed this is one of
the bell breeds in England, if not fuperior to all others, con-
fidciing its various qualifications. Their property of bring-
ing twins, and making our higheft priced houfe lamb, mull
beconfidered fird ; they are both good hiU Ihcep ai:d padure
lliccp, and their flefli is an excellent medium between the
delicate mutton of the hills, and the rich and juicy meat of
the bell lowland flieep. The later Dorfet lamb«, when
fattened, make the earliell grals lamb. By the practice of
this county, the lambs which the breeders retain are fliorn
at Midfummcr, having been taken from the ewes in May ;
produce of wool, one pound to a pound and a half each, the

t4

price a penny/);r pound nearly, under the price of fheep'swool.
A three-fhear flieep may produce four or five pounds of mid-
dling fine wool, which it would be highly advantageous to
improve to the utmoft, on this excellent breed.

This is a breed, or fort of flieep, which feems to prevail
among the generality of farmers in the highlands, and fome
other parts of the county of Devon, which border on the
above, in which they are found to anfwer very well.

And there is a breed or variety nearly connctled with thefe
in the Mendip hilly dillrift. They are fmaller than that
breed, having fmaller horns, more deer-headed, the wool lefs
in weight ; the mutton excellent in its flavour. It has been
obferved by the author of the " General Treatife on Cattle,"
that in the Wefl; Riding of Yorkfliire, and in the adjoining
parts of Wellmoreland, they have a breed of horned and
white-faced flieep, bearing a llrong affinity to the Dorfets ;
they are called Craven and Wenjleydale fheep, but more ge-
nerally Petiijlon, from the market town where they are fold.
They are a good down or hill fheep, in their pure ilate, and
give a fleece of coarfe fhort wool, weighing between two and
three pounds, the carcafe good mutton, about fifteen pounds
per quarter. They are varioufly crolled in that riding, with
Cheviot, Difliley, and Northumberland tups ; with the two
laft, for the purpofe of making pallure fheep, in which cafe
the weight of carcafe is increafed to twenty or thirty pounds
per quarter. In the north, this breed is commonly crofled
with the Heath flieep, which gives them black or grey faces
and legs, with fometimes a black fpot on the top of the neck,
the wool coarfe and open, inllead of being clofe and thick
fet upon the flcin, as a defence againll the feverity of the
climate of that hilly and expofed country in which they are
fed ; defefts for which the remedy is obvious. Ryeland tups
have been tried with the Penillon ewes, a crofs which made a
confiderable improvement.

The Wihfiire Breed or Variety. — This is a fort which has
fometimes the title of horned-crocks. The writer on live
flock dillinguifhes the breed, as having a large head and
eyes, Roman nofe, wide noltnls, horns bending down the
cheeks, colour all white, wide bofom, deep greyhound breall,
back rather llraight, carcafe fubftantial, legs long, bone
coarfe, fine middle wool, very thin on the belly, which is
fometimes bare. He fuppofes, with Culley, that the bafis
of this breed is doubllefs the Dorfet, enlarged by fome long-
woolled crofs ; but how the horns come to take a diredlion
fo contrary, is not cafy, he thinks, to conjefture ; he has
fometimes imagined it mufl be the lefiilt of fome foreign,
probably Tartarian, crofs. The old Hertfords were, he
fayf, fuppofed a kindred breed with the Wilts, but at prefent,
the few of this kind bred in Herts are of fmaller fize, longer
and coarfer wool. Thefe large and leggy Wilts' flieep
work well in the fold, and have always had the charafter of
good thrivers at corn, oil-cake, and the beft meat, making
very large mutton, and very deep in flefli, which is high-
flavoured, yielding the dark-coloured gravy. The breed is,
he adds, every where on the decline, generally fupplanted
by the South Downs, of which the farmers find they can,
on the fame quantity of land, keep more than one and a half,
for one of the Wilt;:, the former, moreover, producing both
better mutton and better wool. The difeafe called the
goggles, is faid to be peculiar to the Wilts flieep. It is
flated, that this breed has been long ufcd, more or lefs, in the
counties bordering on Wilts, and in Surrey, Kent, Herts,
Eflex, and Midd\-fex. But that it is a breed not worth
preferving j perhaps the only thing to be done with it to
advantage, is to crofs it with the Merino. The Hampfliire
variety of this breed is faid, for what reafoii he knous not, to
be more hardy. It is a breed, however, which is elleemcd
in fome places.

The

SHEEP.

The Berhjhire Breed, or the Vanity called Notts. — This is a
fort which the fame writer defcribes by having; confiderable
length and bone, (Iraight made like horfes, full fore-flank,
Roman faced, with diftinft black fpots, high on the leg,
thick fleece, of confiderable length. He fuppofes them to
clafs with the long-wooUed breeds, and to probably bear
fome affinity to the breed of Oxfordlliire, which is, he is
told, a pecuhar variety.

The pecuhar qualities of the Berkiliire nott breed feem
to be its great fjze, height on the legs, and weight when
fattened. It would appear, contrary to the opinion of fome,
that this breed is well fuited for the ftrong low lands of
its native diftriift, though the South Down fort are faft fup-
planting it in many places, probably without fufficient ex-
perience of them in fuch fituations. In contrafting them
with the Iiorned Wiltfhire fheep, it is found by fome that
the polled Berklhire or nott fort are as certainly more pro-
perly adapted to the low and cold lands, as they are proved
to be more hardy for the fold, to fat fooner, and to be lefs
liable to injury from the fly, than the horned flieep. When
fat, the fheep vary as much as from fourteen to forty pounds
the quarter, in weight. Thefe polled or nott (heep are,
however, not of fo large a li/.e as the horned fort of the
fame dillrift. The fleece of this breed of fheep is not fine,
and on the average it will take eight of them to a tod of
wool. The mutton is rather coarfe, as in all large breeds of
animals. The utility of croffing this breed is by no means
decided. Some advife to breed from the bed of this fort,
but to crofs for fatteninjr. Crofles are, however, very
common between many different forts, a*; between the notts
and the Wiltlhires, the Cotfwolds, the Leicefters, and dif-
ferent mixed breeds.

The Berkfhire nott breed is much valued in fome parts of
Oxfordfhire, efpecially for regular breeding as well as Hand-
ing the fold. They are llrong, adive, and able to travel,
and fold unufually well ; again II which g')od qualities they
are, however, long in fattening, &c. The crofs with the
Leicefter improves them confiderably, Itill they are fail
giving way to the South Down and fome other breeds.

And it is obferved in the Norfolk Agricultural Report,
that the Wiltfhire fheep have proved, in various trials, an
unprofitable breed, as well as the Norfolks ; but it is re-
markable that for turnips, no fheep are faid, bv many prac-
tical and experienced hufbandmcn, to pay better, if fo well.
In Hertfordfhire, many who turnip-feed adhere to that
breed, who admit the South Downs to be a fuperior fort for
grafs-feeding.

Heath-Croppers or Wmdfor Forejl Breed or Viirtfty. — This is
a fniall ill-fliaped breed of little value, found abundantly in the
paridies which lie within the precintls of the fore!l of
Windfor in Berklliire. It is a breed wliich affords a very
fweet kind of mutton. A quarter of it will weigh about
twelve or fourteen pounds. And in regard to the wuol,
about thirteen fleeces will make a tod. It is of equal value
with that of the South Down breed. The term heath-
croppers is very commonly, though vulgarly, applied to fheep
of this breed.

The South Down Breed or Variety. — This is a very valuable
fort of fheep, which CuUey has dillinguifiied by having no
horns, grey faces and leg?, fine bone?, long fmall necks,
and by being rather low before, high on the flioulder, and
Lght in the fore -quarter, fides good, loin tolerably broad,
back-bone rather high, thigh full, twifl good, mutton fine
in grain, and well-flavoured. Wocl lliort, very clofe and
fine, in the length of the ftaple from two to three inches.
Weight per quarter in wethers at two years old 1 8 lbs. It
is a breed which prevails on the dry chalky downs in Suflex,
as well as the hills of Surrey and Keut, and which has lately

been much improved both in carcafe and wool, being much
enlarged forward, carrying a good fore-flank ; and for the
ftiort lefs fertde hilly paftures is an excellent fort, as feeding
clofe. The (heep are hardy, and difpofed to fatten quickly j
and ts'here the ewes are full kept, they frequently produce
twin lambs, nearly in the proportion of one-third of the
whole, which are, when dropped, well-woolled. The we^
thers are capable of being difpofed of at an early age, being
feldom kept longer than two years old, and often fed at
eighteen months ; which is a very valuable property. But
according to the Suifex Agricultural Survey, the ewes are
commonly kept till between four and five, and found to
anfwer well to the graziers in the neighbourhood, as well as
the farmers in Norfolk and the adjoining counties, in the
place of home-bred fheep, as being more expeditious feeders,
and equally adapted for the purpofe of the fold. It has
been obferved, tliat it is in faft a breed of flieep which, from
the compatlnefs of their form, and their legs being (horter,
confiderably outweigh both the Dorfet and Norfolk breeds,
in proportion to the fize of the carcate, being heavy in a
fmall conipafs. Their hardinefs is ellimated according to
the darknefs of the colour in the face and legs ; but as there
is inconvenience in the produce on this account, from the
wool, efpecially about the head and neck, becoming fpotted
with black, and thereby thrown afide by the ftapler, as only
of half the full value, a middle degree of colour may be
bed. As an open country breed, they are fufficiently gentle
and traftable. They are capable of travelling well, and of
refifting the effefts of expofure to cold. The wool is
fcarcely, if at all, inferior in finenefs to that of the Here-
fordfliire kind ; as the praftice of forting, which is commoa
in that diflrift, is not in ufe on the Downs. The excellent
properties of this breed have been brought fully to the
notice of the farmer, by the great patrons of improvement
in Bedfordlhire and Norfolk, and its fuperior merits on trial
have been fuch as to have induced the fheep-farmers in va-
rious dill rifts to introduce them in preference to other
breeds. It is ft:ated, in the Annals of Agriculture, that
they have been found to confume lefs food, in proportion to
weight, than the Norfolks, yet keeping in better order.
Young flieep produce the beil Iambs ; the crones are of
courfe conftantly fold at four or five years old ; and if it
were done earlier, it is fuppofed, it would be more profit-
able. The author of the " General Treatile on Cattle" fug-
geft;s, that the mod noted variety is that of Mr. EUman, of
Glynd, in Suffex, who, he believes, firlt enlarged the Down
breed, by the aid of polled or nott Berkftiire tups. From
this enlarged crofs, he undcrftands, originated the flocks
of the duke of Bedford and Mr. Coke ; the South Down*
of Mr. Coke being generally acknowledged the largelt and
fined in England, a very pregnant proof of which was given
at lord Somerville's cattle fliow, in a two-fliear Holkhara
South Down wether, which weighed more than 40 lbs. per
quarter. Although quick and early feeders, they tallow
within remarkably. And in anfwer to the complaints of
thofe who knew the old Down Iheep, that their wool is be-
come fo much coarfer than formerly, from the modern habit
of feeding the dieep with rape, cabbage, and oil-cake ; they
feem totally to forget the middle and long-woolled crofs, by
which the carcafe of the South Downs of the prefent day
has been enlarged, and their weiglit of wool increafed, and
rendered more coarfe. The mutton is llill excellent, al'.
though probably not fo high-flavoured as the old Down
mutton. It is alfo further fuggeded, that it would be dif-
ficult to peint out any part of the ifland for which this breed
would be unfit, but extremely eafy to name a vad number
of didrifts where it would be a mod advantageous fubdi-
tute for the native docks. It is fuppofed, that all the

South

SHEEP.

South Downs want is the noble covering of a Spanifh fleece,
and how little their carcafe would fuffer by the crofs, has,
it is faid, been demonftrated by lord Somerville, in the ev-
hibition of a yery fine ewe, large enough for any purpofe,
half Spanifh and half South Down. But in order to form
a comparifon between the Norfolks and South Downs, Mr.
Overman of Norfolk, on March 27th, 1799, took from
turnips twenty-four two-years old Norfolk wethers, and ten
South Down of the fame age, having always lived together
from the time they were lambed, and two hours afterwards
they weighed as follows

ft.

lb.

24 Norfolks from the field,

264

7^

Average

Ditto after falling 28 hours,

2^7

M

Average

Difference

-

ft.

lb.

10 South Downs from the field.

109

4

Average
Ditto after fafting 28 hours,
Average

Diiference
One of each lot flaughtered.

Norfolk.
ft.
6
I
o
o
o

106

Mutton

Tallow

Head and pluck

Skin

Wool

lb.
10
25

9%

Sfat i-jd.

at 6d.
at 5^.

Blood

Entrails

Lofs

Live weight

Mutton

Tallow

Head and pluck

Skin

Wool

Blood

Entrails

Lofs

o II

o ol

10 I2|

South Doiun.

ft. lb.

6 8i at 6d.

o I3iat j</.

o 10

o 10

o 7^ at 18^.

Live weight

Norfolk

Down fupericr by

10 12

ft. lb.

'5

ft. lb. oz.
10 13 o

10 8 0

4 7

£
2
o
o
o
o

d.

o
loi

9

o

4

£ s.
2 6

o 5

o o

O I

o I r

d.
3

7h
9

o

3'

3 4 '05

3 o 11^

Bcfides, thefc Norfolk fheep lofing 1 1 lb. 10 oz. more of
their rtfpcaive weight (taken full and empty) 13 a ftrong
circumttance againft them. The Downs arc run much thicker
en the land than the Norfolks. And Mr. Hill of the lame
diftiia cltimates the diff^erence of ftocking between Norfolks

Vol. XXXn.

and South Downs, at one-third in favour of the latter, in
number, in better condition, and of greater weight, both in
wool and carcafe; all fairly attributable to the fuperiority of
the breed, and free from any charge of leftening cattle, &c.
When his flock was of Norfolks, fcarcely or.e in a fcore had
a v/hole fleece ; but now they are South Downs, fcarcely
one m a fcore is broken. And Mr. Blvthe of Burnham
had, four years ago, a flock of between five and fix hundred
Norfolks : he has now one thoufand S<^uth Downs on the
fame land, and has likewife double the wool from his land
flocked with South Downs, to what he clipped when under
Norfolks. Alfo Mr. Durfgate, who has had South Downs
fix years, is clear that, free from all change in hufban-
dry, or other circumftance that would unfairly aff'eft the
comparifon, the number kept, compared with the Norfolks,
has been as five to four. The carcafe is as heavy as the
Norfolks, more wool, and a better price. He docs not
fold ; but the South Downs would bear it better than the
Norfolks. At Palfgrave he folds the South Downs, becaufe
there is a ftieep-walk ; a Norfolk flock changing gradually
to South Downs.

Some think that the South Down are much fuperior to
the Norfolk, Cambridgefliire, and welt country flieep, both
in point of form, hardinefs, finenefs of wool, and difpofi-
tion to fatten. Crolfes of the South Down with other forta
are likewife much approved of in many places ; as that of
the South Down ram with the Norfolk ewe, the lambs of
which crols are fometimes greatly admired. Some fuppofe
It equally beneficial when done with feveral other breeds,
according to the circumftances of the diff'erent diftrias.
But this fort of crofling is very fparingly praaifed in the
native diftria of this breed of flieep. It has been tried with
Spanifli rams, and the wool has been confiderably improved
by the attempt ; but two great defcas, not to be compenfated
by any improvement in the wool, are faid to be produced,
which are tendernefs of conftitution, and badnefs of fliape.
In other places this has not, however, been noticed to take
place. In Oxfordfliire, and feveral other counties, the
South Down breed is faft iupplanting the Berkftiire, Nor-
folk, and many other kinds.

And it is ftated, in the Staffordfliire Agricultural Survey,
that the Cannock Heath are a fort of flieep that has much
refemblance to this breed, and is believed to have originated
from the fame. It is ftated to have been much improved in
the form, thicknefs, and weight of the carcafe, as well as
the finenefs of the wool, by crofling with rams of the Here,
fordlhire breed. They are polled with grey face.f and legs ;
low before ; wool fine and thickly fet, weighing two or three
jiounds the fleece ; the mutton good : they weig'h from 15 lbs.
to 20 lbs. the quarter. In fir Edward Littleton's improve-
ment of this breed, by crofling with Herefordfliire tups, the
carcafe and wool were both bettered, the latter being ren-
dercd worth nearly 2/. the pound.

Tie Norfolk Breeder Variety.— 1\\ this fort of flieep, the
face is black ; the horns large and fpiial ; the carcafe long,
fmall, weak, and thin ; narrow chine ; large bones ; very
long black or grey legs : mutton fine-grained and high-
flavoured, but does not keep well in hot fcafons. The
weight per quarter from 16 lbs. to 2olb.s. The wool in the
bcft part fliort and fine, but part coarfe. This breed ig
chiefly prevalent in Norfolk and Sufl'olk, where folding is
much the praaice, as they have the property of travelling
well. They are found in dilpofition to be given to be reft-
lefs, which renders them unfit flock, except in good in-
clolures. And it is ftated, in the nineteenth volume of the
Annals of Agricukure, that this fort of flieep, from pof-
Iclling few valuable properties, in addition to that of ttand-
3 H ing

SHEEP.

ing the fold well, and as requiring much expence in winter
keep, an acre of turnips being the ufual allowance for half
a dozen befidcs hay, has lately given way to the South
Downs, which are fuppofed by fome to be hardier, lefs nice
in their food, fooner ready for the fold, and more quiet-
This laft fort has lately gained much ground. The wool
might be improved by a Spaniih crofs, but little other ad-
vantage would be stained. It has been remarked, in refpetl
to the quick laiuting of this mutton, by Mr. Vyfe, butcher
of Eaton college, that the Norfolk mutton certainly will
taint fooner than any other, in very hot weather ; neither is
there any fort (that he knows) of a worfe flavour at that
time, though isferior to none in cool weather. Many very
fine and fat Norfolks do not pleafe on the table. The fat
runs away in roafting, if they are laid to a hot fire ; and
they rarely are fo fweet as the South Downs. The latter
are in hot weather worth a halfpenny a pound more than the
Norfolks. When both are completely fatted, it is hard to
fay, (fuppofing the feafon cool,) which upon an average is
fattelt : the flavour too, in fuch a feafon, he thinks, is equal,
and as to coarfe meat, there is none in either fort. But if
they are killed in cool weather, before they are very fat, the
preference muft be given to the Norfolks, becaufe the meat
will in that cafe eat better, and there is a probability of
much more fat within. With refpeft to profit to the feeder,
if they are fed entirely with grafs and upon good land, his
opinion is decidedly in favour of the South Downs ; or if
they eat turnips in the winter, and after that are kept two
or three months upon grafs in the fpring, it is the fame ;
but if they are half fat againft winter, and are to be com-
pleted at turnips, he believes no Iheep are more profitable
than Norfolks, perhaps none fo much fo. But both forts
(hould be kept where there is both turnip and grafs land.
There are varieties of this breed in Cambridge and Suffolk,
with coarfe wool, and weighing about 1 8 lbs. or 20 lbs. the
quarter.

Croiles of the Norfolk, with the South Down and many
breeds of other kinds, are met with and highly valued in dif-
ferent fituations.

A great diverfity of opinion prevails, in regard to the
fuperiority of the Norfolk and the South Down, which has
led an experienced (heep farmer, at Finchfield in Efl'ex, to
make the very accurate trial which is detailed below. In
September 179 1, he purchafed in Suffolk a lot of ewe
lambs, at 61. los. the fcore : and in Suflex, in the Oftober
following, a lot of South Down ewe lambs, at 1 3/. the fcore.
Thefe lots of flieep were depaftured together, and received
in every refpeft the fame treatment until the 25th of the
fame month in 1793 ; when a fingle flieep, which was ad-
judged to be the level of each lot, was taken out, and after
both of them had failed twenty-fix hours, they were weighed
alive, the South Down weighing 96 lbs. and the Norfolk
95 lbs : they were then killed, and the refults of the trial
were as follow.

South Down.

Norfolk.

Carcafe - - 52ilbs.

53ilbs.

Skin - -81

7 and horns

Legs cut off at the knee-joints, 7 j
as ufual - - ( "2

^h

Caul . - 4i

3

Blood - - 4

5

Head and pluck - 7^

7f

Gut fat - - 2|-

Entrails and contents - 12^

14

Lofs by killing, probably urine 2

Ti

In favour of South Down-

2|lbs of fat, 45</. per pound
l| lb. of fkin and wool

In favour of Norfolk. '

I lb. of mutton
I ilone coll

s. J.
o 10
° 5

o 5
6 6

6 II

96

95

Total difference in favour of Norfolk fheep ^s. 8J,
It is noticed, that neither of thefe ewes had any lambs,
but at the time of trial, the Norfolk was more than half-
gone with lamb, and the South Down had but juil taken
the ram.

In fliort, the leading and charafteriftic qualities of the
high and full-bred Norfolk and South Down (heep, feem
upon comparifon to be chiefly thefe, the wool of both is
found to be of the firft clothing quahty, but the larger
quantity is produced by the South Down : the mutton of
both is equally delicious. But the quiet gentle South Down
in the pafture, mull be oppofed to the wild impatient
ramblings of the Norfolk, whofe conftant exercife not only
excites continual appetite, but at the fame time occafions
confiderable wafte in the pafture, by treading down and un-
neceflarily fpoiling a great deal of food they do not eat.
For this extraordinary exertion on the part of the Norfolk
flieep in thus, as it were, wantonly deftroying a large por-
tion of food which is prepared for its fubfiftence, there does
not appear, from the trial already noticed, to be the fmalleit
occafion at lealt, to put it on an equal footing with the
South Down in that particular ; for it is evidently deraon-
ilrated by that trial, that in an equally fized fheep, the
heavieft, and mod capacious ftomach, and confequently re-
quiring the greateft quantity of food, is found to appertain
to the Norfolk fheep. The hardinefs of the South Down,
enduring wet and cold lodging:, and a greater degree of ab-
ilinence and fatigue than the Norfolk in the fold, is a fu-
periority of much moment ; and only to be equalled by
another, which they poiTefs in a very fuperior degree, which
is that of doing well upon coarfe four pallures. Thefe are
fairly to be contralled with the delicate conftitution, and
the tender aromatic herbage, required by the Norfolk ; to
all which it may be added, that the South Down is an
equally good turnip fheep ; and for every poffible purpofe,
whether for its flefh, for its wool, for breeding, for folding,
or for the butcher, they demand a lefs fupply of food, and
of an inferior quality to that which, in every fituation, would
appear indifpcnfible to the well doing of the Norfolk. On
the fcore of the firit cod of thefe fheep, an objeftion may,
it is faid, be very jultly Itated as to their general ufe ; but
when the South Down are more generally bred and increafed
through the country, in that proportion will the prefent ob-
jedlion be done away ; and though they may continue in
equal eftimation, they will neverthelefs, by their being more
generally diffufed and increafed every where, be brought to
a more equal level, in point of price, with the Norfolk,
Welfh, and all thofe breeds fo jultly held in rcquifition for
the finenefs of their wool, and the fuperior excellence in the
flavour of their mutton.

The value of the croIFes which have beea made between
the Norfolk and Welfh fiieep, by the South Down rams,
are far from being decided, fome Iheep-farroers thinking

them

SHEEP,

them highly beneficial, while others llrongly reprobate
them.

Delamtre Forejl Breeder Variety. — This is a breeder fort
of (lieep, which is found about the foreft of that name, in
the county of Chcfter. In point of (hape, the animals are
fold not to be unlike thofe of a diminutive Norfolk fort,
having the faces and legs black, grey, brown, and white,
generally with fmall horns. The breed is fmall, the wethers
not weighing more tlian from 8 lbs. to 12 lbs. the quarter,
at four years old. The mutton is in common much
efteemed, and the wool is valuable, felling about the year
l8c8 at 2/. I2J. bd. the ftone of 20 lbs; the fleeces are,
however, fmall, often not weighing more than 2 lbs. The
wool is commonly purchafed by the manufafturers of cloth
in Yorkfliire.

The Herd'w'ich Breed or Variety — This is a breed which
is charafterized by Mr. CuUey by having no horns, and
the face and legs being fpeckled ; the larger the portion of
white, with fewer black fpots, the purer the breed ; legs
fine, Imall, clean ; the lambs well covered, when dropped ;
the weight per quarter, in the ewes, from 6 lbs. to 8 lbs. ;
in the wethers of four years and a half old, from 9 lbs. to
12 lbs. ; the wool fhort, thick, and matted in the fleece.
It is a breed peculiar to the elevated mountainous traft of
country at the head of the river Eflv, and Duddon in Cum-
berland, where they are let in herds, at an annual fum :
whence the name. At prefent they are faid to poflefs the
property of being extremely hardy in conltitution, and ca-
pable of fupporting thcmfelves on the rocky bare moun-
tains, with the trifling fupport of a little hay in the winter
feafon ; icratchmg down to the heath, during the fnows,
for their fubfiftence ; and by their conftantly moving about,
not being liable to be drifted over by fnow. From the na-
ture of the climate, the ewes produce their lambs late, and
are generally kept as long as they produce lambs. But
the wether ttock is ufually difpofed of from the mountains,
without being put in the paitures, at from, four to five years
old. It is obferved, that the fleece in this breed is finer
tiian tiiat of the Heath fort, but coarfer than any of the fhort-
woolled breeds. It is a breed that (lands in need of a crofs
witli fome of the finer-woolled breeds, and the Spanilh has
been fuggelted as proper for the purpofe. The property of
tiic flocks, as well as of tlie mount.-\in3, is in lord Muncailer,
tlie lord of the foil ; and the fanner of the principal flock is
now Mr. Tyfon, whofc family, it is faid, have inhabited
tiiis wild and fcqueflered fpot through four centuries. Mr.
Tyfon is a tup breeder, and foils a number of Hcrdwick
tups yearly, fome at feveral guineas eacli, to the adjoining
diltrifts, where their known hardy qualities are defirable.

The Cheviot Breed or Variety. — This breed of (heep is
known by the want of horns ; by the face and legs being
motUy white, and the eyes lively and prominent ; the belly
long ; little depth in the breait ; narrow there and on the
chine ; clean, fine, im.ill-boned legs, and thin pelts ; the
weight ^<T quarter, when fat, from 12 lbs. to iSlbs. ; the
wool partly fine, and partly cnarlc. Mr. Cullcy confidcrs
this as a valuable breed of mountain flieej), where the
herbage is chiefly of the natural grafs kind, which is the cafe
in the filu-ilions where thefe are found the molt prevalent,
and from which they have obtained their name. It is a
breed which has undergone much improvement within thefe
few years, in refpeft to its form and other qualities, and
has been lately introduced into the moll nortlicrn diflrifts ;
and from its hardinefs, its affording a portion of fine wool,
and being quick in fattening, it is likely to anfwer well in
fuch filuations. The Spanilh and South Down have been
advifed as proper crotfea for this fort of fliccp.

And it is obferved by the writer of the Argylelhire Re-
port, that the Cheviot fliccp are in every refpeft fuperior to
the black-faced kind, and found to be equally fit for a
mountainous fituatioii. They are hardy, fine-wooUed, and
vvcU-fliaped. They are long-bodied and long-limbed, which
fits them for climbing deep mountains, and for travelling,
either for feekmg their food, or going to a diftant market.
Their fleece, too, is finer, clofer, and warmer. They have
every property that (hould be fougiit in a mountain Iheep,
and accordingly they have been found to thrive in every
part of the Highlands in which they have been tried, and
are faid to be lefs fubjedl to difeafes than the black-faced
kind. Some of them have been lately introduced into the
county by the duke of Argyle, and by Mr. Campbell of
Auch, in the highell parts of Glenurchay, and found to
ani wer exceedingly well. And lord Breadalbane, a few years
ago, made a prefent of fome Cheviot wedders to feveral of
his tenants in Glenurchay, in order to try how they would
fare on the fame pallure with the black-faced kind ; and
the writer was informed by (ome of the llore-mafters, that
they perceived no difference in their thriving. Indeed no
part of this county is more inclement than that from which
they came, where the hills are fometimes covered with fnow
for three or four months in a year, and where many of the
lower walks confift of peat-bogs and deep morafles ; fo that
with us their fituation would be mended, a circumftance
which will always cnfure fuccefs.

It is likewife itated in the twelfth volume of the Sta-
tiftical Account of Scotland, that the following experiment,
made in the parifli of Barr, in Ayrfliire, fliews the com-
parative hardinefs and value of the Cheviot breed. In
June, 1792, a ram and two fcore of ewe hogs, of the
Cheviot breed, were put upon one of the higheft and coldell
farms in the parifh. The harvell was wet, the winter and
fpring ilormy, and the lofs of the native fliccp, through po-
verty and difeafe, Vi'as confiderable ; yet all thefe, though
ftrangers, and in fuch a fituation, did well. The wool of
the native flieep, taking ten fleeces to the ftone (24 lbs.),
fold at yj. dd. ; the wool of the Cheviot kind, taking only
feven and a half to the Hone, fold at ijj. The profit here
was great ; but how much more, if the wool had fetched
its real value of zQs. the ilone ! And in " The Obferva-
tions on different Breeds of Sheep," it is Hated that in
1792, the Cheviot wool fold from \%s. to 20X. the fmeared,
and from 20J. to 22.f. the white; from fix to eight fleeces
of the firlt, and from eight to nine of the lail, going to the
ftone. Some went as high as 23J. ; and it is thought it will
foon be improved fo as to fetch 30J., if not 40J. Draft
ewes fold from 12^. to i6j., and three-years old wedders
from i8x. to 22^. In Etterick, Ewefdale, and Liddef-
dale, they are now converting their flocks as quickly as
poffible into the Cheviot breed. The Roxburgh Agricul-
tural Report alfo fays, that Liddefdale is the worft dillridl,
yet the Cheviot breed thrive in it. The writer of the firft
of thefe Reports remarks, that it is difficult for thofe who
have already got another kind to change the breed ; but
new beginners ouglit undoubtedly to (lock with the Cheviot
kind. It is faid that the Yorklhire graziers have a preju-
dice againft this kind ; probably bccaufe they would then
have more rivals in the trade, which is now in few hands ; a*
thecarcafe, and not the wool, is the principal objeA of at-
tention. Whatever there may be in this, the introduftion
of the Cheviot, which would treble the price of wool, would
more than balance it. And he add.', from the fame volume
of the Statiftical Account of Scotland, that even they who
have another ftock, and cannot conveniently change it,
might at Icall crofs it with the Cheviot breed, whicli might
3 H 2 br

SHEEP.

be done with little trouble, and to great advantage. In
the years 1787, 1788, and 1789, an intelligent farmer, in
the panfh of Moffat, put Cheviot rams to his black-faced
ewes. In 1790 he fold the wool of the fhetp produced by
that crofs at 10/. the fix fleeces ; and the wool of his other
ftock of the black-faced kind, which went exactly on the
fame pafture, only at 6s. ^d. the feven fleeces. The flieep
thus produced were as healthy as his other ftieep, the car-
cafe not materially altered, and the weight of the wool in-
creafed a feventh part, and its price more than a third.
The farm on which they were is as high ground as almoft
any in Scotland.

And the fheep which are at prefent known by the title
of Lon^ Hill Jheep, by the northern farmers, are a hornlefs,
white-faced, loofe-fhaped breed, having a coat of ordinary
fhort or fine wool, perhaps raifed by crofling, through time,
the old country breed with thofe of the Cheviot kind.
They are faid to be more tender than the fhort or black-
faced breed, but to anfwer well with good care and keep.
However, from the practice of milking ewes of this breed,
for the purpofe of making cheefe, being found to be pre-
judicial, it has lately been much left off by the belt theep-
farmers in thefe dillritls.

The Dun-faced Breed or Variety. — This is a fort which
Culley fays has no horns ; the face in common of a dun
tawny colour ; the fize fmall ; the tail (hort ; the mutton
fine in texture ; the weight often only 6 lbs. or 7 lbs. the
quarter ; the wool varioufly llreaked and blended with dif-
ferent Colours, fome of which is very fine. He fuppofes it
to partake of the Spanifh breed, but it is not fo hardy as
the Cheviot breed. The mutton of this breed is excellent
in flavour. They are fuppofed by fome to have had a
Spanifh origin ; but they have been naturahzed, for a great
length of time, on the Grampian and other hilly dift;rids in
Scotland.

The Shetland Breed or Variety. — This is a fmall breed,
and moiUy without horns ; but what more particularly dif-
tinguiflies it from other breeds, is the uncommon fmallnefs
and fhortnefs of the tail ; the weight per quarter from 7 lbs.
to lolbs. ; the wool very fine, and of various colours.
The breed is very hardy, but much too wild in its difpofi-
tion to be confined in iiiclofed pallures, and of courfe lefs
proper for the purpofes of the grazier. There is a fort of
this breed of flieep, which, according to Mr. Johnfon,
carries coarfe wool above, and fine foft wool underneath ;
and the flieep have three different fucceflions of wool an-
nually, two of which refemble long hairs rather than wool,
and are by the common people termed /orj zniifcudda. As
foon as the wool bcgi.is to loofen at the roots, which is
motlly about February, the hairs or fcudda fpring up ; and
when the wool ip cautioufly pulled off, the tougli hairs con-
tinue fatl, until the new woo] grows up about a quarter of
an inch in lenirth, then they gradually wear off; and when
the new fleece has acquired two months' growth, or there-
abouts, the rough hairs, termed fori, fpring up and keep
root, until the proper feafon for pulling it arrives, when it
is plucked off along with the wool, and is feparated from it,
at the time of dreffing the fleece, by an operation called
forfing. The fcudda remains upon the fl<in, as if it were a
thick coat, a protection again ft the inclemency of the
feafon. But the native or kindly breed, that bear the foft
cottony fleeces, according to Mr. Culley, are rather deU-
cate ; though the faft of their eating the fea-weed greedily,
when the ground is covered with fnow, and often durino-
long and fevere fnows, when they have little elfe to hve on',
feems to prove the contrary. Nature, he fays, feems to
have imparted to them a perfeft knowledge of the times at

which this food may be procured ; for immediately upon
the tide beginning to fall, they in one body run direftly
down to the lea-ihores, although feeding on hills feveral
miles diilant from the fea, where they remain until the tide
returns, and obhges them to ftek their ufual haunts. They
are very hardy, and the wildefl of all the breeds of thefe
animals.

But in refpeft to the wool of thefe beaver fheep, as they
are fometimes termed, it is fhort and open, and deflitute of
a covering of long hairs. Thefe fiue foft fleeces are hable
to be rubbed off during winter, or early fpring, which, it
is fuppofed, might be prevented, by clippmg the fheep in
the ufual way, inllead of the abfurd mode of pulling them
off, which tends to weaken the flieep, and decreafe the
length of the ftaple of the vi'ool. In regard to colour this
wool is various, a.s filver grey, which is the fineft and foftett ;
the pure 'while, which is mollly of the greatelt value for all
the purpofes of the fineft combing wool ; the Had, and the
mourat or bro-wn, which are very little inferior : the whole
of the fofteft texture, fit for the fineft manufaftures, and
in fome inflances rivalling even Spanifh wool, than which it
is fomewhat longer in the itaple, and not fo elaftic. And
it is ftated to have been manufadtured into ftockings of ex-
traordinary finenefs ; and that the fleece attached to the
fliin affnrds a fur of great value. This breed was formerly
a native of the higher parts of Aberdeenfhirc, and in the
diftridts to the northward of it ; but it has been fince much
crofted, and it is now moftly confined to the Orkney and
Shetland ifles, the pureft breed being to be found in the
latter. The number of the beaver fheep in thefe ifles
amounted to ninety thoufand, fome years fince ; and five or
fix of them are faid to be capable of being fed with the food
required for one Englifh fheep. In the Weft Riding of
Yorkfhire, Mr. Beaumont is faid to have made a trial of
thefe fheep ; the refult of which was, that they did not fat,
but grow, which fhews that their fize would improve with
that of the foil : their wool alfo improved in length. But
the original old breed of the Highlands arc faid to partake"
of the nature of the goat and deer ; their coat confifting of
a fort of fur or down, covered by long, ftraight, rigid
hairs, like thofe of the beaver, rather than wool ; tail fhort,
flender, tapering, not lai'ger than that of the deer or goat,
and thinly covered with itrong, filvery hairs ; the face co-
vered with fleek hairs, like the face of the deer, with his
prominent eyes. They are tame, delicate of fram.e, and
requiring to be houfed in winter : their flefh of high venilon
flavour. The breed is found in its original purity, in the
central Highlands, on the fouthern banks of Strath Tay,
and between thofe and Strath Brand ; and on the banks of
Loch Nefs, in the northern Highlands, as well as in the
Shetland iflands.

The Merino or Spanifh Breed or Variety. — In this breed
of fheep the males have horns, but the females are without
them. They have, according to lord Somerville, white
faces and legs ; the body not very perfeft in fhape ; rather
long in the legs ; fine in the bone ; a degree of throatiiiefs,
or produftion of loofe pendulous fl<in ui'.der the neck ; and
the pelt fine and clear ; weight, when tolerably fat, per
quarter, in the rams about 17 lbs., in the ewes 11 lbs.;
the wool very fine. It is a breed that is afferted by fome
to be tolerably hardy, and to poflefs a difpofition to fatten
readily ; but others maintain the contrary opinion.

His majefty took the lead in the introdudtion of the Merino
breed into this country, and his firit flock was imported in
1792 ; but other nations feem to have got the Itart in this
refpeft, as Sweden had them even in 1723, where they have
fince greatly increafed ; and in France, Germany, and fome

other

SHEEP.

other ftates, they were probably known long before. They
have lately fpread much in this country, and been greatly
improved in different refpeAs, by judicious croffing with
other forts. The horns in the true Merino rams are now of
a middle fize ; the faces and legs darkilh-white, the latter
rather inclined to be too long. The wool is uncommonly
fine, and weighs about ^i lbs. to the fleece, not being
Uable to deteriorate in this climate. The fleeces have a
dark brown tinge in their furfaces, formed by dull if icking
on the greafy yolky property of its pile ; the contrail be-
tween which and the rich white coloured wethers, and the
rofy hue of the Ikiii, is very flriking on the firit view.

Some crofs the Merino rams with Devonfhire ewes, but
the Ryelands are more commonly preferred. They confider
five crofles as neceflary for reaching perfeftion ; and on that
ground properly conclude, that the wool of the firft crofs
can only reafonably be fuppofed to be worth about •]d. the
pound more than that of the maternal flock, on the idea
that it will, in five croil'es, be of the value of y. above that
of the Ryeland ewe ; making an improvement of about •]d.
in each crofs. And that if the wool, when this fort is
mixed with the moll valued native breeds, does not gain its
neceflary degree of finenefs in lefs than five crofles, it is un-
reafonable to expeft the full price for it at one crofs. It is,
however, certain that the animal is improved by a mixture
with the Ryelands, and that the wool will not ultimately be
found inferior to that of the Spanilh flock. The Spanifh
crofs with the South Down and Ryeland, in feveral de-
grees, is diffuflng itlelf in many dittriAs with great benefit.
With the latter, in Devonfhire, the wether produce, at
two years old, weigh 15 lbs. the quarter, and afford a fleece
of 5 lbs. each, worth 3X. the pound. In other cafes, the
weight of mutton is greater in the fii-fl crofs ; and the fhear
of wool from 6| lbs. to 7 lbs. in the yoak to the fleece, at
the fame age. Croffes with fome other fine-wooUed breeds
are likewife made with great utility.

But according to Dr. Parry, who has had great ex-
perience of this breed, they are, as ftated in a late work
on Live-ltock, entirely enveloped in wool, which grows
under the jaws, down the forehead to the eyes, under the
belly, and down the legs to the very feet. It is alloiiifh-
ing to fee how thickly it covers the fkin ; it will fcarccly
give way to the preflure of the hand, but yields as it were
by flarts, like the cloie Ihort hair of an extremely fine
clothe^-brufli. In walhing them, the water penetrates to
the fkin with great difficulty. The fleece is heavier, in
proportion to the carcafe, than that of any other known
breed in Europe. In the raw Hate (unwaflied on the
fheep's back or afterwards), the fleeces of the two-years
old ewes average at 47;lbs. avoirdupois, and the weight
of the living ewe being about 6olbs. tlic proportion of wool
to that of carcafe is about ilb. to iZrJbs. The fl(.-ece of
a fat wcdder of the fame age will be from jibs, to ylbs.
In eight fhearlmg rains, weighed ahve, after having been
clipped, the weight of the fleece to that of the living ani-
mal, was as one to about twelve and three quarters. The
wool from the head and behind the ears, and the reft of
the refufe, generally called daglocts, had been previoufly
taken away. It is added, that had thcfe fheep been wafhed
before fliearing, their fleeces would have lofl about a ninth
part. And that the length of the llaple or filaments varies.
In a ihearling ram, fhorn when a lamb, a famplc of the
wool cut cloie to the fliin above the fhoulder, was three
inches and a half in length ; and that of the breech, or
middle of the back part of the thigh, three inches and three
quarters : of an ewe of the fame age, about a quarter of
an inch fhorter : the average according very exadlly with

the fpecimens taken from newly imported Spanifh fheep.
An inttance of the extraordinary length of ftaple, of four
inches and three quarters, is related, wliich from the fcoured
fleece produced a fample more than live inches long. The
proportion of fine wool in the fleeces of the Spanifh fheep
is much greater than thofe of any pure EngUih breed.
Thus, while in the Ryeland, which is probably divided into
four or five forts, the fineft wool from the neck and fhoulderi
does not make above one-eighth part of the whole fleece :
in that of his majefly's flock, the fine wool formed near
four-fifths of the whole. It is farther obferved, that of
Dr. Parry's wool, confifling of whole fleeces taken from
fheep which had not more than three or four crolfes of
the Spaniard, and divided into three forts (R. F. T. ), ac-
cording to the Spanifh method, ijjilbs. produced of R.
or Rafinos, or fuperfine, i04lbp. more than two-thirds of
the whole. And the uniformity of finenefs in the improved
wool is fuch, that in fliewing fpecimens from tliefe differ-
ent parts of the fame animal, (the fliouldcr and the breech,)
which are generally confidered as producing the beft and
the worft wool ; the doftor never met with any three per-
fons who could agree which was the finelt, and many
good judges adlually decided in favour of the latter. This
wool contains a great deal of yolk, or oil, which is apt to
entangle the dufl of the fields, fo as often to form a kind
of mat of nearly an inch in thicknels ; it is remarkably, or
rather wholly free from ilitchel hairs or kemps. Brownnefs
in the wool of any particular fheep is an indication of
fuperior finenefs (and inch was the colour of the ancient
fine-woolled fheep, and we need not look for the caufe in
any peculiar quality of foil or compofition mixed with the
wool) ; It will neverthelefs fcour white. But according to
lord Somerville, this dark-brown tnige on the furface of
the befl fleeces amounts almolt to a black, which is
formed by dull adhering to the greafy yolky properties of
its pile ; and the contraft between it and the rich white
colour within, as well as that rofy hue of the fkin, pecu-
liarly denoting high proof, furprife at firIt fight. The
harder the fleece is, and the more it refills any outward
preffure of the hand, the more clofe and fine will be the
wool. Here and there a fine pile may be formed with an
open fleece, though but rarely. And in Mr. Toilet's Spanifli
flock, purchafed from lord Somerville, the average weight
of each Spanifh fleece in the greafe was jibs. 13 oz., and
the lightcfl ewe fleece jibs. 40Z., and the heaviell ram
fleece illbs. 12 oz. of very good quality. This ram was
not quite thirteen montlis old at fliear-day, and was ad-
judged to weigh 2olbs. per quarter. Mr. Toilet declined
the price of two hundred guineas for him, likewil'e that of
one hundred for the ufe of him during the tupping feafon :
he does not wafli his Merino flieep before Ihearing, fince,
from the clofcnefs of the fleece, it is not mucli liable to
the iiitrufion of dirt : as it does not lofe quite half its
weight in fcouring by the manufadturer, an ellimate may
be made after that rate of the value of the fleece in the
yolk. The fleece of tiie young ram produced upwards of
35^. and the average produce of the whole unwaflied Me-
rino wool iSj-. ()d. each fleece. The price of the fuper-
fine more than four-iiftlis of the whole, 6s. yl. and 6s. per
pound of tluf ttiird fort, or frils, which was but about one
pound in the whole quantity. Mr. Bartley has fomewhere
mentioned, that tour wethers of this breed produced the
quantity of jj^lbs. of wool; and of fi'veral ewes which
produced 8 lbs. each, and of a wether whicii gave icAlbs.

In the introdudlion of this breed iiis inajelly, as has been
feen, ha? taken the lead, and from his flock a great num-
ber of the improvers of it have been fupphed m the dif-
ferent

SHEEP.

fcrent Idles that have been made iince its firlt eftabliftiment.
In the falc of 1803, in Kew Lane, under the diredlion of
fir Jofcph Bank?, the numbers fold, according to fome,
were tiveiily-four fiiearling rams, which produced the fiim
of 402/. gs. ; feven full-mouthed and four toothed rams,
171/. !3J. 6ii. ; fourteen ewes, 118/. Ss. ; amounting in all
for tlie forty-five fheep to 692/. los. 6d. The highell price
of the fliearling was 42 guineas, the loweft 6/. 7/. Of the
full-mouthed rams, 28 guineas were the higheft, and 7^ the
loweil price. Of the ewes, 1 1 guineas the highell, 6 the
loweft. The rams were put up at fix guineas, the ewes
at two guineas ; the former prices at which they were
allowed.

The wool has been fold this year unfcoured at 4;. 6^.
ptr pound. The fize of the ewes fomewhat under our pure
Ryelands, but above feveral of our fmall breeds ; heads
fharp and well-fliaped, with occafionally a black fpot er
two ; wool externally having a dirty tinge, but without
that red-brown hue which has been before mentioned ; ears
pendulous ; perfeft ewe-neck, with the finking or cavity
both before and behind the Ihoulder, the top of which is
generally higher than the rump ; capacious belly, the ani-
mal ilanding wide and well upon the legs ; the rams gene-
rally of good fize, fome of them large enough for any pur-
pofe whatever, and of a great bone, but flat and fymme-
trical ; feveral of them were of as good and ufeful form as
need be feen, having compadl loins and fhoulders, and
ftraight backs. Two or three individuals refembled very
ftrikingly our Dorfet and Hamplliire ftock ; the charac-
teriltic velvet or filken glols on the fhorn faces of the rams
was remarkabli, and their countenance put one in mind of
the fair-haired human complexion. Mouths by no means
fine

And it has been obferved, that the large tuft of wool
covering the face of Merino (heep is extremely inconve-
nient in northern countries, where they have frequent heavy
drifts of fnow. And that it is lord Somerville's pradice
to clip this and the leg-wool two or three times 3-year, be-
ginning about fix weeks after (hearing. But that in winter,
and in very rigorous climates, it may not be proper to leave
the head too bare and expofed, as it may produce difeafe.
Thefe clippings may be proper for inferior purpofes, and
the fleece be rendered more pure and valuable without them.
The tuft on the head, and even the throat inefs-, or protu-
berance in the throat, chara£leriliic of the Spanifli fort,
are, as it is alierted, difcoverable, in degrees, in fome of
the native breeds, particularly the Ryeland, (liewing its
origin. And a good judge, Mr. Knight, contends, that
the produce of a crofs with this breed, and the Arclxtifeld
or true Ryeland fort, is extremely ugly, and, according to
his information, fnbjcft to the foot-rot. On fome rich
paltures in Middlefex this has alfo been feund to be the
cafe in both the true and crofled breed.

Tht Mugged Breed or Variety. — This is a fingular breed
of (heep, which formerly prevailed throughout all the low
lands of Northumberland. They had a (hort, coarfe, curled
wool, covering their heads, faces, and legs, and grew down
to their feet ; in form they refembled hill {heep ; their
(houlders low and fliarp ; fides flat ; back rather arched ;
loins thin. It has been fuggefted, that this mugged ap-
pearance may have been the refult of a Spanifh crofs,
Tliis fort of fheep has extended to Yorkfhire ; and traces
of them are ftill vifible, although they have long fince given
place to (heep of the long-woolled kinds. They are now
chiefly met with in the northern counties.

The IVelJb Sheep or Variety. — Theie, which are the moft
general breed in the hill diftrifts, are fmall-horaed, aad all

over of a white colour. They are neat compaA fheep
There is likewife a polled fhort-woolled fort of fheep in
thefe parts of the country, which are efteemed by fome.
And the genuine Welfti mutton, from its fmallnefs and
delicate flavour, ii commonly well-known, highly eileemed,
and fold at a high price. But the fattening of the fmall
Welfh fheep has not in general been found to anfwer in
the f luthern diftrifts of the kingdom. In (hort, this is
a breed which (lands in need of much improvement, and
which is capable of admitting of it with much advantage
to the fheep-farmers of that dillrift.

Tlie croffes of it fhould be with the larger finer wooUed
breeds, that afford good mutton, and be made with great
care and attention. It is fuppofed by fome, that the
Welfh are the original of all the different breeds of (heep in
the ifland.

The Iri/b Breed or Variety. — This is a breed of (lieep,
which is defcribed in this way by Culley. Thefe (heep are
iupported by very long, thick, crooked, grey legs ; their
heads long and ugly, with large flagging ears, grey faces,
and eyes funk ; necks Imig, and fet on below the Ih.iulders;
brealts narrow and fliort, hollow before and behind the
(houlders ; flat-fided, with high, narrow, herring-backs ;
hind-quarters drooping, and tail fet low. In (hort, they
are almolt in every refpeft contrary to what he apprehends
a well-formed (heep (hould be. The (pirit of improvement .
in (heep-ltock has however extended itfelf to Ireland, and 1
there can be no doubt, therefore, but that they will foon im-
prove this as well as other forts of live^ltock.

Indeed, fince the period in which the above account of
Irilh (heep was given, many ufeful and important altera-
tions and improvements have been produced by judicious
feleclion and eroding in this fort of (lock, in feveral differ-
ent parts of that country.

However, independent of thefe numerous breeds or varie-
ties of (heep, which are inhabitants of this ifland, there-
are in other countries many other kinds, which may be
jull noticed for the fake of curiofity, as they are occa-
fionally feen in parks and pleafure-grounds in this intention.
The more cold dillrifts of Iceland and RulTia afford a many'
horned breed of flieep, moftlv from four to feven or eight ;
having a coat of dark-brown coloured hairy wool, weigh-
ing about four pounds, and covering an interior one of
(hort foft fur. Alfo in RulTian Tartary, a large lop-eared,
polled aquiline-nofed breed of fheep, fomewhat refembling
the Wiltfhire and Dorfet breeds in their fhape, are pro-
duced, and which have a long thick woo!, of a black and
white mixed or roan colour, and in the place of a tail, a
large cufhion of fat occupying the rump ; hence fome
naturalilts have called them fat-rumped (heep. This and
the broad-tailcd breed are fometimes called the Kalmuc
and Ailrachan breeds. Tiie projedlion of fat, in this, has
an exquilite delicate marrowy talte. Some fay the wool is
rather ihort, not coarfe, but having hair growing through it.
They are faid to be fo prolific as to bring two or three
young at once. And in Walachia, Crete, and through
moft of the Archipelago iflands, there is a breed of flieep
which have fingular horns, twilled in a fpiral or fcrew-
like manner, (landing in a perpendicular or diverging ex-
tending manner from the fore-part of the head, to fome
height. In fize and fhape tolerable, bearing a long (haggy
but not coarfe coat. Likewife in the extended diftrifts of
Perfia, Syria, Egypt, and Barbary, the Iraad-taiUd (heep
are met with, the tail in fome of which grows to the
breadth of a foot, and to a length to bring them to the
weight of from twenty to fifty pounds, on which account
the ihepherds are fometimes under the neccffity of fupport-

ing

SHEEP.

Jng tliem on a carriage to prevent them from galling and
exhaulling tlic animal. Thefe appendages are moitly alfo
efteemed a great delicacy, being of a nature between fat
and marrow. Further, fome of this breed of fhcep, efpe-
cially thofe of the mountainous forts, have a wool of extra-
ordinary length and finenels, from which are made the ex-
penfive Indian fhawls, and fome other fabricks.

And the Guinea breed of (heep, faid to be common in
tropical climates, is large, ftrong, and fwift, and though
domefticatcd, are often found in a wild ftate ; having coarle,
hairy coats, fliort horns, pendulous ears, and a fort of dew-
lap under the chin.

What is called the Madagafcar breed of /heep, is alfo of
a good fize, and well covered with a clofe pile of fmooth
glolfy hair in the place of wool.

Tlie Buckharian breed of Jlieep is alfo hairy, -and kept in
large flocks in Great Tartary. The ifland of Antigua has
likewife a breed of the fame kind. Sheep of this fort
were imported from Spain by fir Jofeph Banks, with coats
as fleek and fmooth as thofe of a horfe, and which never at
any feafon exhibited the lead appearance of wool or down,
or any thing of a fimilar kind.

It may be noticed, that it has been well ftated in a late
praftical work, that in the breeds of flieep there are evident
diffLrences in their iizes, forms, fle(h, wool, and other pro-
perties, that admirably adapt them for different forts of
paftures, fituations, and ufes of the farmer. And that the
large long-woolled breeds, from their being more (low,
heavy, and tame in their difpolitions than mod other kinds,
are in general the molt proper for the rich inclofed pafture
diftridls : the breeds which poflefs greater length in the legs,
more activity in walking, and a lefs burthen of wool, are
fuited to the more elevated lands, fuch as the downs, moors,
and heaths in different parts of the ifland, where the paf-
turage is lefs fertile and luxuriant ; and tint the fmall light
carcafed hardy breeds are molt adapted to the expofed moun-
tiinous fituations, where the food is more fparing, and ob-
tained with greater difficulty and expence. And in the
Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, it has been ob-
ferved that a very long-woolled breed of fheep, as the old
Lincolnihire or Teefwater fort, is iiecefl'ary alfo in the view
of our fineil worlted manufactures ; and another, fuch as
that of the neiu Leicefler, for the inferior kind of grafs-
lands, and the rich inclofed arable lands, where the folding
fyltem is not in ufe ; for the fupplying the materials of the
coarfcr forts of vvorlteds, flockings, baize, coarle cloths,
blankets, carpets, and other articles of the fame kind ;
while a middle-woolled breed, as the Wiltfhire, the Nor-
folk, or the South Down, is wanted for the well-foiled
arable lands, where the practice of the fold is in ufe, in the
view of making cloths of the narrow medium kinds ; a very
fine-woolk'd breed, as the Hereforfhire Rycland, for the fineil
cloths ; and the Sliropfhire, or fome of the more hardy
breeds, for the heathy mountainous fituations. The Spanilh
and Cheviot forts may alfo be proper in the lad intentions.
What is therefore chiefly neceffary to be regarded in the in-
troducing of new breeds of fheep, is to confider with atten-
tion the nature and fituation of the pallures on which they
are to be fupportcd, and to carefully avoid making ufe of
larger or finer breeds than can be properly fullained ; as
upon due management in this refpeft, much of the fucccis
in the improvement of fhecp-dock mud necetlarily depend.
Where bettering the form of the animal, and improving the
quality of the wool or coat, are the principal objefts,
tliey may be effedted by judicious croffing with proper
breeds for the particular purpofe, on the principles that

have been explained in fpeaking of tlie nature of breeding,
and which is farther (hewn below. (See Bueed, Breeding,
and Y.iv\i.-Stock.) Indeed this lalt circumdance i;; one
which fliould particularly engage the notice of the farmer in
the bufinefs of docking his lands with fhcep, as it feems
from numerous datements, that wool of the lined quality
may be produced in this country by means of Spanifh flieep,
and their being properly eroded with our fine-wooUcd breeds,
which IS a matter of the greatell national importance, as
affording a probable means of rendering us independent of
the foreign fupply of this expenfive but indifpenlible article.
The breeding (heep-farmer fhould therefore be particularly
intereded in promoting this fort of improvement, in all
fituations where the nature of his land will admit of it,
which lord Somerville has (hewn may be the cafe in mod
indances where the fliort-woolled breeds of flieep can be
properly kept, or probably on more than one-half of the
padure-lands of the ifland. And he has remarked that
there is one inducement to this, which is that of its not in-
terfering with the produftion of the mod valuable fort of
mutton, a point to which the fiieep-breedcrs of this coun-
try have till lately been particularly attentive, almod with-
out regarding the quality ef the wool : as it has been found
that the quality of the flefli in the different divifions of fheep
inclines to the nature of the wool, the (hort-woolled (heep
being clofe in the grain of their flefh, of courfe heavy in the
fcale, and in the tade high-flavoured ; while the polled long-
woolled fort are more open and loofe in this refpeft, larger
in fize, and the mutton more coarfe, and in general lefs
faleable in the different markets in the kingdom.

In fheep there are certain good or bad qualities, properties,
or difpofitions which mark their value and importance in the
view of the farmer, grazier, and breeder. That fuch cer-
tain peculiar properties and difpofitions prevail, is well
known to experienced perfons of thefe defcriptions, by
(heep in exactly fimilar circumdances in every refpeft be-
coming more or lefs quickly in the date of fatnefs, &c.; as
an improved difpofition in them fignifies an aptitude to con-
vert their food or nourifhment into flefh and fat. Thus, in
a number of (heep of the fame kind and age, under the very
fame management, when handled, a vad difference will be
found in their condition and date of fatnefs, &c. Some
will be in a ftate to go off many months before the others
are ready, although put on the fame land in equal flefh ; and
others, though kept far beyond the ufual period of time,
will never get into fufficient condition. The difpofition of
the former mud, of courfe, be very beneficial and defirable
to fuch flicep-farmers, as well as advantageous to the com-
munity, while that of the latter is quite the reverfe. This is
likewife the cafe in the breeding of ewes, as thofe which have
it moil are in the bed date at the lambing time. But there
arc, it is fuppofed, fome indances of exception in this and
other defcriptions of fheep, which poflefs good qualities,
that have bad properties, which fuch flieep improvers as the
above fhould alfo be careful in detecting, otherwife they may
be liable to lultain coufiderable injury and lofs : and it is fre-
quently feen on killing different kinds of flieep, that there
is great difference in individuals of the fame breed and
variety.

There are feveral circumdances which are fuppofed to
form or contribute to this goodnels of difpofition in thefe
animals ; they mult be well bred, or come from fuch as have
good properties ; they mud not be permitted ever to be in
a ftate of want of food, or be reduced in flelh ; they mull
have conllantly good food in luflicicnt abundance, the
richer, to fome extent, the better ; they mutt have their
X frame

SHEEP.

I

frame or bone not too large for the quality of their keep ;
they mud have a due relative proportion of parts ; they
muft handle free and mellow in their flefh ; they muft have a
peculiar appearance of countenance ; and they mull be
perfeftly tame and quiet. There are alio other caufes
which in feme meafure conduce to this end, but they are of
lefs certainty in their operation, fuch as the ilate and aftion
of the blood in their fyllems, &c. The external forms and
quahties of fheep which fhew a good difpofition are, a
fmallnefs of the head, athinnefs and Ihortnefs of the neck, a
deep wide bread, a widenefs over the flioulders, a broad,
ftraight and deep carcafe or barrel, a fmallnefs of bone and
feet, the joints moderately fhort, the mulcles or fle(h plump
and full, with a thinnefs about the infertion : the (l<in mid-
dhngly thin and mellow, of a fine texture, and a clear red
and white colour ; the wool of a yellowifh-white appear-
ance, a curly nature, and neither too long nor too fhort,
but thickly fet, the fat and fledi foft, with fome fort of
firmnefs in handling, and the countenance pleafant, and in-
clined to quietnefs.

The improved difpofition or quality of Iheep is promoted
by taking them from poorer or inferior keepor foils, to fuch
as are of a better and more rich kind, as in the cafe of leeds :
but the removing of them from rich foils or keep, to lucii as
are of a worfe nature, has directly the contrary effeft. The
quality of the flefh, in one cafe, becomes foft and mellow,
while in the other it gets more clofe and hard.

The nature and quality of the land or foil, when any
breed of fheep are kept upon it for a length of time, will, it
is believed, throw out the fuitable fize for it, and certain acci-
dental qualities will occur according to its fort, which, when
properly managed by the breeder, will afford an improved dif-
pofition in the animals. In fuch a cafe improvements may
have a probability of being produced, by having the male
fmaller in fize than the female, and by changing him from
too good or rich keep, fo that his conilitution may be in
fome meafure delicate, by the female having her nouridiment
regular, and fo as at no time to be lowered in fledi ; and
when a more full fupply of food may be wanted, by the
increafe being moderate, fo as to preferve rich keep for the
young, in its advancing growth ; by breeding from fuch
fheep as are the mod kindly, (hew the bell difpofition, and
allow the fulled profit, on the particular foil or land on
which they are bred and padured ; by choofing and felefting
the middle-fized fheep of the flock to breed from, and not
the larged, as it is favourable to be rather under than over
the quahty of the loil or land for forming good difpofition;
by refra.ning to breed from fheep difplaying a bad difpofition,
or which have defefts ; and by cautioufly ufing for this pur-
pofe ewes which have had lambs, and are not too old, as
difpofition is fuppofed more likely to be produced from the
fecond than the fird lamb : and ladly. by the mode of breed-
ing that is called in and in, or in the fame line, which greatly
Contributes tot^'rm d^fpufition.

In the degenerated form of fheep, the reverfe of all
this will, of courfe, moftly take place ; they will have
thefe qualities or properties in a larger or fmaller degree ;
their heads will be generally diort and thick, though occa-
fionally rather long, and of a coarfe nature ; the neck, for
the mod part, long, thick, and concave in the higher part ;
the carcafe long and thin, and the ribs flat, ufually termed
" flat-fid' d," while in improved (heep they bow out almod
at right angles with the fpine, in lomewhat the barrel man-
ner. Narrow (houlders, the loin not wide, the back not
draight, and the belly gutty ; the bread or ched contrafted,
without being deeply let down ; the legs long, and thigh

not full or flefhy ; the flefh thin, of a clofe texture, and
thick about the infertion of the mufcular parts ; the feet
large and coarfe ; the flefh hard in handling, or what is
fometimes denominated " dicky ;" the countenance far from
pleafant, and the nature wild ; the wool coarfe and hempy ;
but capable of improvement by attention ; difficult, or
requiring time in fattening ; the mutton often of good
quality for eating, of a firm grain, fweet flavour, and
abounding in gravy.

Sh?ep of this kind in general require a much gt eater quan-
tity of food for their growth and fupport, and for fattening,
than the improved fort, which is a circumdance that muft
evidently be dtiadvantageous to the breeder, glazier, and
the whole community,

All fuch perfons as are in the habit of breeding and fat-
tening (lieep, and "have fufScient experience, find that they
depend on the qualities or properties of their breeds far
gr^i.vth and improvement : fome will not fatten at all, or be '
as lo.-g aga n in fattening as others, and this mod commonly
occurs in fuch as are not of the individual's own particular
breeo or kind. The degeneracy of fheep is readily feen and
eafily proved in the management of them. And fome confi-
der almod the whole of the breeds or varieties of this country
to be more or lefs in this date, or that there is not probably
more than one which can be faid to be truly in an improved
condition, on the cxadl principles of improved forms.

This degeneracy is in a great meafure the confequence of
neglecl or error in the breeders and managers of fheep, as
when they thrive and fatten well, that is to be attributed to
proper feleftion, fuitable keep, and a due regard to the
true and exaft principles of management : but when, on
the contrary, they do not go on to fatten well, but decline
into a date of degeneracy, it proceeds from negledl, darva-
tion, and the want of fuch true principles in their regulation
and management. As though a lamb may poffefs good pro-
portions, yet from negleft and other caufes, it may be re-
duced to a date of poverty ; which, when it takes place, its
degeneracy may be dated from that period, as its conftitu-
tion is injured, and an unfavourable aftion is given to the
fydem. The longer it is kept in this date, and the more
frequent the changes it may undergo, the more confpicuous
will its degeneracy be. Nature,then,itis fuppofed, will throw
out indications in conformity to this decline ; the head will
increafe in fize in a greater proportion than the other parts.
The body will become thin and long ; the bones will be ir-
regular in their growth ; and there will be a want of fymme-
try in the whole fyitem. The caufes which are the found-
ation of iucli degeneracy are believed to be thefe ; the rams
being too large in fize, and kept in too high a manner ; thefe
and the ewes not being well adapted to the foil, but too
large ; the lamb? being kept in an occafional date of want
or darvation ; the negled m not breeding a proper number
for the purpofe of feleftion ; the ignorance of breeders in re-
gard to the true principles, in refpeft to the forms of fheep
or their management ; the frequent erodings of varieties of
the fame breed ; the prcfence of dry fummers and hard
winters, which tend to incline the conditution to an unfa-
vourable action, and confequent degeneracy ; and the want
of good water, which is very prejudicial to fheep.

It is fuggeded, that it is to be lamented, that almod all the
breeds, in every fltuation, are found to have one or other of the
bad properties or qualities already noticed. However, of all .
fheep, the fhape or form of that of the Indian fort is probably
the word which IS produced; and the Wiltfhire, theWelfh,and
many other breeds, are not without partaking of too many of
the properties and imperfeftions of the fame kind, in addition
01 to

SHEEP.

to their other defcft$. It is to be hoped, however, that a
more aftive exertion, and inveftigation of the matter, in fheep-
farmers, will in a (hort time be produftive of the requifite
improvement In this fort of hve-llock, and that by havmg
recourfe to fuperior modes of breeding, rearing, and manage-
ment, an equal pace will be kept in their advancement with
that of any other branch of the farmer's art.

It may be noticed, notwithftanding what has been already
faid, that it is Hated to be almoft univerfally and unanimoufiy
the praftice of the breeders on the South Down hills, to ex-
change the rams every third, fourth, or fifth year, as it is
conceived eflentially neceflary to the prefervation of the
health, the fize, and the bone of the flocks, though quite
contrary to the maxims laid down by feme eminent (heep-
farmers, who are Itrenuous promoters of the method of breed-
ing in and in, or in the fame line, continually, when there
is a good breed or fort of fheep. Flocks that are ilatedto
have been nearly ruined in conilitution and habit by this
means, are faid to have had a wonderful improvement by
the change of the rams. See Breeding.

The queition concerning the beft and moft profitable fize
of (heep for the purpofe of the grazing farmer, and for
producing the largelt acreable quantity of food and other
produfts for the ufe of the community, is a matter of very
great intereft and importance. Though it cannot probably
be dilputed but that different fized animals of this fort muft be
had recourfe to for different fituations, forts, and quahties of
land, Sec. yet the confiderate (heep-farmer will, perhaps,
molUy perceive the propriety of having his ground ftocked
with not too large a fort of (heep. It will moft likely be
the bed way for fuch farmers to fully confult the nature
and properties of the foils of their paiture or other lands,
previoufly to their fixing upon the fize of their (heep-llock
which will be the moft fuitable and advantageous for them,
as where their pafture or other grounds are inferior in their
nature and richnefs, the fize, of the hve-itock of this fort,
which is admitted, cannot with propriety be fo large as in the
contrary circumftances, even where light flocking is prac-
tifed, for liard and pinching feafons will reduce the flock to
the quality of the land. Though many are advocates for
very large-fized fheep, probably from want of fufficiently
confidering the nature of the fubjeft, it is never found that
thofc who flock with fuch fized animals, ever produce fo
much mutton on the acre, or gain fo great a profit on it, as
thofe who make ufe of a middling-fized flock. Some indeed
think that four fmall-fized (heep may be kept on the fame
extent of land which is required for three large ones ; and
that 1!) fome cafes, allowing the (heep to be equal in difpo-
fition, the fame number of fmall ones, of about nine ilone
each, may be fattened on the land that will barely be fuifi-
cient to feed three of from ten to eleveu flones. Small-fized
flieep-flock have alfo many other advantages <ittending them.
Many make complaints againfl fiicep with improved forms,
fuch as the new Lcicefler, as being too fmall, from the mif-
taken idea of their clofe form, as although they may be
(hort and compaft, there is a greater width and depth of car-
cafe in them ; by which they do not come much, if any thing,
(hort of the weight of the more apparently large breeds.

It is unqucllionably a great error and defedt in the (heep-
grazing practice to choofe (heep of too large a fize for the
conflitution of the foil, and the quality of ibe keep which
it affords. The nature of keep will indeed itfelf be the
caufe of different fizes in fheep-flock, if they be fteadily
maintained on the fame fort of land for fome length of time,
and this in fome meafure has produced the differences of fize
in the different breeds of this animal.

Tlie particular advantages of the different fizes of (heep
Vol. XXXII.

may be fummed up fomewhat in this way. Thofe of thr
large fort are fuppofed capable of being kept in equal pro-
portion, on the fame quantity of land, and of bringing more
money at the market, than the fmaller breeds ; they are like-
wife conceived to fatten in a more kind m.anncr. If the firft
of thefe conclufions were true, they would certainly have a
decided fuperiority, but the refult of well-made trials, with
equal proportions on the fame paflures, (hew the contrary to
be the cafe. And in regard to the latter, it has probably
proceeded from its being noticed that the largeft (heep are
moflly the ftrongeft and befl (haped, vfithout confidcrinff
that they are always below the quality or conftitution of
the foil or land on which they are fed or fattened ; hence it
is by no means in favour of large (lieep on all kinds of land.
And though it is fomewhat generally allowed, that two fmall
(heep of the fame breed will equal in weight one large one,
yet the latter will have lefs offal in proportion than they,
which is certainly a defirable property in large flock of thilt
kind.

Small (heep-ftock are however more aftive, and feed clofer
than large, as well as on food which is of an inferior quality ;
they are capable of being ftocked in the proportion of three
to two on the land ; they will produce more meat on the
acre, and be more hardy than large breeds ; they injure paf-
tures lefs than large forts ; they will, where the proportion*
are the fame in relation to the fizes, fooneft become fat in
the fmalleft, in any two fheep. This may probably be con-
eluded as always the cafe, where the regularity of form and
proportions are equally good and exaft : as fmall (heep reach
the flate of maturity fooner than large ones, the fmaller
breeds are ready for fale five, fix, or more months before the
large, which is beneficial in every way : the fmaller breed*
of (heep are almoft conflantly preferred by the butchers, as
the mutton is more fuitable, faleablc, and defireable at par-
ticular feafons, and as having two fifth quarters inftead of
one, where the weights are equal. It may, therefore, upon
the whole, be confidered as the intereft and advantage of
grazing farmers in general to breed, rear, and fatten flieep
which are of the middling fize, however they may have hither,
to been led away by other circumftances, fuch as great fize,
extreme fatnefs, &c. without fufficiently taking into the ac-
count the expence at which they are produced.

What regards the proof of (heep is more the intereft of
the butcher than the grazing farmer; but it has much to do
with the difference of breed, as all the more thin-flcfhed
breeds of fheep, as the South Down, the Norfolk, the
WcKh, and feveral others, moflly die well for the advantage
of the butcher, while thofc of the flefUy fort, which have
improved difpofitions, fuch as the new Leiccfler, &c. com.
monly die to his difadvantagc ; fo that where the great
objedl is proof, fuch breeds muft be chofen as approach th«
moft to the former. It is not, however, probably the breed
fimply, but tlie form of the flicep that gives the proof.
But as fucli fliecp as afford great proof moflly require a
longer time in fattening, the grazing farmer fhould be care-
ful not to breed or purchafe luch flieep as are fo formed as
to convert their food into tallow, in the place of enlarging
the fize of their mufcular parts, and producing meat of ^
fufficiently fat quality.

The age of llu-ep has alfo much to do in the proof which
is afforded by them, as the older they arc, in general, the
better they die in this particular, as their full growth allows
thenourifhment to gofor fat ortallow, accordingtothc nature
of the fheep, as where the form is inclined to be bad there
will be more tallow, but where the difpofition has a tendency
to be good, more fat produced on tlie outfide. Keep hai
likcwife (gmc influence on proof as the bed pafturcSj and fuch
3 I a«

SHEEP.

as are the clofelt flocked, are found in common to afford
(heep that give the beft proof, but ii has probably lefs effeft
in this way than is generally imagined, as particular breeds
give a fuperiority of proof on poor lands, to that of others
on very rich. Time has confiderable effe£l in giving proof
to Uieep, as by it fat is enabled to be coUefted and formed
internally ; but difpofing of the animals at (hort periods con-
ftitutes the great advantage of the grazing farmer, and he
has no reafon to breed and fatten his ftock for the benefit
of the butcher and other dealers in tallow. The manage-
ment in regard to breeding and croffing, as well as the nature
of the wool, are faid to influence the proof ni thefe animals,
as where the more ordinary forms are adhered to, the proof
will be greater than in the contrary circamltances, as they
have a greater tendency to form tallow and loofe infide fat.
And though fome think long white watery wool favour-
able to proof, others fuppole it the contrary, as denoting
adifpofition to fatten quickly, and as preventing infide fat
by taking away the nourifhment, thereby concluding tine
fliort-woolled fheep more difpofed to afford good proof.
The good or bad forms and feel of particular parts, as of
the head, the neck, the bread, the back, the barrel, the
bone, the (kin or pelt, and the flefh, often afford indications
of proof, though not always fuch as are certain ; as when
the firft is large, the fecond long and thin, the third narrow,
thin, and high, the back thin and llraight, the carcafe thin
and not well rounded, the bone long and large, the hide
or Ikin flicky and hard, and the flefli liarfh. But thefe dif-
ferent indications of proof cannot, it is evident, always be
•wholly depended on, as Iheep may have one or more of the
marks or properties which denote good proof, but which
may be counteraftcd by others that favour difpofition and
other fimilar qualities to the contrary ; confequently where
two fheep are fimilarly formed, that which has the largeft
head and firmed ficfh may moftly be concluded to give the
beft proof. The opinions on proof ought, in faft, conftantly
to be formed from the greateft combination of the marks of
it met with in the particular animals examined.

Perhaps, fo far as proof is capable of being judged of
before the animals are killed, it may be known by the feel
of the fat glandular part, which extends from the bottom
part of the neck to the fhoulder, which in lean llieep is fo
very fmall as fcarcely to be felt, while in thofe that are pro-
perly fatted by fufficient time, ox foaked, as it is fometimes
termed, there is a different fized cufhion or projection of
the fame fat glandular part extending to the thick portion
of the flioulder ; by the feel on the ribs and tail or dock,
which, when it is thick, fat, and mellow, the fheep will
commonly, it is thought, die well for proof. A thick loin
is fometimes alfo thought a mark of proof in the kidney
and weight. The feel of the fore dug of barren ewes and
the cod of wethers, likewife fhew, it is thought, proof.
Many of thefe marks muft, however, be allowed to be pre-
carious and uncertain.

It cannot on the whole be doubted, from what has
been Itated on the fubjeft of proof, but that the interefts
of the butcher and the grazing farmer are at variance
as matters ftand at prefent, as what is the gain of one
muft be the lofs of the other, where the thing is well under
ttood.

In the Agricultural Survey of the County of Norfolk,
lately pubhfhed, it is noticed, that the South Down breed
is getting rapidly into the poffeffion of all the country from
Swaff ham to HoLkham ; but that from Brandon to Swaff ham
many Norfolks remain. However, fome mixture was obferved
even in that diftrift. And it is ftated that Mr. Coke is
well fatisfied of the advantage of the breed from Leicefter

ewes and Bakewell tups. His flock of 160 new Leicefter
ewes produced, in 1802, 100 lamb's ; his flock of 630 South
Downs produced 830 lambs living m June. The fame farm,
it is added, yields a moll mterefting comparifon between
Norfolks and South Downs; his former flock was 800
Norfolks, SELLING all the produce : he planted 700 acres, and
now has 800 South Downs, keeping all the produce. Fur-
ther, that his new Leicefter hogs and theaves produced 81bs.
of wool each in the fame yeir, yet they had been hard kept
on feeds fed very bare. And it is ftated, that though he
had a high opinion formerly of the crofs between the new
Leicefter tup and Norfolk ewe, now ( 1803) his opinion is
changed from much experience ; fo that he prefers the crofs
of a South Down ram on a Norfolk ewe to that of a Leicefter
ram. And it is added, that Mr. Hofte has had the fame
crofs, and they come to 32lbs. a quarter, at two-fhear. He
put a Norfolk tup and a Bakewell tup at the fame time to
the fame parcel of Norfolk ewes, and at St. Ive's fair fold
the lambs fat at fix or feven months old, and the Bakewelh
brought juil double the price of the Norfolks. In April
1799, ^^■'* Coke, on fending Norfolk, South Down, and
new Leicefter three-fhear wethers to Smithfield, that had
been fed together, the return was :

£ s. d.
AveTigeper head, 'Norfolks - - - 300

Leicelters - - .'- - - 422

South Downs - - - - - - 372

Ditto, fleeces included, the others being in their
coats ......

3 15

And in May following above 100 going, the South Downs
beat the new Leicefters by 2s. a-head. It is alfo obferved,
that at Waterden, Mr. Money Hill, with about 500 acres
lefs land than at preient, kept 27 fcore breeding Norfolk
ewes, and fold the produce of lambs : now he has 35 fcore
South Down ewes, and keeps their produce, felling his
wool at p. a tod more than the Norfolk. And further,
th.-.t Mr. Bevan, in 1792, had a South Down flock, of 30
fcore, on one farm, and having a flock of Norfolks on an
adjoining farm at Knattifhall, he had an opportunity of com-
paring the wool exaftly : 34 fcore of Norfolks produced
43 tod at 281bs. ; and 34 Icore of South Downs produced
61 tod; which 61, kept till November, became 64, but
the fummer very wet.

lbs.
South Downs ... 1 708

Norfolks - ... 1204

Superiority, juft ^Ib. each

504

Alfo that in 1791, the fhepherd would not let his own
Norfolk ewes take the South Down i-am ; but in 1792 he
was ready enough. He faid they would eat harder than
the Norfolks ; and would eat what the Norfolks would not ;
that they are more quiet and obedient than the Norfolks ;
fo that he has done with them what he could not do with the
Norfolks ; folded them almoll to an inch without hurdU-s.
And that a neighbouring farmer bought three rams of Mr.
Bevan, at 5/. Jj. each ; but afterwards repenting, becaufe
they \vou\d Jliiin hk^oci, Mr. Bevan offered him 6d. a-head,
for all their lambs, more than he fold his Norfolks for, io
the fame flock, at Ipfwich fair. The offer was accepted;
the price proved 6/. 3*/. for the ewe lambs, and 9^. for the
wethers. Mr. Bevan refold the ewes for 9^. and the wethers
for los. 6d., or 2j. i^d. a-head in favour of the iialf-breds.
Further, that when his ftieep were Norfolks, he kept 500;
but in 1 794, he had 960 South Downs. That the pro-
duce

SHEEP.

duce of 1 16 ewe lambs, bred by Mr. Bevan at Riddlefworth,
1792, was :

£

s.

d.

Wool, 12 tod i61bs.

. 26

8

0

48 Lambs, fold for

- 32

2

0

5 Ram lambs, ditto -

8

8

0

6 Rc-fiife ditto

2

10

0

2 Refufe ftearlings ditto

5

10

0

10 Good ditto

10

10

0

I Ditto -

I

0

0

87 Ditto

■ 91

7

0

105

177

15

0

9 Died 7 . . .
2 Dunt J

57

H

0

116

Aftual profit

120

I

0

Farther, it is alfo added, that he was early in tr^'ing
South Do-.n (lieep, but finding them tender at lambmg,
went into a new Leiccfter crofs ; thefe he abandoned, and
got back to the South Downs, but ftill efteems them a ten-
der breed, and that they ought to have yards (heltered and
littered for lambing in bad weather ; remarking, that all the
farmers he knows on the South Downs have thefe yards for
that purpoie. It is likewife ftated, that Mr. Bircham, at
Hackford, declares againft having any favourites ; he has
generally bought Norfolks, and half-bred lambs ; fome few
South Downs;, but they did not anfwer : has had fome
Leicefters : any fort he can get worth his money. Little
farmers, who ktep a few Iheep, find the polled breeds very
convenient from their quietnefs, and therefore prefer them.
Norfolk lambs bred near Cromer, bought by Mr. G.
Jones at 14;., were run on Itubbles in the autumn, and put
to turnips at Chritlmas, then to layers of the firll year, pro-
bably as the bed food for ftieep, and fold (hearling wethers
at Michaelmas at 55J. each ; 2olb3. to 24lbs. a quarter. And
colonel Butler, at Haydon, is iaid to be convinced that Nor-
folks anfwer better than South Downs: (hearlings fometimes
aflbrding 2olbs. and 25lbs. a quarter, and iQilbs.of tallow; he
has a breeding flock of 400, and lold his wether lambs at 26s-
and his ewe lambs at 24*. Mr. Johnfon, of Thurning, has
40 fcore of South Downs, which he has been rearing thefe
fix years, having bought many ewes, and got good tups.
He has, however, a good opinion of Norfolks, and will not
be furprifed to fee them come into fafliion again. In May
1792, he fold two-fliear Norfolks at Smithfield for 3/. each.
He admits their rambling difpofition, which is much againil
them ; and he is clear that he cannot keep fo many on his
farm as of Soutli Downs. The South Down wool is not,
on good keep, fo good as Norfolk wool, but tlie fleece is
heavier. Five years ago he got a lot of Yorkfliircs from
the Wolds, white faces, polled, and the wool very coarfe,
but they tluove wonderfully ; never having had any flieep
that did better, infomuch, that he was forry wlu-n he parted
with them. Norfolks, he tlnnks, will bear folding better
than South Downs. The latter will, however, come to
hand rather looner, but not on ling : iias had threc-ftiear
South Downs of 281bs. a quarter. Alfo at Snettifliam,
Mr. Styleman, the writer allerts, keeps 2000 of various
breeds. South Downs, new Lcicellers, and half and half;
m number confiderably more than when, on tlie fame land,
he kept Norfolks: his farm may, and probably does, pro-
duce more (hcep-food than it did at that time ; but he is per-
feftly clear in the great fiiperioiity of the niunber,' this cir-
cumllance dedutled, and that the profit is confiderably

greater ; and he is clear alfo in the fuperior hardinefs and
kindluiels of feeding of the new breeds. Of all crofs-breeds,
he thmks the firll crols of the Leiceiler tup on the Norfolk
ewe the bcfl, and that wool now (1802) fells at 46^. a
tod ; fleeces 4lbs. And at Hillingdon, all are either Nor-
folks or half-breds, a Leiceiler tup on a Norfolk ewe.
Captain Beacher thinks there are no Iheep in the ifland which
the Leiceiler will not improve. He has grazed many Wilt-
fliircs, and thinks them the beft of all for cole-grazing in
the fens. But Mr. Beck, of Caftle Rifing, has had South
Downs thirteen years, beginning with fome from Mr. Tyr-
rels, of Lamport, and has imported three or four times
fince. He has now 800, and is quite convinced of their fu-
periority to Norfolks : when he was in that breed, he had
not half the number ; but after abating fully for improved
hufbandry, and every other circumltance, he is clear that
there is a fuperiority of four to three. His fences are and
muft; be bad, and in fuch a farm quietnefs is a vail object :
his farm 486 acres. He gained the firit prize for ewes, both
the laft and this year at Swaff ham, and alfo at Holkham
The (urveyor examined his flock attentively, and it certainly
is a very beautiful one. His wool now averages eight to a
tod, equally of hogs and ewes : his Norfolks todded twelve :
he is clear that, take the country through, they average
half as much again as Norfolks. Before he took the farm
there were fifty fheep on it, and a dairy of cows. What an
improvement ! However, in the vicinity of Downham are
found all forts of breeds : towards the river, Lincolns and
Leicefters ; higher up, Norfolks and South Downs. Mr.
Saffory likes the South Downs belt, but thinks that if as
much care and attention had been exerted to improve the
breed of Norfolks as the South Downs have experienced,
they would by this time have been a very different fheep.
Norfolk three-fliear wethers fold in April laft at St. Ives, at
from 4/. 4r. to 4/. loj. each. At Bretenham, Mr. Twift keeps
68 fcore of breeding Norfolk ewes on 1800 acres of poor
land. H2 had a South Down tup fome years ago from
Mr. Crow, but he could not perceive that the breed did
better than Norfolks, though they itood the fold to the
full as well.

In the diftriA called Marfliland, Mr. Dennis, of Wigen-
hall, St. Mary, grazes only the beft Lincoln wethers ; he
buys from May-day to Midfummer ; keeps them over-year,
clipping twice, average price 50J. to 6oj. and fells at 6^s. to
751. getting i8lbs. in the two fleeces: his good land will
carry fix^^r acre, on an average, in fummer ; in winter, two
on three acres ; and thefe will quite prefcrve their (ledi ; if
the feafon be favourable, will get fomething : he thinks that
there is no other breed fo profitable here ; even a ftalii of the
new Lcicefter is hurtful, as they will not ftand the winter fo
well. Sheep the chief ftock, thougli fome Lincoln bullocks.
He never gives hay to flieep, nothing but grafs ; 32lbs. a
quarter his average of fat wethers. But Mr. Swayne, of
Walpole, prefers the crois between Lincoln and Leicrfter :
he buys them fliearling-wethers, about Lady-day ; laft year
3/. to 3/. io.f. each, but has liad tliem at 36/. and 38.f. He
clips the beft twice, three to a tod, which he likes better than
heavier fleeces of iheep demanding more food. Some give
I7lbs. or iSlbs. of wool. At Michaelmas he culls the worft,
or buys cole for them, il reafonable ; fells all by Midlummer,
making 8j. or loi. a-liead, when bought in high, befides
the wool. Very few beafts arc kept.

Alfo in Hertfordfhirc, fome prefer the South Downs to
Wiltftiires, as the latter have the goggles oftei', but the
South Downs never. But the long-legged Wiltfliires lufl^er
lefs in folding on wet land. But in other places the rclu)t of
the comparifon fecms to be, that Soutli Downs do better on

3 I 2 grafs-

SHEEP.

grafs-land than Wiltthires, and will in that cafe thrive more,
and better fupport the hardftiips of (hort food ; but on arable
land with plenty of turnips, clover, rye, tares, &c. in am-
ple provifion, the Wiltfliires are more profitable than the
South Downs. The Wiltfhires are large (heep, and confe-
quently require to be well kept. In the trials of Mr. Hale,
of King's Waldon, for five or fix years, nothing beats
South Downs, where there is much grafs ; but on artificial
grafs and turnips, without a breadth of natural grafs, they
will not do like the Wiltfliires ; for which reafon Mr. Ro-
berts, on his own farm, keeps Wiltfliire ewes, and crefTcs
them with South Down rams ; fo that they lamb in March.
When put to grafs they are folded, and fome lambs are fold
at 34J. in the beginning of harveft ; fome twins at ^ls.6d.; and
the beil are kept. He approves fo much of them, that he
intends to continue them. Mr. Hale's flock is a capital one,
and the wool remarkably fine. And between thirty and
forty years fince, Mr. Calvert of Albury had Lincoln flieep,
but fold them, from conviftion that they did not aniwcr : he
was then, for about twenty years, in the Wiltfliire breed ;
and lalUy, he changed thefe for the South Downs, which he
has had for the laft feven or eight years, and prefers them to
all. He has no other but lord Pelham's breed, both lambs
and ewes, and confiders the more modern attempts to raife
2l Jiner race, as likely to prove mifchievous : he will not
have any thing to do with them. His fix-toothed wethers
weigh eleven ftone and a half. He finds the breed extremely
healthy : they very rarely die ; and are fnbjcft to much
fewer dillempers than the Wiltfliires. And Mr. Smith has
changed Wiltfliires for South Downs. He has about 400 in
all, fome of them Wiltfliires; they zxe fed and ivorkeil together,
and folded on wet lands. The South Downs in exceeding
good order, but the Wiltfliires very inferior. But about
Barkw ay, South Downs are not yet introduced; Mr Whittle,
however, gave it as his decided opinion, \.h2X feed and wcrt
Wiltfliires and South Downs together in the fame manner,
and the former will prove to be the mod profitable ; the latter
are much injured by the dirt, as they are too fliort in hair
and legs ; it was tried at Kimpton Hoo, and fuch was the
refult. He has fold Wiltfliire wethers thrice fliorn, at 7/. 14J.
each. And Mr. Doe, of Bygrave, keeps Wiltfliire ewes,
which he croffes every year by new Leiceller rams ; but goes
no farther than the firlt crofs. Thefe anfwer greatly,
whether the fale be fat lambs or ftiearlings. He does not
approve of South Downs, on account of their inferior
weight.

However, from the high charafter which South Down
fheep have lately attained, it may not be uninterefting to give
M". Young's account of their firfl; introduftion into Nor-
folk. Heremarks, that when once an improvement has fpread
fo much as to become an objeft of importance, there are
generally many claimants for the merit ; and if fuch claimants
are only heard of many yea's after, but little attention is
due to them. With regard to the neighbouring county of
Suffolk, he can fpeak with fome accuracy, but fliould not
mention it on this occafion, were not the faft connected
with the introduftion into Norfolk. In May, 1785, he
publiflied an account of an obfervation he had made in 1784,
the year he brought them into Suffolk from Sulfex ; and it
being printed at the time, the faft will admit of no doubt.
He recommended them ftrongly to every gentleman and
farmer he converfed with on the fuhjcft ; and at his per-
fuafion, as many well know, the late Mr. Macro, of Barrow,
purchafed that flock which the earl of Orford, after his
death, bought and eftabliflied at Houghton. Mr. Macro
died in 1789. And in a paper printed in the Annals, in
J790, he (Mr. Young) remarks," I have had fix and twenty
5

years' experience in Norfolk fheep, and once thought fo
well ef them, as to carry them into Hertfordfliire ; but in
the advance of my practice, I began gradually to doubt the
fuperior merit of that breed. I thought that of all the
flieep which I had examined particularly, none promifed to
anfwer fo well for the general purpofe of the counties of
Norfolk and Suffolk as the South Downs. I began the
import in 1784, and in 1790 had 350. I had too much
friendfliip for the late Mr. Macro, to advife him to try any
experiment that I was not clear would anfwer to him. I
repeatedly urged him to try the South Downs ; he lillened
to me with attention for fome time, but would not deter-
mine, till having feen the number I kept proportionably to
the quantity of land, and at the fame time with fome Nor-
folks, it proved to him that the South Downs were worth
attending to ; and the journey I perfuaded him to take into
Suffex, giving him an opportunity to converfe with various
noted flieep-matlers there, he determined 10 make the expe-
riment : he went over, previous to Lewis fair, and bought
a flock of them. The lambs fold well at Ipfwich fair.
Mr. Le Blanc, at Cavenham, alfo turned South Down
rams to 700 Norfolk ewes : he found no difficulty at Ipf-
wich ; and his ftiepherd, after three years' obflinate pre-
ference to Norfolks, gave up his old friends, and aflually
fet South Downs for his rtiepherd's itock. Whether the
breed fliould or (hould not, in the long run, eftablifh itfelf,
I have the fatisfaAion of feeling that I have done no ill office
to my brother farmers by introducing it. From the daily
accounts I receive, I have good reafon to believe that it will
be eftabliflied."

The farmers in Oxfordfliire employ many different forts
of (heep, as the Wiltihire, Berkfhire, and fome others ; but
the South Down and new Leicelter, and their crofies, are
fait driving the other forts out of the county, as being more
profitable in the number that can be kept on the fame ex-
tent of land, in fattening more expeditioufly, and at earlier
periods of their growth, in folding equally well, and in the
value of their wool. Some, however, think, that the long,
woolled fheep are very profitable on farms of the ftone-brafh
kind, and have large flocks of that fort. In this diftrift,
in general, the quantity of flieep that is kept is large, in
proportion to that of the extent of the farms.

In Berkfhire, the large Wiltfliires and the breed of the
county are giving way to the South Down, and other imall-
fized breeds, as yielding more profit, fattening quicker,
and doing better in general. The new Leiceller, fo far as
they have been tried in proper fituations, have alfo anfwered
well. Some croffes of thefe fmaller breeds have likewife
been employed with confiderable fiiccefs.

In the county of Eliex, ieveral forts of fheep-flock are
made ufe of by the farmers, as the Norfolks, Wiltfhires,
Lincolns, new Leiceflers, South Downs, and different
croffed kinds ; but the fuperiority and advantage of the
Downs are now almoft every where admitted. The
Dilbley or new Leicefter fort is alfo held in much eftima-
tion in many places, efpecially where the foil is of a dry
light nature ; as the wether lambs of this breed, and that
of the Diwns, on being conilantly kept together on the
fame land, until they became fat, the former were inva- '
riably drawn off the firil, and were the fattelt and heavieil.
Befides, rams of thi"- fort are preferred for being put to
Norfolk ewes, to thofe of the other breed; as the produce
is larger, and fooner fat. The new Leiceflers are by fome,
however, thought inferior 10 the South Downs, as being
fuch bad breeders ; one hundred of them only producing
eighty lambs, while the fame number of the Downs will
bring one hundred and twenty.

Ir

SHEEP.

In the difti-ift of Devonfiiire, many kinds of ftieep, be-
iides the native breeds, are had recourfe to by the farmers,
as the Dorfet, new Leicefler, Cotfwold, and South Down,
with erodes of thefe and feveral other kinds, as may be feeii
by the table introduced above. The laft of thele breeds
feems to be fa(l making its way, in fome places where the
land is dry, in this county too ; but other forts and crofles
are held in great favour for different purpofes and uies, as
for mutton, wool, feeding, and different others.

In many of the northern and other counties, as in York-
fhire, Lancafhire, Cumberland, and feveral others, the new
Leicefter, South Down, and different improved breeds,
are now beginning to be had recourfe to, and fupplanting
the old native or other kinds.

The trials have hitherto been fo few, in regard to the
comparative advantages of different breeds of fhecp, in what
regards the relative proportion of food to mutton, offal,
tallow, live and dead weight, and many other points, that
the Itock-farmer has been kept much in the dark. In order,
however, to tuUy clear up and afcertain thefe elientially
important matters, fo abfolutely necefiary to the perfect
knowledge of the fubjeft, the earl of Egremont lately or-
dered the following experiment to be made. The wether
lambs of the preceding fpring were ordered to be put up by
themfelves, into a paddock adjoining the Home-park.
There were of

South Down wether lambs

New Leicefler do.

Half-bred new Leicefler and
South Down wether lamb?,
from fame get as above -

Romney- Marfh wether lambs, ")
out of Mr. Wall's ewes by
his own ram, which, from
the cuitom there, of not
having artificial food, were
not lambed till May,
being therefore nearly two
months younger than any
of the rell ...

Dedufl rams

29 — 12 befl faved for rams.
25 — 6 do. faved for do.

12 18

73
18

55

Thefe fifty-five wether lambs, put into the paddock in
the month of Augult, were brought up and exainined on
the 25th of the June following, when it was found that
twelve of the South Down, and all the half-bred South
Down and new L'-iccflers, were in a marketable condition ;
but that none of the true new Leicefler or Romney-Marfhcs
were in any proper flate for fale.

£ s. d.
Of the South Downs, ten out of the twelve "J

were fent off to Smithfield market, fome days >■ I 14 o

afterwards, and fetciied/itr fheep - -J

Of the half-bred new Leiceflers and South'

Downs, ten of the twelve, fent a week be- J- i i j o

I

fore to the fame market, brought per (he"p

It is remarked, that the half-breds were feemingly the
better fhecp ; but they went to a bad market, when the
prices Were low.

The two of the half-bred fort that remained, and which
were in eq lal condition for the market, vifere kept back, ai
forming part of the trial, detailed next column.

Here, however, it is neceffary to paufe, it is faid, as the
experiment is already decifive of one point, namely, that at
this age of fix months, as noticed above, thofe two breeds
were fo much more advanced than the others, that they
might be profitably cleared from the land, and a frelh flock
fent in. It will remain, it is faid, for the future progrefs
of the trial, to afcertain whether fuch freih flock would not
pay better, than continuing the old ; and for this purpofe
it may be calculated, that the fheep now fold at the above
market at 34J., with the addition of 3^. for wool, pay for
fixty-four weeks id. the pound from the time of their being
lambed. This is noticed to be a very confiderable profit ;
and that if it fhould turn out, that keeping them much
longer is not attended with an advantage fome what propor-
tionate, it will clearly prove the fuperior benefit of that
breed, which may be got rid of at fo early an age. And it
is thought worthy of remark, that not one of the true new
Leicellers being in any condition fit to be drawn off in the
firil lot for market, is a circumflance mofl flrangely contra-
diftory of aflertions without end, that fattening at an early
age is almoll peculiarly a charafterillic of that breed.

But to proceed with the trial.

IK? • i_ I Ten Weeks' Gain

° gain. I'er 100 lbs,

lis. lbs. lbs.

Sept. 7. South Downs 273 33 13

Leiceflers 258 46 21

Half-breds 294 34 13

Romney-Marlhes 270 34 14

It is noticed, that this refult is not very different from
■what might have been expefted ; for as the Romney-Marfhes
and new Leiceiters were very much behind the South
Downs and half breds ten weeks before, it was natural to
fuppofe, that when they did begin to thrive, they would
do it in a more rapid manner.

Weighed j^wVeks. Lofsper lOOlbs.
lbs.

Dec. I. South Downs 264

Leicellers 251

Half-breds 282

Romney-Marflies 269

It is conlidered as very material, in all trials of this na-
ture, to note the lofies, as making fuch attempts double,
by not only fhewing when the flieep thrive, and which do
bell, but equally by marking when they go backward, and
which breed is molt capable of withflandiiig thofe circum-
ftanccs which operate againfl them all. In the above fcale,
the difference is not very material. In that lot which did
the worll, the lofs, it is faid, amounts to about \d. per
week ; but that it is unfavourable to every lot, that in a
period including the befl part of the autumn, as fheep
ihould thriv, when the weather is fuitable, deep into the
month of November, none of them fhould have gained,
which they ought to have done confiderably. Their paf-
ture, iiowever, though good in quality, was bare.

The refult being found, the fheep were ordered to be
flarved for twenty-four hours; and after which, to be
turned out for other twenty-four hours ; propofing, by thus
weighing them, to afcertain the quantity of food eaten, and
the quantity voided : it being rightly conceived, that if,
upon the ripetition of fuch trials, there exilfed any remark-
able fiiperinntv, or any material difference, between the
rcfpeftive bn eds, it might tiirow fome light upon the
general inquiry.

South

Ills.

lbs.

oz

9

3

0

7

2

0

12

4

0

I

0

6

SHEEP.

South Downs
Leicefters
Half-breds
Romnay-Marflies

Lofs by Starving,
lbs.

8
II
17

5

Lofs per 100 lbs.

lbs. o/.

3 o

4 o
4 6
o 14

Dec. ift. June I9tli.

Total.

South Downs
Leicefters
Half-breds
Romney-Marfhes

Gain

per 100 lbs.

lbs. oz.

10

13
12

13

Gain In ihe
•2d -24 Hours.

Il)s. lbs.

167

6 6 12

10 9 19

0-5 5

The refult of thefe weighings fliew that the half-breds
loft moil, and gained moft ; that the Romiiey-Marlhes loft
leaft, and ate leaft ; that the Leicefters loft more tlian the
South Downs, and ate more. It is fuggefted, that fuch
trials muft be repeated many times, before coucliifions can
be fairly drawn. How the Romney-Mar(he<, in the firft
twenty-four hours, could gain nothing, is not to be ac-
counted for, as the weighing was performed with ac-
curacy.

Weighed again in the fucceeding month of March, in tlie
next year, which, as it will mark the lofs fuftaincd by the
fevereft part of the winter feafon, defcrves particular atten-
tion. They were at grafs the whole of the time.

Weighed Lofs in 4 Months. Lofs per 100 lbs.
lbs. lbs. lbs.

253 II 4

214 37 14

253 29 10

2>4 15 5

The refult here (hews that the Leicefters, which is re-
markable, TufTered the moft ; from which it is thought,
that it may fairly be concluded, fo far as one trial goes,
that the great peculiarity of that breed is not by any means
what has been contended for, a capability of fupporting
itfelf on little food ; but that, on the contrary, it demands
a very plentiful nouriftiment, and will bear the want of it
worfe than any of the other breeds.

The half-breds are the next in tlie order of demerit : the
South Downs are the beft of all.

South Downs
Leicefters
Half-breds
Romney-Marfiies

June

19.

South Downs
Leicefters
Half-breds
Romney-Marfhes

Weighed

lbs.
299
275
310

3'7

Gain in

12 Weeks.

lbs.

46

61

57
63

Gain
per 100 lbs_
lbs.
18
28
22
24

The period from the 30th of March to the 19th of June
neceffarily forms another interefting portion of the trial, as
it takes in the whole flufh of the i'pring growth of grafs.
Here the refult, it is faid, is alfo remarkable, and ftrongly
in confirmation of the preceding obfervations on the Lei-
cefters ; for when in favourable circumttances in regard to
food, as in the prefent cafe, from feafon, they exceed all
the reft. The Romney-Marfhes, however, approach near
to them ; and as thefe had loft, in pinching circumitances,
much lefs, their fuperiority upon thefe two weighings feems
to be clearly afcertained ; and which will appear the plainer,
by comparing the weight of December lil with that of
June 19th.

The fheep were then turned out, and twice weighed,
after twenty-four hours eating each time.

Gain in the
1ft 24 Hours.

lbs.

vr cigtiia.

Giin.
lbs.

Gain per 100 Ibi

lbs.

1
lbs.

lbs.

South Downs

264

299

35

13

Leicefters

251

27s

24

9

Half-breds

282

310

28

9

Romney-Marfhes

269

3'7

48

17

The merit of the Romney-Marfhes, in this ftage of the
trial, is, it is faid, confpicuous. The South Downs are
next, the Leicefters and half-breds being equal.

Weighed,
lbs.

3.6

Sept. 7.

South Downs
Leicefters
Half-breds
Romney-Marfhes

312
310

337

Gain per 100 lbs.
lbs.

5

II

8

6

The Leicefters here, it is obferved, continue to take the
lead throughout the fummer. So long as the fiod ig
plentiful, they beat all the others ; and this part of the ex-
periment goes to prove a moll important point, which has
indeed been long fufpectcd, that in good fituations no breed
is io profitable to the grazier. The half-breds are found the
next to tiicfe.

The five remaining Romney-Marfhes were fent to Smith-
field on the 4th of July, and brought 48J. each ; and on
Auguft the 7tli, ten of the remaining Leicefters went at
48J. each, alfo feven at 40J. each ; fo that the profit for
two years and two months food, added to tlie value of the
wool, is, it is faid, ^J. and a fradtion per week for the
Romney-Marfhes, and from 4//. to 4^^/. for the Leicefters,
from the time of their being lambed.

The former part of the experiment will fhew that the
Soutli Downs and half-breds in 64 weeks age gave "jd. per
week profit ; and that the Romney-Marfhes and Leicefters,
kept until they were nearly twice the age of the others,
namely, 108 weeks the former, and 117 the latter, only
gave a profit of from 4//. to ^d. per week. This is, it is
faid, a moft interefting circumltance, and which manifeftly
tends to afcertain how much better it would be to the
grazier to get rid of thefe fheep at an earlier age, and re-
ftock his land with thofe which are moft falcable at the
earlielt period.

November 21ft to December 25th. Weighed again.

South Downs
Leicefters
Half-breds -
Romney-Marfhes

lbs.
320
326
346
331

Gain.

lbs.

4

J4

6

loft 6

Gain per 100 lbs.
lbs.
I

4

I

loft I

This, it is fuppofed, is perhaps the moft flriking period
of the experiment. By the lafl weighing, if turned to, it
will be feen that the Leicefters had outft ripped all the reft,
and that the fuperiority is ftill maintained.

Tlie above details of the praftices of different diftrifts, ex-
periments, and remarks, muft place the profits and advan-
tages of different breeds of fheep for the purpofes of the
fheep-farmer, in a clear, fatisfaftory, and ftriking point of
view. With refpett to th.' wool of dilTerent fheep, we refer
to the next article, and Wool.

Different Kinds of Sheep-Management In the praftice of

fheep hufbandry, different fyitems are had recourfe to, ac-
cording to the extent and nature of the farms on which they
are kept, and the methods of farming that arc adopted on
them i but under all circnmftances, the beft fherp-mafters

conftantly

SHEEP.

conftantly endeavour to preferve them in as pood condition
as poflible at all feafons. With the patture kinds of (heep
this is particularly the cafe ; and with the vk-w of accom-
plifhing it in the moft complete manner, it is ufeful to divide
them into different parcels or lots, in refpeft to their ages
and forts, as by that praftice they may be kept with greater
convenience and benefit than in large flocks together, under
a mixture of different kinds ; as in this way there is not only
lefs walte of food, but the animals thrive better, and the
paftures are fed with much more eafe. The advantage of
this management has been fully experienced in many of the
northern diflrifts, where they ufually divide the fhecp-Ilock
into lambs, yearlings, wethers, and breeding ewes ; and in
this method it appears not improbable that a much larger
proportion of Itock may be kept, and the Ihccp be pre-
served in a more healthy condition.

The nature of the management with a breeding Hock is
that the fheep-mafter muit aft according to his circumflances,
fituation, and the capital which he poflelfes, either felling
the lambs to go to keep, fattening them for grafs-lamb,
fuckling them for houfe-lamb, or keeping them on to be
grazed and fold as ftore or fat wethers ; the ewes being fold
lean, as they are called, or fattened, as circumllancts, profit,
and convenience, may point out. Another praftice, but
which requires much capital, as well as knowledge, expe-
rience, and attention, is that of breeding and fattening off
all lambs, both wethers and ewes, efpecially where markets
for their fale, when fat, are conveniently fituated. But
where this fyftem is too extenfive, it may be partially aftcd
upon, varying the plan according to capital, circumitancc-s,
and the nature of the times. In which cafe, whenever ftore
ftock becomes extravagantly high, it is moftly a good way to
fell. But a method which is attended witli the leail trouble
and hazard, is that of parchafing a (lore flock, as lamb":,
wether?, and what are termed crones, or old ewes ; fome of
the lall fort often proving with lamb, may be fattened off
with them to good account. It is likewife often the cafe
that ewes are difpofed of in larnb, or with lambs by their
fides, in what are termed couples, in which circumilances it
is frequently a good praftice to make annu.'.l purchaies of
them, in order to the fattening of both, and felling them in
that Hate within the year. The fyflem of breeding can only
be had recourfe to with effeft and advantage in fituations or
on fanns, where there are extenfive trafts of land fit for the
palluring and fupport of thefe animals, but not the fattening
of them ; the more rich deep grafs-Iands being adapted to
their fattening, and thereby affording a better profit, efpe-
cially when quickly performed with a proper fort of this kind
of ilock, as that of good wethers.

But in the purohafing of fhecp, which is often done from
very diltant fairs and markets, much care and circum-
fpettioii arc ncceflary, whatever the fort or intention with
which they arc bought may be. In thcfe cafes much ad-
vanta,re, efpecially when at a confiderablc difl:ancc, may be
derived by empliring a falefman upon the fpot.

And the appearances which (hew the fhoep to be in a
proper found Hate of health, are a rather wild or lively
bnflvncfs, a bnlhant clearnefs in the eye, a florid ruddy
colour on the iiifide of the eyelids and what are termed the
eye firings, as well as in the gums, a faftncfs in the teetli, a
fweet fragrance in the breath, a drynefs of the nofe and eyes,
breathing eafy and regular, a coolnefs in the feet, dung pro-
perly formed, coat or fleece firmly attached to the flcin, and
unbroken, the fl<in ixhibiting a florid red appearance, efpe-
cially upon the brifket. Whtie there are difcharges from
the nofe and eyes, it indicates tlicir having taken cold, and
fliould be attended to by putting them in dry iheltercd

fituations. This is a neceffary precaution alfo in bringing
them from one fituation to another while on the road.

It may be noticed that, with (hoep-farmers, the common
praftice, except in particular inflances, has been to leave the
ewei for the purpofe of breeding without any feleftion ; but
where good flieep-flock is the objeft, much attention fliould
be paid in choofing fuch as are the moll perfed, and that
pofTefs, in the higheil degree, thofe qualities or properties
which are wanted, whatever the breed or variety of fheep may
be ; as it is only in this way that a good Ilock can be raifed and
preferved. And it is a bufincfs that fhould always be per-
formed at the time they are turned to the ram, if it has not
been done before ; and this is equally neceflary in regard to
the rams, that they may be adapted to the ewes. The
author of the Farmer's Calendar has obferved, that the late
duke of Bedford, in attending to this objeft, had every ram
with the lambs got by him the preceding year put in diftinft
pens, that he might not only examine them but their pro-
geny, previous to his deciding " what ewes to draw off for
him," which is certainly a method highly deff rving of imi-
tation by (heep-farmers in general. Such attention, united
with a careful feledtion of cull lambs, muft, the writer
thinks, keep a itock in a flate of progrcflive improvement,
proportioned to the accuracy of judgment, eye, and hand of
the farmer who praftifes it. And it is obferved in the Agri-
cultural Report of Norfolk lately publiflied, that Mr. Coke
readily aflifts, not only his tenants, but other neighbouring
farmers, in forting and felefting their South Down ewes, &c.
and diflributing them in lots to the rams according to the
fhapes and quaUties of each. He puts on his fhepherd's
fmock, and luperintends the pens, to the fure improvement
of the flock ; his judgment is fuperior and admitted. The
writer has feen him, and the late duke of Bedford, thus ac-
coutred, work all the day, and not quit the bufincfs till the
darknefs forced them to dinner. See Sorting Sheep-Jlock,

Farther, it has been remarked in a late praftical work,
that the moil advantageous and proper age for ewes taking
the ram in the different breeds, has not been fully fhewn ;
but from a year to a year and a half old may be fufficient,
according to the forwardnels of the breed and the goodnefs
of the keep. Some judge of this by the produftion of
broad or fheep's teeth. It fhould not, perhaps, be done
while too young in any cafe. And in regard to the feafon
of putting the rams to the ewes, it mud be direfted by the
period at which the fall of the lambs may be moft defirable,
which muft depend on the nature of the keep which the par-
ticular fituation affords ; but the moft ufiial time is about
the beginning of Oftober, except in the Dorfetfhire ewes,
where the intention is fuckling for houfe-lamb, in which cafe
it fhould be much earlier, in order that the lambs may be
fufficiently forward. But, by being kept very well, any
of the breeds will take the ram at a much earlier period.
Where the rams are young, the number of ewes fhould
fcldom exceed fixty for each ram ; but in older rams a
greater number may be admitted without inconvenience, as
from one to two hundred ; but letting them have too many
fliould be cautioufly avoided, as by fuch means the farmer
may fuftain great lols in the number of the lambs. It is
found that the ewe goes with lamb about the fpace of five
months, confequently the moll common lambing-fealon is
March, or the early part of April ; but it has been obferved,
that in many of the more fouthern dillrifts, where fheep-
hufbandry is carried on to a confiderable extent, fome parts
of the cwc-llock are put to the rams at much earlier periodi,
fo as to lamb a montli or fix weeks looner ; a praftice which
is attended with much profit and advantage in many fituations
where early grafs-lamb is in great demand. It is ufual for

the

SHEEP.

the rams to remain with the ewes for a month or fix weeks,
and in fome cafes longer, in order to complete the bufinefs
of impregnation, which in fome dittrifts is afcertained by
fmearing the fore-bows of the rams with fome colouring fub-
ftance. The method formerly in pr?.ftice, and which is too
commonly the cafe at prefent, of turning a number of rams
among the flocks, is highly exceptionable, as tending to
prevent the main objefl, and injure the rams. A better way
is to let each ram have a proper number of ewes, and with
very choice (lock to keep the ram in an inclofed fmall pafture,
turning a few ewes to him, and as they are ferved replacing
them with others. By this means there is more certainty,
and more ewes may be impregnated. In fuch fort of fine
ftock, it is likewife of great utility to keep the rams during
this feafon in a high manner. In this view a little oats in the
ftraw, or a mixture of barley and pea-meal, are excellent.
Where ewes are backward in taking the ram, the bell means
to be employed are thofe of good ilimulating keep. The
rams fhould always be continued with the ewes a lufBcient
length of time. It is ftated in the General Treatife on
Cattle, that the ewe will breed twice and even thrice a year,
if it be made a point to produce fuch an efFedt by attention
and high keep, fince fhe will receive the male indifferently at
any feafon, and, like the rabbit, very foon after bringing
forth. And that Lifle gives an inttance of three of his
ewes, well kept, lambing at Chriltmas, fattening off their
lambs at Lady-dav, and producing lambs again the firfl
■week in June. It feems they Hole the ram immediately after
lambing, but brought the fecond time only fingle lambs,
although of a breed that generally produces twins. The
former writer thinks there is no doubt but the flieep would
produce young thrice a year, were the bad praftice reforted
to, which has been fo currently recommended with the
rabbit, of allowing- the male immediately after parturition ;
the ready way to render both the female and her progeny
worthlefs. Could the lambs be advantageoufly weaned at
two months, fufRcient time would, he conceives, remain for
the ewe to bring forth twice within the year ; for example,
fuppofe the young ewe tupped in Auguft, the lamb would
be dropped in the middle of January, and might be weaned
in mid March, the ewe again receive the ram on the turn of
the milk, like the fow, perhaps in or before April, fhe
would then bring forth within the twelve months, or in
Auguft. This plan would, he thinks, at leaft injure the
dam infinitely lefs than fuckhng during geftation.

And it is n« cedary, that during the time the ewes are in
lamb they fhould be kept in pallures, and as free from dif-
turbance as poffible, being carefully attended to, in order to
prevent accidents, which are liable to take place at this time,
fuch as thofe of their being call in the furrows, &c.
Where any of the ewes flip their lambs, it is advifed by Mr.
Bannifter that they (hould be immediately removed from the
flock. They alfo require, under thefe circumllances, to be
kept as well as the nature of the farm will admit, in order
that there may be lefs lofs at lambing-time, from the ewes
being flronger, and the lambs more healthy, and better ca-
pable of contending with the ftate of the feafon at which
they may be dropped. At lambing-time every poffible at-
tention is to be paid. The Ihepherd (liould at this period be
particularly careful and attentive to afford his affiftance where
It may be neceflary. He (hould conllantly have regard to
the fuckling of the lambs, and to fee that the udders of the
ewes are not difeafed. His attendance will often be required
in the night as well as the day. At this feafon covered
flicep-folds are often of very great advantage, in faving and
protefting both ewes and their lambs. And in refpecl to
the number of lambs, it is remarked by the author of the

work on Live-ftock, that the ewe brings mod commonly
one, next in degree of frequency, two, rarely from three to
five lambs at a birth. This property of double birth is, he
fays, in fome inllances, fpecific ; the Dorfet Iheep ufually
yeaning twins ; and the large-polled Belgic (heep, with
their defcendants, our Teefwater, doing the fame, and pro-
ducing occafionally more at a birth. Other breeds bring
twins in the proportion of one-third of the flock, which ij
fuppofed to depend coiifiderably on good keep. A certain
number of ewes per centum prove barren annually : the caufe
very rarely, natural dcfeft ; fometimes over-tatnefs, a mor-
bid Itate of body, from poverty, or nsgleft of the ram ; in
other words, want of fyllem in the fliepherd.

Further, it has been recommended, that where rich paf-
tures, or other forts of good grafs-lands cannot be referved
for their fupport, turnips, or other kinds of green food,
(hould be provided for the purpofe, and given them in a
fuitable manner ; but where it can be done, it is always
better to leave this fort of food untouched till about the
period of lambing, when it (hould be regularly fupplied, in
proportion to the neceffity there may be for it. The ewes
alfo demand at this time much care, to fee that they are put
upon a dry (heltered pallure, free from difturbance, and that
neither they nor their lambs fuilain injury from the too great
feverity of the feafon. Whenever this is the cafe, they
(hould be carefully removed into a proper degree of warmth
and (helter, until perfectly reftored. It is hkewife a necef-
fary, as well as a ufeful praftice, as they lamb down, to take
them and their lambs away from the common ftock, putting
them into a piece of turnips, or fre(h dry pallure, where
there is (helter when neceflary, as by this means much fewer
lambs will be loft than would otherwife be the cafe. It is
alfo found, that by a proper fupply of turnips, or other fimi-
lar green food at this period, the milk of the ewes is much
increafed, and the growth of the lambs greatly prpmoted ;
which is of much future importance, as when they are ftinted
at this early period of their exillence, they never turn out
fo well afterwards for the farmer. With the green and root
crops, and preferved after-grafs, hay, ftraw, corn, and oil-
cake, are in fome cafes made ule of in the winter fupport of
(heep-ltock. With turnips, where the foil is not fufficiently
dry to admit the flieep, it is the practice to draw them and
convey them to a found iirm pafture, that the ewes may be
baited upon them once or twice in the day, as there may be
occafion, care being taken that they are eaten up clean,
as the circumftaiice of their being thus eaten may ferve as a
guide to the farmer for the fupply that may be daily necef-
fary. In this way this fort of food will be confumed with
the greateft economy. Where the land is perfeftly dry, and
the intention is to manure it for a grain crop, eating the tur-
nips on the land, by means of portions hurdled off as wantvd,
is a good praftice. And with this fort of food, efpecially
where it produces fcouring in the ewes, green rouen hay,
cut ftraw, or peafe-haulm, fhould conftantly be given, and
alfo with rape, Sec. Mr. Young has ftated, that in fome
parts of the kingdom, the beft farmers give their ewes and
lambs bran and oats, or oil-cake, in troughs, while they are
feeding on turnips ; but he fuggefts, at the fame time, that it
muft be a good breed for fuch a praftice to repay. And it
has been advifed, when the weather is very wet, ftormy, or
there is much fnow upon the ground, that the ewes and
lambs (hould have hay given them in baits as may be necef-
fary, which is moilly done in covered moveable racks, a
portion being given frelh every day. It is, however, much
better to have it cut into chaff, and given in troughs, as
much lefs wafte is made. There is ftill a higher praftice
of feeding made ufe of by fome farmers, with ewe-ftock of

the

SHEEP.

the more improved kinds, and which is faid to have been
found to anfwer better than the common Iceep in particular
cafes; which is that of employing parfnips or carrots with
hay of tiie green rouen kind, or a portion of pea, bean, or
barley-meal, ilfo malt-combs, with potatoes and hay, &c.
Thefe forts of keep are, liowever, obvioudy much too ex-
penfive, except under particular circumftances, and for the
more improved breeds.

It is obvious, that where (helter can be provided, it will
always be of much beneiit to the fheep. But it has been
obferved, that the pradtice of letting them to the iiay-
ilacks, which is common with fome farmers, is (lovenly and
walleful, and which, though it may afford a degree of
(helter, fliould never be attempted when the other methods
can be had recourfe to. It has alfo been fuggefted by Mr.
Young, as an excellent method, though not efl'entially necef-
fary, to allow the fheep, whether the weather be bad or
not, a fmall proportion of hay daily while at turnips. And
it is fuppofed that by this careful management, and the ufe of
Itubble turnips when neceilary, the ewe and lamb-llock may
be well fupported through the feverity of the feafon, and be
brought on in the bed poffible condition until the turnips
are finifhed in March, which fhould always be the cafe when
the prelerved grafs or rouen may be ready to receive them ;
which is confidered by fome as the moll to be depended upon
through this and the following month, which, with the firlt
week m May, is the moll difficult period of the year to the
ftock-farmer. On dry meadows and paftures it is invaluable
in this view, though at firll fight it may have an unpromifing
appearance, from the covering of decayed autumnal grafs
that is upon it ; but which, when removed, prefents a new
growth of frefli green grafs, five or fix inches in height,
brought up by, the (helter and warmth afforded by the
covering of old grafs. This is found to agree remarkably
well with the fheep, as they confume both together, having,
as it were, both hay and grafs in the fame bite. It is, indeed,
fuppofed impolTible to keep a full (lock of fheep fo cheaply
in April by any other method as by this. Tolerable rouen
will carry ten ewes an acre, with their larfibs, through the
whole month. Such rouen may be worth in autumn ten or
twelve fhiUings an acre ; in April it is worth thirty or forty
(hillinr'S ; and if it be a backward feafon, a farmer that has it
would not be tempted to fell it for much more. But in the
fupport of his fheep and lamb-flock, if the farmer be pro-
vided with a fufficieiit extent of watered meadow, he may
fully depend upon that without any other provifion for this
period.

But in cafes, however, where thefe cannot be fully de-
pended on for the fupport of the fheep-flock at this difficult
feafon, the mofl improved praftice is, in place of depending
on turnips and hay with rye fown for the purpofe, young
wheats, and the run of the paftures, to let the turnips con-
tinue, fo as that their fhoots may become an objeft of flieep
food, and to have annually a portion of tolerable good
land, fufBcient to the extent of the flock, under rye-
grafs and clover, fo as to be ready in the fpring to lake the
fheep from turnips, and fupport them till the time of turning
upon the pallures. Tlie fame writer remarks, that this con-
duft is an improvement on the other, as it gets rid of
three great evils : depending on rye, which is fooii eaten ;
feeding on wheat, which is pernicious to th^ crops ; and
turning too foon into the general pailureB. But at the fame
time that it cffeds this advantage, it is open to fome objec-
tions, which make furtiiei- improvement iv ceflary. Keeping
the turnips long in tiie fpring is very bad hufbaiidry.
It damages greatly the barley crop, both in robbing the

Vol. XXXII.

land, and preventing it from being fown in proper time :
nor is the food of great confequence, for many acres of tur-
nip-tops are requifite, the number of which mull be in pro-
portion to the flock of (lieep ; and as to the roots, they grow
fo fticky and hard after tiie tops are at all advanced, that
their value is trifling. With refpeft to ray-grals, the clo-
ver mixed with it is feldom above three inches high at this
feafon ; and a great breadth of ground to a given flock mufl
be afligned to keep the fheep through April. The number of
acres of that young growth neceflary to keep a hundred fheep
and lambs, is, it is faid, furprifing ; fo that thefe farmers,
although they manage to fpring-feed more fheep than the
worll of their brethren, yet effeft it at a great expence,
and at lad not in any degree comparable to what might be
done. A turnip fhould never be feen on the ground after
March. For the month of April the farmer fhould have a
field of cabbages ready, which, yielding a great produce on
a fmall breadth of ground, reduces the evil of a late fpnng
fovving ; and, if he manages as he ought, totally excludes it.
The turnip-cabbage, and ruta baga, will lall as long ai
wanted ; and though they run to feed, yet the bulbs will
not be ilicky. The green borecole may be fed off feveral
times : it is impenetrable to froll, and will make fhoots in
the winter. And another crop, continues Mr. Young, for
feeding fheep in fpring, which is of particular merit, is bur-
net. An acre of it managed properly, will at this feafon
yield much more food than an acre of clover and ray-grafs.
It fhould be four or five inches high in November, and left
fo through the winter. Burnet has the fingular quality of
maintaining its green leaves through the winter ; fo that,
under deep fnows, you find fome luxuriance of vegetation.
From November to February the crop will gain two or three
inches in growth in the young leaves, and then be ready for
fheep. It will be better in March, and if kept, ready in
April, not only for fheep, but horfes, cows, or any other flock.
Tliefe fyflems of feeding and management are, however, in
pradlice much varied according to the nature of the farm
and the kind of flieep that are kept. In Norfolk, with
Mr. Bevan's flock, which confills of forty-five fcore of the
South Down kind, the following is the arrangement. The
tups are put to the ewes about the loth of September, for
two months, being fed on the layers and paftures, and are
folded on the old layers for wiieat : after wheat-fowing thejr
are folded on the paftures and layers till the time of yeaning,
during which they lie on the paftures without fold, and have
turnips thrown to them, with plenty of good hay. The
fattening fheep are on turnips and hay, from Michaelmas to
the end of March, followed by the hoggits. In April
the couples go to cole-feed in hurdles ; from cole to rye ;
from rye to the new layers, if forward enough, otherwife to
the water-meadows, till the beginning of May ; ami from
thence to the new layers, being flill in hurdles, with a good
deal of room to fall back, and continue fo on the layers
till about the loth of June, when the ewes arc waflied for
clipping, and until the lambs are weaned : the ewes then go
to fold with the fliearlings on the fallows intended for turnips,
and the lambs are put to frefh grafs refervcd for that pur-
pofe : all the fheep on turnips and cole having hay, they
confume about twenty-five tons. The general winter pro-
vifion is 80 acres of turnips, 20 of cole, and 30 of rye, for
the fpring. Mr. Bevan ploughs in his rye-fluLbles before the
fhocks are carried to turn in the Icattered feed, harrowing
in half a peck of cole-feed for flieep-feed in the fpring, and
finds it of very great fervice. The latter, after feeding.
Hands for a crop. He values his turnips on the average at
30J. /icT acre, and cole at 2$s. After turnip-fowing, the
3 IC flock

SHEEP.

flock is folded on old layers for rye, till the end of Auguft,
when the ewes intended for breeding are put to good pallure
till the tups are let in. But in 1802, the tups now put to
the ewes about a week later, and the lambs not weaned till
the latter end of June. Provifion this year, 100 acres of
turnips, 30 cole, 30 rye, for 25 fcore breeding ewes, 15
fcore hoggits, 20 tups, 10 fcore fatting ftock ; 51 fcore
in all.

Turnips, as a holding-out winter food for Iheep, are unquef-
tioiiably excellent, particularly when not given in too large
quantities, and with fome fort of dry food with them, as
fainfoin hay in this feafon, common hay, cut pea, bean, or
wheat-ftraw. There is alfo faid to be an advantage in having
them drawn one or two days before they are ufed, in fome
diftrifts, and even in having thcni ftacked. But potatoes are
thought a much better food than turnips in other parts where
fheep are a great object, as being more fully and regularly to
be depended on, and as preventing the difeafes to which the
animals are liable in a more effeftual manner. The Swedifh
turnip come into ufe the latett, as in the early fpring.

It is ftated in the Corrected Agricultural Report of the
County of Suflex, that general Murray fed 5000 fheep with
potatoes and hay, 1651 of his breeding ewes ate 51 bulhels
every day, giving a quart to each ; and which, for 120 days,
is 6l2obufhcls: while the Norfolk Itock-farmer provides
for720iheep, 80 acres of turnips, 16 tons of hay, 20 acres
of rye. The following is the coraparifon of the value, &c.
of the provifion.

It is faid, that if 720 iheep require 80 acres of turnips,
2240, the upland flock at general Murray's, will require
248 acres of turnips ; but they have only 50. That if 720
flieep require 16 tons of hay, or 10 acres, 2240 (hould re-
quire 49; initead of which they have 120, which is 71
furplus, or, at one load and an half the acre, 48 acres. And
that, if 720 (heep require 20 acres of rye, 2240 fhould re-
quire 62, inllead of wliich they have none at all.

Winter food of 2240 fheep, as provided for in Norfolk.

Expences. Norfolk.

Turnips
Hay -
Rye -
Potatoes

Acres.

248

10

62

O

320

Winter food of 2240 (heep, as provided for in SufTex.

Turnips
Hay -
Rye -

Potatoes

Acres.

50

80

O

20

150

Value of crop», as applicable to each county, without
regard to the expences.

Turnips
Hay -
Rye -
Fotatoeg

£ ,. d.
200
500
o 10 o
400

Turnips
Hay
Rye
Potatoes

Expences. SufTex.

Turnips
Hay
Rye
Potatoes

£
496

20

o
547

£ ■

100

160

o

80

340

Which is, it is faid, a difference of 63 ptr cent. Tliis vaft
difference is to be attributed, it is fuppofed, in a great
meafure, to the dilfinclion between the breeds of the flocks,
as one being the Norfolk, and the otlier the South Down,
as all the circumflances are in favour of it ; but it may be
partly owing to potatoes being a cheaper food than turnips.
As t0 the feeding of fheep with potatoes, however, it is,
though afcertained on the above farm on a very large fcale,
a more difputed and doubtful circumftance ; and for this rea-
fon, they are allowanced, ilinted, or limited in their con-
fumption, which is not the cafe with turnips: thefe, on the
Norfolk farm, are fed off on the land, and, of courfe, in the
greateil plenty. The other accidents and objeftions to
which they ai-e conftantly liable, are alfo not to be over-
looked : while potatoes are a regular certain crop, and fub-
jeft to few accidents or inconveniencies. When thefe cir-
cumftances are therefore well confidered, in the pinch of a
fevere feafon, it will be readily agreed that the introdudlion
of this root, and the proof of its advantage by the above
extenfive trial, as a winter and fpring provifion for fheep-
ftock, is really important.

The quantity of a quart every day of this root for each
fheep is prob^blv, however, much too fmall, as in fattening
them with it in fuitable yards for the pnrpofe, a far greater
quantity has been found neceflary. But lean (heep certainly
do not require the fame proportion for keeping them as is
requiCte in the fattening fyflem, as may be feen below, in
fpeaking of that fort of management.

Cabbages, as a food for fheep, are of great importance
and utility in many tltuations, particularly in thofe where
the land is fuitable for railing them, though it may not be
of the very rich quality. They are of vaft fervice in carry-
ing on improvements in fheep hufbandry, and as the means
of keeping a greatly increafed ftock, where good manage-
ment is followed.

The artificial grades, fuch as ray-grafs and red clover,
are of much confequence as fpring food for (heep ; the firfl
is early, and comes in after common turnips, when much
wanted. It may be cultivated to advantage when the latter
will not fucceed. The clover comes into ufe in this way at
a later period, and on llronger defcriptions of land. Many
other graiies of this fort, as well as fome of the natural graft
kind, might be verj' beneficially grown in this intention, as
the cock's-foot in fome cafes, fainfoin, &c. on foils of the
calcareous kind, and fome of the poas and alopecurufes,
in other circumftances ; by which means earlinefs, quantity,
and quality of keep might be fecured.

Tares,

SHEEP.

Tares, rye, and cole, are in great requeft as fpring food
for flieep-ftock, the firfl; being raifed on the itronger forts
of land, the fecond on fuch as are of a lighter quuhty, and
the laft on many kinds, even the hilly calcartous fort.
They are all fufficiently early for being fed in April, or the
following month, when turnips are done. Spring tares are
likewife often put in to be fed off at the clofe of theautumH.
Thefe praAices anfwer very well ; but mixed crops of tares
and rye never do well for the purpofe of (hecp-feed ; as they
do not by any means come well together, of courfe there is
much lofs. Thcfe and other mixed crops are, however,
frequently had recourfe to in this fort of management, with
evident benefit.

The Itubble turnip fyltem of food is very good in this
iort of hulbandry, for late fpring or other feed ; where
crops of fuch kinds take well in fuccefiion to thofe of
other forts.

The plan of preferving after-grafs for the purpofe of
flieep-feed is certainly very ufcful, efpeeially for the fupport
of ewes and lambs in the early fpring. It provides well for
the time of fcarcity.

The praftice of converting young wheat crops to fpring
fteep-food is feldom good. It is moftly the bufinefs of ne-
jceffity and want of forecall in the (heep manager. On light
and dry lands it may occafionally be ufeful, but it often does
much harm.

Winter barley, and fome other forts of crops, have alfo
been tried as (heep-food, but hitherto only by particular in-
dividuals on a fmall fcale.

Whatever the Kature of the food which is raifed with this
defign may be, it (hould always be provided in ample
abundance to the quantity of fheep-ilock which is to be
kept, as no fort of pinching ever anfwers any good purpofe
in this management. Good water (hould likewife be con-
itantly attended to in this practice.

By thus cultivating proper quantities of proper Iheep-food
in connexion with the keeping and managing of ftocks
of this fort, many important benefits and advantages would
neceilarily refult, a far greater quantity of fheep would be
kept on the fame extent oi ground, they would be preferved in
X much better Hate of condition, and they would be in a much
more defirable fituation for the purpofes of breeding or be-
ing fattened, and confequently be in every way greatly more
profitable to the (heep-farmer ; while the growth of fuch
forts of food would prepare admirably for grain crops, by
which little expence would be incurred. Befides thcfe, it
Kvould contribute in feveral other lefs important ways to
the benefit of the ilock-farmcr, in many cafea and fitua-
tions.

And it is obferved that, by the means which have been
ftated above, the ftieep and lambs are capable of being con-
tinued in good healthy condition, a matter of great confe-
quence to the (lock, until the period of turning on the
paftures, when they ftiould be feparated, where the lands are
inclofed, into proper divifions, in proportion to tlie quantity
each pafture can fupport, care being taken not to ovcr-ltock
the fieldn, though hard (locking in fome cafes may be bene-
ficial. With fome farmers they are put upon the richcll
pallure of the farm, while with others it is the cuftom to
let them have thofe of the infirior kinds. This muil depend
much upon circumltaiices ; but whatever mode is adopted,
the ppmt of liavinfT the Hock preferved in good condition
is never to be loll fight of. It is advifed, that in keep-
ing ftu'i-p on inclofed paltures, particularly where the
lands are much occupied with wood, conllant care is neccf-
iary, in order to guard againd the mifehief of the fly, as its
eflefts are often irremediable in the courfe of a very ftiort

time in fuch fituationt, if not attended to, in hot feafons.
With the view of fully guarding again (t this infeft, a very fre-
quent and particular examination muft be made by the
ihepherd.

Further, on this fubjeft it may be noticed, that the next
circumftance in the management of thefe animal;; is that of
weaning the lambs, which is a bufinefs that fhould be effefted
when they are three or four months old, as about July, but
it is done more early in fome diftrifts than in others. And
to effeft it in the bell and molt beneficial manner, a proper
referve of louie frefh pafture grafs, where there may be a
good bite for the lambs to feed upon, fhould be hadrecourfe
to, as it is of much confequence that an ample provifion of
this fort be had, in order that the growth of this young
ftock may not fuffer any check on being taken from the
mother. Where they have been continued fo long as to
graze with the dams, little check will be fuftained in their
feparation, if turned upon fuch good feed. Some advife
clover in bloflbm as the moft forcing fort of food in this in-
tention, and with others fainfoin rouen is highly valued for
the fame purpofe. When good feed is not provided, of
fome of thefe kinds, the lambs foon decline in flefh, or in
the technical language of the (hepherd, the flock are faid to
pitch ; and when once this happens, they never afterwards
thrive fo well, however good the management may be.
With regard to the ewes, they Ihould be removed to fuch
dirtant paftures or other places, as that they may not be
heard by the lambs, which would caufe them to be dillurbed
in their feeding. And where the ewes fuilain any inconve-
nience from their milk, as by their udders fwelling, it (hould
be drawn once or twice, as by this means bad confequence*
may be prevented. And as foon as the lambs have been re-
moved, the ewes are returned upon the pailures deftincd for
their fummer fupport. There is, however, one caution to
be attended to in firft turning the lambs upon rich keep,
which is that of letting them be in fome degree fatisfied with
food previoufly, that they may not be furfeited by too
quick and full feeding, and heave or hove, as it is termed ;
keeping them gently moving about the field has alfo been
advifed in this intention. In fome places where the lands arc
of the more poor kind, it is a cuftom to fend the lambs to
the more rich vale ormarfh diftricts, to be brought forward
in condition, or fattened. In thofe cafes, where the lamb*
of the male kind are reared on the home lands, as wether»,
they are ufually rcftorcd to the flock in the latter end of the
year, but which is not by any means a good prafticc, at
they often fiirter for want c f proper keep in the winter,
and lofe what they had previoufly gained in growth and
condition.

And in the ufual management of fheep-flocks, it is the
common praftice to remove a certain number of the old
ewes or crones every year, replacing them by the bcft lambs,
in order that they may be kept up in the greatelt perfeition ;
it is, of courfe, a matter of confiderable importance to have
this done in a proper manner. And in almoll all the fheep
diftrifts in the fouthern part of the ifland, this fekdion, or
fetling of the lamb-Jlock, is performed about Auguft, at which
period the fairs for the fale of lambs molUy take place.
And as at this time the whole are collcfted together for draw,
ing into different lots, it is a very fnitible period for ftlc6\-
ing or clioofing thofe that are to fupply fuch deficiencies in
the breeding Hocks. In his Calendar of Hulbandry, Mr,
Young has well remarked, that in making this fcle£\ion, the
farmer or his (hcphird ufually (whatever the breed may he)
rejedls all that manifefl any departure from certain figns of
the true breed ; thus, in a Norfolk flock, a white leg, and
a face not of a hue fufficiently dark, would be e\cludc4,
3 K J however

SHEEP.

however well-formeJ ; in the fame manner a white face on
the South Downs ; in Wiltfhire, a black face would be an
exclufion, or a horn that does not fall back ; in Dorfetlhire,
a horn that does not projeft, &c. &c. And where the pro-
duce is annually fold lean, there is, he maintains, reafon in
all this ; for cuftomers who have been ufed to and prefer
certain breeds, as having paid them well, are apt to be faf-
tidions when they purchafe. Some farmers in this feleftion
look chiefly at fize, always keeping the largell frames ; but
this is probably erroneous, unlefs they keep very high. It
conneds with a queilion by no means afcertained, whether
flieep do or do not eat a quantity of food proportioned to
their weight ? In general it is a lafer rule to choofe a well-
formed lamb, or that indicates the probability of making a
well-formed ewe, rather than to feleft for fize. The at-
tention that is to be paid to wool in the breeds that pro-
duce the carding fort, will depend on the price to be received :
if the farmer lives in a diftridl where tlie price of the year
is given equally to all flock?, there is little encouragement to
leflen quantity for the fake of quality ; retaining, however,
ia idea, the faft that botli are attainable, that it is very com-
mon to fee coarfc breeched ^zf^ with light fleeces, and thofe
of a fine quality heavy in weight. The SpanilTi fleeces,
which are finer than any other, are heavier than thofe of our
fineft wooUed flieep. With combing wool the importance
of the fleece depends ftill more on price ; we have feen it at
%s. a tod : and it has lately been 'ifis. Quality is of very
little confequence indeed, compared with quantity ; and
when wool fells high, no prudent breeder will fet his flock
without being governed confiderably by this objeft. And it
is added by the fame writer, that the high prices at which
new Leicelter and new South Down rams let and fell, has
opened a field of fpeculation in flieep-breeding. It is fufiicient
to remark, that this fpirit of breeding, whether it fliall
prove durable or not, whether mucli money fliall or fliall not
be made in it in future, is not what any prudent man begin-
ning bufinefs will adventure in, but with great caution :
men of fuch imraenfe fortune arc now taking a lead in it, and
are in many refpefts doing it on fuch liberal principles, that
the wifeft conduct of fuch farmers as he may be fuppofed to
addrefs, is to take proper opportunities of converting their
experiments to their own (the farmer's) profit. Leave the
expence to them ; but, when you can, convert the profit to
your own advantage. In fetting a ftock of lambs, there-
iore, you may mark a fcore of the belt, for a future ram to
be picked up when opportunity offers ; or, better ftill, to
fend to the tup of fome ram-letter that takes them in at a
reafonable price per head. By es-ery year felecting five or
fix per cent, and by every year covering that number by a
ram better than your own, the flock mult be on the improving
hand ; and this may be done at a very fmall expence. Alfo
at this period, befides fiUing up the deficiencies in the ewe-
ftock, the increafing or diminifliing the quantity of ftock
ufually kept, by referving a larger or fmaller number than
that of the old ilieep which are difpofed of, is alfo a point
that demands particular notice. Mr. Young has given the
following ufeful diredlions on this fubjcft, in his Calendar of
Huftjandry.

On a farm, fays he, with a given Itationary flieep-walk,
it is probably regulated by circumftances that rarely change ;
but on incloled farms, where the flieep are fupported by
fields alternately in grafs and tillage, variations may eafily
be fuppofed, and the queftion of hard or light Hocking,
that is of clofe feeding or a head of grafs, then comes in to
decide the number kept. If the produce or profit ^fr head
is looked to, the condudt to be purfued is evidently to ftock
lightly ; but if the return is looked for in corn from fields

laid down for refrefliment by reft, then clofe feeding is a
very material point, and the number kept will depend on
it. With all grafles, &c. that do not decline from age, the
more flieep you keep the more you may keep, and the more
corn you will reap when fuch are ploughed ; a circumftance
too important to be forgotten. But the young farmer will
remember, that upon this fyftem he mull not have a Jhoio
flock, or let the variety of a farm have the leaft influence,
with him : if in this v/ay he will have a fomething to talkj
of, a fcore or two of pampered favourites, the fewer thel
better, for they may coll him more than they are worth.

And as foon as this has been properly executed, the ewe
and wether lambs that are left are moftly fent to the neigh-l
bouring lamb-fairs to be fold off^. But where the fairs fofl
this purpofe happen later than the above period, as in thej
beginning or latter end of September, as is the cafe in fome
fituations, it has been advifed by the writer firll mentioned,!
that great care be taken to keep them in forcing food, as in
ipring tares, early lown rape, good grafs of the right de-
gree of bite, &c. &c. in order to promote their growth
and increafe their value ; but to fell in Auguft is more
beneficial.

It cannot but be obvious, that in the management of
breeding flocks, the lambs come to be difpofed of at dif-
ferent periods ; firft thofe that have been fuc.kled or fattened
in the houfe, in which fyftem of fattening, much attention
is required to have them early, to their being well, regu-
larly, and very cleanly kept and fuckled, as well as to the
ewes being of the right fort, and the beft milkers that can
be provided, and to their being fully fupplied with food of
the moft nourifliing and fucculent kinds. Their tails and
udders fliould have the wool well clipped away from them
in order that they may be preferved in a perfectly clean
ftate. The lambs alfo require, efpecially towards the clofe
of their fattening, to have regular fupplies of barley,
wheat, and peas, meal ground together in combination
with fine green rouen hay, &c. See Y^PMili-SucUmg.

And as foon as thefe have been fold off, the lambs which
have been fattened on the beft grafs-land will be ready to
fucceed them at the markets, in the fpring and fummer
months, and thefe will be followed by the fale of the ftore-
lambs at the different autumnal fairs.

Further, there are different local praflices alfo adopted in
different counties, to fuit the particular methods in which
their flieep hufbandry is condufted, as well as the particular
objefts of it. The following is given as a hint from fir Jo-
feph Banks, by the writer of the Lincolnftiire Agricultural
Survey, on the flieep fyftem of that extenfive diltrift : that
as tups are there always hired by the breeders, the lambs
may be faid to be purchafed before they are born ; a year's
credit, however, is given on this occafion, they are not paid
for till the aftual value can be fairly eftimated ; if, therefore,
any one who has hired a tup at a confiderable price, finds
the lambs he has got not lufficiently above the ordinary
fort to pay him the difference, with mtereft, he complains
to the tup-man, who generally views the lambs with him,
and makes a fair abatement, which is generally fettled in the
price of the hire of the next year's tup ; this regulates the
price of letting, and makes the tup-men a moft uleful fet of
people. The great mafs of breeders in Lincolnftiire fell
their heeder lambs about old Michaelmas time, or a little
after : a fucceflion of fairs for that purpofe are held in a
village called Partney. Thefe lambs are refold in the fpring
at Lincoln fair, under the name of hogs ; at Midfuinmer
their owners clip, and then winter them ; the fucceeding
fpring they are carried to BoUon, where, in a long fuc-
ceflion of markets, they are old to the graziers, with their

wool

SHEEP.

w6ol on, under the name of (hearlings, and immediately
turned into the marfh to fatten ; the graziers take their
fleeces, and having wintered them, get the kindHcft to
Smithfield in the coiirfe of the fucceeding fprlng ; thofe
that do not fat fo eafily, yield the grazier a fleece at Midlum-
mer, and are got off the ground in the courfe of the next
autumn. Here you fee a combined fyftem of fheep agri-
culture, for as the animals are eternally either changing
hands or yielding fleeces, they make a return of fome kind
or other to their owners, nearly half-yearly from the time of
their birtii, to that of their final diflblution at Smithfield.
See Ram.

In the ftieep fyftem of management which is praftifed on
the large rich trafts of the Rornney, Walland, and Denge
marfhes in the county of Kent, there is alio n local pecu-
liarity and difference which is worthy of notice. The ufual
praftice with the lambs in thefe marlhes, is that of [ending
them about the beginning of September to be kept by the
neighbouring upland or hill farmers during the winter. Tliey
go in feparate lots, being received at certain appointed
places by the farmer^, and driven to the houfes, or taken to
the farms by their fervants. They are then commonly put
upon the Itubbles or graltons, as they are called ; but in
fome cafes they iiave alio pailures to run upon, though too
little attention is, in general, paid to the changing of them,
by which they fuffer much, and are often greatly uijured,
efpecially fuch as are weakly and delicate. Much advantage
I would probably be gained by having them put, in leparate
lots, in different fields, and by giving them in wet feafons, once
a day, fome fort of dry food, fuch as hay, or thofe of better
kinds in particular cafes. It is not improbable, indeed, that
lambs might be fafely kept in thefe marfhes through the
I winter, by the ufe of fuch food and proper care. It is
l found that there is a prodigious benefit in keeping the lambs
in winter, in fuch fituations, in having the grounds dry and
warm, inllead of bemg of a cold, wet, clayey nature. Lambs
I (hould by no means be flocked along with the ewes, as the
old fheep will conitantly take the feed, zxiAJlench the land,
by which the lambs may be greatly hurt. They fhould al-
ways be flocked feparately, and the pailures be frequently
changed, circumltances which are little regarded here.
Some think tliat lambs do not thrive well on being put to
I'rals, after having been fed on luxuriant food, fuch as
turnips, old tares, rye-grafs, &c.
I The price of the keeping of lambs in thefe cafes is very
' different ; fome paying only 4.r. 6d. the lamb, while others
pay ^s.; and where no neat Itock are kept, they charge as
high as from 6s. to 6s. 6d. the head, for the fpace of about
fix months. This is but a late advance ; however, it makes
the price of keep a ferious objcft. The lofs of lambs in
this fyftem of winter management, is occafionally confidcr-
able, but depends much on the nature of the leafon, as to
mildiiefs or feverity, amounting in fome cafes to four or
more in a hundred.

The tegs, or one-year old lambs, in this fyftem are brought
from the uplands, where they have been wintered too often
in a low ftate of condition, for the fupply of the marfh gra-
ziers, wliich enables them to keep more ewes and fattenmg-
fheep on the marfh lands. This is done about the be-
ginning of April, when the upland farmers are indulged
with a fcafl or treat at the expence of the graziers, as
a rccompenfe for their care and attention to the lambs,
in which liberality has a great effcCf. As the flocks reacii
the marfti, they are put upon the pooreft pafhires, at tiie
rate of five to the acre, their old fticcp being juft fold to
make room tor them. Tliefe are commonly the hefl condi-
tioned tegs, in which there may fometimes be lofs from the

8

fudden tranfition from poor to too good keep, though they
are not, in general, fo fubjeft to fome forts of difeafe as the
old ones, on fuch changes being made in their fc/od.

The marfti Iheep-graziers have lately been much in the
practice of prevailing on the farmers to keep fuch flocks a
fortnight, or even double that time, on turnips, which has
the advantage of enabling them to double the ftock on the
fame paftures during the f'ummer ; while on the other hand,
it is evident, that when they are fo hard Itocked early in the
fpring, they can neither have fo luxuriant a growth, nor be
fo full of grafs. The paftures are likewife eafed gradually,
as the fat ewes or wethers are taken off, and their places
fupplied by the wether-tegs, while the ewe-tegs are fuffered
to remain on their original paftures, until they are feledled,
or fet for going to the rams.

In the ewe management of the marfh fyftem, which is by
no means well reguiattd, the ewe-tegs, one-lamb, two-lamb,
and three-lamb ewes, are all mixed together, fo that thev
cannot be diftinguiflied by the grazier, as they are not
marked until turned off for fattening. A better and more
convenient vv-ay would, however, probably be to keep the
different kinds feparate as much as pofTible, as many advan-
tages would refult from it. In winter the land is itocked in
proportion of from two to three ewes on the acre, as it mav
be of a more or lefs good quality, and in fummer with from
three to four and their lambs. In cafe of twin lambs, with
not ever more than three to the acre upon the bell paftures.
The fummer flocking with ewes is here fuppoled to have too
much uniformity in it, though it may perhaps be proper in
the winter, yet when that feafon is mild more might certainly
be kept than under the contrary circumflanccs, for which no
fort of allowance is made. It is conceived, that it would
be good pohcy, when there is the probability of plcntv of
keep, to increafe the number of ewes on the breeding paf-
tures, though there ftiould be a neceffity, on that account,
to provide an additional pafture field or two ; however, fo
prejudiced are many fheep-farmers in favour of the common
pradice, that they do not even make the necefl'ary additions
of flock to keep the grafs properly under, by whicli m.eans
it is apt to become benty, the pafture injured, and con-
fiderable wafte fuftained. The old (heep, or thofe which
have had the third lamb, are commonly cait off for fat-
tening, and the others marked for llores, and weaned
from their lambs, by putting them into one of the pafture
fields for fome days ; which not only improves the field, but
prevents the ewes from receiving injury bythe flow of milk.
This is a praftice which in the marfti management is termed
bleating the ewes. Some rejetl this mode, and put the ewes
immediately on the fattening ground, from the conviclion
that more injury is hkely to enfue by keeping thom in a
ftarved condition, for even a fhort time, than by tiirowing
them at once into frefli keep. Whichever of thefe is the
moll eligible praftice is not attempted to be decided, but
the moft general oi:e is that of bleating : aged fheep arc not
fo liable to be ftruck with difeafe as young ones in inch cafes,
or the iealon of the year fo favourable.

The fyftem of the marfti for the management of the
wethers, and the time of drawing them for the market, is
this : the wether-tegs are in the general pradice put upon
tlie fattening land for the winter abcnit Michaelmas, in the
proportion of from two to three upon the acre, as may fiiit
the defigns of the grazier. Thole who intend to keep them
for a whole year, commonly put three on each acre of the
bell paftures for the winter ftock; but thofe whofe intention
is to make a lecond or third return, are fatislied witli two
on the fame extent ; in whicii cafe, however, it is necelfary
that they be put more early upon the land, in order that they

may

SHEEP.

may get properly fat before winter, and go off fufficiently
early, which would otherwife not be the cafe. The latter
method is thought unqueftionably to be the moit profitable ;
but thofe who have not a fufficient fupply of fummer pallure,
conceive that it will pay them better to keep three to the
acre, in barely a thriving ftate, and fatten them in the fol-
lowing fpring and fummer. However, though they may
continue to increafe in fize, it is molt likely they will not
be of more value at Michaelmas than they were in the
fpring ; fo that there is a clear lofs of the whole fummer
keep : as mutton may often fell for 6j-. or js. the flone in the
{pring, and not bring more than from 4^. to jj. at that pe-
riod in the autumn. It has been long a quellion, whether
other (heep or old barrens fatten the moit quickly, on which
it may be noticed, that any increafe in the food lif tuU-grown
flieep mufl. have a tendency to the formation of fat,
whereas in wethers or other young (heep, it mull be partly
expended in the evolution and developement of their frames,
and, of courle, lefs fat be produced. Much, however, will
depend upon the fize anddifpofition of the fheep.

There is great ditference in the prattice of different gra-
ziers, in regard to the time and mannef of drawing the
fheep for the market, fome beginning much earlier than
others, though the fheep were all put into the fattening
paftures at the fame time. Some draw the worfl of the fheep
iirft, conceiving that the prime (heep pay the belt for keep-
ing ; while others fend them to market as they get fat, by
which means, time is given for the advancement of the more
common ones. Which of thefe methods is the moll to be pre-
ferred, it is not at all attempted to determ.ine ; but the fend-
ing of inferior mutton to market, it may be remarked, is
only giving it away, while, on the contrary, the retaining of
fuch (heep as are deficient in difpofition to fatten, is a com-
plete lofs of the keep of them. Towards the end of the
fummer, keep, however, is of but little value, and, of
courfe, their remaining a little longer is not of any material
confequence. It is therefore thought, perhaps, the bed
not to part with them until the approach of autumn, when
inferior mutton often fells well in the vicinity of the marfh,
or to difpofe of them to lamb butchers at a fomewhat reduced
price. This inconvenience would, however, be much re-
moved by a better and more proper felection of the fheep than
that which at prefent is the cafe.

In fending the fheep to market, care fliould be taken to
have them as nearly as poffible of the fame fize and condition,
as a few inferior ones are apt to lower the value with the
butchers. In this intention they are by fome divided into
two or three lots, while others fend them in one only ; the
former, however, in general obtain the highed prices. By
more attention to the regulation of fize and keep, a greater
equality would be met with in the wether flieep on the fat-
tening pafliires of the diftrift than that which at prefent
prevails.

In the fyflem of thefe marfhes, the ewes which are de-
jigned for breeding ram-lambs from, are felefted and drawn
before the riding lime, as direftly upon the weaning feafon,
or a few weeks previous to giving them the ram ; there being
great differences in the forms and fizes which are thought the
bed calculated for this purpofe, in the notions of different
graziers; fome preferring large, others middhng fizes, while
many edeem molt, fuch as have long legs and bodies. There
is here, however, much too little principle in the manage,
ment of this bufinefs. Such ewe lambs as come from ramr
lamb ev/es, fhould be fo marked as to diltinguifh them, and
be conflantly preferred for breeding ram-lambs from. The
ram-lamb ewea are molUy lambed by themfelves, and have
fuperior keep. Tliofe whicii do not iuit the intention

of the grazier are caftrated ; while fuch as are to be faved
have a fmall part of the tip end of the fcrolum cut off,
and two marks fixed upon them, one on the flioulder and
the other on the hip ; being condantly indulged with the
bed fattening keep, as it is the common opinion that they
cannot be too large. They are fent to particular fituations
on the neighbouring hills during the winter feafon, where
they are tended with the utmoft care and circumlptCtion,
having hay and turnips occafionally given them. On being
brought back to the mardies in the fpring, they have the
run of the bed paftures, being docked fo lightly upon them,
as to be in every way difadvantageous to the grazing farmer.
Another feledlion fometimes takes place from them during
the fummer, in which, thofe which do not fait are cither
fent to m.irket, or netted, while thofe which are approved
are employed in the enfuing riding time. Thefe young rams
fliould only have a few ewes, as thirty or forty ; as more
greatly injures their growth, &c. They are uiually fold or
hired out, by which much money is often made.

It is the practice here to keep too many rams together in
the fame pallure, as much lofs is fometimes fuftained by it.
The ufual time of putting the rams to the ewes here is about
the middle of November, though fome prefer a month, and
others a week or a fortnight fooner, as their notions may be
in regard to the conveniencies of lambing and other matters.
A week or two before the riding time the ewes are prepaied
by being put into the larger fields ; only one ram being ad-
mitted in each, unlefs it be fo large as to Hand in need of
two, when with the old ram a young one is admitted. This
management prevents fighting and all inconveniencies of that
kind. The rams commonly remain with the ewes a month,
care being taken that they perform their bufinefs properly 5
fome change the rams occafionally, as after the fird fort-
night, and at other times according to circumdances. Sixty
ewes are ufually allowed to an old ram, and thirty to a teg
ram in this marlh fyltem. See Stocking Land.

It may be obferved that there is fome difference in the
method of managing heath, down, and mountain flocks of
fheep, from thofe which are purfued on the inclofed padure
lands, though in the felefting and providing the rams and
breeding dock, the fame practices are followed by the bed
fheep-maders. The principal difference confifts in the man-
ner of keeping them, by putting them as early as poilible in the
fpring months, as in the beginning of April, upon the downs,
heaths, and commons, and keeping them upon them until
the approach of the autumn, as the beginning of Oftober ;
the fine foft fweet herbage in thefe cafes preferving them in
a date of tolerably good condition. And where it begins
to grow fcanty and decline in goodncfs, other forts of feed
which have been previoufly provided are had recourfe to,
fuch as turnips, cole, &c. on which they are folded during
the autumn and winter till confumed, when hay which has
been dacked for the purpofe in fuch fituations, is employed
until the grafs has again advanced to a proper bite. In
thefe cafes the fydem of folding is generally recurred to
during the whole year, in the fummer and autumn chiefly
on the ground in a date of preparation for the wheat crops,
but m the winter feafon often on the flubbles, though more
extenfively upon the downs and paitures ; while in the fpring
feafon the lands under preparation for the barley crops re.
ceive them. Tiiis lyllem is confidered as very beneficial by
the farmers in thofe didrifts where it is in ufe. And in tiie
more hilly and elevated fituations in the northern parts of the
kingdom, other methods of management with this fort of
flock are employed. In Argylefhire the principal circum.
dances attended to by the molt intelligent (heep-farmers are
thefe ; to dock lightly, which will mend the fize of the fheep,

with

SHEEP.

f:

mih the quantity and quality of the wool ; and alfo render
them lefs fubjeft to difeafes. In all thefe refpefts, it is al-
lowed by good judges, that 500 kept well, will return more
profit than 60c kept indifferently. To feleft the belt lambs,
-and fuch as have the fineit, clofelt, and whitett wool, for tups
and breeding ewes, and to cut and fpay the worlt. To get
a chjnge of rams frequently, and of breedmg ewes occafion-
ally. To put the beil tups to the bed ewes, which is con-
fidered as neceffary for brinn-ing any breed to perfeftion.
Not to tup their year-old ewes ; which, in bad feafons efpe-
cially, would render the lambs produced by them of little
value, as the ewes would not have a fiifficiency of milk ;
and would alfo tend to lelFen the fiz;e of the Hock. To
keep no rams above three, or at moll four years old, nor any
breeding ewes above five or fix. To feparate the rams from
the lothof Oftober, for a month or fix weeks, to prevent
the lambs from coming too early in fpring. To feparate the
lambs between the 15th and 25th of June; to have good
rafs prepared for them ; and, if they can, to keep them
cparate, and on good grafs, all winter ; that they may be
better attended to, and have the better chance of avoiding
difeafes. A few, whofe polleffions enable them to do it,
keep not only their lambs or hogs, but alfo their wedders,
ewes. Sec. in feparate hirfels ; by which every flicpherd, hav-
ing his own charge, can attend to it better than if all were
in common ; and each kind had the pafture that belt fuits
it. But in Linton, the following management, according
to the furvey of that dillrift, is obferved : in fummer the
flock is divided into three hirfels. In the firll are all the
hogs and yield fheep ; in the fecond, the milk ewes ; in the
third, the lambs. In winter tiiey are kept only in two hirfels.
In the one are the hogs, in the other the ewes and yield
"heep. The lambs are weaned about the end of June, the
^ucs milked from the ift of July to the middle of Auguft,
and the milk made into cheefe. The (heep arc clipped from
tiie end of June to the end of July, according to the weather
•A condition of the flock. The tups are let to the ewes
);n the 1 jth to the end of November, according to the
iltuation of the ground, and the nature of the grafs. From
40 to 50 ewes are allowed to one tup. The breeding llock
is changed every five years, by felling off the fuperannuatcd
ewes. Some ewes, however, are kept longer than five years,
and fome (liortcr, according to their condition ; for they do
not all decline equally foon. In Eafl Lothian, fheep are in
much cilcem, and kept in confiderable numbers every where,
efpccially on the coait lands. Permanent flocks, however,
and regular (hcep management, may be laid to be almoft
confined ftill to the higher parts of the country. In the
low country they are kept chiefly to eat the turnips, and
fometimes fown grafs, which is permitted to lie a year or
two for paliure. Flying flocks therefore are generally kept,
and as foon as they are fattened for the market, which is
ufually within the year, they are fold off. A confiderable
number of lambs likewife are reared, only fo far how-
ever as to render them fit for the butcher, or to be fold fat.
But as the great objett, in the lower diilridls, is feeding,
little attention is paid to particular kinds ; every farmer
keeps thofc which he thinks are likely to pay bed for the
food which they confume. The black-faced, or Tweeddale
breed, are molt generally preferred for feeding on turnips,
becaufe they are mofl; elleemed in the market ; but many
of the Cheviot breed are likewife kept, and even fome of
the improved Leicelters.

It may be noticed that it is, however, only in the Lam-
iner-mnir dillrid; that flicep hufbandry can be faid to be
regularly praftifed, the management of which is this, ac-
cording to Mr. Hay of Hopes. All ilore-farmers of any
3

extent keep two flocks, wo. one of ewes, and another of
yield Iheep ; and this flock they fometimes divide, and have
a flock of what is called hogs, that is, lambs of one year
old. The common practice is to fold the ewes upon a
break of arable land, during the fummer: they cut the
lambs about tlie 26th of May, and they wean them in the
firll week of July, and then tiiey (hear the whole flock.
The lambs, after weaning, are fent to a healthy paliure,
called the birn, which has been kept for them, where they
remain till the end of Augull ; when tliey are moved down
to the b?(l low pafture, called the hog-fence, which has been
favcd from the weaning ; and here they remain during the
winter. The ewes are milked for about eight weeks after
the weaning, and fometimes longer, and then are put out
with the lambs into the hog fence, for the winter. All the
fheep are fmeared, that is lalved, immediately after the
harved, at the rate of two p'.uinds, tron weight, of butter,
to a Scotch pint of tar, which f'alves from fix to eight fheep,
at the expence of about five-pence each. The wool fells at
from five fliillings to eight fhiUings^rr done, tron weight;
and ufually takes from fix to eight fleeces to a ilone : fo,
deducing the expence of falving, the net proportion upon
the wool may amount to from eight-pence to ten-pence per
head, fometimes a little more or lels, varying according to
the price of wool. Upon dry heathy grounds, the ewes
are drafted, and fold to grazier-, in the month of March ;
but upon wet grounds, which are dangerous, and fubjeft
to the diftemper called the rot, they are drafted and fold
in Oftober. Few dore-mafters (tenants) in Lammcr-muir
breed as many fheep as keep up their dock ; fo they have
to buy yearly a parcel of hogs, which are modly wed-
ders. Linton, in Tweeddale, is the great market for
thefe weddcr hogs. Thefe wedders they keep for two
years, and fell them to the feeders. Some of the mod judi-
cious dore-mafters have totally given up the practice of
milking the ewes, after weaning ; and others milk for a
fhorter fpace than formerly ; and they now aliow the lambs
to fuck longer, which confiderably incrcafes their bone, and
is thought not fo pernicious to the ewes as the milking.
This practice, however, dill prevails in Wales ; the cheefe
made from ewe-milk being highly eileemed, fuch milk being
faid to be four times as rich as that of cows. The fheep
are ftated to give a quart of milk per day each, and being
milked three months, the return is dated at ten fhillings
per ewe.

It is alfo further dated by the writer of the above Re-
port, that the method of managing the arable laud in that
didrift has been changed much for the better, within thefe
few years. When in grafs, it is folded ; and when taken
up, it gives three crops ; and is then fallowed, and fown out,
the fird crop with grafs-feeds ; and they generally follow
the fame pratlice with the new grounds taken in by fallow
and lime, which has now become a general praftice through
Lammer-iiQuir ; and lime, when applied to dry ground, is
certain of maknig a lading improvement upon the grafs,
which is, and always ought to be, the great obJL..'t upon
ttore-farms. However, fince this account was given, much
improvement has been made in this fort of hufbandry, which
is now carried on in a very Ivllematic manner, it is faid.

It is worthy of notice, that the practice of f men ring or
falving is now, even in tiafe fit nations, much on tlie de-
cline ; and in the more fouthern parts of the illand, not at
all employed. Sec Salving rf Sheep.

In the flieep didridls, in the more elevated and cxpofed
nonhern parts of the iflaiid, a flill inferior prafticc is iiad
recourfc to ; the flieep being niolUy left to provide for
themfclvcs, even in the mod fevcre and inclement feafons,

when

SHEEP.

when the bleak trafts on which they live are deeply covered
with fiiow. According to the writer of the Perthfhire
Affricultural Report, in thefe cafes the fheep have their
chief dependence for fubfillence on their own habits, which
lead them to remove the fnow by their feet with great faci-
lity, till they reach the heath or withered herbage. But
when the fnow is filling, or blown by a ilor:r., the fhep-
herds drive their flocks, without interniiffioii, round the top
of a hill in a circle, in order to keep them from lowering,
and bein^ drifted up or (mothered It has been the prac-
tice, in feme diilrifts, to ereft a fort of circular folds on
the tops of low hills, for the fame purpofe ; and when the
heath is all covered, they fometimes rake or harrow the
fnow, in order to bring up the heath, with a fort of long-
toothed rake or fmall harrow. With fome iheep-farmers it
is the mode to have recourfe to feeding with hay, or un-
threflied oats, which i^depofited in handfuls upon the fnow.
Mr. Marfhall has luggcfted, that cultivating plots of furze,
broom, juniper, &c. by fod-burning, and rippling the fur-
face, or by other more eligible means, could not fail of
proving beneficial upon the wintering grounds of a (hecp-
farm. By means of thefe, as a relourcc in the deepeft
(now, when the herbage of tiie brass was buried too deep
and too evenly to be uncovered by the fcraping of the (lieep,
by keeping the mod cxpoled part of the brihs in full
herbage for lefs general coverings of fnow, and by referve
of rape for the feafon of lambing, even ewe-flocks might
be fupported through the winter with tome degree of cer-
tainty, without dry fodder, and without being left to the
uncertainty of the feafons, and the mercy of the winds and
weather, as they are at prefent.

The pradlice of hirftH'mgi where no more lambs arc kept
than what is neceffary for drawing the ftock, is now mucli
objefted to by fome, though it may be beneficial in rearing
wether hogs ; as they are found not only to do much better,
when at large with the ewes, but there is much lefs dellruc-
tion of grafs by trampling, and the pallures are fed down
more properly, and with leis injury to, and lofs of, the (heep.
Befides, the flieep thrive better, and are kept in far better
condition, while much lefs herding is required, by which
there is a confiderable faving of expence.

There are feveral different m.odes of rearing the lamb
hogs in thefe fituations ; as by laying them, when lambs,
upon a certain part of the ground, and keeping them fepa-
rate from the old fheep, through the whole winter and
fpring, until they are clipped ; and then blending them
again with the old (heep, putting more lambs upon the fame
ground, &c. ; by allowing the hog lambs, when gimmers,
to I'emain upon the fame land on which they were bred, and
breeding the hogs on a different part of it, and continuing
them on that alfo until they are gimmers or dinmonts, and
then introducing them among the old (heep, the lambs
being every year laid on the land where fuch gimmers or
dinmonts had been the previous year ; by keeping the hogs
and dinmonts or gimmers together, and putting the gim-
mers or dinmonts only among the old (heep, and the lambs
among the hogs, in tlie fame place, &c. ; and by breeding
the hogs among the old (heep. The three lafl of thefe
modes of management are fuppofed the mod ufeful, but
the lait the moll powerful in preventing difeafe ; though

(heep employed, mull operate fo much in this way, as to
leave the profits of no two (heep-farmers fcarcely the fame.
But our limits will not allow us to introduce any particular
ftatements on the fubjeft.

In all forts of (heep-grazing management, it (hould be
the conftant aim of this kind of farmer to have his pafture
or other land fo flocked and provided, as to derive the
greateil poflible profit from it ; as where this is not the cafe,
he not only injures himfelf, but the whole community.
Where fyflems and practices of this nature are followed,
which are not fufficiently profitable, they (hould be given
up, and changed for luch as arc more fully beneficial. The
fame plan cannot, however, be always equally productive
of advantage, as the fluftuation in the value of Hock in dif-
ferent places, and from the eafe or difficulty of providing
it, at different times, as well as the nature of the feafon,
mull be the caufes of much diverfity in it, which are in-
variably to be well attended to by the (hecp-grazier, and
turned as much as poflible to his own account. See
GiiAZiNG, and Stocking Land.

The praftices and profits of different (heep-grazing
farmers arc often very different in the fame fituations, as
fcarcely any two farms of this kind arc conduc\ed exaftly
in the fame manner for the whole of the fame year, or pro-
bably the fame farms for two fuccecding years together ; as
farmers of this fort inuft be direfted and regulated in their
management by times, circumftances, and feafons, fo as to
have their lands flocked according to the growth, or the
probability of the growth, of grafs on them; taking care
to have them always provided during tlje early fummer
months. Peculiar local circumllance!;, and the difference in
the condudl and management of individuals, as well as ca-
pita', may alfo have great influence on the profit. On thefe
grounds, the ordinary profit may amount, in favourable
cafes, to one pound the acre, and from that to two or three,
as they are lefs or more favourable. The difference of prac-
tice which is had recourfe to, as it relates to the forts of
flieep-flock, may likewife further increafe it.

The employing fheep-flock wholly is probably the moft ,
profitable plan of all others, where fuch flock can be readily I
and rcafonably procured, at all times, in the lean flate ; but
which is not always the cafe. And where the grazing
farmer, as in the Romney-Marlh pradlice, can either fend
them readily to the uplands for the winter, or feed them on
turnips, and have their lambs well kept, and fend out a
fufficient number, as well of them as of the tegs or two-
years old fheep, or render thefe lall fat, as is fometimes the
cafe, a greater profit, it is faid, will be produced than in
other ways. The value of the wool is likewife to be taken
into confideration in this fort of flock, as it tends to
profit.

The profits of the breeding fydem, in the above mar(h,
with (heep, depends much upon the qualities and properties of
the lands for the purpofe, as fome will carry and keep a far
greater number of them than others ; as two to the acre,
two and a half, and three on the fame extent ef ground.
It is unquedionable, that by lightly flocking fuch lands in the
winter feafon, the growth of the fummer grafs would be
greatly benefited; but lOO acres of fuch breeding pafture
land, which keep only 200 fheep, producing 220 lambs.

the fird and fecond probably afford the mod equal flock of will not pay fo well, it is thought, as if 300 ewes were
this defcription, in fuch expcfed fituations. kept, producing 340 lambs. Two returns, therefore, are
Profits of aheep-Managemenl. — It is evident that there is not capable of being made in the breeding fyllem, as
a variety of circnmdances in the praftice of fheep hufbandry, many ewes are, of courfe, under the iieceffity of being kept
that mud alTcft any datemer.t that can be made, in refpcfl in the winter time as fuch lands will fupport. It is, how-
to the profit that may be derived from it : the nature of the ever, fuggeded, that by the ufe of hay and artificial food,
fydem of management purlued, and that of the breed of much increafe of profit might not only be produced, but

fuch

SHEEP.

fuch paflures be improTed ; which (hould be the conftant
aim of the (heep-grazing farmer, whenever the expences will
allow of it. Further, the expences of labour and keeping
fuch pallure-lands in proper order, lofTes of ftock, &c. muft
take greatly away from the profits of this kind of farming.
It is, on the whole, thought, that though the profits of the
breeding fyftem may fluduate confiderably, it will not be fo
great as in fome other modes of (heep-grazing. The breed-
ing fheep-farmer may, it is faid, «' have a large or a fmall
crop of lambs ; he may lofe a great many, or only a few
ewes. There may be an increafe or decreafe in the value of
the lambs, old fheep, or wool ; there may be a prolific or
fcanty crop, an increafe or decreafe of rent ; which circum-
ilances cannot fail to alter the profits of a breeding grazier."
But that lately, for many year?, the great demand for lean
flieep and wool has contributed greatly to the profits of
farmers of this kind. The profits and advantages of the
fattening fyltem of (heep management, which is more vary-
ing, will be afterwards particularly confidered, and in fome
meafure compared with the breeding praAice.

The original differences in the value of lean (heep, for the
purpofes of the breeding fheep-farmer, and as they may
happen to be in a better or more reduced condition, mult
have a further effedl on the profit of this fyltem of manage-
ment, as often amounting to not lefs than from three or four
to eight or nine (hillings the head.

Fattening- Management of Sheep. — In the bufinefs of fat-
tening (lore (heep, there are many circumltances that (hould
be carefully attended to, as well as that of managing the
breeding and other flocks. The kind of flieep that are raoll
advantageous under the different forts of keep, fitnatioiis
and kinds of land, muft be well confidered : the differences
in the forts of food, in regard to the improvement of the
(heep ; and the moll beneficial methods of employing it in dif-
ferent cafes ; and lalUy, the markets. And as the (heep under
this treatment (hould never be fuffered to have any fort of want
of frefh food, they (hould never be kept too long upon any
inclofure or grafs-picce, or any other iort of keep, fo as to
be compelled to feed upon the fuUied or tr..mpled food, as
it always greatly retards the fattening of the animals, or what
is termed proof, which is conftantly the moll promoted by
the allowance of only the prime frelh food.

There are many different forts of food made life of in this
bufinefs, fuch as the different forts of turnips, which are very
extenfively applied in this fyftem, and fome ufe them alone ;
but it is probably a better praftice to give fome fort of dry
food with them, efpecially where the common turnip is em-
ployed, as it is more watery and lefs nutrient than that of
the Swedifli kind. Cut hay, ciiaff, bran, corn, oil-cake,
all anfwer well in this intention ; and of the firll two or three
forts they (hould have a pretty full fupply ; but the latter,
from their expence, (hould be more fparmgly given ; fevcral
pounds of oats will however be required for each (heep per
day, according to the kind and fize. It is itated in the
Norfolk Agricultural Survey, lately pnblilhcd, that captain
Beacher having 700 fatting (heep, and turnips running
Ihort, put 200 of them to oats (not ground) ; he found
that the pradtice would not anfwer if oats were more than
6j. />fr coomb, and then not for longer than fix weeks : they
were fed on a pafturc, and the improvement of it very great.
He thinks grey peafe or beans would have anfwered much
better.

With oil-cake, fome give half a cake a day to each (heep,
but the quantity muft depend ni fome meafure upon the otiicr
keep which tliev have. All food of this fort fliould be
given in moveable troughs, divided in the middle, fo that
tlie flit'ep may teed on each fide, witli a Hoping roof over

Vol. XXXII.

them, fo as to cover the (heep's beads and necks wliile feeding,
as wet is not only prejudicial to the (heep, but fpoils the
cake. A rack for hay, fixed over the trough, might pro-
bably be made to anfwer in this intention, while i. would
be very convenient for holding that material, and prevent-
ing wafle. The whole fliould be fixed on wheels, and be
made to ftand fteady, and a fufficient number for the quan-
tity of fheep be always in readin^-fs.

Steamed or baked potatoes, cheap convenient contrivances
for the preparation of which have been lately invented, have
been fuppofed by fome to be preferable to turnips as a food
in this intention. And they have been employed raw in the
proportion of eight or ten pounds per (heep in the courfe of
the day or night ; but they are certainly a much better food
in their prepared ftate. The quantity of common turnips
confumed by each fheep in the lame length of time, is
ufually about eighteen or twenty pounds. Where this laft
fort of crop is good, an acre is fuppofed to fupport about
five fcore flieep in the field, fix or feven weeks in the winter
feafon : an acre of good grafs fupporting at the rate of one
hundred couples from five days to a week.

In the fattening of wedders, the ufe of barley meal, with
grafs or fome other fort of green food,haslikewife been found
highly beneficial, and when it can be procured at a reafonable
rate, (hould not be neglefted, as it is quick in rendering thera
fat, and the mutton is excellent.

Different other articles are occafionally made ufe of as the
fattening food of flieep, fuch as peas and beans, or pea and bean
meal in the winter feafon, and fome fubftances of other kinds.
It is not known that any fort of pure faccharine matter has
ever yet been tried in this intention in (heep, but it is pro-
bable that it could not fail having the effedl in a very expe-
ditious manner, if the expence of it would allow of its ap-
plication in fuch a way ; and it might be conveniently given,
in fmall quantities at a time, in mixture with chaff, cut hay,
bran, or any other fimilar fort of material, in covered
troughs or bins for the purpofe, fuitable other forts of food
being had recourfe to at the fame time.

On the moft ufual fort of food for this ufe, that of tur-
nips, fheep are very apt to go backward, unlefs fattened out
before the winter feafon fets in. Indeed the lofs from keep-
ing fat fheep through the winter is often fo confiderable, that
it IS advifcable to have them ready to fell at the clofe of fura-
mer, to prevent the winter keep from being thrown away.
The moft bentficial application of this fort of food in fat-
tening flieep, has, however, probably not yet been fully
fhewn, as fome kinds of flieep are faid to pay well in winter
fattening.

In fattening flieep in yards with potatoes, fome take
them in towards the latter end of the year, and keep them
until they are ready for l:ile about the beginning of March.
They have the potatoes fliced, and put into covered fheep-
troughs, a gallon being fufhcicnt for a (heep in the day.
They nioftly prove well on this fort of food, fo that if a
fair trial be made, the potatoe fyftem will probably be found
the moft expeditious of any in fattening thofe animals.
When compared with different forts of grain, oil-cake, &c.
by means of accurate trials witii fheep in every way the
fame, it has been proved to be the moft ready in effefting the
bufinefs. A little hay is moftly given with tlie potatoes,
morning and evening. A vaft maf's of excellent manure is
likowife raifed by this pradlice, wliere due care is beilowed
in the preparation of the yard. Many other fubftances tried
in the fame way, may pofhbly be equally beneficial in this
intention, though they have not yet been made ule of by
fheep-farmers.

In regard to the profits of the fattening praftice of (heep
2 L management

SHEEP.

management on the more rich lands of the mardi kind, they
mud vary much according to the nature of the methods
which are purfued by different ftieep-grazing and fattening
farmers, as fome will make their land carry nearly one-third
more flock than others, though the quahty of it may be
the fame, while fuch flock will do equally well, if not bet-
ter. Such commonly make the largeil profits as have con-
ftantly the bell fupply of additional fheep-flock to fucceed
fuch as are taken away, and who regard the number more
than the quality of them. The fattening praftice may like-
wife be carried further than is proper and beneficial, by which
the profits of the individuals will be leffened, and a lofs fuf-
tained by the nation at large. The nature of the breeds of
this fort of flock will have fome influence, as they make a
more or lefs quick return, and as they may come to a more
cheap or dear market. The bell way in general, is to fell
the fat ftock of this fort when ready, without waiting, but
which is not always the cafe. Where more returns than one
are made in the year, there is commonly the mofl profit made
to the fheep-farmer ; and the pratlical management which is
had recourfe to in fuch cafes, will have a great efteft on the
profits, as different rich (heep-fattening diflridls have many
different praftices, which are more or lefs profitable, as that
of flocking the land with fheep, at the rate of three to the
acre, from the beginning of one autumn to that of another,
and having recourfe to mixed flock of other forts during
the fummer for producing the profits : that of flocking
with barren ewes which have had lambs, at the fame time,
but only at the rate of two to the acre, fo that the keep
may render them in a great meafure fat by the beginning of
the new year, and they may be fold off in March or the fol-
lowing month, in their wool, fo as that the advance in their
price may more than compenfate for having it, by keeping
them on until May. And after thefe are gone, by again
flocking the fame land with fheep brought in from the mar-
kets, fairs, hills, or neighbouring high grounds, or the two-
years old wethers that have been kept out, or, which is per-
haps the beft flock in thefe cafes, with fuch tegs as have been
well kept through the winter, and which are equal in weight
with ilarved or Hunted two-yearlings. This is a mofl pro-
fitable fheep-fattening fyllem, where it can be carried into
praftice, that of putting, what are denominated made bar-
rens, or fuch ewes as have miffed going to lamb, upon the
fattening land ; but as thefe will not form the neceffary
fupply of flock, other fheep or mixed flock mult be
provided to produce fufficient profit. It is never a good
praftice to turn poor lean fheep direftly upon the rich fat-
tening lands, but to keep them fome time on the inferior
paftures, as they are in danger of becoming difeafed by the
former method. But half-fat fheep may be put immediately
upon them without danger, and be fed out, often in the
courfe of two months or lefs, by which the fheep-grazing
farmer is enabled to have another return, which may con-
tribute greatly to his profits.

In the fheep-fattening fyllem, it is often of advantage to
have a portion of land, of a fuperior rich quality, for the
purpofe of finifhing them out upon ; as by fuch means not
only more fheep can be fed out and returned, than if the re-
gular quantity of ftock was kept upon the different fields,
but the lefs rich paftures be ftocked in a more clofe manner,
and as the more quick feeding iheep advance, be taken into
the rich finifhing portion.

There are feveral other circumftances which have much ef-
fedl in this fyflem of fheep management ; but the profits
will materially depend on the proportion, the richnefs, and
the quality of the farmer's fattening to his other lands, on
the judgment which he poffefles in the buying in lean flock,

the nature of the feafon, the ftate of the markets, the
loffes fuflained, the expences of the management, &c. a*
already feen.

Though the fize of fheep is by no means a point of much
confequence in the breeding practice, it fliould not on any
account be overlooked in that of fattening.

The average profit of middling-fized fat rich paflure
fheep may be Hated to be from about one pound to one
pound four or five, or even ten fhillings, or even more in
fome cafes.

Folding-Managetnent of Sheep — In the management of
fheep there is a praAice made ufe of in fome diftrifts, which
remains to be noticed ; and which is that of folding. It was
formerly thought to be indifpenfably neceffary to the fuccefs
of the farmer in different diftri£ls ; but of late a different
opinion has prevailed, except in particular cafes, and it is
confidered as merely enriching one field at the expcnce of
another. The praftice may, however, be beneficial where
there are downs, heaths, or commons. The ideas of farmers
are not, however, uniform on this fubjeft, as will be
fhewn by the following details from the Norfolk or Hert-
fordfhire Reports on the agriculture of thefe dillrifts. In
the former it is remarked, that near Brandon there is a prac-
tice, introduced about ten years ago, faid to be from Kent,
which is, to fold their flocks for five or fix hours in the mid-
dle of the day in hot weather. And that, in laying out
the inclofures of the farm at Waterden, from fifteen to fifty
acres each, much attention was paid in the arrangement to
have every field of the farm to open into a lane, that leads
through the whole, fo that by dividing the flock for flock-
ing, according to varying circumftances, Mr. Hill can keep
atleafl one-fourth more than when all the breeding ewes and
lambs were in one flock, and the food dirtied by driving to
fold : by this means there is not a bent on the farm, the
flocking being equal. He is not, however, entirely with-
out a fold : when the lambs are weaned (ufually about old
Midfummer) the ewes are folded for about two months,
principally to prevent their breaking paflure, when the
lambs are taken from them : and while thus folded, he finds
that it takes one-half more land to feed them than if they
were left allotted, as through the reft of the year. That
folding lefTens the value of the lambs he has not a doubt, and
that confiderably ; they do not bring fo high a price as
others not folded. This is not opinion, but fadl. The
ewes are alfo in doubly better condition, from lying ftill and
quiet. That the leath will, in certam cafes, be unequally
given, he does not deny ; but it is not difficult to remedy
this by the dung-cart ; to fold a lot in its own lay, is alfo a
remedy, and is the only fort of folding he can approve. In
regard to the cffeft on wool, he is clearly of opinion that
folding does not render it finer, it makes the fleece lighter,
but never finer. And folding is generally given up by all
who have South Downs ; not becaufe they will not bear it,
for they bear it better than any Iheep in the ifland ; but be-
caufe the ftock is fo valuable that it is worth the farmer's-
attention to contrive, by every means, to keep as many
as poffible. And it is added, that one circumftance, though
a fmall one, deferves mentioning, for the ufe of thofe who
form feparating Iheep-pens : which is, that Mr. Hill has
fliding-gates from one to the other ; the writer remarked
that when a pen is full of fheep, the gates cannot be opened
with convenience ; but by their Aiding in the fence, this is
avoided in a very eafy manner.

Further, Mr. England, of Binham, does not fold. When
not folded, he thinks, fheep do with lefs food ; and as to the
common objeAios, of their drawing under hedges for fhelter,
in ftorms, Sec. fo much the better ; it is what they ought

9 not

SHEEP.

not to be prevented from doing. The tathe is much more
than loft in mutton. And Mr. Reeve, of Wighton, never
folds : folding from layers, upon fallow, is only robbing one
field to enrich another. He is clear in this point ; and alfo
in the faft, that if fheep (whatever the breed) are driven by
foul weather to a hedge, there is the proper place for them,
and not by penning left to abide the beating of the ftorm.
Mr. H. Blythe, of Burnham, fometimes folds, but never from
choice, but folely by reafon of the opennefs of his farm ;
nor does he approve the prafticc. And he explained a point
in his manuring for wheat, which, the writer fays, comes
home to the queftion : he never fows tempered land with
wheat, without either oil-cake, or muck, except on pieces
from which the fheep were not folded while feeding the
layers. And Mr. Durfgate remarks, that folded (hecp
certainly demand more food than thofe which are not folded;
a quarter of a ton of rape-cake is equal to the fold ; and the
flock, without any doubt, fuffers more than that value by
folding. In (hort, folding is to gain one (hilling in manure,
by the lofs of two in fl^-fh. Some, however, fold with large
flocks. But Mr. Beck, of Rifing, does not fold ; and he
is very certain that if he did fold, he could not keep any
thing like the number of his prefent flock. It is added,
that as the writer rode acrofs a layer of forty or fifty acres,
on Mr. Overman's farm, he obferved a great difference in
the verdure, to a line acrofs it, the appearance of one fide of
that line being fo much fuperior to the other ; and on his
remarking it, he was informed, that it was an accidental ex-
periment, which was well worth attention : there was no
other difference in the management, to make one part of that
layer better than another, except the (heep that fed it being
from one part of it folded on another arable field during the
fummer ; but from the other part they were not folded at
all, but left in the layer night and day. The difference was
very confiderablc, and might have been difcerned half a mile
off. This experiment made that farmer give up folding,
except when his flock was in a falt-mar(h ; and Mr. Tuttle,
a neighbour, aflerted, he would never fold at all had he no
marfliea. Nor does Mr. Etheridge, of Stanhow, fold.
Thefe fafts (hould, the writer fays, be combined with an-
other, that of heaths and flieep-walks that have been fed
with (lieep for centuries ; but thofe flieep conftantly folded on
other lands, are fo far from improving them, that they are to
all appearance as poor a? they could liave been at any former
period. It is further itated, that Mr. Stylemaii, at Snet-
tifham, turned his flock loofe, and without folding, in twenty
acres of ollotid every night, for the fame period that would
have folded it in the common manner. The fheep did much
better than tlicy would have done liad they been folded ; tlie
face of the herbage materially imj)rovcd during the period,
and upon ploughing it up for wlicat the crop was equal to
what it would have been with folding, and (hewed by a
regular verdure, that they had dillributed the manure equally
in every part. He conceives that lambs fell jj. a-head lower
on account of folding, than they would do without it ; but
this is only his opinion. He thinks alfo that the ewe is much
injured.

But Mr. Pitts, of Thorpe Abbots, finds that no mucking,
on his burning gravels, will do fo much good as the fold,
and efpecially on a white clover and trefoil layer for bar-
ley. And in the clay diltrift of tlic county of Hertford,
Mr. Byde remarks that fheep have been too much lellened.
Of all the common manures, he eonfiders the fold as the
befl ; and he lias obferved in many farms the general appear-
ance of the crops decline, as the number of the fiicep kept
has leflened. 'rhat at the Hadhams, every man folds the
(he<"p wiiich he keeps ; a little farmer will even fet four

hurdles, if he has not flieep for more. But that good as the
manure of the fold is, Mr. Chapman has found by trial in
the fame field, for turnips, that yard-dung was much better
than both fold and malt-dufl together. However, Mr. Ro-
berts, of King's Walden, thinks nothing is equal to the
fold ; he never reckoned it worth lefs than 40^-. per acre,
corn being cheap ; but of late much more ; he folds two
poles of ground with twenty fheep. And Mr. Sedgwick,
of Rickmanfworth, is clearly in favour of folding on all farms.
See Folding of Sheep.

It has been obferved by Mr. Ellman, in the Annals of
Agriculture, that jult twenty South Down (heep (if a large
fort, a lefs number will do) will fold one rood^fr night : three
thoufand two hundred will fold one Englifh acre per night.
We value the manure at from35j.to50J-./>c/-acre,thegoodnefs
of which depends much on the rnanner in which the theep are
kept ; if kept on artificial food, fuch as tares, rape, clover,
turnips, &c. they will drop more foil than if fed on grafs only.
Suppofe we eftimate the folding at 40J. per acre, it will
amount ^fr year to 4J. 6\d. per fheep ; 22/. \6s. ^d. per
hundred ; or 223/. 2s. 6d. per thoufand, fuppofing the flieep
folded throughout the year. If it be a breeding flock, it
might be well to omit folding for five or fix weeks imme-
diately after lambing, as the young Lambs might fuffer from
being trampled upon, and from driving to and from fold,
would often lofe their dams, and fuffer in that way more
than if they remained quiet. There is, however, another
method of folding, by which all the advantages may be
attained during winter on all foils, without the inconveni-
ences of the former plan. This is ftated to be by confining
them at night in a fheep-yard, well and regularly littered
with ftraw, ftubble, or fern ; by which means you keep your
flock warm and healthy in bad feafons, and, at the fame time,
obtain a furprifing quantity of dung, fo great a quantity, if
you have plenty of htter, that the profit will be better than
folding on the land. A great improvement in this method
would be giving the fheep all their food (except their paf-
ture) in fuch yard, inz. hay and turnips, for which purpofe
they may be brought up, not only at night but alfo at noon,
to be baited ; but if their pafture be at a dirtance, they fhould
then, inftead of baiting at noon, come to the yard earlier in
the evening, and go out later in the morning. This is a
praftice which cannot be too much recommended ; for fo
warm a lodging is a great matter to young lambs, and will
tend much to forward their growth ; the (heep will alfo be
kept in good health, and, what is a point of confequence to
all farms, the quantity of dung railed will be very great.
If this method is purfued through the months of December,
January, February, March, and April, with plenty of litter,
a hundred flieep will make a dunghill of, at leaft, lixty loads
of excellent ilufF, whicli will amply manure two aces of land,
whereas one luindied flieep folded (fuppofing the grafs dry
enough) will not in that time equally manure one acre.

And in Norfolk, Mr. Bevan finds a yard well fenced in
for (landing fold tor littering and for folding in bad wea-
ther convenient ; and is fully convinced of the great ad-
vantage of it. He intends in future to have his (lock in it
for yeaning, whctlier the feafon be good or bad. And in
Hertfordfliire, the earl of Clarendon has a fold which con-
tains good room for three hundred flieep, the number kept
in it : an open (hed furrounds it, except on one fide, where
a barn is the fence ; the outfide of the fhed is formed of
wattled hurdle-work, without ftraw or other materials, for
cooliiefs, left a greater clofcnefs (hould make tlie yard too
hot : it IS all kept well littered with Hubble, and yields, from
three hundred flieep, eighty large cart-loads of manure.
This fyftem agrees perfeftly well with the flicop, and keeps
3 L 2 them

SHEEP.

them more healthy than wheu they were left in the fields in
the common manner. His lordlhip has another yard ior
lambing, which has alfo a (hed. Thefe forts of yards, from
their beneficial tendency in different views, ihould be more
generally made ufe of by (heep-farmers in all fituations. See
SiiEEP-Nou/e.

This practice is had recourfe to on arable land for raifinor
different forts of craps of the corn and green kind, as well
as on grafs-lands. It is fuppofed by fome, that a flock of
about five hundred (heep will be fufficient to pen twenty-
eight fquare perches of land each night, which will amount
to about fifty acres in the year, where the praftice is dif-
continued two months in the courfe of that time. The value
of this is different in different dillrifts, as from above thirty
to more than forty fhillings the acre, which for five hundred
Iheep, would be from 87/. to 100/. for fifty acres, which,
taking the averatje at 94/. for that amount of ftock, the an-
nual advantage of the fold may be fet at 3^. ^J. a-hcad, or
rather more ; taking it at 100/. it would be 4J. 2i</., or rather
more. This fhews the great utility of it in fome places.
All forts of (heep, except the fattening ones, and thofe dif-
pofed to that ftate, are moftly folded. It forms a fort of
moving dungliill, which enriches the land at but little ex-
pence, and which may probably be rendered further ufeful
by a greater divifion of the flocks. It is alfo beneficial in
preventing the wafte of food on grafs-lands, as well as in
confuming particular forts of crops. See Sheep-FoU.

Hurdling-Management of Sheep. — It may be noticed, that
the great utility of hurdling off different kinds of green
crops, in confuming them by fheep, has been long known
and praftifed ; and equal advantage may be derived in
many cafes, by having recourfe to the fame method on rich
grafs-lands in large iaclofures, fo as to let the animals I'.ave
a freih fpace or bite every day. The fheep are found to
thrive better, and the fame extent of land to fupport con-
fiderably mnri; in number, wiiile the land is at the fame
time much improved. And it is not improbable, but that
other forts of Hock may be managed in the fame way with
fimilar advantage. In thefe cafe^ the hurdles mult be fet
according to the nature of the grafs ; where it is bare and
thin, larger pieces (hould be folded, than in the contrary
circumilance. See Hurdles.

Wajhing- Management of Sheep. — From the fleeces of fheep
becoming much loaded and filled withdufl and dirt of various
kinds, in the hot fummer feafon, by way of preparation for
fhearing, it is neceifary to have recourfe to the operation of
vuajhing. It was formerly the method of performing this
bufinefs to have the wafliers ftar.ding up to the breafl in the
water ; but from the inconvenience and danger of it, the
men requiring a large fupply of fpirituous liquors, and being
liable to be attacked with colds, rheumatifms, and other dif-
eafes, as well as being apt to difpatch the work with too
much expedition, fo as to leave the wool infufBciently clean ;
it has been propofed by Mr. Young, in his Calendar, to rail
off a portion of the water (in a ftream or pond) for the fheep
to walk into by a flope mouth at one end, with a depth
fufficient at one part for them to Iwim ; and to pave the
whole : the breadth need not be more than fix or feven feet ;
at one fpot tt) let in on each fide of this paffage, where the
depth is jull fufficient for the water to flow over the fheep's
back, a calk either fixed or leaded, for a man to fland in dry ;
the fheep being in the water between them, they are wafhed in
perfetlion, and pufhingthem on, they fwim through the deep
part, and walk out at the other mouth, where a clean pen,
or a very clean dry pafture, is to receive them ; of courfe
there is a bridge rail-way to the tubs, and a pen at the firft
mouth of the water, whence the fheep are turned into it,

where they may be foaking a few minutes before being drivei*
to the wafhers. But other more cheap contrivances may be
provided where there is clean water at hand for the pur-
pofes. And fheep fliould on no account be driven on dry
or dufly roads after this operation.

But in all cafes before this work commences, the lambs
fhould be feparated from the ewes and other fheep, and each
be ])Ut in feparate pens. With thefe it is feldom neceflary
to do much more than jufl fwill them through the water,
without their being touched by the wafhers. As foon as
they liave been wafhed, the fheep fliould have a clean hard
paliure for a few days, until they are perfectly dry, and in a
proper condition to be fhorn. The lambs are generally
fliorn, efpecially in the northern diitrifts, a few weeks after
the old fheep, and the operation is termed JherVmg. The
lambs that are fold in Smithfield market are, we believe,
feldom or ever fhorn. See SnEt.P- Shearing, and Sher-
LING of Z,amis.

The praAice of walliing the (heep before they are (horn is
a ciiflom that prevails over mofl part of the kingdom, efpe-
cially with the long-wooUed breeds, and pretty generally
with thofe of the fhort-woolied kinds alfo, but which is
performed with more difRculty in them from the clofe-
matted nature of the fleece. It is faid, however, to have I
been the cuftom in Devonfliire, for a great length of time, J
never to wafli the fliort-wooUed flieep, but to (hear them dry, -j
as is conflantly the cafe in Spain.

The pradice of wafhing the ftieep before fliearing now,
however, begins to prevail in fome parts of it, according to the
writer of the Agricultural Report of the county. This has
at length been enforced, it is fuppofed, by the difference in
the price which the wool-buyers make between wool in the
yolk and waflied wool, which is no lefs than 50 per cent, even
in the Dorfet fort of wool ; and though it is not io much, it
is greatly more than proportionate in the coarfer fleeces, be-
fides the over-weight of 5 per cent. The wool of the Dorfet
fat wether (heep, which is about five pounds each when wa(hed
in the yolk, rarely fells for more than ix. the pound, but wlien
walhed, it as commonly commands \s. 6J. The weight
of a fleece in the yolk, is to the fame fleece when wafhed, it is
.faid, as fix and three quarters to five, and the confequent
value is as 6s. gel. to -js. ctl. the fleece. Tliis has, at length,
been made evident to the fheep-farmers of tliis dillrift, who
now willingly agree, that it is advantageous to wafli fliort-
woolled flieep before fliearing, but to fell the long and coarfe
(lapled fleeces in the yolk.

Good clean wafliing is a matter of great confcquence to
the wool ; and it is of much advantage to it as well as the
flieep to have the weather fair and fine at the time it is
performed, as they are much lefs liable to have colds.

Shearing-Time. — In refpeft to the proper period of
clipping or ihearing fheep, it muit be dircded by the ilate
of the weather, and the climate in the particular diltrift ;
and by this means the danger of injury by cold, from de-
priving the fheep of their coats at too early a feafon, and
from heat, by permitting them to continue on them too
long, may be avoided in the beft manner. But another
circumilance, that fhould likewife be attended to in this
bufinefs, is that of the wool being fully grown, or at the ftate
of maturity ; as where the clipping precedes that period, it
is faid, in the Annals of Agriculture, to be weak, and
fcarcely capable of being fpun ; ar.d if protrafted later, it
is yellow, felted, and of an imperfedl nature. It has been
ftated, that for the more warm fheltered fituations in the
fouthern parts of the kingdom, the beginning or middle of
.Tune, when the weather is fine, may be in general the moit
proper ; but in the more expofed diftridt, in the northern
4 parts

p

SHEEP.

parts of the ifland, the middle or latter end of the fame
month may be more fuitable, provided the feafon be fa-
Tourable. But with the fatteninfj ftieep in the inclofiires,
it will moftly be necefl'ary to perform the work at an earlier
period, in every fituation ; as the great increafe of heat,
from the fetting in of the fummer weather, added to the
warmth of the fleece, becomes very oppreflive and injurious
to them, in their feeding and other properties.

It is an excellent practice with many good fheep-farmers,
to clip off all tlie coarfe foiled wool about the thighs and
docks, fome weeks before the ufual time of wafhing and
clipping the rtieep ; as by this means the fheep are kept
clean and cool, when the feafon is hot, and with ewes the
udders are prevented from becoming fore. This praftice is
common with fome South Down fheep-mallers, as well as
in Yorkfhire. In the former fituation, Mr. EUman fells
his, as locks, at ^^d. per pound, having about four ounces
from each fheep.

By fome it has been propofed to (hear (heep two or three
times in the courfe of the year, with the view of having
finer, as well as a larger quantity of wool ; but it is pro-
bable that fuch a pratlice can never be of any general ad-
vantage, though the trials that have been made in Northum-
berland in this wav feem to !hew that advantages may be
derived in both thefe intentions ; but the difadvantages in
refpeft to the (heep do not feem to have been fufficiently
attended to. And with the fame view, the clothing of
fheep has been had recourfe to. In experiments made in
this way in Scotland, the advantage in refpeft to wool is
ftated to have been very confiderable, and the expence not
more than jJ. per (heep. By having recourfe to this prac-
tice with that of the above, it has been fuggefted that
combing wool may be rendered fit for the purpofe of cloth-
ing, and at the fame time the mutton rendered more
valuable. The trials in thefe ways have, Ivowever, hitherto
been but few, and do not feem to extend.

It may alfo be noticed, that in the general management
of (liecp, it is ufual, after the (hearing has been performed,
to mark the (heep with reddle, ochre, or fome fimilar fiib-
ftance ; and fome alfo cut the ear in different ways. The
marking with tar has been faid to be prejudicial ; but where
a fmall quantity is only employed, little injury can be fuf-
tained. And in almolt all the (heep diftricls of the king-
dom, except in Dorfetfhire, the tails of (heep arc (hortened,
which feems to be an ufeful praftice in keeping the animals
more clean behind, and of courfe lefs liable to be llricken
with the fly. It has, however, been fuggeited in the ninth
volume of Annals of Agriculture, that by this cuitom the
(heep may be rendered Icfs able to drive away the flies.
The general prevalence of the practice would, however,
feem to prove its bL-iiig of advantage. There is much dif-
ference in the manner of performing the bufiaefs in different
di(tri6ls, in refpedf to the length ; but four or five inches
being left, are quite fuflicient. It is ufually done while the
animals are young. In all (hecp-paitures the hedges (hould
be well cleared from briars, as their coats are often injured
by being torn by them ; and all forts of pernicious reptiles
(honld be as much as polTible deftroyed, and removed from
fuch land.

Further, in refpeft to the bufinefs of caflrating or gelding
the lambs, it maybe performed anytime from the age of a fort-
night or three weeks to that of a month or fix weeks ; and
in fome diflrifts it is deferred to a confidcrably later period.
It is, however, the fafeft method to have it executed early,
as there is lefs danger of too much inflammation taking
place. But in all cafes, the lambs (liould be m a healthy
ftate, when it is done ; as under other circumltances, they

are liable to be dellroycd by it. The operation is ufually
performed by the (hepherd, by opening the fcrotum or cod,
and drawing out the teflicles, with the fpermatic cord.
This he often does with his teeth, in the young date of the
animal. But where the operation is performed at a later
period, it is ufual to have recourfe to tlie knife ; the arteries
being taken up, and fecured by means of ligatures or the
fearing-iron. The bufinefs, if pofiible, (honld be done in
fine weather, when not too warm ; and the glided lambs be
kept in a dry, (heltered, quiet fituation, for a few days,
until the inflammation is gone off. If it (hould happen to
be wet at the time, it may be advifeable to have them under
fome fort of (helter, where they can have room to move
freely about.

It is now well known that the mode of afcertaining the
age of thefe animals is chiefly by their teeth ; but they are
likewife fometimes named from the number of coats or
fleeces that have been (horn from them, as one-(hcar, two-
(hear, &c. The (heep of one-fhear having two broad teeth
before ; that of two-(hear, four ; that of three, fix ; and
that of four, eight ; which is full-mouthed, bee Age of
Sheep.

And they have alfo diflFerent names in different difliifts.
After being weaned, the ram or wcdder-lamb is fometimes
termed hog, hoggit, teg or tag, during the whole of the firll
year ; and the female lamb, an eive or gimmer-laml, and
ewe-teg. The fecond year, the wedder has the title of
Jhiar-hog, or a tivo-toothed teg or tag ; and the ewe is called
a thaive, thave, or tiuo-toothed etve. In the third year, a
Jhear-hog, or fsur-toothed ivedder ; and a four-toothed ewe,
or ihaive. The fourth year, a. fix-toothed wedder, or ewe.
And in fome places, from the time of lambing till that of
falving, the males are called tup-lamhs ; and from that
period till the time of flicnring, tup hogs ; and ever after-
wards, tups ; the females in the fame order bei.Jg termed
ewe-lambs, ewe-hogs, gimmcrs, young ewes, old ewes. The
gelded male lambs, cajlriilcd lueddcr-lambs, weddcr-hogs,
dummonds, or dlnmonts, ivedders. Crones alfo lignify old
ewes ; and there are ieveral other provincial names, which
are explained in their proper places, under their different
heads. See Sheep, Names of.

In the management ot this fort of ftock, it miifl be fuffi-
ciently evident that a great deal of the profit and advantage
mull depend upon having a careful attentive (hepherd, who
perfeflly undcrltands his bufinefs, and is at all times willing
to perform it. See Shephkrd.

Sheep are fubjedl to a variety of difeafes, which fhould
be carefully attended to by thofe who have the care of fuch
fort of (lock, as foon as ever they (hew themfelves ; as a
very iliort time often renders them irremediable. The na-
ture of them, and the means of removal, are defcribed under
the proper heads to which they belong.

The above accounts, obfervations, and details, may ferve
to afford the inquirer a general knowledge of the nature of
flicep hulhandry, and of the ufual methods of mar.agcment
which are required witli that fort of live-flock, as well as
the benefits and advantages which may be derived from it in
many different ways.

Shkki", and their Varieties, chiefly in conneSion with the
lyoollen Manufafture, Hiflory of. Of all the animals that
have been domellicated liy man, none have rendered him
more eflential fervice than the iheep. A large part of the
food and clothing of the civilized world is fupphed by this
uleful animal. The culture, improvement, and manufac-
ture of its fleece, have condantly accompanied and marked
the progrcfs of civilization, both in ancient and modern
times.

In

SHEEP.

In the early ages ot fociety, fheep appear to have been
principally domefticated for the fake of the fl<ii), or the
fleece : we Ihall, therefore, firft take a fliort view of their
cultivation and improvement in different countries, as wool-
bearing animals ; whether as producing fine or coarfe wool,
or as Img or Jhort-iuoolled (hecp ; the produce of the two
latter differing from each other in the mode of manufafture,
and the ufes to which it is applied, more than filk and cot-
ton, confidered as articles of manufafture.

It is not a little remarkable, that the domefticated flieep
depends for its fubfiflence almoft entirely on the care of
man, and is never found at any great dillance from his habi-
tation. " Left to itfelf, it becomes the fubjedl of difeafe, and
the prey of ferocious animals ; or if thefe fhonld fpare it, its
own fleece becomes the abode of infefts, which continually
nourifh themfelves with its blood, and dellroy its conftitu-
tion. Its enemies are indeed fo numerous, and conftantly
at hand, that it has no chance of efcaping them."

Naturahfls are not fully agreed from what animal the
different varieties of domeftic fheep originally fprung. The
Siberian argali, as defcribed by Pallas, was moll probably
the parent of all the cultivated flocks in Afia, from whence
they have fpread lo other parts of the world. This animal,
the argali, which in the Siberian language means wild fheep,
is called by the Ruflians kamenoi barann, or fheep of the
rocks, from its ordinary place of abode. According to
Pallas, it is the fame with the mufmion of Pliny, and the
ophion of the Greeks. It is found, in all its native wildnefs,
vigour, and aftivity, inhabiting the vafl chain of mountains
which run through the centre of Afia to the Eaftern fea,
and the various branches of this chain, extending through
Great Tartary, China, the north of Hindooftan, and Perfia.
The argali delights to baflc in the fun on the bare rocks, but
avoids the woods and fliade ; it feeds on alpine plants and
fhrubs ; it prefers a temperate climate, but is found alfo
amongll the rocks of Afiatic Siberia. This animal loves a
ftate of folitude, and flees the haunts of men. According
to profeffor Pallas, nothing but the furrounding fea can ac-
count for the argali being found on an inhabited ifland, as is
fometimes the cafe.

The ewe of the argali brings forth before the melting of
the fnow : the lamb refembles a young kid, except that it
has a flat protuberance in place of horns, and is covered writh
dark grey hair, frizzled and woolly.

There are few animals more difficult to overtake than the
argali. When purfued, it turns and doubles like a hare,
fcrambling over the rocks with wonderful agility. Though
the adult animal is untameable, the lamb is eafily domefli-
cated, when taken young, and fed on milk, and afterwards
on fodder, which is proved by numerous experiments made
in the Ruffian fettlements.

The argali is about the fize of the fallow deer, but its make
is more robuil, being lefs elegant than the deer, and its
neck and legs are fhorter. Its head refembles that of a ram,
with long llraggling hairs about the mouth, but no beard
like the goat. The horns, according to the drawing given
by Pallas, bear a fimilarity to thofe of the Merino rams ;
their weight is about fixteen pounds ; the tail is fhort.
The fummer covering of the argali is a fhort fleek hair, rc-
fembling that of the deer ; the winter coat confifts of wool,
like down, generally of a white colour, and intermixed with
longer hair. See Akgali.

From the facility with which the young of the argali is
domefticated, and from the charafter of this animal, as well
as its fituation, we may with mucli probabihty infer that it
wa3 the parent of the Afiatic flocks. According to other
travellers, the coat of the argali is of a grey or nut-brown

colour : probably it may be of different colours in the dif
ferent dillrifts it inhabits. In early ages the fleeces of do
meltic fheep appear to have been all of a dark colour ;
fuch was the flock of Laban, in Mefopotamia ; and thi
narrative of the manner in which the change was effefted^
may ferve to fhew that, previoufly to that time, the com-
mon colour of the fheep was bhick or dark-brown. The
improvement in the quality, as well as the colour of the
fleece, has always been clolely conneftcd with the progrefs
of the arts ; for we uniformly find in countries, where thefe
have flouriffied, a race of ffieep which yield wool of a fu.
periin- quality to thofe around them. In Perfia and Syria,
the influence of ancient manufaftures is ftill viCble in the
fupcriority of their fheep, as finc-wooUed animals. From
Afia Minor thefe animals were tranfported into Greece,
and from thence into Italy and Sicily. They were dif-
perfed by the Romans over various parts of Europe ; and
the Tarentine fheep, formerly celebrated for their fine foft
wool, were introduced into Spain, where they have flou-
rifhed for fixteen centuries ; the prefent Merino race being
their immediate defcendants, but rendered more hardy by
an intermixture with the original native fheep of Spain.

From the writings of Columella, and the incidental cir-
cumftances mentioned by ancient hiftorians, we may infer
that the fine flocks of Greece and Italy were of the ffiort-
woolled kind, producing clothing wool, which was manu-
faftured into woollen cloth, fimilar to what is at prefent
worn ; but probably more flexible, from not undergoing fo
completely the milling or felting procefs. (See Wool.)
Indeed, from the remains of the Tarentine flocks at prefent
in Italy, we can be at no lofs to determine the nature of
the former Tarentine fleece. Thirteen centuries of ne-
glefted cultivation, and intermixture with other breeds,
have not been fufficient to obliterate the labours of former
times. From what we have feen of the finer Italian wools,
we have no hentation in aflerting, that by judicious and
careful leleftion, it would be practicable to reftore the Ta-
rentine race once more to its original purity, in the courfe
of a few years ; were it found to poflefs any fuperior merit, •
compared with the fine-wooUed fheep of Spain. The cir-
cumllances refpeCling the management of the Tarentine
flocks, recorded by ancient writers, when compared with
the prefent treatment of the Merino flocks in Spain, leave
no doubt refpefting the origin of the latter.

The term Merino, in the Spanifh language, is an adjeftive,
derived from the corrupt Latin merinus, or mnjor'mus : when
united with ovejns, it fignifies the royal judge, or fuper-
intendant of the fheep-walk. At the period when the
trajhumantes, or travelling flocks in Spain, were eftablifhed,
they became the objefts of police, and were placed under the
exclufive junldiftion of mayors, with public walks and
large diftritls allotted for their fuftcnance, and were termed
Merinos ovijas, or the fheep under the care of the merino or
mayor. ThenamespcculiartotheellabHfhment of thefe flocks,
fuch as mejla, cavana, &c. are derived, not from the Morifco,
but from the provincial Latin that prevailed in Spain before
and after it was fubdued by the Goths. I See Mest.\.) The
management of the flocks is peculiarly Roman ; the merino,
or mayor, correfponds exaftly with the magilfcr pecori? of
Varro and Columella, and was fuperior to the opihones and
pailorcs. The practice of deftroying half the fheep at their
birth, and of fuckling each of the furvivors on two ewes ; of
fweating the ffieep before they were fhorn, to increafe the
foftnefs of the fleece ; and of condudling them from their
winter to their fummer ftations, by long journies through
public ffieep-walks, has been derived from Roman inftitu-
tions, with this difference, that in Italy their migrations

were

I

SHEEP.

were confined to the coarfe-wooUed (heep, while the moUes
eves, or fine-wooUed flocks of antiquity, were always houfed.

The experiment of Columella's uncle afcertains the early
introduftion of fine-woolled flieep into Spain. Having
procured fome wild African ram5 at Cadiz of a coarfe
fleece, but of an admirable colour, he gave them to fome
fine-woolled ewes, and the male progeny being again given
to Tarentine ewes, the offspring, with their defcendants,
united the paternal colour with the peculiar foftnefs of the
maternal fleece. Columella's uncle refided in Boetica,
which comprehended the modern Eftramadura ; and as
Columella flourifhed under the emperor Claudius, the
Tarentine breed mull have been introduced into that pro-
vince at the commencement of the Chriftian cr.i. Whatever
was the peculiar colour which the elder Columella intro-
duced by means of African rams into his Tarentine flock,
we may conclude that the fame fuccefsful expedient was
employed by other agriculturalifts of Bcetica, to convert
thefe coarfe into fine-woolled breeds, and to commu-
nicate the pureil white to the black or parti-coloured
native flocks, which, according to Pliny, were common in
Spain. The original intermixture of diftinft breeds of
native Spanifh fheep vi\\\\ the Tarentine in different parts
of Spain, may be inferred from other circumflances : each
cavana, or flock, forms a dillinA breed ; and the Nigrette
no more refembles the Paulac, than the Merino South Down
refembles the Merino Cheviot. The genuine unmixed
defcendants of the Tarentine breed would have preferved
©ne uniform charafter ; but the native flocks crofled with
Tarentine rams would retain their diitinftive varieties, and
tranfmit them to each cavana.

That the Merino is a mixed race, feems to be further
indicated by the more tender conftitutions of the fine-
woolled flocks of antiquity. Of thefe, the Tarentine were
moft celebrated in Italy, and the Milefian in Afia Minor.
They were termed pellitae and tefta; oves, from the cover-
ings of Ikin with which they were clothed to defend
the fleece. They were denominated alfo molles oves, not
only from the foftnefs of the fleece, but from the delicacy
of the conftitution. They were always fed in the houfe ;
and though fatisficd with brambles, or the coarfefl: food,
they are dcfcribed as a moit voracious breed : a diminution
of their allowance from the fraud of fervants, or the parfi-
mony of the owner, was attended with certain deitruiSion
to the flock. (Plin. lib. viii. cap. 47.) As there was no
fale for the lambs, nor any profit from the milk of a
Tarentine flock, half the lambs were dcftroyed at the birth.
The ram-lambs were chiefly reared, and were killed at two
years, when their pelts fold to the merchant at an advanced
price, on account of the beauty of the pile. This breed
demanded conltant care, when in the fields, to preferve their
coverings from being torn, and the fleeces deilroyed. At
home they required even greater care than abroad, as they
were not daily conducted to their paltures. They were
frequently uncovered and cooled for refrefliment. The
ftaples of the fleece were opened and difparted, and were
frequently moiftcncd with wine and oil. The whole flock
was waflied three times a-year, when the weather was warm.
The ilables were frequently fwept, cleaned, and fumigated :
for thefe different offices two fhepherds were conftantly re-
quired for every hundred Ihcep.

The cxceflive care belloweit on thefe flocks by the nations
of antiquity, fhews in what ellimation their fleeces were
held ; and though fuch attention is remote from modern
praAice, we are fully convinced that, by fclefting the very
finefl and fofteft Merino flocks, and covering the wool, and
frequently anointing and walhing, it would give to the

pile that degree of foftnefi which is fo much wanted in the
manufafture of fhawls, and other coflly articles of luxury,
but which we feek for in vain m the fineft fleeces of modern
Europe. However expenfive fuch attention might prove,
we have no doubt that, on a limited fcale, it would well
repay the labour of the judicious experimentalift, as the
wool would be worth more than 7,0s. per pound, could it be
made to equal that of India in foftnefs. It would appear
that the Tarentine breed were felefted with much care for
breeding, and every expedient adopted, which was proved by
experience to attenuate and foften the pile. The tranfition of
thefe delicate animals into the Merinos of Spain, which arc
a hardy race, can only be explained by fuppofnig that other
agriculturalifts had imitated Columella, and obtained a fine-
woolled race, by croffing their native breeds with the more
delicate animals frcm Italy. The beginning of this im-
provement is indeed defcribed by Strabo in the reign of
Tiberiut;: he informs us that the inhabitants of Truditania
had formerly imported many garments, but that their wool
in his time furpaffed that of the Coraxi, and excelled it in
beauty fo much, that a talent, equal to two hundred
guineas, was the ftated price of a ram to breed from ; and
that they excelled alfo in the fabrics which the Sal-
tiatse manufactured. Truditania, according to Strabo, com-
prehended the province of Boetica, from the GuadMMia to
the confines of Lufiiania, and fouthward to Gibraltar,
and eaftward to Toledo. The wool of the Coraxi, with
which Strabo compares that of this part of Spain, we are
informed, in his account of Pontus, was from the foft-
woolled Milefian fheep. Such high prices as a talent mufl
have been produced by a very general demand for rams,
not for the ufe of the Tarentine flocks, which could occafion
no fuch competition, but for the purpofe of crofling the
indigenous breeds of the province, which, from the earlieft
period, appears to have abounded in fheep.

The travelling flocks were not at that time introduced, as
the mountainous regions had been till then infefled by native
as well as Lufitanian robbers, whom the Romans diflodged
from their villages, and difperfed into cantons. (Diodorus
Siculus, fib. V. cap. 32.) The Moorifh looms of Anda-
lufia and Catalonia, and thofe of the Chriftians at Segovia,
in the 13th century, mull have been fupplied by the fine-
woolled flocks introduced by the Romans. The v.icant
mountains, when cleared of banditti, offered a vafl rang*
of pallure from Eftramadura northward, towards Galicia
and the Afl.urias. A fimilar opportunity occurred to efta-
blilh or renew the inltitution of travelling flocks when the
Chriftians defcended, in the middle of the 13th century, to
occupy the conquered provinces of Andalufia and Murcia.
After that time the travelling flocks became fo well efla-
bliflied, that the mentargo, or tolls, on their paflage
through the mountains, from province to province, the
fervicio, or tax to the crown, and the laws of tlie mella,
were inipofed or ratified by government, in the middle of
the 15th century, before the Moorifli kingdom of Grenada
had been finally reduced.

We are thus enabled from hilfory to trace theintroduftion
and eftablifhment of the Merino race of flieep in Spain, from
which, or from their defcendants, nearly all the manufac-
tories of fine cloth in Europe are at prelent fupplied with
wool. See Wool.

The native breeds of Bcetica were originally and gra-
dually converted into fine-woolled animals, by repe.ited
crofles with the Tarentine flocks, and thus an immenfe num.
ber of hardy flieep, producing a moll valuable pile, were
fpread over the country, and fnrvived the fuceeflive cun.
quefts of the Goths and Vandals, and the protracted war-
fare

SHEEP.

In the early ages ot fociety, (beep appear to have been
principally domefticated for the fake of the fliiii, or the
fleece : we (hall, therefore, firft take a (hort view of their
cultivation and improvement in different countries, as wool-
bearing animals ; whether as producing fine or coarfe wool,
or as Img or Jhort-iuoolled (hcep ; the produce of the two
latter differing from each other in the mode of manufafture,
and the ufes to which it is applied, more than filk and cot-
ton, confidered as articles of manufacture.

It is not a little remarkable, that the domefticated fheep
depends for its fubfiftence almoll entirely on the care of
man, and is never found at any great diilance from his habi-
tation. " Left to itfelf, it becomes the fubjeft of difeafe, and
the prey of ferocious animals ; or if thefe (honld fpare it, its
own fleece becomes the abode of infefts, which continually
nourifh themfelves with its blood, and deltroy its conftitu-
tion. Its enemies are indeed fo numerous, and conilantly
at hand, that it has no chance of efcaping them."

Naturahfts are not fully agreed from what animal the
different varieties of domeilic fheep originally fprung. The
Siberian argali, as defcribed by Pallas, was moft probably
the parent of all the cultivated flocks in Afia, from whence
they have fpread to other parts of the world. This animal,
the argali, which in the Siberian language means wild fheep,
is called by the Ruffians kamenoi barann, or fheep of the
rocks, from its ordinary place of abode. According to
Pallas, it is the fame with the mufimcn of Pliny, and the
ophion of the Greeks. It is found, in all its native wildnefs,
vigour, and aftivity, inhabiting the vail chain of mountains
which run through the centre of Afia to the Eaftern fea,
and the various branches of this chain, extending through
Great Tartary, China, the north of Hindooflan, and Pcrfia.
The argali delights to baflc in the fun on the bare rocks, but
avoids the woods and (hade ; it feeds on alpine plants and
(hrubs ; it prefers a temperate chmate, but is found alfo
amongll the rocks of Afiatic Siberia. This animal loves a
ftate of folitude, and flees the haunts of men. According
to profeffor Pallas, nothing but the furrounding fea can ac-
count for the argali being found on an inhabited ifland, as is
fometimes the cafe.

The ewe of the argali brings forth before the melting of
the fnow : the lamb refembles a young kid, except that it
has a flat protuberance in place of horns, and is covered with
dark grey hair, frizzled and woollv.

There are few animals more difficult to overtake than tlie
argali. When purfued, it turn* and doubles like a hare,
fcrambling over the rocks with wonderful agility. Though
the adult animal is untameable, the lamb is eatily domefti-
cated, when taken young, and fed on milk, and afterwards
on fodder, which is proved by numerous experiments made
in the Ruffian fettlements.

The argali is about the fize of the fallow deer, but its make
is more robuft, being lefs elegant than the deer, and its
neck and legs are (horter. Its head refembles that of a ram,
with long ftraggling hairs about the mouth, but no beard
like the goat. Tlie horns, according to the drawing given
by Pallas, bear a fimilarity to thofe of the Merino rams ;
their weight is about fixteen pounds ; the tail is (hort.
The fummer covering of the argali is a fliort (leek hair, re-
fembling that of the deer ; the winter coat confifts of wool,
like down, generally of a white colour, and intermixed with
longer hair. See Argali.

From the facility with which the young of the argali is
domefticated, and from the charafter of this animal, as well
as its fituation, we may with much probability infer that it
wa3 the parent of the Afiatic flocks. According to other
traveljers, the coat of the argali is of a grey or nut-brown

colour : probably it may be of different colours in the dif-
ferent diftrifts it inhabits. In early ages the fleeces of do-
meilic flieep appear to have been all of a dark colour :
fuch was the flock of Laban, in Mefopotamia ; and the
narrative of the manner in which the change was effefted,
may ferve to fliew that, previoufly to that time, the com-
mon colour of the (heep was bhck or dark-brown. The
improvement in the quality, as well as the colour of the
fleece, has always been clolely conneftcd with the progrefs
of the arts ; for we uniformly find in countries, where thefe
have flouri(hed, a race of fheep which yield wool of a fu-
perior quality to thofe around them. In Perfia and Syria,
the influence of ancient manufaAures is ftill vilible in the
fuperiority of their fheep, as finc-wooUed animals. From
Afia Minor thefe animals were tranfported into Greece,
and from thence into Italy and Sicily. They were dif-
perfed by the Romans over various parts of Europe ; and
the Tarentine (heep, formerly celebrated for their fine foft
wool, were introduced into Spain, where they have flou-
rifhed for fixteen centuries ; the prefent Merino race being
their immediate defcendants, but rendered more hardy by
an intermixture with the original native fheep of Spain.

From the writings of Columella, and the incidental cir-
cumftances mentioned by ancient hiftorians, we may infer
that the fine flocks of Greece and Italy were of the fhort-
woolled kind, producing clothing wool, which was manu-
faftured into woollen cloth, fimilar to what is at prefent
worn ; but probably more flexible, from not undergoing fo
completely the milling or felting procefs. (See Wool.)
Indeed, from the remains of the Tarentine flocks at prefent
in Italy, we can be at no lofs to determine the nature of
the former Tarentine fleece. Thirteen centuries of ne-
glected cultivation, and intermixture with other breeds,
have not been fufficient to obliterate the labours of former
times. From what we have feen of the finer Italian wools,
we have no hcntation in allerting, that by judicious and
careful feleftion, it would be pradficable to reftore the Ta-
rentine race once more to its original purity, in the courfe
of a few years ; were it found to poflefs any fu perior merit,
compired with the fine-wooUed (heep of Spain. The cir-
cumllances refpecfing the management of the Tarentine
flocks, recorded by ancient writers, when compared with
the prefent treatment of the Merino flocks in Spain, leave
no doubt refpeCting the origin of the latter.

The term Merino, in the Spanifh language, is an adjeftive,
derived from the corrupt Latin merinus, or majorinus : when
united with ovejas, it fignifies the royal judge, or fuper-
intendant of the fheep-walk. At the period when the
trajhumanles, or travelling flocks in Spain, were eftablifhed,
they became the objefts of police, and were placed under the
excluiive jurifdiftion of mayors, with public walks and
large diftrifts allotted for their fuftenance, and were termed
Merinos ovejas, or the fheep under the care of the merino or
mayor. The names peculiar to the ellablifhment of thefe flocks,
fuch as mefla, cavana, &c. are derived, not from the Morifco,
but from the provincial Latin that prevailed in Spain before
and after it was fubdued by the Goths. ( See Mest.\.) The
management of the flocks is peculiarly Roman ; the merino,
or mayor, correfponds exaflly with the magiilcr pecoris of
Varro and Columella, and was fuperior to the opiliones and
pallorcs. The practice of deftroying half the fheep at their
birth, and of fucklingeach of the furvivors on two ewes; of
fweating the fheep before they were fhorn, to increafe the
foftnefs of the fleece ; and of condufting them from their
winter to their fummer ftations, by long journies through
public fheep-walks, has been derived from Roman inflitu-
tions, with this difference, that in Italy their migrations

were

SHEEP.

Were confined to the coarfe-wooUed fheep, while the molles
oves, or fine-vvoolled flocks of antiquity, were always houfed.

The experiment of Columella's uncle aicertains the early
introduftion of fine-woolled flieep into Spain. Having
procured fome wild African rams at Cadiz of a coarfe
fleece, but of an admirable colour, he gave them to fome
fine-Woolled ewes, and the male progeny being again given
to Tarentine ewes, the offspring, with their defcendants,
united the paternal colour with the peculiar foftnefs of the
maternal fleece. Columella's uncle rehded in Bcetica,
whicli comprehended the modern Eftramadura ; and as
Columella flourifhed under the emperor Claudius, the
Tarentine breed mull have been introduced into that pro-
vince at the commencement of the Chriftiaii era. Whatever
was the peculiar colour which the elder Columella intro-
duced by means of African rams into his Tarentine flock,
we may conclude that the fame fuccefsful expedient was
employed by other agriculturalifts of Bostica, to convert
thefe coarfe into iiin'-wooUed breeds, and to commu-
nicate the purell white to the black or parti-coloured
native flocks, which, according to Pliny, were common in
Spain. The original intermixture of diftinft breeds of
native Spaniih fliecp with the Tarentine in different parts
of Spain, may be inferred from other circumftances ; each
cavana, or flock, forms a dillincl breed ; and the Nigrette
no more rcfembles the Paulac, than the Merino South Down
refembles the Merino Cheviot. The genuine unmixed
defcendants of the Tarentine breed would iiave preferved
ene uniform charafter ; but the native flocks crofled with
Tarentine rams would retain their dittinftive varieties, and
tranfmit them to each cavana.

That the Merino is a mixed race, feems to be further
indicated by the more tender conllitutions of the fine-
woolled flocks of antiquity. Of thefe, the Tarentine were
molt celebrated in Italy, and the Milefian in Afia Minor.
They were termed pelliti and tefta: oves, from the cover-
ings of ikin with which tliey were clothed to defend
the fleece. They were denominated alfo molles oves, not
only from the foftnefs of the fleece, but from the delicacy
of the conltitution. They were always fed in the houfe ;
and though fatisficd with brambles, or the coarfeft food,
they are defcribed as a molt voracious breed : a diminution
of their allowance from the fraud of fervants, or the parfi-
mony of the owner, was attended with certain deltriiftion
to the flock. (Plin. lib. viii. cap. 47) As there was no
fale for the lambs, nor any profit from the milk of a
Tarentine flock, half the lambs were dellroyed at the birth.
The ram-lambs were chiefly reared, and were killed at two
years, when their pelts fold to the merchant at an advanced
price, on account of the beauty of the pile. Tiiis breed
demanded conltant care, when in the fields, to preferve their
coverings from being torn, and tiie fleeces deltroyed. At
home tliey required even greater care than abroad, as they
were not daily conducted to their pallures. They were
frequently uncovered and cooled for refrefhment. The
ftaples of the fleece were opentd and difparted, and were
frequently moillcned with wine and oil. The whole flock
was waflied three times a-year, when the weather was warm.
The (tables were frequently fwcpt, cleaned, and fumigated :
for thefe diflerent offices two flicpherds were conllantly re-
quired for every hundred Iheep.

The exceflive care bellowed on tiiele flocks by the nations
of antiquity, Ihews in what ellimation their fleeces were
held ; and though fuch attention is remote from modern
practice, we are fully convinced that, by felefting the very
nneft and foftcd Merino flocks, and covering the wool, and
frequently anointing and walhing, it would give to the

pile that degree of foftneft which is fo much wanted in the
manufafture of fhawls, and other cofl.ly articles of luxury,
but which we feek for in vain in the finefl: fleeces of modern
Europe. However expenfive fuch attention might prove,
we have no doubt that, on a limited fcale, it would well
repay tiie labour of the judicious experimentalift, as the
wool would be worth more than ^os. per pound, could it be
made to equal that of India in foftnefs. It would appear
that the Tarentine breed were felefted with much care for
breeding, and every expedient adopted, which was proved by
experience to attenuate and foften the pile. The tranfition of
thefe delicate animals into the Merinos of Spain, which are
a hardy race, can only be explained by fuppofing that other
agriculturahlls had imitated Columella, and obtained a fine-
woolled race, by crofling their native breeds with the more
delicate animals fi\ m Italy. The beginning of this im-
provement is indeed defcribed by Strabo in the reign of
Tiberius: he informs us that the inhabitants of Truditania
had formerly imported many garments, but that their wool
in his time furpafled that of the Coraxi, and excelled it in
beauty fo much, that a talent, equal to two hundred
guineas, was the Hated price of a ram to breed from ; and
that they excelled alfo in the fabrics which the Sal-
tiatas manufaiitured. Truditania, according to Strabo, com-
prehended the province of BcEtica, from the Guadi^na to
the confines of Lufitania, and fouthward to Gibraltar,
and eaftward to Toledo. The wool of the Coraxi, with
which Strabo compares that of this part of Spain, we are
informed, in his account of Pontus, was from the foft-
wooUed Milefian flieep. Such high prices as a talent inuft
have been produced by a very general demand for rams,
not for the ufe of the Tarentine flocks, which could occafion
no fuch competition, but for the purpole of crofling the
indigenous breeds of the province, which, from the earlieft
period, appears to have abounded in flieep.

The travelling flocks were not at that time introduced, as
the mountainous regions had been till then infelled by native
as well as Lufitanian robbers, whom the Romans diflodged
from their villages, and diiperfcd into cantons. ( Diodorus
Siculus, lib. v. cap. 32.) The Moorifli looms of Anda-
lufia and Catalonia, and thofc of the Chrillians at Segovia,
in tiie 13th century, mult have been fupphed by the fine-
woolled flocks introduced by the Romans. The vacant
mountains, when cleared of banditti, offered a vail rang*
of palture from Eltramadura northward, towards Galicia
and the Afturias. A llmilar opportunity occurred to cfta-
blilh or renew the intlitiition of travelling flocks when the
Chrillians defcended, in the middle of the 13th century, to
occupy the conquered provinces of Andalufia and Murcia.
After that time tiie travelling flocks became fo well clla-
bliflied, that the mentargo, or tolls, on their palfage
through the mountains, trom province to province, the
fervicio, or tax to the crown, and the laws of tlie mella,
were impofed or ratified by government, in the middle of
the 15th century, before the Moorifh kingdom of Grenada
had been finally reduced.

We are thus enabled from hillory to trace the introduftion
and ellablifhment of the Merino race of flieep in Spain, from
which, or from their delcendants, nearly ail tlie mawufac-
torics of fine clolli in Europe are at prelent iupplied with
wool. Sec Wool.

The native breeds of Boctica were originally and gra-
dually converted into fine-woolled animals, by repeated
croflcs with the Tarentine flocks, and thus an imninife num-
ber of hardy flieep, producing a moil valuable pile, were
fprcad over the country, and lurvivcd the fuceeflivc con-
quells of the Goths and Vandals, and the protracted war-
fare

SHEEP.

fare of many ctntuiies. The pure Tarentine breed in Greece
ind Italy being more delicate, is faid to have become extinft
with the deltruftion of the Roman empire ; but the mixture
of this race with the original flocks of Italy may ftill be
diftinftly traced, particularly in the middle and fouthern
parts. The Italian wool was finer than that of any other
country in Europe, except Spain, prior to the improve-
ments which have recently taken place by the introduftion
of the Merinos; It is not improbable that the fine-woolled
flocks of England, though greatly inferior to the Merinos
in the quality of the wool, were alfo originally defcended
from erodes with the Tarentine breed introduced by the
Romans, when they eltablifhed a manufadiure of woollen
cloth at Wincheftcr.

The deltrudion or deterioration of the improved flocks in
the ages of barbarifm which fucceeded the fall of the Roman
empire, was the natural confequence of the decay of the ma-
nufaAures, and of a total inattention to prevent the inter-
mixture with coarfer breeds. In Spain alone, the improved
race had taken fuch complete pofFeilion of the mountainous
dillritts, that it remained unmixed and unimpaired till the
revival of commerce and the arts, when that country fup-
plied the neighbouring nations with fine wool, and was fup-
pofed to portefs fome peculiar advantages of foil and climate,
which it would be vain to feek for elfewhere. The opinion
that the fuperior finenefs of the Spanifh fleeces was derived
entirely from fome peculiarity of the foil and climate, had
obtained fo generally, and was fo firmly believed, even
twenty-five years fince, in this country, that he who aflerted
the contrary, was regarded by agriculturalilts and clothiers as
a fpeculative theorift, only deferving their pity.

It is not a httle remarkable, that this prejudice continued
undiminifhed nearly a century after the Merino flieep had
been introduced into Sweden and Saxony, and had conti-
nued to produce wool in thofe countries, equally fine with
that of their parent flocks in the Spanifli peninfula.

It might have been previoufly fuppofed that the climate
of Sweden, being much colder than that of Great Britain,
and more remote from the annual mean temperature of
Spain, would render that country peculiarly unfriendly to
the Merino race and to the produftion of fine wool. This
prejudice refpefting the influence of cHmate would have been
removed by confidering that almoft all the fineft furs are the
produftion of cold chmates, and that the growth of fine
wool and fur is a provifion of nature, to defend animals
againft the fevere cold of the diltrias nearer the poles.
Mr. Alftroemer, who had previoufly endeavoured to ame-
liorate the breed of flieep in Sweden, by importations from
England and Germany, obtained a flock of Merinos, which
he introduced into that country in the year 1723. In the
year 1739, the Swedifh government, for the promotion of
this race, inftituted a fchool of fliepherds, under the direc-
tion of Mr. Alitroemer, and public funds were appointed
for granting premiums to thofe who fold rams of the Spanifli
breed; and from the fame period, to 1780, a premium of
twenty-five per cent, was alfo granted on the fale of fine
wools of a good quality. Thefe premiums were afterwards
reduced, and finally difcontinued in 1792, being no longer
neccfl'ary. From exaft accounts, it appears that the fine
wool fold from 1751 to the year 1790, amounted to
3,402,961 francs.

The quantity of fine wool aftually produced was much
greater than what had been fold to receive the premium, a
confiderable part having been confumcd in domeltic manu-
faftures by the growers and others ; and the diflance of
the public magazines, where the wools were fent to receive
the premium, prevented the public returns from including

the real quantity of fine wool grown. In the year 1 764,
there were in Sweden 65,369 flieep of the pure Merino race
and 23,384 of a mixed breed, producing fine wool. Th^
Swedifli Merinos preferve their primitive form ; their fleecej
are very clofe, and the wool has not deteriorated in finenefs
length, or elailicity ; and the flieep produce as great a weight
of fleece as in Spain, wherever they are fupplied with a fuf-
ficient quantity of food. This race, now naturalized in
Sweden, are larger and ftronger than the Spanifli flieep.
M. Layfteire examined the flock of M. Schulzenheim, at
Gronfoe, in the province of Upland, which had been intro-
duced from Spain 55 years. On comparing the wool with
that of other Spanifli flieep recently imported, he did not
find it inferior either in beauty or finenefs. M. Schulzen-
heim preferved the defcendants of flieep which he imported
from Spain to the fifth generation, and the comparifon of
their fleeces proved that they had not in the leaft degenerated.
Thefe fafts prove decidedly that the Spanifli flieep do not
lofe the good qualities of their wool by a removal to cold
countries. At the fame time it muil be obferred, that
thofe flieep degenerated which had been neglefted, or treated
in the fame wretched manner as the native flocks, by con-
fining them in damp, infefted, and dirty ftables during a
part of the year, and omitting the requifite quantity of
food ; or pafturing them in fummer in forefts and marfties,
or in low moift fituations, where they could neither find the
proper kind nor due quantity of herbage.

The mtrodutiion of the Merinos into Saxony took place
in 1765, and again in the year 1778. The firft flock con-
fiited of one hundred rams and two hundred ewes, chofen
for the eleftor of Saxony from the bed flocks in Spain ; they
were placed under the care of a Spanifli majorinus, or mayor,
at Stolpen, fix leagues from Drefden, on the frontiers of
Bohemia.

After ten years' experience, it was found that they had
preferved all the original good qualities of the fleece, and
the wool from the mixed breed had alfo acquired a degree of
finenefs which did not yield to that from Spain. As foon as
it was afcertained, by experience, that it was eafy to natural-
ize the Spanifli flieep in Saxony, and that the crofles from
this race with the native flocks were fo greatly ameliorated,
the attention of the agriculturalills was directed to the gene-
ral improvement of the flocks, and fuch has been the fuccefs,
that their produce is at prefent one of the greateft fources
of profit to the cultivator. During the laft fifteen yearn, a
very confiderable quantity of fine wool has been imported
from Saxony into England, and the price of the bell fort is
greater than that of the fined Spanifli vrool, a fufficient
proof of the eft:imation in which it is held by the manufac-
turers. It is better fuited for the fineft kerfeymeres, and the
more delicate articles of the woollen trade, as it can be fpun
to a greater length than any other kind of carded wool
grown in Europe ; it is alfo fuperior in finenefs, but owing
to the fcarcity of winter food, it is generally lefs found than
the belt Spanifli, and not fo well fuited for flout cloths.
See Wool.

The Merino race has fince been introduced into Denmark,
the Prufllan flates, Auflria, France, Holland, Italy, the
Cape of Good Hope, and the United States of America.
Of its introduftion into England, we fliall afterwards
fpeak.

As Saxony is the only country which has yet cultivated
the Merinos fo extenfivcly, as to come in competition with
Spain in the exportation of fine wool, it may be proper to
ilate the modes of treatment adopted in that country. It
is generally believed in Saxony, and in other psrts of Germany
and Holland, that the praftice of breeding from the fame

race

SHEEP.

rsce, or what tlie Englilli graziers teclinically denominate
" breeding in and in," occifions a deterioration of the flock;
owin^ to this prejudice, the Swedifh farmers frequently
change the rams of the Spanifh race for others of the fame
race from neighbouring flocks, and fome proprietors bind
their farmers to renew a certain quantity of rams every
year. But this praftice is ufelefs, where the rams upon an
eftate are already of a good quality ; if the contrary v%'ere
the cafe, there could not exitl a perfeft Merino fheep in
Spain, as thefe iheep have continued to breed from the fame
(tock, without any attention to confanguinity, for many
centuries. The good quality of a race of (heep may be
preferved, either by felefting the moft perfedl from the fame
flock to breed from, or by conitantly taking out thofe which
are moft defeftive.

The common food of (heep in Saxony, during winter, is
hay, which is diftributed three times a day, in a greater or
lefs quantity, according to the ftock of the farmer : thofe
who have not fufBcient hay, fubftitute peafe-ftraw, vetches,
and lentils. They take care to mow the crops before ma-
turity, that they maybe more nutritive, and to prevent the
fall of the leaves before mowing. Some farmers fupply
the deficiency of hay with powdered oil-cakes, crufhed
feeds, and meal ; they put the cake or meal into troughs
with water, which they give the fheep to drink, and after-
wards they give them the folid refidue, which finks to the
bottom of the trough. This treatment ferves to keep them
in a healthy ftate, at a feafon when they cannot have frefli
food. Eight pounds of cake or meal difFufed in water are
given to every hundred fheep. When the fnow remains long
on the ground, they fometimes give them Itraw which has
not been thrafhed, and even corn ; but as this is expenfive,
they generally fubftitute roots of different kinds, fucli as
beets, turnips, and carrots, but particularly potatoes.

The Saxon farmers coUcft with great care the horfe-chcf-
nuts in autumn, which they give their (heep as a remedy
againft the rot. The nuts are cut fmall, to prevent them
getting into the throat, and choaking the animal.

They fetid out their (heep in winter, when the weather
permits, and the fnow is not too deep, to the woods or dry
fituations (heltcred witii underwood. Proprietors who have
no winter pafturcs, leave their (heep in the (heep-houfes
from the beginning of November to April, but they take
care to turn them out each day in the fre(h air, for three or
four hours, and they keep open the doors, to caufe a con-
ilant ventilation. Some proprietors keep their (heep con-
fined the whole year ; and where the fheep-houfcs arc kept
clean, and the (heep are fupplied with proper food, this prac-
tice is not found to injure cither the wool or the animal.

During line weather in furamer, they are allowed to range
in the palluri.";. They leave the flieep-lioule aftc- the dews
are entirely dilTipatcd, and they repofe in the (hade during the/
heat of the day. Tliis pra6tice of providing (hade during
the hot weatlier cannot be too ftrongly recommended to the
cultivators of fine wool in England, both with refpedl to the
health of the animal and the improvement of the wool. Nor
is another prafticc lefs defeiving their attention, which is, to
fhelter them during heavy rains, hail-ftorms, and thick fogs.
In many (heep-houfes, water is condudled in troughs, from
which the (lieep may drink at pleafurc. Saxon farmers con-
fider (alt not only as neceflary to the health of (heep, but as
contributing to the finenefs of the fleece ; it is fprinkled in
their forage, and is didolved in their drink ; it is given prin-
cipally in fummer, when the weather is dry. They ceafe to
£lve it to the ewes five or fix weeks before lambing, bccaufe
they think tliat theexccfs of water which it occafions them

Vol. XXXII.

to drink, is injurious to them at that time, and that it alfo
prevents them from licking their lambs.

The rams and ewes are not put together before the age of
two or three years : they allow one ram to twenty-five ewes,
and leave them together day and night during the feafon.
The lambs are kept in the (heep-houfes, but fome proprie-
tors allow them to go out with the ewes after eight days.

Before (hearing, the flieep are waflicd in the Engli(h man-
ner, but with greater care. Firft they make them fwim
through a river or dam ; the following day they are again
driven through, and plunged in feparately, and the fleece
prelled with the hands, beginning from the head, and paff-
ing on to the extremities of the body ; they are again driven
through the water in the afternoon. The fleece is fulFered
to dry during two days, and (horn on the third. Saxony
wool, thus waflied, is much cleaner than the Englifli, which
generally undergoes but one wafhing. It lofes by a further
fcouring by the manufafturer, about i 2 per cent, more than
Spanifh wool already fcourcd. Enghlh wool lofes about
25 per cent, in the hands of the manutaAurer.

The general treatment of the Saxon Merino (heep we
confider as judicious, but we have frequently noticed
that the wool had been fomewhat injured by want of
fuflicient nourilhmcnt in winter, which renders it tender.
The hay being given in racks, feeds and ftraws fall into the
fleece when the animal is eating, which the Englifh manu-
fafturer finds great difficulty in eradicating ; this might be
prevented, in a confiderable degree, by lowering the racks,
fo that the food might be level with the head, or fomewhat
below.

As France is perhaps the moft formidable rival which our
manufafturers of fine cloths will meet in foreign markets,
the progrcfs made in the amelioration of her native flocks be-
comes an objeft of iatereft to the Engliih agriculturalift and
clothier. The celebrated minifter Colbert firft formed the
defign of improving the breeds of French (heep, by im-
portations from England and Spain. But his intentions
were at that time oppofeii. It was not till the year 1776
that the Spanifh breed was introduced into France by M.
M. Trudainc, intendant of finances, under the dirciSion of
the cckbratcd naturalill d'Aubcnton. The experiment*
which he made on thefe flieep, and numerous crofles from
them, with fcven diftinft breeds, which he had on his eftate
in Auxors, demondrated to the government that it was eafy
to introduce and preferve a race of fheep in France, pro-
ducing fupcrfine wool ; and in the year 1786, a feleflion of
376 rams and ewes, from the fined flocks in Spain, wa»
conduttcd, under the care of a mayor, to the farm of Ram-
bouillet. They confifted of indivi<luals of extraordinary
beauty, fuperior to any prcvioufly introduced into France,
but having been cholen from a number of diftnnt flocks,
they prefentcd great varieties of fliape and fi/.c, which hav«
fince diiappcarcd by intermixture ; and a now race has been
formed, didering from any of the primitive flock, but which
equals the bed of ihcm in form and conftitution, and in the
finenefs, length, foftnefs, elafticity, and quantity of wool.

It is to be obferved, that the wool-dealers and manufac-
turers in France were at firft difpofcd to depreciate the value
of the wool ; but numerous accurate experiments having
proved that the cloths manufadlured from it were in evcrr
refpetl equal to thofe made from the bell Spanifli wool, thele
prejudices difappeared, and the republican government, aa
well as that of the emperor Napoleon, interefted themfelve*
in the further introduftion of Spanilh (heep into Fr.ince.
In the year 1802 it was calculated that there were one mil-
lion Ihecp in France, cither of pure Merinos, or of an amc-
3 M liorate4

SHEEP.

liorated mixed breed. SiRce that time many large flocks
have been imported from Spain, the temporary command
which the French obtained of that country having afforded
them facilities for their introduction. In the courfe of a
very few years France will, in all probability, produce a
fufficient fupply of fuperfine wool for her extenfive woollen
manufaftories.

The experiments which have been made by the introduc-
tion of the Merino fheep into the United States of America,
the Cape of Good Hope, and New Holland, prove that
fine wool may be grown wherever there are intelhgent culti-
Tators, and that it is not the gift of a pecuhar foil or climate.
We are, however, fully convinced, that very elevated tempe-
ratures will require greater care to prevent deterioration.
The fpecimens of wool which we have feen from New Hol-
land, appear to have been affefted by an arid fandy foil,
and by the great heat of the fun, which has in fome de-
gree injured the foftnefs of the fleece. Between the
tropics, elevated motintains and (hade would be efi'entially
requifite to preferve a race of fine-woolled ftieep from de-
generating.

The advantages which the Merino fheep poffefs as wool-
bearing animals, over the native breeds of Englifh fine-
woolled fheep, confift in three important peculiarities ;
ift, the wool is much finer ; zdlv, it is more regularly fine
over the body ; and 3dly, it is grown in a larger quantity
from the fame furface of fl'Cin. That the Merino wool is
finer than the beft Enghfh, is proved from this circumftance ;
the beft forted Spanifh wool, or the R wool, as it is called,
from the fineft flocks, fells at nearly double the price of the
beft Englifh forted wool, or what the wool-llaplers call the
prime and picked lock. Thofe Englifh fleeces which yield
a portion of the bell fort, generally contain a larger portion
of inferior forts : fometimes eight forts will be found in one
fleece,andthe fineft will not conltitute one-eighth of the whole.
On the contrary, the fleeces of the Merino fheep are fo regu-
larly fine over the whole body, as generally to yield from two-
thirds to three-fourths of the fuperfine or R wool. The fe-
cond fort, called the F wool, is alfo fine ; and with the
T wool, or third fort, bears a higher price than the belt Eng-
lifh wool. The quantity of wool on a Merino flieep is confi-
derably greater than on an Englifh fheep of the fame fize :
this is not owing to the greater length of the wool, but to
the animal being more fully clothed over the body and legs ;
and the wool is alfo grown clofer than on Eiiglirti flieep ;
that is, there are more filaments on the fame furface. A mo-
derate fized well-clothed Merino ftieep will yield a fleece which,
when brought to the fame ftate of purity as the Englifti
wool, will weigh 3lbs. A Ryeland, Norfolk, or South Down
{heep of the lame fize, will produce a fleece only weighing
about zlbs. The value will be nearly as five to two in fa-
vour of the Merino fleece. In this ftate, however, the Me-
rino fleece is not clean, as the wools imported from Spain,
which are fcoured after they arc fliorn, and before they are
forted, by which means it is much cleaner than it can be made
by wafliing on the back of the animal. The Merino rams
are horned, which is not generally the cafe with the ewes.
The average weight of a fat ram per quarter, is about
lylbs. of a ewe, about 1 1 lbs. /><■»• quarter.

The fliape of thefe animals by no means correfponds with
the fymmetry of form which an Englifli grazier confiders as
the criterion of excellefiic?&. The legs are rather long, the
neck curved, and from the throat there hangs a pendulous
flcin, or dewlap, which is very ofl"enfive to thofe who are only
accuftomed to view the improved breeds of Englifli ftieep.
This appendage is valued in Spain, as indicating a tendency

5

to produce wool. The colour of the flcin beneath the woolj
on the back and fides, is of a rofe red colour : this is alfo confi-
dered by the Spaniards as a fign of a robuft conftitution, and
an abundant fleece. The only Englifh fheep which have
the fame coloured fkin with the pendulous dewlap, arc the j
Ryeland, which produce alfo the fineft Englifh wool. Thefe '
circumftances, with the ancient praftice of houfing the
fheep, continued in Herefordfhire, where it is called cott'mgy
confirm the opinion before advanced, that the Ryeland flieep [
were defcended from the Tarentine race introduced by the
Romans into this country.

It is not to be wondered at, that the Merino fheep, which are
cultivated in Spain almofl exclufively for their wool, and
not for their flefh, fhould prefent that deformity of fhape
which at firft was particularly offenfive to the eye of the
Enghfh farmer, accuftomed to the new Leicefter and South L
Down fheep. There cannot, however, be a doubt that the I
Merino breed is as fufceptible of improvement as the Englifh.
Indeed there is a very great diverfity of form in the flocks
in diflferent parts of Spain ; and were the fame attention paid
to felefting the moft perfeft to breed from, as has been given
in England to the South Down flieep, there is every reafoa i|
to believe that a new race would be formed, pofTeffing all f'
the good quahties which both the grazier and the manufac-
turer might require. The South Down fheep, which have
been greatly improved, and rendered almoft perfeft in form,
have preferved all the good qualities of the fleece. This
alone is fufficient to prove, that there is no neceffary con-
nexion between deformity of fliape, and the finenefs of the
wool.

The Spanifh breed of fheep were firft introduced into
Great Britain in the year 1787. Some individuals of the
black and fpotted fheep had indeed been procured, and
kept in the parks of noblemen previoufly, but without any
regard to the wool ; nor was much intereft excited by the
flock introduced in 1787. The fheep, however, lived,
though treated in the Englifli manner, and the wool had not
deteriorated. Thefe fa£ls having proved that the Merino race
might be naturalized in England, his majeity George III.
obtained from the marquis of Campo Alanjo five rams and
thirty-five ewes of the Nigrette race. They were imported
in the year 1792, and were for fome time at Oatlands, the
feat of his royal highnefs the duke of York. On their ar-
rival they were extremely low in flefh, but they foon began
to improve ; and the difeafes with which they had been af-
fefted, were removed by a plentiful fupply of food. They
left Oatlands greatly advanced in bulk, and with renovated
conftitutions ; and the quantity and quality of the wool were
greatly admired.

The prejudices of the manufafturers were not fo fpeedily
to be furmounted, as the difficulties attending the naturahz-
ation of the Merino fheep. Though the wool was admitted
to be equally fine with the beft imported wool from Spain,
they would not offer a proportionate price, fearing that it
might not prove equally good, when raanufaftured. It
ought, however, to be ftated, that the condition in which
the Englifli Merino wool was offered for fale, either very
imperfeftly wafhed, or entirely in the greafe, prevented the
manufafturer from forming a juft comparifon with the wools
from Spain, which came to this country clean fcoured,
and regularly forted ; nor could they appreciate the lofs it
would fuitain in fcouring, which is not lefs than from 60
to 70 per cent. We are well perfuaded that this uncer-
tainty refpefting the lofs in Icouring has, more than any
other circumftance, retarded the fale of the Enghfli Merino
wool, from the year 1 792 to the prefent time. Nor will

our

SHEEP.

•ur manufaAurers ever greatly encourage the growth of this
wool, until it be brought to market, either forted and
fcoured like the wools from Spain, or in the fame Itate of
purity in the fleece a9 the fine Englilh or Saxon wool.
Many manufafturers, who have purchafed it, have been
greatly difippointed, not in the quality, which was excel-
lent, but in the fraall quantity which remained after fcour-
ing. In confequence of the manufadturers declining to
purchafe his majefty's wool, it became neceflary to have it
manufaftured on his majefty's account, to demonftrate its
fitnefs for fuperfine cloths. This was done till the year
1796, when it was refolved to fell the wool at the price
which was offered, that the manufacturers might have a fair
trial. The clip was fold that year for 2s. per pound, and the
following year for 23. 2d. In the years 1797 and 1798
the wool was forted in the Spanifh manner, and fcoured,
after having been previoufly wafhed on the ftieep's back.
The following is an account of the produce.

lbs.

Eighty-nine ewe and wether fleeces walhed on 1

the back I ^9J

Lofs by fubfequent fcouring - - . . ^2

Pure wool

203

Which yielded, Rafinos, or R wool, 167 lbs. at ^s.
Finos, or F wool, 23 lbs. at 3J. 6d.
Terceros, or T wool, 13 lbs. at 2s. 6J.

In 1798 one hundred and one ewe and wether]

fleeces, waftied in the fame manner, yielded - j

Lofs by fubfequent fcouring ....

Pure wool .......

Of which there was Rafinos, 207 lbs. at 5/. 6d.
Finos, 28 lbs. at 3^. 6d.
Terceros, 19 lbs. at 2s.

The rams' fleeces of both clips - - -

Lofs by fubfequent fcouring ....

Pure wool .......

lbs.

346
92

254

lbs.

99
215

Of wliich there was Rafinos, iSi lbs. at 4^. 6(/.

Finos, 22 lbs. at 3j-. Ciil.

Terceros, 1 2 lbs. at Zj.
The prices have, fince that time, progreflively incrcafed
with the price of Spani(h wool, and have been nearly equal
to that of the bcft piles from Spain. In the year 1 801,
the right lionourable lord Somerville took a voyage to the
peninfula, for the purpofe of feledling luch flieep as united
in the greateft degree the excellence of the fleece with a
good carcafe. His efforts were in a conliderable degree
fuccefsful, and, as far as related to the fleece, completely fo.
Since that time, particular political events have incrcafed the
facility of procuring Mi-rino fliecp from the various Spanifh
flocks ; and the ilock of thefe (heep in England at profcnt
is fufficieiitly grt-at to change, m a few years, the wiiole
race of (ine-woolled flieep in Great Britain, were fuch a
change defirablc. Many of the native flocks of finc-woollcd
(heep in England have been confiderably diminiflicd in the
laft forty years, owing to the numerous ench)fure8 of forefls
and commons, that were formerly only fuited to palturc a
race of fmall light flieep ; but which, in conlcquence of im-
provement, are now capable of maintaining a heavier race of
animals ; the former requiring a light dry foil, and an ex-

tenfive range ; and the latter, a rich aad more confiaej
pafture. The Ryeland (heep in Hereford/hire afford the
finell wool in England, of any of our native breeds ; but
the pure race is nearly extinft. The fleece weighs lefs than
two pounds ; but if generally cleared from the (hank-lockl
and ikirts before it is wound, in this ftate it bears the
higheft price of any Enghfh fleeces. It i: not a little re-
markable, that the pradice of cotting or houfing the flieep
is peculiar to Herefordfliire ; and it is not improbable but it
may have been originally introduced by the Romans, with
the race of flieep from which the Ryelands originally fprung.
A mixture of the Ryeland (heep is fpread over fome of
the counties adjoining to Herefordlhire, but the number is
not very confiderable. The light fandy foil of Norfolk i»
paftured by another breed of fine-woolled (heep, wliich
lupply a confiderable quantity of fine Englifli wool for the
York(hire market ; and it polfeiles, in an eminent degree,
the property of foftnefs, when manufaAured, which i*
wanting in many of our Englifli wools. The original Nor-
folk breed have black faces and fpiral horns, frnall, long,
thin carcafes, with long black or grey legs. The fleece
weighs from one pound and a half to two pounds. The
form of the animal is not fuch as to recommend it to the
grazier, but it has been greatly improved by an intermix-
ture with the South Down breed. Mr. Coke of Hoik-
ham, the celebrated agriculturalift of Norfolk, has difpofed
of his native flocks of that county, from a conviAion,
founded on long experience, that they arc an unprofitable
breed. The principal recommendation of this breed wa«
the excellence of their wool ; and they might be well fuited
to the former uncultivated ftate of the fandy tracks in that
diftria.

Of all the native fine-woolled breeds of England, the
South Downs appear to poflefs, in the moft eminent de-
gree, the combined advantage of excellence of form, with
a fuperior quality of the fleece. The average weight of
the two-year old wethers is 18 pounds per quarter; the
mutton is fine-grained, and of an excellent flavour. The
weight of the fleece of the fineft kinds is about two pounds
on the average. Some of the coarfe fleeces exceed three
pounds. The South Down breed takes its name from the
diftridl on which thele flieep were originally cultivated. It
is a long range of ratiier elevated chalk hills, extending
from the fonth-wellern fide of the counties of Kent and
Surrey, through Suflex, into Haiiipfliirc, confifting of
open downs, well fuited tor (heep-walk.-..

The animal has no iiorns ; its face .ind legs are gre^';
the bones fine, and the form compad. It has indeed been
greatly improved of late years, by the particular care of in-
telligent growers. The Lambs are generally dropped from
the middle of March to the end of April. If the ewes have
been well kept, one-third will be twins. The wethers are
fit for the butcher in two years ; many graziers fatten them
at 18 months. From the South Downs thefe flieep have
been fent to diflerent parts of the kingdom ; and in all dry
and rather clcvrited fituations they will prcfcrve the excel-
lent qualities of their wool. Indeed, in all fituations where
the foil is covered by a good dole herbage, and the fubfoil
is not calcareous, the wool will be of a luperior quality to
what the fame animal would produce on the chalky downs
of Suflex. Of this we have had decifive proofs. The
South Downs, though in many reljoedts well (uiled to
(heep, yet in thofe parts where the chalk is ixpofed, or
near the furface, the calcareous particles get intcrnuxed
with the yolk or natural greafe of the fleece, and produce a
degree of harflinefs in the wool, which is very perceptible,
wiien it is manufaftured into cloth : it alfo injures the fclt-
3 M 2 in^.

SHEEP.

ing quality of the wool. This is fo well known to the
York(hire manufafturers, that they always avoid the wools
grown on chalk foils, when they want a foft thick pile to
the cloth. The fine wool from the South Down fleeces ie
chiefly ufed for light goods, fuch as kerfeymeres and pelifle
cloths, which require very little milling or fehing. When
the South Down (heep are removed from chalk Isnds, the
wool may be grown remarkably foft, and poflefliis all the
good qualities of the bell native Englifh wool.

The aftion of the foil on the fleece was long known to
itianufafturers, viz. that wools grown on argillaceous foils
were fofter, and proved better in the procefs of manufac-
ture, than thofe on calcareous foils. The caufe of this was
involved in much obfcurity, and generally fuppofed to be
owing to the quality of the lierbage on different foils. Mr.
Bakewell, of Wakefield, in Yorkfliire, in a little traft " On
the Influence of Soil and Climate on Wool," proved that
the influence of the foil on the fleece arofe from the aflion
of the minute particles on the furface of the fibre or fl;aple.
" Not only can this aAion affed the quality, but impart
indelibly the colour of the foil to the wool. In part of
Gloucellerfliire the fleece acquires a deep orange colour
from the foil. In Hertfordfliire, and part of Warwickfliire,
and in every country having a red foil, the wool is inclined
to browniih-red. Wools on chalky foils are diftinguiflied
by their vvhitenefs ; and in every diitritl in England the
aftion of the foil is evinced, by communicating its own
colour to the fleece. The colour thus acquired is as inde-
libly fixed in the wool as the colouring matter of an arti-
ficial dye, nor can its whitenefs be perfeftly rellored by any
artificial procefs hitherto known.

" That tlie fame caufe can change the hardnefs or foftnefs
of wool, is proved from the different effetts which argil-
laceous, fiUceou?, and calcareous foils are invariably found
to have on thefe qualities. This is perhaps no where more
clearly (hewn than in the northern part of Derbyfliire,
where the fl^rata are fo abruptly broken, that two adjoining
farms, feparated by a fmall brook, will not unfrequently be
found, the one upon lime-itone, the other on a filiceous
grit or fand-ftone. The difference of the wool on thefe
two farms, from the fame breed of fliecp, was fo dillinSly
marked, that the grower always obtained a higher price
when grown upon the latter foil. ' My wool is grit-ftone,
and I expeft a better price than my neighbour,' was the
language in common ufe, and the meaning was well under-
ftood by the buyer. In the procefs of feparating wool
from the fliin by the fell-monger, the pelts are ileeped
fome days in lime and water. The fofteft: wools, when thus
expofed to the aAion of lime, lofe their difl;inguilhing excel-
lence, and acquire all the hardnefs of wools grown on lime-
• ftone foils."

To remedy this injurious effeft of calcareous foils, Mr.
Bakewell recommends the praftice of the farmers in North-
■umberland, and in North Britain, of anointing the fldn of
the animal with butter, in which a fmall quantity of tar is
melted to give it confidence. In Northumberland thig is
praftifed with the fine-wooUed (heep on the Cheviots ; and
the wool from thefe (heep bears a higher price in York(hire,
. in proportion to its relative finenefs, than any other Engli(h
wool, on account of the fuperior foftnefs of the cloth made
from it. The ointment is alio found to defend the animal
againlt flies and (heep-ticks, and to be a prefervative againft
the feverity of the weather. The only inconvenience is, that
the whitenefs of the wool is in fome degree affefled by it ; and
it is not fuited for white Itoved cloth, or for any delicate co-
lours. Could any good and cheap fubftitute fortar bedevifed,
there cannot be a doubt that the praAice would be of great

benefit to the South Down fleeces on their native chalkj"
foils. It is, in faft, fimilar to what the Romans adopted
with the Tarentine breed, which were frequently waftied,
and the fliins anointed with the dregs of olive-oil, mixed
with other ingredients. A fimilar treatment of all Englilh
(heep, after being (horn, would be found a mod effeftive
remedy againft flies and infcfts when the (kin is expofed ;
it is alfo proved by experience to be a prefervative againlt
the fcab.

The South Down breed, fo far as relates to the fleece,
will admit of confiderable improvement in the following par-
ticulars. Firft ; it might attain a degree of finenefs more nearly
approaching that of the Merino fleece : fecondly, the fleece
might be grown more uniformly fine over the body : and
thirdly, almoll all the South Down fleeces have a few
grey or black hairs intermixed, which is a great defeft
where the goods made from it are intended to be ftoved
white. At prefent, the fineft part of the South Down
fleeces, called by the wool-ltapler the prime, does not bear
half the price of the prime Spaniih, or R wool, from the
beft Merino flocks. In the South Down fleeces very rarely
more than one-fourth part is of the bell quality ; but in the
Merino breed fall two-thirds of each fleece will be of one
uniform quality, and that the prime or R wool. In the
South Down fleeces, thofe parts from the buttocks and
(hanks will alfo be as coarfe as the coarfell wool from
heavy (heep. Thefe defefts in the South Down fleeces are
common to almofl; all our native fine-wooUcd (heep, except
the Ryeland ; but we conceive they admit of a remedy
without any injury to the form of the animal, or the weight
of the fleece. If the opinion of an intelligent wool-ltapler
were firft taken on the qualities of the different fleeces of
thofe ewes from which it were propofed to raife a itock,
and felefting for them fome of the belt formed rams bred
from South Downs and Merinos, called Anglo-merinos ;
from this progeny the moll perfect forms might be again
chofen : and if thefe were ilill too itrongly marked with
the charafter of the Merino form, another crofs with per-
feft South Down ewes would produce a progeny from
which a race might be felcfted poffeffing whatever was de-
firable in the carcafe, with a confiderable amelioration of the
fleece, both in the finenefs of the wool and the regularity
of the quaUty, over the greater part of the (kin. The
weight of tlie fleece would alfo be increafed, for the wool is
grown clofer and thicker on the Merinos than on any of the
Englilh breeds ; and this property continues in the croffes
from that breed. The advantage of employing an intel-
ligent wood-ftapler to judge of the quality of the fleeces
will be admitted, when we confider that a fibre of the fineft
wool is perhaps little more than the two-thoufandth part
of an inch in diameter ; and that a variation from this,
which is too fmall to be vifible by the unpradtifed eye,
may occafion a difference in price not lefs than 40 per cent.
Indeed, it is truly attonilhing that the eye can detedt this
microfcopic difference unaided by inftruments. Nothing
but long and conftant praftice can fecure the facihty of
determining the finenefs of wool ; and the molt experienced
dealer in Englilh fine wool, were he to difcontinue entirely
the examination of wool for three months, would not be able,
at firft fight, to afcertain its quality and value to 15 or 20
per cent., fuppofing no change to have taken place in the
markets. Can it then be fuppofed that a grazier, who
has never acquired this fine fenfe of vifion, and to whom wool
is only an objeft of particular attention at one feafon of the
year, we fay, can it be poffible for fuch a perfon to be an
accui-ate judge of the quality of wool, and the comparative
finenefs of fibres ranging between the fifteen-hundredth and
9 the-

SHEEP.

x)ie two-thoufandth part of an inch ? Yet many of our
Englidi wool-growers will decide, with the utmoft confi-
dence, whether their wool be finer or coarfer than it was
io the former year ; or rather, they will decide that their
wool is always growing finer. To this great confidence of
the wool-growers, and to their real ignorance on this fubjeft,
more than to any other caufe, may be afcribcd the little
improvement in the culture of Englifh fine wools prior to
the introdudion of the Merino breed into Britain.

The South Down breed, in its improved (late, is likely
to fupplant moll of the Eiigjlifh fine-wooUed breeds, except
perhaps the Cheviots in Northumberland, which are become
habituated to the feverity of the climate, on the elevated
hills in the northern parts of that county bordering on
Scotland. This race we think much better fuited to fup-
plant the coarfe-wooUed (heep in the Highlands of Scot-
land, than another of our Enghfh breeds. The Cheviot
ftieep are defcribed by Mr. Culley, an intelligent farmer in
Northumberland, as hornlefs ; the faces and legs are, in
general, white : the ie/l kinds have a fine open countenance,
with lively prominent eyes ; the body long, fore-quarter
wanting depth in the bread, and breadth both there and
On the chine ; fine, clean, fmall-boned legs ; thin pelts ;
weight of carcafe, when fat, from lalbs. to iSlbs. per
quarter ; fleeces from albs, to 3lbs. The qualities of the
Cheviot fleeces are various ; fome of them contain a fmall
portion of fine wool, which, as we have before remarked,
is more foft than any of our native Englifh wools. The
price at lord Somerville's annual fliow in 1813, for the bell
cloth from Englilh wool, was given to Mr. J. F. Smith,
for a piece of cloth manufaftured from the pnme part of the
Cheviot fleeces.

In general, the quality of thefe fleeces might be much
improved by a judicious feleflion. The great defeft is,
that in the fined fleeces only, a fmall part is of the belt
quality. Some of the Cheviot flieep are fpeckled on the
face and legs ; but thefe are probably a mixed breed, from
crofling at different times with Heath flicep, to whom they
have long been neighbours ; for leaving the heights of An-
nandale to the eallward, we infenfibly lofe the Heath (heep
and mixed breeds ; after which all the extenfive fine green
hills on the Scotch and Englifh borders from the fides of
the Clieviots to the barren heaths of Lammer-muir are
covered with the Cheviot breed. Tlie bed kind of thefe
ftieep is certainly a valuable mountain-fliee]), where the paf-
ture is moilly green fward, or contains a large portion of
that kind of herbage, which is the cafe witli all the hills
around the Cheviots, where thefe (heep are bred ; and the
fine herbage which the border hills every vviiere produce,
fupports them fo well in fummer, as to enable them to
ftand the fevcritics of the winter.

The fliape of this breed of fheep has been greatly im-
proved of late years, but will Hill admit of much improve-
ment. " We cannot (fays Mr. Culley) expetl the perfec-
tion of this breed of (heep can be obtained at once, it mud
proceed by (low gradation, as every other improvement hath
(lone.

«' That breed of (heep which brings the mod profit to the
farmer will always be preferred, but this objeft is not to be
obtained in this didrift by fine wool alone. Perfeft moun-
tain (heep fliould be hardy, well-formed, and quick feeders.
Thefe qualities will always recommend them to the grazier;
but if to thefe qualities, fo cfl'ential to the falc of a moun-
tain farmer's (lock, can be added a fleece of fine wool, a bn-ed
of flicep might then be obtained, the propered for a hilly
didrift of any we have yet fecn. There is little doubt but
this may be accompliflied by proper feledtion, and probably

the bed kind of Cheviot (heep, from their hardinefs, and
producing a portion of fine wool, are the propcred dock
for laying the foundation of fo defirable a change." With
thefe fentiments of Mr. Culley we entirely agree, and par-
ticularly in the propriety of felefting from the bed Cheviots
to lay the foundation of a valuable dock of mountain (Keep,
which might fupplant the coarfe-woolled Heath (heep in
North Britain. Every fituatioii may be faid to have its
peculiar advantages for particular breeds of (heep ; and the
rage for improvement, and defire of change, have in fome
indances been carried too far. There can be no doubt, that
the rich paftures on the eadern fide of England are better
fuited for heavy long-wooUed (heep than for South Downs
or Merinos, whild it would be folly to attempt to dock the
mountainous parts of Britain with the Diihley or Lincoln-
(hire breeds. But many of the flocks in the uplands are
fufceptible of much improvement by feleftion, without any
admixture, and in very expofed fituations it might not be
defirable to attempt improvement by introducing a lefs
hardy race. In dry and moderately elevated fituations there
are none of the fined-wooUed native or Anglo-merino breeds,
that might not be cultivated with advantage ; but we are
well perfuaded, that with the prefent demand for, and price
of animal food, the breed which will fend into the market
the larged quantity of good meat in the (horted time, will
have the preference over any fuperior quality of the wool
alone. On which account the improvement of the South
Down breed, which combines both advantages, is perhaps
an objedl the bed deferving attention, in all fituations fuited
for fine-woolled (heep, that are not too much expofed to
the inclemency of the climate.

A particular race of (heep exiil in the Shetland ifland?,
which produce a fleece more like that from the (heep on the
mountains of Thibet, than awy of the European flieep with
which we are acquainted. From the report of Mr. Thomas
Johnfon, addrelTed to the Britilh Wool Society, it appears
that there are two varieties of Shetland flieep.

One of thefe varieties carry coarfe wool above and foft
fine below, and have three different fuccelTions of wool
yearly, two of which refemble long hairs more than wool,
and are termed by the common people forj and fcudda.
When the wool begins to loofen at the roots, which gene-
rally happens about tiie month of February, the hairs or
fcudda fpring up ; and when the wool is carefully pulled off,
the tough hairs continue fall until tiie new wool grows up
about a quarter of an inch in length, then tliey gradually
wear off; and when the new fleece has acquired about two
months' growth, the rough hairs termed /o/x fpring up, and
keep root until the proper fcafon for pulling it arrives,
when it is plucked off' along with the wool, and is feparatcd
from it at drelling the fleece, by an operation called yojyf/if.
'V\\c fcudda remains upon the flcin of the animal, as it it were
a thick coat or fence againd the inclemency of the feafons,
wiiich provident nature has furniflied for fupplying the want
of the fleece. See the preceding article Sili-EP.

The native or kindly breud, which bear the foft cottony
fleeces (as they are called), are ratiier of a delicate nature ;
their wool is fliort .ind open, and deilitute of a covering of
long hairs. Thefe foft-wooUed fleeces are very often loll
or rubbed off, during the winter or cirly in the fpring,
which it is fuppofcd might be prevented by clipping or
(hearing the flieep, in place of pulling off tlic wool, a bar-
barous prafticc, tending to weaken the flicep and hurt the
length of the llaple.

The Shetland flieep arc of various colours ; the filver-grcy
wool ill thought to be the fined and fofted, but the black,
tlie white, the mourat, or brown, is vary little inferior ; it

SHEEP.

is all of the fofteft texture, fit for the fiiieft mainifa(Sory,
and in fome inftances has been found to rival Spanifh wool
itfelf : but the pure white is generally the mod valuable for
all the finer purpofes for which combing wool can be ufed.
For foftnefs and for luftre, no wool equals it ; and the lliin,
with the fleece on, can be converted into a fur of very great
value, fome fpecimens of which have already been fent to
the China market.

They are in general very hardy. In the winter feafon,
when the ground is covered with fnow, they eat the fea-
weed very greedily, and often during long and fevere fnows
they have little elfe to live upon. Nature feems to have im-
parted to them a perfeft knowledge of the time at which
this food may be procured ; for immediately upon the tide
beginning to fall, the (heep m one body run direftly down
to the fea-rtiores, although feeding on the hills feveral miles
diftant from the fea, where they remain until the tide returns
and obliges them to feek their ufual haunts.

It is to be regretted, that we know fo little of this pe-
culiar race of (heep, or of the time when they were intro-
duced, and the country from whence they came. The
wool, though intermixed with coarfe hairs, pollcfles a moft
extraordinary degree of foftnefs, approaching, if not equal-
ling, that from the iheep of Thibet, and might, if proper
attention were paid to it, be apphed with advantage to the
manufafture of fliavvls and other articles now imported from
the Eaft. None of the European wools which we have
feen, poilefs this quality in any degree to be compared with
that from the Shetland ilieep. The circumftance of the tine
wool growing as down under a pile of coarfe wool or hair,
is not pecuhar to thefe flieep. We believe that unmixed
fine wool is rather a produft of cultivation than natural to
the animal in a wild Hate. In the argali, as well as in nume-
rous animals, the inhabitants of cold countries, the flcin is
covered with a (hort fine down, and this is protefted by a
covering of longer coarfe hair growing through the former.
By regular keeping and warmth, the coarie hairs fall oif in
many animals, and this has probably been the cafe originally
with all our fine-woolled fheep, many of which, if neglefted,
fhew indications of their original condition, growing coarfe
hair intermixed with the finer parts of the fleece. Even in
the coarfell wooUed flieep of cold countries, fuch as the
Heath fheep in the Highlands of Scotland, we have often
feen a fmall portion of fine wool growing under the coarfe
fleeces with which thefe animals are covered. It appears to
be a beneficent provifion of the Author of nature, to ac-
commodate animals to different climates. European fheep
removed between the tropics, languifh and become fickly
from excefBve heat, and lofe their fleeces in the courfe of
the eniuing year. They are afterwards covered with a thin
crop of coai-le fhort hair. We have feen a finely-fhapcd ram,
of the European breed, brought from Louifiana, which was
entirely covered with white hair, as coarfe and fhort as that on
a dog. We have no doubt, however, that in hot chmates,
where fheep have the advantage of a mountain pallure, that
with care and proper flit-lter thefe fleeces might be prcferved,
but they would certainly be a ufelefs incumbrance. Fine
fleeces leem to be more peculiarly the produce of cool or
temperate climates ; fur it is obierved, in mofl; of our Eng-
lifh flieep, that the part of the wool or flaple which is
grown during winter, is finer than that part which is grown
in fummer. Extreme heat and cold appear to have both an
effcft upon the fl^ms of flieep, to cover them with coarfe
hair ; but in cold climates there is alfo a tendency in the ani-
mal to produce a fine down underneath. It is not impro-
bable that the Shetland flieep may have been originally de-
fcended from the Tarentine breed, the " moUes oves," which

the Romans had introduced into Britain ; their infular
fituation protedling them, in a confiderable degree, from in-
termixture. For, according to Dr. Anderton, though the
coarfe-woolled Heath flieep are introduced into thefe iflea,
the native adive fheep frequenting the more defolate wilds
at the greateft diflance from man, withdraw themfelves from
the others, and thus the breed is only partially debafed by
accidental ftragglers. The whole fyflem of management, re-
fpefting thefe fheep, is direftly the reverfe of what it fhoulJ
be, and it is truly aftonifhiiig that they have preferved fo
long the peculiar foftnefs of the wool. Could thefe fheep
be introduced into more favourable fituation?, and proper
attention paid to them, we have no doubt that their wool
might be grown free from the coarfe hairs with which it it
at prefent intermixed ; it would then be of far greater value
than the fineft Merino fleeces, as it might be applied to the
fabrication of fhawls, approaching in foftnefs to thofe of
Cafhmere.

We have now to defcribe the long-woolled breed of
(heep, which may be confidered as almoit peculiar to Great
Britain and Ireland; for though flieep of this breed are
found in Flanders, and fome other parts of Europe, their
number is inconfiderable ; and they no where exifl with the
fame perfeftion of form, and producing the fame quantity
or quality of wool as in the united kingdoms. Their fleece
is the envy of the other manufacturing countries of Europe,
and can only be grown upon rich pafhires. Long combing
wool, and the varieties, will be defcribed under the article
Wool ; but it may be neceflfary here to (late that the
longer kind varies from fix to about nine or more inches in
the length of the flaple, or filaments. In the manufafture
of this wool by the comb, the fibres are laid parallel ;
whereas in fhort-clothing wool, they are broken in all di-
redlions by the cards.

Long wool is manufaftured into (balloons, camblets, mo-
reens, bombazeens, and various other articles ; and « large
quantity is alfo manufaftured into what is called horfe-
millenery, confilting of girths, fringes, and other articles of
ufe or ornament in equipages. The coarfer kind makes the
warps for carpets.

Short combing wool is manufaftured into hofiery.

The Lincolnfhire fheep may be confidered as the original
of our heavy fheep in England. Thele, with the new Lei-
cefter or Difhley breed, have nearly iupplanted the other
varieties of long-woolled fheep. The Lincolnfhire breed
has alfo been generally fomewhat changed of late, by an
intermixture with the Leicetter breed. The original Lin-
colnfhire fheep have no horns, and long carcafes ; the ewes
weighing from 14 lbs. to 20 lbs. per quarter ; the three-year
old wethers from 20 lbs. to 30 lbs. The average weight of
the fleece is about 9J lbs., or three fleeces to the tod of
28 lbs. Some of the heavier fleeces weigh 14 lbs. The
richer parts of Lincolnfhire will tupport five of thefe iheep
on the acre ; and when we take into account the price of
the wool, which in 18 14 was 2s. per pound, it will be feen
that the fheep of this defcription are the moft profitable for
the lands to which they are fuited. The improvement made
in their form, by the mixture with the Leicetter breed, re-
duced the weight of the fleece ; but the extraordinary de-
mand for heavy combing wool is inducing fome of the
farmers to return to their heavy breed. It is probable that
this kind of wool will not foon fall under \s. dd. per pound ;
and the produftion of a fleece, which weighs 10 or 12 lbs.,
muil be an objeft of attention to the grower, not lels than
that of the carcafe. For though the wool from the Lei-
cefter breed is fomewhat finer, the weight feldom exceeds
7 lbs., and the difference of price is not more than about zs.

per

SHEEP.

pir tod of 2S lbs. The advantage of the latter breed con- and five to the tod. The wool is finer and fhorter than

fifts in being made fit for the butcher in lefs time : in this it the Lincolnfhire, and a portion of it is better fiiited for the

excels all the other breeds before known. At the time hofiery trade than for thin goods, fuch as fhalloons, &c. ;

when Mr. Robert Bakewell of Difhley, in Leicefterfhirc, but conlidering the difference of weiyht, the fleece is not

direAed his attention to the improvement of rtieep, the fo profitable to the grower as that from the Luicohiftiire

price of long wool was lefs than ^J. per pound : the fleece was fheep.

hence of little value tu the grower, and Mr. Bakewell was There are two reafons for killing the wethers of the

exclufively employed in improving the carcafe of fiieep, and Difliley breed at two years old : firll, they leave the mod

all other domeftic quadrupeds. Previoufly to about the profit ; and, fvcondly, if kept longer, they grow too fat

middle of the lall century, little attention was paid to the for genteel tables. It is very common for two-years old

improvement of live-llotk, except horfes. Nothing could wethers to cut four inches thick of fat on the ribs, and

be more repugnant to common fenfe than the general prac- from two to three inches all down the back. Even ewes of

tice of farmers : they feleftcd for flaughtcr that part of this kind, which have bred and fuckled lambs till July,

their flock which was moil difpofed to fatten, as offering when killed about the Chriftmas following, will frequently

them an early profit ; the remainder were left to breed from meafure four or five inches thick of fat on the fides, and

promifcuoufly. A confiderable part of England was then
uninclofcd, and the flocks of different proprietors being un-
avoidably intermixed, prevented a due regard to the im-
provement of the breed. Mr. Bakewell commenced hi;
improvements fublcquent to the year 1760, and fucceeded
in exciting the attention of the public to the amelioration

two or three inches down the back, all the way from the
head to the tail ; and though flieep of this breed are not
eminent for much tallow, yet ewes, under fuch circum-
ilances, generally produce from 18 lbs. to 24 lbs. of tallow-
each. This mutton is not fo inviting as the leaner kinds,
but it finds a ready market among the manufafturing and

of live-Hock, by fliewing the moll effeftual method of ac- laborious part of the community,
complifliing this important objedt. The principal objeft The gra/iers in different parts of England, who had been

which Mr. Bakewell had in view, in his improvement of dif- too negligent refpefting the improvement of ilock, no

ferent animals, except horfes, was to produce the greateft fooner became fenfible of the poffibility of forming a race of

weight and value of flefli, with the fmalleft expence of flieep, that would produce a large weight of meat in a much

food. fliorter time than before known, than they became defirous

Availing himfelf of the obfervations which he had made of introducing the breed; and the talle for growing fat

on different animals, that certain peculiarities of form were meat became generally adopted, and in many inllances

always attended by a difpofition to grow fat, and that ani
mals inherit this difpofition from their anceftors ; and if
they are kept free from intermixtures witli other breeds, in
the courfe of a few generations the peculiar properties will
be perpetuated, and form a diffinft race ; the laws of animal
life being in this refpe6t regular and permanent. He,
therefore, felefted from his own flock, and from the flocks
of others, thofe (hcep to breed from, which poffelied in the
greatell degree that perfe6lion of form he was defirous to
attain and perpetuate By judicioufly croffing them, and
fclefting the moll perfeft of their progeny, he at length
fucceeded in forming tlie breed, whicii has been dillinguiflied
by the name of the new I>eicclter or Difliley breed ; and
having attained his objedl, he carefully guarded againit any
future intermixture with other breeds. This breed exceeds
all others in its propenfity to fatten ; and by croffing with
rams from tiiis breed, a very confiderable portion of the
long-wooUcd fliecp in England have been greatly improved
in this refpeft.

The peculiar charafters of thcfe flieep have been well de-
fcribed by Mr. CuUey, an eminent grazier in Northumber-
land, who introduced the breed into that part of England.
" The Difliley breed are particularly dillinguiflied from
other long-woolled breeds, by their fine lively eyes, clean
heads, ftraight, broad, flat backs, round (barrel-like)
bodies, very fine fmall bones, thin pelts, and inclination to
fat at an early age. The lall property is probably owing
to the before-fpecified (jualities, which, from obfcrvaliDn
and experience, there ii rcafon to believe extends generally
through every fpecien of donicllic quadru])eds. The Difliley
breed is not only peculiar for its mutton being fat, but alio
for the finencfs of the grain : the flavour is fuperior to the
mutton of moll other long-woolled breeds. The weight of
the carcafe may be dated in general : ewes, three or four
years old, from 18 lbs. to 26 lbs. per quarter; wethers,
two years old, from 20 lbs. to 30 li)S." The fleece is dated
by Mr. Culley at '8 lbs. ; but in I.eiccderfliire, we believe,
the average weight is not more than 6 or 7 lbs., about four

without proper regard to other confiderations. In fome in-
dances, fine-wooUed flocks were eroded with this breed,
and it was vainly expeiSted that they fliould prefervc the
quality of the wool, and increafe the carcafe at the fame
time. In other inllances, the Lciccderfliire breed were in-
troduced on land only fuited for a lighter race of flieep ;
and even where the paltures were fuitable, the propenfity to
fat was encouraged, until it became a difeafe, and the ani-
n.al was fcarcely able to move under its own weight.
Whatever the advocates of this breed may advance in its
fupport, it cannot be contended that the mutton is equal
in flavour to that of the fmaller flieep.

The objeft of Mr. Bakewell was in thefe inllances mif.
taken : it was not to produce meat for the tables of the
rich, but to fupply fubltantial nourifliment for the working
clafles. We have licaid him lay, " a fmall quantity of this
fat meat, cooked over a large difli of potatoes, is a good
dinner for a poor man's family ; and this is what I propofcd
ill the feleftion of this breed."

The increafcd demand for animal food could not have
been fupplied had not forne improvement taken place, and
the working clafles will ever prefer the fatted meal. In this
refpeft they refemble the North American Indians and the
back fettlerp, who regard fat as the only nutritious part
of meat, and accordingly Volney defcribes the lean by a
name which fignifics meal bread. The rage for exceflively
fat meat has in fome degree fubfided, and the new Eeicellers
are likely to be confined to thofe didritts which are pecu-
liarly fuited for their growth, and the objedl of the grazier
will be diredled to producing 3 large quantity of meat for
the confumption of the working dalles. Indead of at-
tempting to improve the fine-woolled breeds by erodes with
a heavy race, it would be more judic:ou8 to purine the
fame plan of improvement with thole breeds which Mr.
Bakewell attempted with (uch fucci fs in the heavy flieep.
The improvement of the carcafe may, we are con-
vinced, be cHeftcd without injuring the quality or diminllhing
the quantity of the wool. Of this Mr. Bakewell was well

aware,

SHEEP.

aware, but the price of wool in England at the time of the
American war (the period of his celebrity) was fo low,
that he ufed to fay, it would be defirable to grow (heep
without wool, and confine the attention to the carcafe ex-
clufively.

In felefting the mod profitable breed of (heep for a
farm, it can never anfwer to Ikock hilly diftrifts with a
heavy race of (heep, and in fuch diilrids the improvement
of the wool is an objeft more particularly deferving atten-
tion, becaufe we believe it would be poffible to grow an
equal weight of wool of a much finer quality than what
is produced by many of our coarfe-wooUed breeds of (heep,
and particularly by the Heath (heep, which palture the
mountainous parts of North Britain.

In rich paAures, weight of carcafe muft in a confider-
able degree fuperfede the improvement of the wool, at
lead fo far as relates to its finenefs ; for the real intereft of
the grower of lon^ wool is to produce a heavier fleece.
At the prefent price of wool, a Lincoln(hire fleece of tw-elve
pounds being more valuable than any other native Englilh
fleeces. To combine, therefore, the perfeftion of form in
the Difhley breed with the heavy fleece of Lincoln, is what
will beft reward the owners of long-woolled flocks.

There are, befides long and (hort-wooUed flieep, numerous
flocks which produce wool fuited for the comb, but of a
finer and (horter kind than the heavy combing wool. The
worfted yarn made from this wool is fpun foft, and manu-
fafturcd into hofiery. A very confiderable quantity of
wool, fuited for hofiery, is grown in the county of Kent ;
but the breed of (heep which produce it, has not any dif-
tinft name, and appears to have originated from an inter-
mixture of the (hort-wooUed (heep of the fouthern coun-
ties with heavy long-woolled (heep. We beheve there is
no country in Europe, which at prefent produces combing
wool of this kind equal in quality to that grown in Eng-
land. See Wool and Worsted.

Sheep, Stealing of, is now made felony without benefit
of clergy. See Cattle.

By an ancient ftatute, no perfon (hall keep, at one time,
above two thoufand fheep ; but lambs are not to be ac-
counted (heep till they are a year old. (25 Hen. VIII.
c. 13.) Perfons exporting flieep fliall forfeit them, and
20s. for every fheep, &c. (12 Car. II. c. 32.) And
perfons in the counties of Kent and Suflex, within ten
miles of the fea, are to give an account, in writing, after
(heep-ftiearing, of the number of fleeces, to the next
officer of the cuftoms, &c. (9 & 10 W. III. c. 40.)
See Wool.

Sheep, Chitting of, in Agriculture, a term sfiven to the
bufinefs of preparing the ewes of them for lambinj^ in fome
places, which commonly takes place about a week before
the lambing feafon commences. In fuch cafes the ewes
are ufually driven into a pound, when the clatter, looker,
or fhepherd, draws them out fingly and feparately, turning
them upon their backs, and removes with the (hear^ the
locks of wool from the underfides of their tails, from about
their udders, and from the infides of their thighs. This
becomes neceflary, in conlequence of the dirt and filth
which often adhere to the wool about thefe parts, efpe-
cially in moid growing fpring feafons, when the ewes are
afl'efted with much purging. The wool being removed in
this manner, not only renders the parts more neat, but en-
ables the lamber, or perfon who has the care and direftion
of the bufinefs of lambing, to didingui(h when the ewes
have lambed, by the mark or dain which is generally left
on the back parts of the udders ; as, if fuch marks were
not to occur, he would fometimes be at a lofs, as the

young ewes not unfrequentlj defert their lambs, and en-
deavour to efcape along with the other ewes, pafluring as
unconcernedly as if nothing had happened to them.

Some think, that it would alfo be a good method at
this time to have the different ewes marked in a different
way about the face, in the order of their lambing, and to
have thofe of different forwardnefs put together into fepa-
rate fuitable paftures, to be taken care of in the moft
proper ways.

The barren ewes, or thofe not with lamb, are likewife
now didinguifhed by the clatter, looker, &c. by their not
having any enlargement of their udders or their bellies, as
well as by their jumping and fkipping about in a nimble
m.anner ; fuch being ufually turned off direftly upon the
fattening grounds.

Sheep, Lambing of, the bufinefs of managing the lamb-
ing of the ewe flocks, which is very effential and important,
though but little known or attended to in many places, even
where fheep are almod the whole dock of the farmer.
However, in confequence of this, and the employing of un-
fKilled perfons, m.uch lofs is not unfrequently fudained, to
the great injury and inconvenience of the fheep-grazing
farmer. In fome fituations, as thofe of the inclofed, dry,
and warm kind, and the more poor mountainous ones, as
well as the upland padures and downs, fuch a very minute
attention to this bufinefs need not, perhaps, be bedowed,
as accidents lefs frequently occur, than on rich padures or
marfhes, where the lambs are much expofed to danger and
dedruftion from many caufes, unlcfs very carefully attended
to at this time. The nature of the principles and praftices
which are neceffary in the bufinefs of lambing, are, in fhort,
yet much too confined and too little known to (heep-farmers
in general to be of any great advantage. The fird thing
which is requifite in preparing for this bufinefs, is the mak-
ing choice of proper dry warm fields and padures for the
purpofe, and having them made as fafe and fecure as pof.
fible from the danger of aU forts of accidents and incon-
veniences to the lambs. Where they have large wet open
expofed ditches, or any other fort of inconvenient fences on
their fides or other parts, they (hould be well guarded and
fecured by means of fuitable low dead or other hedge*
being raifed on the fides of them, by the ufe of fmall light
hurdles, about two feet in height, with two racks, fixed
down around them or in the mod dangerous parts ; by
placing brufh-fagifots of a proper fize round the fides of
their banks, and daking them well down to prevent their
being didurbed by the winds and dorms : by hanging old
fea-nets along their banks or borders ; or by fome other
kind of cheap low defence, which the local nature of the
fituation may fugged. The nature of the padures for this
ufe (hould cnndantly be fuch as are fine and fhort in their
grafs, and neither of too poor nor too rich a quality, as in-
conveniencies are liable to take place from each of thefe
dates.

It was formerly the praftice to have the lambing of the
ewe flocks performed on a great breadth of padure-land,
as two or three to the acre, or in a very thin manner, which
was extremely tronblefome ; but it is now found that much
benefit attends its being done in a clofer or thicker way, as
ten or twelve more to the acre, in fome cafes ; as it is not
only more convenient and fuccefsful, but far more profit-
able. By thus doing it in a narrow compafs, according to
the date of the grafs, the work is more fafely gone on with,
is more under the direftion of the manager, and more con-
venient in cafe of difficulties arifing in it, while there is
much lefs danger of lofs among the ewes in confequence
of the nature of the keep, which is very material, as it is

often

SHEEr*.

often by no means inconfiderable, efpecially in certain cir-
<:umllances and fituations towards the clofe of the lambing
feafon.

■ In fome places it is not unufual, before the lambing takes
place, to provide a better fort of paftiire-ficld for the re-
ception of fuch ewes as may chance to have twin-lambs,
as more food is required for tliem. T!-iis is bell when in
or near the middle part of the lambing paltures, as the
CWC3 and lambs, in that cale, can be the moft readily and
conveniently removed, whereas in other circumftances there
is often much trouble and difficulty cauled with the young
lambs, which fliould always be marked and removed as
foon as they are enabled to walk.

The next preparatory bufmefs, in fome fituations, is
that of clatting the ewes, vsdiich commonly takes place a
little time before the lambing begins ; but in many places
this is wholly negledted and thought quite ufeleis. See
Sheep, Clatting of.

The lanr-.bing tinr.e takes place at different periods in dif-
ferent phices, accordiniT to the nature of the fituation and
other civcumltances, and often a week or ten days fooncr
or later in the fame fituation, as the feafon may be more cr
lefs fcverc, and the Hocking of the land has been more
light or more hard. But about the beginning of April is
probably the beft and molt general time. Early lambing
is mjoiUy advantageous, where the circumftances of the
land will admit of it. The feafon of lambing moftly con-
tinues about a month, and in fome places, where lambers
are employed without any lookers, two guineas and the
iambrtcins cire paid for that time.

In the actual bufmefs of lambing, much care and atten-
tion are neceflary in the perlon who has the direction and
management of it. In all natural cafes of this fort the
lefs tliat is done, perhaps, in general, the better, as nature
will for the moll part effedt the bufinefs in the fafell and
moil proper manner. The chief difficulty, it has been faid,
confills in knowing when ewes (hould be aflifted, as young
pcrfons employed in this management are much too apt ti>
interfere, from which much mifchief and lofs not unfre-
quently proceed. The nature of the particular cafe, and
the workings of the ewes, lliould contlaiitly be the prin-
cipal dircftors in this matter. Some conceive, that when
ewes have been at work fome length of time, they fliould
be afhlted ; others, that when the lambs' tongues are pro-
truded from the mouths, they fhould have aliiltance ; but
neither of thefe rules is always to be depended upon.
There are ftill others vfho think, that when the ewes rife
and walk off on being approached without any thing being
the matter, they require no interference ; but that when
they will not rife, but appear a good deal fpent, they
fliould have immediate affiltance. Some alfo fuppofe, that
confiderable force may be exerted in fuch cafes without
danger. But though there may be fome truth in the re-
mark, it is always uecellary that much caution Ihould be
taken wliere force is employed on thefe occafion>. Belides
thefe, fomething may proJDably depend upon the Hate ot
the feafons in this buiinefs, as ailiilancc will be lefs ncccil'ary
in Inch as are cold, than when tiicy are warm. '^I'lie ewes
fliould, in fa£l, never be meddled with in their lambing, in
tiiefe cafes, until there is an abfolute niccfiity.

In all uimatural cafes of this kind, which vary very mucii
in dinVrent inllances, according to the nature of the un-
ufual part of the lamb which may prefent itfclf, and
wliich require the afliilance of proper perfons ; thofe who
have had the fulled experience, and arc the moft cool and
cautiou"!, will be the moll proper for performing the bufi-
nefs, ?s where this is not the cafe, there will often be

Vol. XXXII.

great lofs of lambs, as well as of ewes. In every cafe of thi§
nature, where much force, or any other means are neccf-
fary to be employed, very great care and circumfpeftion
fhoiiid conllantly be ufed to have it exerted and done in the
mod gentle, deliberate, and iafe manner poflible, as other-
wife much danger and inconvenience may arife, that might
have been avoided.

In fome indances, where the lambs are apparently dead
when they are lambed, tl'.ey may be recovered and rellortd by
forciiig air into their lungs in an eafy m.anner. This (llould
however always be done almoll indantly afterwards, other-
wife it feldom fucceeds.

As foon as the lambs are brought forth, they have com-
monly tome milk from their mothers given them, or are
allowed to fuck them for fome little time, which are fup-
pofed to increafc the affeition of the ewes for them ; the
lambs being at lad left as clofe by the noles of the ewes as
poflible, which fhould be' done quickly, that they may not
go away without noticing them. The lambs are always
greatly llrengthened ar.d improved by the ewes hckingthem,
which they conllantly do, where they have a proper affec-
tion for them. When lambs droop and liang their heads
immediately after they are lambed, they are bad ar.d un-
favourable figns, Zi fliewing them to be in a weak and
dangerous Hate. The praftiee often made ufe of in fome
places, of putting the tail of the lamb, which is jui'l lambed,
into the ewe's mouth, in order to promote her alFedtiou fur
it, is very filly, and of no avail.

In the catching of all ewes in the lambing date, every
fort of exertion, trouble, and fatigue, lb as to injure them,
fliould be avoided as much as poliible, in order that they
may lamb, or be aflifted to lamb, in a cool full able date.

During the time of lambing, the looker, or other pe;fon
who has the management, fhould be very careful and atten-
tive cany in the mornings, and at other times, in looking
over the ewes and lambs, to fee that they are not injured
or lod by negleft m any way.

In cafe? where this bufinefs is carried on upon a large
fcalc,, when every thing has been properly prepared and
got in readinefs, the lan^ber, or other perlon employed in
tlie management, begins his laborious and difficult under-
taking, by entering and going over the lambing paftures at
the time of day-break, with his lamb-hook in his hand,
that he may notice and examine the ewes, raife up fuch as
have Liin down, and determine whether Inch lambs as are
dropped be capable of fucking, which is com.monly readily
decided by the didenfioii of the belly. In cafes where
this lad is not able to be done, the ewes arc citlicr catched,
and the lambs fuckled, or the lamber is provided with
fome ewe's milk in a bottle for tiic pur;ofe, a precaution
which is eil'entially proper on many occalioin;, as when the
weather is fevcre, wet, and donny, in which circumftances
the lambs quickly pcrifli, if not lupplied with fuch food.
This attention often Itrenglhcns the lambs in a wonderful
manner, and i)reventa much trouble in removing them and
tlie evves to the pounds. The continuance of th,' alfi dion
of the ewes is proved by the callings and iioife they make.
The twill lambs are now iilinlly marked, to prevent con-
fufion, as the ewes frequently leave oijc iit them, after
which they arc not meddled or interfered with tor fome little
tiinc, as a few hours, or a day, as their llreiiglli may be ;
but as foon as they can walk, they are modly removed with
the niotiiirs into better keep. The ewes which have finglc
lambs commonly remain in the pallure-fields where lliey
have lambed, uiilefs the number be great, in wliicli cafe,
tlie hinibs with the ewes are occalionally removed into the
palUire-fields, where they are intended to be kept during
3 N the

SHEEP.

the fummer. It is fuppofed, that by the above pra&ice
the lambing paftures are fometimes lefs difcommoded, than
is the cafe where too great a number of ewes and lambs
are crowded together. Sometimes, when an ewe has lolt
her lamb by any accident, and yet is deemed capable of
bringing one up, a twin lamb is given her. When a weakly
lamb, however, is put to an old ewe, the milk is often too
ftrong for it, and will fpeedily canfe its deltrnftion, by
fcouring or in other ways ; fuch lambs are likewife in-
capable of keeping the udders of the ewes properly drawn,
by which means much injury is frequently d>ne to them.
Thefe ewes are therefore often better turned off for fatten-
ing, than being employed in this way. Various methods
are praftifed with the ewes which have dead lambs, by
ufing fuch lambs fo as that their affeftions maybe increafed,
and the ewes be drawn into the pounds, and have other
lambs put to them. All fuch meafures, however, often fail.
The cullom of running the ewes down to get them into the
pounds is always very bad, as frequently caufing their de-
ilruftion. The ears of ewes being flapped down, and the
ewes not looking back, are in every cafe bad ligns of affec-
tion, but the contrary good ones. Lambing pounds are
mofUy fupplied with fuitable pens or coops for the con-
venience of fuckhng the ilrange lambs in. And the coats
of the natural lambs are fometimes employed on the others.
Whatever is done in this way, muft, however, be done by
deception, and not force, as the ewes are very refraftory.
Many other modes are had recourfe to in different cafes for
taming the refraftory ewes, and caufing them to fuckle the
lambs in a proper manner.

It will now be neceffary for the lamber to be particu-

larly careful of the twin and other lambs, to fee that they
are reguhrly kept, and properly fuckled in all cafes, efpe-
cially thofe which are in a weakly ftate. For this purpofe
fome milk of the cow or other kinds is often carried and
made ufe of by him, which prevents trouble afterwards.
In thefe intentions, it is proper to go over the fields twice
or oftener during the day ; and to be particularly attentive
in cold ftormy weather. All forts of accidents and dangers
are at thefe times to be looked to, and guarded againll in
the moll cautious manner.

About the end of the firft week of the lambing feafon,
one-half of the ewes will moltly have lambed, and more
than two-thirds of them probably at the termination of the
fecond, when the ewes may be brought into a lefs compafs,
and the lambing-field or pallure be cleared of all the twins
and moft of the fingle lambs, and they which are neceffary
may be had ready to cut, which in fuitable circumllances
is often done at this early period, by which the manager
will be freed from much of his future labour and
trouble.

By this fort of cautious attention and management in
the lambing of the ewe flocks, and the ufe of proper
forts of fhelter, a vaft faving of lambs and ewes may in
all cafes be made, and the interefts and profits of the
fheep-breeding farmer be very greatly aided and promoted.
See Sheep.

Sheep, Names of, the feveral names which are given, ap-
plied, or appropriated to them, at different ages, in different
parts and places where they are much kept. Thefe are very
numerous, and of a very local nature ; but the following are
the greateil part of them.

Mahi

Borders of
Scotland.

From that of being lambed until 1 t ^
that of weaning - . j ^ambs.

From that of weaning until that 7 -u
of the firft clip - - - I "°g'-

From that of the firft to that of 1 tn-
the fecond clip - - - j D.nmon

From that of the fecond until! Young ")
that of the third clip - J Wedders. j

From that of the third clip for-1 ^, , ,.
ward . - . . jOldwedders.

From that of the fourth clip ever 1 Full-grown ")

J fheep, 3

Lincoln.
Lambs.
Hogs.

Heeders.

afterwards

Dorfet.
Purs.

Different Sexes.

Norfolk ancj
Suffolk.

Lambs.

Females.

u— >«A _

Borders.
Lambs.

Lincoln.
Lambs.

Dorfel.

Chilvera.

Gridlings. 1 tj > [ Hogs. Thraves. Thraves.

Shearlings.

Two-fiiear.
Three- fhear.

C Gimmers
Gimmers. i and

LSheeders.

Counters.
Fronters.
Ewes.

Such ew« as are broken mouthed 'l^'"'""'' '" Norfolk and Suffolk.

and refufe .ire denominated - ( ""apes and / j^ Lincolnfliire and fome other counties.

J Drape ewes J

Such ewes as are neither with Iamb
nor give milk, arc faid to be

I Eild,

or Yield in Scotland.

Thefe arbitrary names, which are given to (heep at different
periods of their exiftence, in different parts of the country,
ferve to guide the breeding and grazing fliecp-farmers of
fuch places in their management with thefe animah.

Sheep, Smearing of, the praftice of falving or laying
them over with fome fort of fubftance of the unduous kind,
for the purpofe of improving the v.-ool, and preferving the
animals from difeafe. It is only had recourfe to in fome dif-
tridj, and thofe moftly in the northern parts of the kino-dom.
See S.-VLVING of Sheep.

Raw unboiled tar, not mixed with butter, is fometimes

very dangerous and hurtful to fheep, efpecially rams, when
laid on in large, or even moderate quantities. There are,
indeed, fome forts of tar which are very acrid, and blilter
ffieep, caufing the wool to fall off, and the death of the
animals. When it is thin, and appears black on ftirring,
with an offenfivc fmcll, and cauftic acrid taite, it fhould
never be ufed for iheep, efpecially without boiling, to de-
ttroy fuch properties. The pcrfons engaged in the work of
fmearing often find proofs of the danger of this fort of tar,
in the burning cffetis which it has on their fingers. Good
fmearing tar, it is faid, on being ftirred, has a thick, brown,

ropy

SHEEP.

ropy appearance, and a more pleafant fmell, with a lefs
acrid talle than the other kind. Tar (hould probably
always be well mixed with butter in performing this fort of
■work.

Sheep, Teelh of, the parts of the mouth of thefe animals
by which their agt-s are often, in fome meafure, afcertaini-d.
Wlien full-mouthed, they have ufually eight teeth of the in-
cifor kind in the lower juw. They throw up two fuch each
year until this takes place, by which means their fucking
teeth arc difplaced or loft. See Age of Sheep, and Teeth.
SllEEP-Shearina, in Rural Ecori'jmy, the bufinefs of clip-
ping or cutting off the coats or fleeces of ihecp, by means
of fhears conltrufted for the purpofe, which are termed
•wool-fhears . It alfo fometimcs fignifies the feafon in which
this fort of work is ufually performed, which was formerly,
and is even in fome cafes at prefcnt, a fort of feflival. The
operation is performed in different ways by different perfons,
but the belt mode is that of the circular, or round the fhcep,
inftead of the longitudinal, which is at prefcnt molt m uie.
It is ufually performed about June or July, according to
fituation and feafon, but Ihuuld not be done either too early
or be too long protracted, as injury and inconvenience may
attend either extreme. A good clipper is capable of clip-
ping from feven to fourteen or Hfteen, and up to twenty or
twenty-five in the day ; and more are frequently done by
very expert perfons. Great care fhould be taken not to cut
or prick the animals ; but where this accident happens in the
northern parts of the kingdom, they touch the part with a
little tar, or flieep-falve ; and in Sweden it is often done with
train-oil and refill melted together. And in addition to
what has been already obfervcd on this fubjedf, it may be
itated, that much improvement has taken place in this art,
efpccially in the more fouthern diltrifts of the kingdom, in
making ufe of the mode of clipping round the fheep, which
has gradually extended itfelf from the northern diflridts of
the ifland ; by which lefs wool is loll by being left upon the
fheep, and the bufinefs performed in a more expeditious, neat,
and convenient manner. It was much the practice formerly
to clip lengthways of the fheep, and in fome cafes in many
different diredtions, according to the convenience ( f the pcr-
fon who executed the work, by which means it was often
ill done. And in Ireland it has been Hated, that they clip in
Ihort Ifrokes, catching a bit of wool firit in one place and
then in another ; and thut if they are not looked narrowly
after, they will leave many parts, fucli as the heads, tails,
and infides of the thighs, untouched.

We have, in fpeaking of Iheep, noticed the nioft proper
periods of performing thit very important operation ; and
the following remarks, by Mr. Price, an excellent fheep-
farmer in the county of Kent, with the comments of Mr.
CuUey, as flated in the Annals of Agriculture, will fliew
the proper mode of managing the fheep in the time of fhcar-
ing, as well as the manner of executing the bufinefs with
thefe fheep-maflers. It is ftated by the former, that the
fheep-fhearing in Romney-Marfli commences about Midfum-
mer, and finifhcs about the middle of July. Thofe who
(hear firlt, think they elcapc the eflefts of the fly, and thofe
that fhear late, apprehend they gain half a pound weight in
every fleece, by the increafed perlpiration of the flieep. In
early fliearing the wool has not the condition which it after-
wards acquires, but the hot weather occafioiis a good deal of
trouble in detefting the fly. In order to begin, a large pen
is filled with flieep ready for the coming of the fhcarers, in
number from four to twelve, in proportion to the extent of
the flock. The time employed is from two to four days. The
flieep arc let into a fmall pen, thirty or forty at a time, and
when taken out to be flieared, all except three, more are

put in, becaufe one or two only left would be apt to jump
out. A boy keeps the gate, and the account of the num-
ber fheared, with fmall kadcn tellers. Thefe (hearers by
profeflion differ much as to quantity and method of per-
formance ; never begin early, but are fatislied with eight or
ten hours fhearing : a good fhearer will fhear ten an hour, a
bad one feven. Their emulation tends only to difpatch and
profit, not excellence of performance, and the fheep are too
often pulled about in a rude aKd barbarous manner, and even
wounded by the fhears with cuts of the length of three
or four inches, and the wool left unevenly fhorn : tar, or
fome ointment, is then applied carelefsly by the boy, in or-
der to keep oft the flies. The matter's office is ufually to
give the pitch-mark, and when one field is finifhed, the
flieep are returned, and others are in readinefs to take their
place.

The common mode of catching the fheep is by the
hinder leg, drawing the animal backward to the adjacent
fliearing-place, the hand holding the leg to be kept low ;
when at the place it is turned on its hack. Or they are
moved bodily, or one hand placed on the neck, and another
behind, and in that maimer walked along ; the firfl, or com-
mon mode, he thinks the moll lafe. The parts of fheep fed
on rich pailures, and flcfliy, if handled hard, and bruifed,
are liable to fatal mortifications ; an accident which often
happens, on which account the pens upon fome lands are
obliged to be lined with woollens, or many would die
from bruifes. The price of fliearing m \%d. or 2s. a fcore,
with a dinner, and 2s. 6d. or id. a fheep without vic-
tuals, but with drink. They vary much in different
places. A good winder will wind 400 fleeces a day,
at the fame price per hundred as tlie fliearer has per fcore.
The method of Ihearing — the left fide of the fhcep to the
fliearer's left leg, his left foot at the root of the fliecp's tail,
and his left knee at the fheep's left fhoulder. The procefs
commences with the fhears at the crown of the fheep's
head, with a llraight cut along to the loins, returning to the
fhoulder, and making a circular fliear round the off-fide to
the middle of the belly ; the ofl^ hinder leg next : then, the
left hand holding the tail, a circular fhear of the rump to the
near buck of the ffieep's hind leg ; the two fore-feet are next
taken in the left hand, the flieep railed, and the fhears fet in
at tlie brcalt, when the remaining part of the belly is fliearcd
round to tlie near ftifle ; lafUy, the operator kneeling
down on his right knee, and the flieep's neck being laid over
his left thigh, he fliears along the remainnig fide.

However, on thefe flatemcnts Mr. Culley has made the
following pradtical comments ; namely, that Mr. Price's ob-
fervatioii is jull, with regard to the benefit arifii.g to wool
from being late clipped, and that it is confonant with the
opinion of the Lincolnfliire gra/iers and breeders, who have
paid more attention to the fubjeft, and iinderfland it better
than any other of the profefTion in this ifland : but very great
attention is required from the flicpherd to keep the flieep,
under the circumllances of late clipping, free from the fly
and maggots, alfo from the danger of being lealen by fmall
flies, which faflen on thofe parts where the points of the
fhears have made the fmallefl fcratch. But that, in regard
to fliearing feven or ten fheep in an hour, nothing can be
more abfurd and improper than fiich attempts, fince it is im-
poflible for llie bell fliearer to clip the lowefl; luimbcr within
the time, and perform it well, as it ought to bedine. Forty
years ago, the fame abfurd pradtieo prevailed in Durham,
and particular men would clip fixty or feventy of that large
breed in a day ; but the confeqiience of fuch improvident
hafte was, that befides imperfed fliearing, large pieces of
cularlv from the bellies of tiie flieep,

(kin were cut, particii

3N

vliich,

SHEEP.

whicn, being conttantly peftered and tortured in thofe parts
by the flies throughout the fummer, fuffered much injury
in their health and condition, fome of them never recover-
ing. Several fheep have died immediately after {hearing,
owing, perhaps, to having their legs tied, which, with hur-
rying and tolling them about, brought on a colic or cramp,
putting a period to their exiftence in a moment. At that
time, in a flock of two hundred fhecp, we feldom efcaped
without the lofs of one or two in a feafon ; fince, in the
clipping of three thoufand and upwards annually, we have
not loft one thefe feven years. But, fays he, inftead of
tying their legs, and trying who could clip the niq/l ptr hour,
or Jay, we have wifely begun to try who could clip the iefi,
and from that change of fyftem, inftead of clipping fifty
(heep per day, wo think it a fair day's work to clip twenty-
five upon an average. Where flieep are clipped by the
great, and the men paid for number done, thirty or up-
wards may be (beared in the day ; but cur's are done by the
day, without hurry, and fcarcely wounding a (heep in the
day. Each (hearer makes his peculiar mark ou the (heep,
red or blue, that bad llicaring may be detefted ; an ufeful
ftimulus to exertion. And he thinks that the (lieep may be
caught by the hinder leg, above the hough, but not by any
means drawn backwards ; on the contrary, as foon as the
catcher has caught the (heep by the hough, he (liould draw it
backwards, until he can, with his left hand, reach the
throat, then, with the right hand behind its tail, he conveys
it along with eafe and fafety. He thus continues : thirty
years ago, it was the general praftice m this county (North-
umberland), and fome old-fafliioned bigotted people adhere
to it (till, to (hear the (heep thus ; the clipper firft opened
the belly, and then, after tying all the four legs, fat down
upon a fack filled with ftraw, the (heep lying between his
legs ; when, in the moft awkward manner, he flaflied and
tore the fleece off, beginning at the neck, and going down
the left fide firft, finilhing at the right. Inftead of clipping
around the (heep, as at prefent, they then clipped them
moftly lengthways. The preCent method is to begin at the
back part of tlie head, in order to give room for the (hears
to make their way down the right (ide of the neck, to the
open of the breaft. The man then fits down upon his right
knee, laying the head of the (heep over his left knee bent,
and beginning at the breaft, clips the underfide of the throat
upwards to the left cheek ; then takes off tlie back of the
neck, and all the way down below the left flwulder. He
then changes to the contrary fide, and makes his way down
to the open of the right flank. This done, he returns to
the breaft, and takes off the belly, after which it matters not
which fide he clips, becaufe being able to chp with either
hand, he meets his fliear.points exaftly at the middle of the
back, all the way, until he arrive at the thighs or leo-s. He
then places the (heep on its left fide, and putting his right
foot over the neck, and the other forward to the undermoft
hind leg, clears the right fide ; then turning the (heep over,
'fini(hc5 the whole.

Our price for clipping ufed to be one (hilling per dozen,
and a gill of ale about ten o'clock, and another at four in the
afternoon. He fnppofes a man will have one fliilling and fix-
pence per dozen now ; but we clip all with our own men,
moftly the lliepherds, many of whom now do it moft admi-
rably : and we have in general prevailed upon them to clip
with either hand ; which is not only the eafieft for the
clipper, but enables him to do his work in the neateft and
moft complete manner.

Thefe remarks deferve the regard uf tlie ibeep-farmers in
other diftrifts, as well as the following hint by Mr. Price.
It is, fays he, aftonilhing to fee a good (hearer handle a

fheep ; he ftudies its eafo, and the (heep feems delighted in
its fituation. This (houlu always be the cafe with thefe ani-
mals, which are often much injured by coarfe management,
and the moil fober fteady men be conftantly employed.

The fat fheep fhould always be fhorii earlier than thofe
which are lean. In the S^iith D.Twn fheep dillrift, a good
Ibeep-fhearer is faid to be able to (hear fifty (heep daily, for
which he has 2s. 6.; or is. the fcore, and board. Great care
fhould at all times be taken not to injure the (heep in fhearinf,
as the leaft cutis fometimes dangeraus, though at others not.
In cafes of cuts, wax ointment or well boiled tar muft be
ufed, and the (beep have an open airy pailure.

The very fame method is taken in"fl\earing the lambs as in
that of the old fheep, which, in many diftrifts, takes place
nearly at the fame time, or about the latter end of June and
the beginning of the following month ; fome fliearing them
immediately on their being weaned, but others fome little
time before, for the fake of allowing the old ewes to become
fat. See Sherlixg of Lambs.

The wnter of the " General Treatife on Cattle," (tates,
that the royal flocks of fine-woolled (heep in Spain are
(beared in the beginning of May. There are (hearing,
houfes, each of which will contain twenty thoufand (heep,
aid colt in building above five thouiand pounds ilerling.
To fhear a flock of fixteen thoufand fheep requires one hun-
dred and twenty-five men, a m^n fliearing twelve ewes, or
eight rams, in a day. The (heep are fweated previoufly to
being (beared, in a long, narrow, low gut, called the
fweating place, where they remain a night, crowded as clofe
together as the (hepherd can keep them. The (horn (beep
are permitted to go to pailure if the weather be fine, re-
turning home in the evening, to pafs the night within (belter
of the walls, or in the houle, if cold or cloudy ; by which
means they are brought by degrees to endure the open air.

And it is a point of great conf^quence in this bufinefs to
have a perfon well converfant with the winding of the wool,
in order that it may be well performed, and look in a proper
manner to the buyer. In fome places the wool is laid in a
heap on being wound, and conveyed in the evening of the
fame day to the wool-lotts, or other depofitaries. Some
ftore their wool conftantly in upper cham.bers, as the moif-
tuie which is produced by it on ground floors, when it is
continued there for any length of time,, is fuppofed to be
very injurious to it. See Wool.

Sheep-FoU, in ylgricuhure, a fpace of arable or other
land hurdled in for the purpofe of being manured, or a fort
of yard or other contrivance for the purpofe of confining and
keeping flieep in during the nights or in bad weather, in order
to afford them proteftion and fhelter. They are fometimes
fixed, being conftrudted of any convenient fort of light mate-
rials, fo as to indole a fpace in proportion to the number of
fheep in the form of a kind of yard or fold, which is kept
conftantly well littered with fome fort of dry fubftance, fuch
as ftubble, refufe ftraw, dry fand, &c. during the time the
fheep are folded and foddered in them, in order that as much
manure may be raifed as poffible. In fome cafes alfo, for
the more perfect proteftion of the fheep, they have fheds all
round them, under which the (beep may lie without injury
from rain, fnow, or any fort of moilhire. Thefe are ulually
termed JIanJing folds, and are either formed about the home,
ftalls, or in fome dry, rather elevated fituations, on the farms,
having the bottoms well laid v.'ith fome fort of material that
is capable of keeping the (heep dry and clean. And in the
covered fold, or what is termed cotting, which is in «le in
Herefordlhire, they are fometimes formed into diflerent dj- i u
vifions, fo as to contain certain numbers or kinds of (heep, ||
They are, however, in other cafes formed fo as to be

moveable.

SHEEP.

moveable, either by means of wheels or other cAntrivaiices,
being drawn to difTerent lituations according as they may be
wanted. See SiiEEP-Hou/f.

Tliore n likewife another fort of more imperfeft fliecp-
fold, which is formed by the planting of trees in didcrent
methods, lo as to :ifrord the animals a fort of protedion
from tiie feverity of the winter feafon, as well as from the
exceilive heats of the fummer. Tliefe are termed tree-folds,
and fomctimes/i/an/rt/m folds, from the manner in which they
are formed. See Tree-FoU.

In the conilruftion of the fecond fort of {beep-folds,
which were molUy formed in feme diflant parts of the farm,
in which cafes they were often ienomir.ated^anding-oiit folds,
a cheap and fimple method was had recourle to by an excellent
(heep-farmer in Suffolk ( Mr. Macro). He incloied a double
fold with thirteen dozen of old hurdles feven feet long each,
formed of wands, and raifed a haulm fence around them, com-
pofed of upwards of fixty loads of wheat ftubble, the area of
the fold being littered with about thirty loads more : in this
the flock, were to be lodged where the field fold was unfafe, or
could not be removed from place to place, on account
of froit, fnow, or flood ; and it is ftated, that he made
during the fame winter feafon, 493 loads of manure, im-
proving at the fame time the condition of his flock. The
Und, it is obfepved, lay at too great a diilance to be
manured from the home-(t.ill. He likewife adds, that be-
fore he tiioughtof this plan, his Iheep were always obliged
to lie in bad weather, upon a certain (heltered part of the
heath, where the fold manure was not only loft to his farm,
but the grafs on which the dung was heaped in fuch quan-
tity became fo coarfe and four, that nothing would cat it ;
and that, exclufive of this injury, he ufed to lofe by mor-
tality, in a wet or fevere feafon, during yeaning ti.me, a tnuch
greater number of both flieep and lambs, for want of the
dry, warm lodging of a flickered fold, the advantage of
which he tllimatcd at thirty or forty pounds a-year at lealt.
He faved not lefs by his improved plan than thirty lambs in
X year, befides (heep amounting to a greater number of lambs
than he ufually reared in one year during the period of his
farming bulinefs.

And by the forming of thefe folds in any other cheap
convenient manner, fimilar benefits may be derived by the
(heep-farmer.

In all thefe cafes the flieep fliould be littered down as above
»"•■ often as necedary, and be well fed, twice in the day at leaft,
with fuch food as has been provided, being let out during
the middle of the day, except when the feafon i.^ very
ttormy and fevere. It is dated in the Annals of Agriculture,
that one hundred and thirty-four flieep confined in this way
for the period of fix weeks, and littered with five loads of
forty trufliis each of oat-llraw, forty pounds to the trufs,
made twenty-eight large loads of manure, confuming two
acres of turnips within the time.

The great fiiperiority of this fort of fold over that of the
naked moveable kind, is therefore fufficiently obvious, and
may probably be had recourfe to at all leafons with lome
advantage. See SiliiBr, and Folding of Sheep. Alfo
SHV.v.i'Tard.

A fl)tep-f(>ld has been lately invented by Mr. Plowman
of Broome, Norfolk, ujioii an improved and very ilmple
principle, combining many advantages over the old and cx-
penfive method of folding by hurdles ; and as the whole fold
can be removed with eafe at all times, it will be found pecu-
liarly ufeful in fieduig ofl turnips on the land in trolly wea-
ther, wlieu hurdles cannot be uhd. It is dated that the ex-
pence, in the firll inllancc, will exceed that of hurdleo,
for the fame given quantity of flieep ; but having had

one in ufe nearly three years, he it fatisfied th« favmg
will be very confidorable : for, before he adopted this me-
thod of folding, he loft from thirty to forty nights folding
in the year, owing to the land being hard in dry fea.
fons ; which renders folding almoft impracticable, as they
never can be fet without great labour and dcftruftion of
hurdles. He is alfo clearly of opinion, that tlie ftock of
fl.eep will be greatly increafed when this method of folding
becomes more known ; and that it will enable many fmall
farmers to keep from 50 to 100 flieep, who are now de-
terred from it on account of the fmall cinantity of feed they
have not anfwering to keep a man for that purpofe only ; but
by this plan, they may keep a boy at 3^. or 3^. (id. per week,
who can attend on loc or 2CO fheep, and move the fold
himfelf without any afliilance. In heavy gales of wind it
frequently happens that the hurdles are blown down, and the
flieep of courfe being at liberty to range over the crops do
incalculable mifchief, which cannot happen with this fold.
And in fomc counties in England, where hogs are folded,
great difiicultics arc experienced for want of ftowage, for
them to feed ofl^ winter lant, &c. Sec. as they root up every
(lake or hurdle ; and having tried the experiment, he is
certain this fold will keep tliem in, and defy their attempts to
difplace it. And an altonilhing quantity of time is faved,
as a man can remove a fold to contain 300 flieep in five mi-
nutes, which by the old method frequently takes fome hour»
to accomplifli. Many are now ufing folds from his model ;
and he received for the invention the gold medal of the So-
ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, &c.

It is further remarked, that where the fold is wanted to be
ufed on very hilly ground, it muft be begun at the top and
worked dov/n to the bottom for tiie eafe of removing it,
and then drawn up again with a liorfe. This, however, he
has never had occafion to do, for his land is ploughed in a
contrary direftion, and he works the fold in the fame courfe
as the ridges. By this means the inconvenience is avoided
of crofling the fnrrow.i ; and they are alfo a guide to keep
the fold in a ftraight diredtion. With refpedt to the .flieep
getting under, he does not recollect that circumftance to have
ever happened, nor does he conceive that any land, which ik
cultivated, can be fo uneven as to admit of it.

This fiieep.fold is twenty-one feet in length and three
feet eleven inches in height, being compofed of a top-rail,
and bars below paffed through uprights ; the whole moving
on low call-iron wheels, and made ftrong, but in a light
manner.

SilEZP-Houfe, a fort of flight wooden building, conftrufted
for the purpofe of containing and protetling flieep in bad
weather, &c. Houfes of this kind are ulually made low,
for the lake of warmth in the winter, being moftly a third
part longer than they have breadth ; they fliould alfo be
fiifliciently large for the quantity of flieep they are to con-
tain. The fides fliould be lined with boards, and the bottoms
be laid in an even manner with ftone or fomc other material,
that the litter may be well impregnated with the urine ol
the flieep. And it has been adviled to have the fides expofed
to the fun, fet with lined moveable hurdles, that when it Ihinea
the whole may be laid open, to nfl^ord due retrcfliment, and
give the flieep an opportunity of feeding upon the pallurc
wherein they fland. They fliould be well and fecurcly co.
vercd with fome fort of proper material upon the tops. They
are fometimes fixed in particular fit nations, but in other
cafes, which is the more improved method, fo conllrudcd
as to be capable of being removed as they may be wanted.
One of the latter kind, employed on the farm of the Hon.
George Villers, in Hertfordlhire, which is very complete,
is delcribed, with a plate, in the Corrected Agricultural Sur-

vejr

SHEEP.

vey of that diftrifl, lately publidied by the Board of Agri-
culture.

In this (heep-houfe the wheels are fixed to the fides, being
fixteen inches in diameter, and having an axle-tree to harnels
the horfe to, with weather-boarded flaps hung with hinges,
to turn up and button againft the fides when it is removed.
It has alfo folding doors to open when the (heep are let in
or out, and fixed weather-boarding, with cover-boarded
windows to open on hinges fideways, in order to put fodder
into the racks. Likewife a canvas roof, with open railing
for air.

It is obferved, that the length of the building is from
twenty feet to any length ; the width to be fuch as to en-
able the building to pafs tiirough the field-gates ; the wea-
ther-boarding and flaps to be made as thin as pofiible, and
covered with pitch.

But how far the advantages of houfes of this lort may
compcnfate the expences of conftrufting and keeping them
in repair, has not been fully flievvn ; nor has perhaps a fuf-
ficient number of trials been made to (hew the benefit of
confining fheep in covered houfes or folds, or whether the
economy of the animals is well fuited to Inch a fyftem.
Some circumrtarices of advantage attending the praftice of
houfing flieep have certainly been ftated, but no fatisfaftory
comparative experiments have, fo far as we know, been
made. And from the plan being little or not at all adopted
in many extenfive flieep diftritls, and in others where it once
prevailed being either wholly in difufe or much on the de-
cline, as is well known to be the cafe in Gloucefterfhire
and the county of Hereford, there feems reafon at lea'.l to
prefume that it is not fo neceflary or fo well fuited to the
habits of the animal, nor even fo beneficial as has been fup-
pofed by fome writers on the fubjeft. See Sheep, and
Folding of Sheep.

Houfes of this nature, for the purpofe of flieltering flieep
and lambs in bad weather, are formed in a very cheap and
fimple manner in Romney-Marfli, a» may be feen in Price's
account of the flieep-hufbandry of that diftrift.

SHEEP-IIurdks, the flakes or fort of fence-gates which
are fet up fo as to confine flieep at the time of folding them
on arable land, or while they are feeding down, or upon
any particular fort of food. They are of feveral dif-
ferent kinds, and either clofe or open ; but the former are
in general to be preferred, as affording the moil flicker. It
is obvious that the number required to inclofe a certain fpace
mull depend upon the length. See Hurdle.
- SHEEP-HiiJl>anc/ry or Farming, that fort of farm manage-
ment which relates to or has flieep for its principal objeft.
There are various modifications of this fort of farming, de-
pending upon the differences in the circumitanccs of the
lands, their nature and fituations, as well as other local
matters. See Sheep.

It is not improbable but that in this fort of hufbandry and
farming, the moll benefit and advantage may often be de-
rived where there is a judicious intermixture and conjunc-
tion of other forts of management, as thofe of cultiva-
tion, cattle, planting, and fome others, flieep being con-
ilantly the great objeft. By fuch means advantagres are
afforded and brought forth in a great variety of different
ways to the individuals themfelves as well as the community
at large.

In this fort of farming management it is of much conle-
quence to have rccourfe to the fixing upon fuch plans and
methods as are the bell and moil fuited to the Hate and na-
ture of the farms and markets for the fales of the animals.
Tn cafes where the farms are high, and of a coldexpofed na-
ture, the wether fyilem may often enter largely iBto the

plan which is to be adopted. Where they are of the more
mixed nature, and confiil of high, as well as low lands, they
may iometimes be moft fuitably Hocked, in a partial manner,
with ewes and lambs, and with wethers. In thofe of the
more common fort, the breeding or rearing fyilems, ac-
cording to circumftances, may frequently be the moll pro-
fitable modes. And in rich grafs land and mixed farms,
which are provided with parks and paflures, as well as arable
lands, the flieep-farmer may not unfrequently be tempted
to fatten the faleable part of his flieep-ftock, particularly
where the markets are convenient for him in refpeft to
dillance.

In all thefe forts of farms in this kind of hufljandry, the
breeds or kinds of flieep fliould always be feletled and pro-
vided with a perfeft confideration of their nature, and the
management of the flieep be carefully direfted with tlie fame
intention. The means of difpofing of them fliould alfo be
well regarded. Many other circumilances likewife require
attention in this fort of hulbandry and management. The
inquirer may find much ufeful information on the iubjeft of
Highland flieep-farms and flieep-farming, in the third volume
of the " Tranfaftions of the Highland Society."

SiiEEP-Maris, and Marking, the marks and means of
performing thofe which are put upon flieep in different
ways and manners ; as by means of tar, ochre, reddle, wad,
and other fimilar fubfliances, and by cutting the ears of the
animals in different forms and methods. Thefe are ufeful
and neceffary to the fheep-farmer on many occafions and
accounts ; they ferve to dillinguifli his particular fheep and
flocks from thofe of others, to difcriminate the feveral dif-
ferent kinds, and to point out the various forts of manage-
ment which are neceffary with different kinds of flieep and
lambs, as well as to anfwer different purpofes in the fale of
them, &c. In the marking with tar, a tool or contrivance
having letters fixed to the end of it, is mollly made ufe of,
the initials of the name of the farmer being moft commonly
emplayed. With the other matters different methods are
taken ; fuch as wetting and rubbing them on flates, ftones,
or other matters, and then marking the flieep with them in
the ways that may be thought neceffary. Sheep and lambs
are marked by thefe means in many different parts, as in
the faces, oh the tides, the hips, and in feveral other places ;
the work being mollly done according to the fancy of the
perfon engaged in it, or of the owner of the flock, often m
different curious modes and forms, as ftraight lines, curves,
circles, and a variety of other more out-of-the-way methods.
The marking of the flieep in the ears is performed by cutting
them with a iharp knife in different forms and manner:-, as in
that of a fork, an under and upper Qant, an under and upper
fquare, an under and upper notch, a llaple, an under and
upper flit, ftraight flit, a crop, a crop and flit, a hole, a hole
and flit, &c. All thefe feveral modes may be feen repre-
fentcd in Price's Syftem of Romney-JVIarfli Sheep-grazing.

Marking fheep in the ears, in thefe or other methods,
forma excellent and correft means of dillindlion, for knowing
them by, in a variety of cafes and circumftances in flieep-
farming.

Dr. Lewis recommends the following compofition for
marking of flieep ; inz,. melted tallow, with fo much char-
coal, in fine powder, ftirred into it, as is iufBcient to make
it of a full black colour, and of a thick confiilence. This
mixture, being applied warm, with a marking-iron, on pieces
of flannel, quickly fixed or hardened, bore moderate rub-
bing, refilled the fun and rain, and yet could be waflied out
freely with foap, or ley, or ftale urine. In order to render
It ftill more durable, and prevent its being rubbed off, with
the tallow may be melted an eighth, fixth, or fourth of its

weight

SHEEP.

>(reig^ht of tar, which will readily wadi out along with it from
the wool. Lewis's Com. Phil. Tcchn. p. 361.

FjllEEV-Pens, the divifions made by the fmall moveable
gates or hurdles, which are fet up to keep (beep in fome
])articular fituation. They are ufiially formed Ofi a dry
place, about the corners where different iiiclofures of the
pafture kinds meet, fo as to be convenient for the whole.
They are ufeful in examining and feledtiner the fheep, bcmg
divided fo as to contain about three dozen flieep each, as
by this means they are always at the command of the flicp-
herd for any purpofes he may have in view. The bot-
toms fiiould be firm and dry, fo that the fheep may not be
foiled.

Pens or coops are likewife made and ufcd in the pounds
where the ewes are lambed or put, in fome fheep diftritts.
Thefe are ufually about two feet feven or eight inches in
the fquare, into each of which one ewe and the Iamb are put,
and fuckled, where there is a difinclination in the ewes to let
their own lambs fuck, a"? occafionally happens, and where
itrange lambs are put to them. Two of the fide-boards of
thefe pens are capable of being lifted up and let down lo as
juft to admit the ewes ; in which they move with difficulty,
confequently are not able to reach the lambs to beat them
away ; by which means they thus find an opportunity
of fucking againft the wills of the ewes. Thefe pens are
therefore often very convenient in thefe cafes, two of which
are mollly kept in each lambing-ground or yard. See
SllKEP- Pound.

SnEEP-Pouiid, any fort nf narrow inclofure for the con-
fining of flieep. Pounds of this kind are of many diflerent
forts, and ufeful for fcveral different purpofes in the manage-
ment of flieep-flocks, as thofe of lambing, catching, forting,
and drcffmg them in different wayp, &c. They fometimes
occupy pretty large fpaces of ground, but at other times arc
only of very fmall extent.

Sheep Rubblng-po/ls, the fmall polls and pieces of wood
which are fixed up in fhcep-jiaftures for them to rub thcm-
felves againft. They are fometimes fimple upright polls,
but at others they have crofs pieces put through them. They
are very neccfiary and ufeful to the animals. See RuB-
BIXG-Pj/?.

SilEEi'-5^v7/v, the fliears ufed in clipping or fliearing of
fheep. They are frequently termed wool-fliears. They are
made with a fpring bow in the handle part, which caufes them
to open readily in working with them. The handle part u
moflly about fix inches in length, and that of tlic blade about
five ; but fliears of tiiis kind vary much in fize in different
places.

Shee!'-W/h, or Pclty the common covering by which the
flieep is furrounded and defended. The flcins of thefe ani-
mals differ much in tliicknels, li/.e, and other properties, ac-
cording to the nature of the difPerent breeds. Sheep pelts,
or fltins, fometimes form an article of great utility and profit
to flieep-farmers, being fold to the fell-mongers, or other per-
fons in their nciglibourhood, under conllant contrafts by the
year, at different prices ; as from the time of fliearing to
Michaelmas, at from u. to \s. (ill. ; from that until Shrove-
tide, at from zs. to 2/. C)ii. ; and from Slirovetide to flicar-
ing-time again, at from 3,f. to t^s. 6d Something of this
method is pnrfued by the South Down flieep-farmers in the
fale of their Ihcep-lkms, as well as by thofe of feveral other
great flieep diftrids, by which great advantage often arifes.

SlIFJil' JVnJhin^-HnoLs, the long-handled hooks whicli
are made ufe of in wafliii.g fheep in fome places. The hooks
arc in thefe cafes fixed .U the fmall ends of the long handles,
in feveral different forms, as in that of fomewhat the manner
of an S ; that of two fmall forts of half circles, with a little
4t

llraight portion in the middle, to which the handle is joined,
and, in fhort, quite llraight portions. They arc very ufeful,
in fome inllances, in guiding and direAing the fheep in this
bufinefs.

SHEEi'-2"arr/, any fort of inclofed yard or place in which
fheep are confined and kept, either for the purpofe of bring-
ing forth their young, feeding, or fattening. Thefe forts of
yards are now becoming pretty general hi many fheep dif-
tricls, as well as fome other places. They are made in fe-
veral different ways, according to the nature of the fituatioa
and other circumflances ; and are often capable of being
formed in eafy, cheap, and convenient methods. See Sheep-
Fold, and SnEEP-Hou/e.

It is flated in the Agricultural Report of the County of
Oxford, that at Clifton, Mrs. Latham has one of the moll
complete fhecp-yards in it : a fhed furrounds three fides of
it, ill which are racks and troughs for the fheep to take their
food from ; it is thirty-one yards in length and fixteen in
breadth ; the fheds being five yards broad. This flieep-yard
does very well for two hundred ewes. The ewes are ufually
brought into the yard from four to fix weeks before the
lambing-time, and continued in it until that is over, going
out however in the day-time. This is faid to be confidered
as a very excellent method, but attention mufl be paid in it,
that the dung does not accumulate, as by its fermentatioa
the fheep are liable to be injured. It fliould, of courfe, be
carted out in a repeated manner. When not removed fo.
often as to prevent its taking on heat, it has alfo been found,
in Eifex, to prove dangerous to lambing ewes, as well as
ewes and lambs.

The fheds may be raifcd on the fides of thefe yards fo as
to ferve as fences alfo. Stubble, haulm, and other fimilar
matters, may likewife be made to form warm walls as the
out fide fences of them.

All yards of this fort fiiould be kept conflantly well
littered with fuitable fubftances of that kind, upon found-
ations laid with good earth, fand, or fome other proper
material.

In fome large fiiecp diflri£ls, as the South Down, in SufTex^
the farmers have fometimes two or three of thefe yards, which
are well Iheltered for the flieep to lie down in at night, in
very rainy and ftormy weather. In fome inflanccs a yard
of this nature, including the flieds, comprehends a fpace of
not lefs than three hundred and fifty-five fquare yards ; the
fheds around which are about four yards wide. The whole
are kept, for the moll part, thoroughly well littered down.
They arc commonly extremely warm, and found to prefervc
many lambs in bad weather. The whole of the circum-
ference around them, in fome cafe?, has a rack for contain-
ing hay.

In the Dorchellcr diflrid of the firll of the above counties,
natural grals being extremely fcarce, tlraw is given in large
quantities to fiieep, as foon as ever the frofly mornings come
on ; barley-ftraw is had recourfe to in thefe yards, or in Hand-
ing pens ; and afterwards bean and pea-llraw, which they arc
very find of: they pick off the pods and tops, and do very
well with thefe fubltances. Thefe forts of ffraw are occa-
fionally carted to the field for their ufe ; and what they do
not confume, brought back to the yards ; a praAice which
is purlned to the laving a great many tons of hay. SiicU
dung as is made in this way is found to be very good.

Peas may likewife be applied in ihefc yards, or other
ways, in fattening lambs, the mothers of which arc at turnips.
They are piven in trouglis, fix or eight weeks after the lamb*
have'bcen dropped. By the lambs having the liberty of running
tiirongh the openings in the hurdles, where the field mode
is followed, it is often fome time before ihey will take lo this

fort

SHEEP.

fort of food, but they moftly come on gradually, until a fcore
will eat a peck a day. Peas are fometimes given in this
manner, till they reach fix (hillings a bulhel, and found to
anfwer. A great many forts of food of thefe and other
kinds may be ufed with fuperior advantage for (hecp in thefe
yards, and a vail lupply of good manure be provided at the
fame time.

SuEEP-C/atter, in Rural Economy, a term applied in fome
fheep diftrifts to the perfon who has the care of clatting the
ewes juil before the lambing-time begins.

SHEEP-Lamier, a name given to the perfon who has the
care and management of the ewe-flocks, which are under the
ftate of lambing, in fome fheep diltrifts.- It is of very great
advantage to a (heep-farmer to have a careful, fteady, aftive
lamber, unlefs he attends to the bufincfs himfelf, which is
always the bell way where it can be done ; as few will be
found who are fufficiently attentive and diligent at this pe-
riod, and, of courfe, much Ic.fs may be fuitained. 'Where
perfons are hired for this purpofe, they fhould, it is fup-
pofed, be rather elderly than young, as being more expe-
rienced and lefs apt to be hally, as the bufinefs is intricate,
tedious, and often fubjeit to much trouble, confufion, and
diforder, which Hand in need of a great deal of patience to
have them properly attended to and rcftitied. If they are,
or have been lookers, it is fo much the better, but this is
far from being always the cafe, even in the principal fitua-
tions where flieep are kept. In the great fheep diftricl of
Romney-M.irlh, it is the cullom for the lambers to have the
fivins of the dead lambs as a pcrquifite; which are ukially fold
at about ^s, the dozen. This is certainly a bad practice,
as it tends to the making of rogues. The intereft of the
fheep-mallcr and his fervant, which ought to be the fame,
are feparated, as what is the lofs of the one is the c',ain
of the other, and much injury and difappointmcnt relult
from it.

In the above great dillrift for fheep, it is ufual for the
lamber to go his regular rounds at four o'clock in the morn-
ing, and to continue with the ewes until about feven or eight,
returning to the fields until dinner-time ; then going oif
again at one, and returning about five ; fetting oif on his
lafl round at fix o'clock, when he does not return until
dark. There is indeed fometimes fo much to do, that he
cannot com.e home above once or twice a day : the lambing
fhould on no account be ever left until the lamber has every
thing in a fair way, efpecially at the time of night.

SuEEP-Looier, the name of the perfon who has the
overlooking and management of the (heep-flocks, in fome
uiflriifts. Perfons of this kind fliould always be of careful,
Heady, active difpoiitions ; with fnfficient experience, and a
full knowledge of tlie different modes of fheep management.
See Shepherd.

Sheep LawLin^-Hooh and ATnrks, the inflruments of
the hook and mark kind, which are made ufe of in laying
hold of the lambs, and in marking them, in particular cafes
and circumilances. In the former the handle is about feven
feet in length, the head, or circular open part, three inches
in width ; the neck, or opening part to it, two inches and
one-eighth wide ; and the guide, or bill, fix inches and a
half in length. The latter have the handles about feven
inches and a half long, with llraight and curved or circular
marks at the ends, one inch and three-eighths in length, and
one inch and two-thirds in width, infide the circle. Thefe
inflruments arc vcrv ufeful on many occafions.

Sheep Hay-Rack, that fort of rack which is provided
for the ufe of fheep in their confumption of hay and other
forts of fodder of the fame nature. They are made in many
dillcrent ways, as open or covered on the tops, and boarded

or barred up a little height at the bottom part, as well as
raifed on low wheels, or wholly without them.

They are ufually from about fix to nine feet in lengtii,
and about two feet and a half in height ; the fpace for the
hay at the top about one foot ten inches, but which is fome-
times contrafted at the bottom fo as for the two fides to come
nearly together, ftanding out in the manner of common
horfe racks. The openings for the Iheep to feed through
from three, four, or five inches to feven or eight. The
fmaller they are the lefs lofs there will be, provided they are
fufficient for the flieep getting at the fodder. The bars and
boards put at bottom in fome forts of thefe racks prevent
the animals getting into them. When formed with covers
and fcrcens for keeping the hay or other food, and the fheep,
while feeding, from being wet ; they are the moft complete,
efpecially if, at the fame time, they be provided with low-
wheels, fo as to be c.-.pable of being moved from place to
place. In imall racks, where wheels are put at one end, they
can be eafily moved about.

Thefe racks are of very great ufe and convenience on all
farms where (lieep are kept in any quantity. See Rack.

Sheep Com-Ehi, any fort of trough or bin formed for
the purpofe of containing the corn, or any other fimiiar kind
of food for fheep, either in fattening, or in other modes of
managing them. Bins or troughs of this nature are ufually
contrived in a light manner, fo as to be moveable on low-
wheels ; having covers at fome height over them, fupported
from below by the ends and upright pieces in fomewhat the
roof-form, fo tliat the wet may be prevented from getting
to fuch provifions, and the flieep enabled to feed dry. They
are generally made very narrow, but of confiderable length,
the box or trough for the food having only the depth of a
few inches.

Sheep-bins of this fort are very neceffary and ufeful in many
kinds of flieep management.

SuEEV-Dung, the manure afforded by flieep, which, by
means of proper folding in yards properly littered with llraw,
ftubble, &c. may, in many cafes, be increafed to a confider-
able extent, fo as to render it an objeft with the farmer.
See Dung, Folding of Sheep, and Manure.

Sheep- Z)riJ/«j, a name fometimes given to thofe fmall
drains which are frequently formed upon the more loft and
damp fhccp-walks and paflures in different parts of the
kingdom, in order to render them in a Hate of greater dry-
nefs. They are often made not more than two feet in width
at the furfacc, and one fpit and the (hovelling in depth.
They are moil fuited to that fort of wetnefs where the bot-
tom is of a clayey or tilly nature. Such fort of work can,
in fome places, often be done at three-halfpence the rood of
fix Scotch ells; Thefe drains (liould conltantly have a
gentle (lope or declination acrols the declivities of the
grounds on which they are made.

SHEEP-Fann, that fnrt of farm which is principally
condufted iindtr fome fyftem of flieep management. Many
fituations are fuited to fome branch of this hufbandry, which
cannot be converted to the purpofes of raifing grain or fat-
tening cattle, &c. See Sheep, and Farm.

The more dry the lands are, and the more fine at.d (hort the
grafs is which is upon them, the better and more proper and
fuitablethey are, in general, for the purpofes of fheep-farms.
Where the fubllratum is of a lime-Hone quality, this is moftly
the cafe, in the mofl favourable degree. But in many in»
fiances now, arable farms are likewile (heep-farms, to a very
confiderable extent ; artificial food being grown and raifed
for the fheep-flock in fufficiently fuitable proportions.
There is probably much sdvantage in this combination in
all cafes in which it can be properly admitted. Sheep-
X farm*

SHE

SHE

farms fhould conftantly be formed with great attention to
the nature of the grafs, the expofure, and the ftielter for the
animals. They (honld alfo be kept dry and in good order
on the furface, with every fort of proper convenience for
the management of fheep. See SnEEP-Hu/bandry, and
Farming.

SHEEP-Leqfe, a term apphed to pafture-land appro-
priated to the feeding or fupporting of fheep ; or any fort
of pafture-land on which this kind of animal or live-ftock
is kept.

SHEEP-PaJlure, that kind of dry, firm pafture land which
is fuitable for the purpofes of grazing, feeding, and fatten-
ing fheep. Many forts of moill land are not at all proper
for, or adapted to this ufe, though well fuited for fome
other forts of farm management.

Sheep' s-Trotters, a refufe material procured from fell-
mongers, which is made ufe of in fome places as a manure to
be turned into the land. They are bought at about 6J. the
bufhel, loofely heaped, in fome places, and coil about ij.
more in carnage, being ufed in the proportion of from twenty
■ to forty bufhels the acre, bemg afterwards pricked in to
prevent their being eaten by dogs, crows, &c. They an-
fwer beil on fuch lands as are rather dry, and where the fea-
fon is rather moift. They contain a large proportion of
lime, and are often adulterated by being mixed with fand, as
well as oak faw-duft ; which laft is faid not to injure them.
Furriers' cuttings are nearly the fame, and made ufe of in a
fimilar manner.

Sheep'j Ceve, in Geography, a bay on the E. coaft of
Newfoundland, between Bay Robert and Port Grave.

Sheep IJland, a fmall ifland near the coad of South
Wales, E. of the entrance into Milford Haven. N. lat.
51° 38'. VV. long. 5° 9'.— Alfo, a fmall idand on the
northern coail of the county of Antrim, Ireland, oppofite
to the extreme point of the head-land, between Ballintoy
and Ballycallle, not far from the remarkable rock, called
Carrick-a-Rcde. N. lat. 55° 15'. W. long. 6" 11'.

SiHEEP-Fefcue Grafs, in ylgriculture, a fort of grafs which,
while it has been much praiicd by fome as iifefuTin paftures,
has been condemned by others as of little importance from
its fmallnefs, and being hable to be burnt up in dry fcafons.
It is faid to fuccecd wifth lefs moilture than moft other
forts of grafs. As forming a clofe-matted turf, where no
great produce is required, it may be found a beneficial
plant. See Fe^tuca ovina, and Grass.

SuEEV-Nnfe-M^rjrms, in Natural Hijlory, a fpccics of fly-
worm, found in the nofes of fheep, goats, and flags, and
produced there from the egg of a large two-winged fly.
The frontal finufes above the nofc in fheep, and other
animals, arc the places where thefe worms live, and attain
their full growth. Thefe finufes arc always full of a foft
white matter, which furnifhcs thefe worms with a proper
nourifhment, and are fufficiently large for their habitation;
and when they have here acquired their deitined growth,
in which they arc fit to undergo their changes for the fly-
ttate, they leave their old habitation, and, falling to the
earth, bury ihemfelves there ; and when thefe are hatched
into flies, the female, when file has been impregnated by the
male, knows that the nofe of a fheep, or other animal, is
the only place for her to depofit her eggs, in order to their
coming to maturity. Mr. Valifnieri, to whom the world
owes fo many difcoveries in the infeft clafs, is tlie (irll who
has given any true account of the origin of thefe worms.
But though their true hillory had been, till that time, un-
known, the creatures themfelves were very early difcovered,
and many ages fince were elleemed great medicines in
cpilepfies.

Vol.. XXXJI.

The fly, produced from this worm, has all the time of
its hfe a very laz.y difpofition, and does not like to make
any ufe either of its legs or wings. Its head and corcelet
together arc about as long as its body, which is compofed
of five rings, ftrcaked on the back ; a p.ile yellow and
brown are there difpofcd in irregular fpots ; the belly is of
the fame colours, but they are there more regularly dif-
pofed, for the brown here makes three lines, one in the
middle, and one on each fide, and all the intermediate
fpaces are yellow ; the wings are nearly of the fame length
with the body, and are a little inchncd in their polition,
f ) as to lie upon the body ; they do not, however,
cover it, but a naked fpace is left between them ; the
ailerons, or petty wings, which are found under each of the
wings, are of a whitifh colour, and perfeftly cover the
balancers, fo that they are not to be fecn without lifting
up thefe.

The fly will live two months after it is firft produced,
but will take no nourifhment of any kind ; and pofTibly it
may be of the fame nature with the butterflies, which never
take any food during the whole time of their living in that
ftate. Reaumur Hill. Inf. vol. iv. p. 552, &c.

SnEEV-Scahtous, in Botany. See Jasione.

SnZEV-Shank, in Sea Language, is a fort of knot, or
hitch, caft on a rope, to fhorten it as occafion requires';
particularly to increafe the fweep or length of a tackle,
by contrafting its runner. By this contrivance the body,
to which the tackle is applied, may be hoifted much higher,
or removed much farther, in a fhortcr time. Falconer.

Thus, if any weighty body is to be hoifted into a fhip, &c.
and it be found that the blocks of the tackle meet, or
lloch and block, before the objeA can reach the top of the
fide, it will be necefTary to lower it again, or hang it by
fome other method, till the runner of the tackle be fheep-
flianked, by which the blocks will again be fcparated to it
competent diftancc. Sec Rigging, Plate I. Jig- 16.

SHEEPCADE, in /Igriculture, a name provincially ap-
plied to the large flicep-loufe.

SHEEPENT, or Siieep.scot, in Geography, a river of
America, in the diftrift of Maine, which runs into the fea,
N. lat. 43° 43'. W. long. 69° 38'.

SHEEPHAVEN, a h-irbour on the northern coaft of
the county of Donegal, Ireland, fituated weft of the Mul-
roy, and fcparated from it by a long, and, in fume parts,
very narrow peninfula. The furrounding country is moun-
tainous, and thinly inhabited ; nor is there any town of
confequencc in the neighbourhood. Dunfanaghy, near
Hornhead, is no more than a village, though ruins near it
feem to indicate that it was formerly much larger. The fili-
ceous fand found in this diftrift is of excellent quality for
making glafs, and it is carried to Bclfall for that purpofe.
Undcrthc article Hornhead, a promontory which forms the
wcftcrn boundary of the harbour, we noticed, on tlu; autho-
rity of the late Dr. William Hamilton, in the Tranfadions
of the Royal Irifh Academy, the efleft of drifting fands in
overwhelming the veftiges of cultivation ; and tlir change
thus produced in the appearance of a country. A fimilar
effect took place on the euftern fide, which is thus defcribed
by the fame writer. " About a century ago, an elegant
edifice, according to the tafte of tliat age, was built on the
peninfula, between the harbours of Slieephaveii and Mulroy,
which at prefcnt Hands ' like Tadmor of the Eall, tlie foli-
tary wonder of a furrounding defert.' The gardens arc
totally denuded of trees and (hrubs by the fury of the
weftern winds : their walls, unable to fuftain the mafs of
overbearing fands, have bent bi fore the aocunuilated prcf-
fure, and, overthrown in numberlefs placvs, have given free
3 O patlagc

SHE

SHE

paffa^e to this reftlefs enemy of all fsrtility. The courts,
the (lights of fteps, the terraces, are all involved in equal
ruin ; and their limits only difcoverable by tops of embat-
tled walls, vifible amid hills of faiid. The manfion itfelf,
yielding to the unconquerable fury of the tempeft, ap-
proaches fad to deftruftion : the freighted whirlwind howl-
jnfjf through every avenue and crevice, bears incefiantly
along its drifted burden, which has already filled the
lower apartments of the building, and begins now to rife
above the once elevated thrtlholds. Fields, fences, villages,
involved in common defolation, are reduced to one undiltin-
guifhable fcene of fterile uniformity, and twelve hundred
acres of land are faid thus to have been buried, within
a (hurt period, in irrecoverable ruin." N. lat. ^^° 12'.
W. long. 7' 45'. Tranfaftions of the Irifli Academy,

vol. VI.

SHEEPSCUT, a river of the United States, which
joins the Kennebeck E. of i's mouth, and is navigable 20
or 30 miks. On the W. fide of this river is the excellent
port of Wifcafiet.

SHEEPSHEAD, a cape on the S. coail of Ireland,
between Bantry bay and Dunmannusbay. N. lat. 51- 29'.
W. long. 9 45'.

SHEER, a town of Candahar ; 40 miles W. ©f Ghizni.
Sheer, in jigriculture, a term ufed to fignify pure, clean,
unmixed, as in the cafe of grain-feeds, and many kinds of
fubllances.

Sheer, in Ship-Build'mg, the fore and aft curve or hang
of a (hip's fides or deck.

SuEt-K- Draught, the plan of elevation of a (hip, on which
is defcribed the out-boards works, as the (hee.'-rails, wales,
ports, drifts, head, quarter, poll, and ftern, &c. The hang
or (heer of each deck infide, tlie height of the water-lines,
&c. See Ship-buildixg, Plate I.

Sheer-//6o;{j-, are large iron hooks ufed when a fhip
defigns to board another.

SllEKliHu/i, is an old (hip of war of 74 guns, cut down
to the lower deck, or nearly fo, and fitted in the following
manner, to fix or take out the lower mafts of (hips in the
royal navy, as occafion requires. It has a malt fixed in
midlhips, about 33 inches in diameter, and 108 feet high,
fupported by (hores, the upper ihore 87, and the lower
{hore 81 feet long, and each 19 inches in diameter, their
heels relUng againil the infide, abreall the heels of the
fheers, which ase three in number, each com.pofed of two
pieces, 22 inches diameter, fcarfed together in the middle,
to make 116 feet in height. The heels rell upon the
outfide, abreail the mad ; the heads unite, and are firmly
•woolded together, and incline outwards, to hang over
the veiiel whole mafts are to be fixed or taken out. The
fheers are likewife fupported by a derrick, which is 100
feet long, and 22 inches in diameter. The mall is further
fecured by (hrouds and (lays, and the (heers by (lays and
large tackles, from the mall to each (heer. From the head
of the (heers depend two large tackles, by which the
largelt malls are raifed or lowered: the effort of thefe
tackles is produced by two capllerns, fixed on the hulk's
deck for this purpofe. There is alfo a lefs-fized tackle for
Hialting fmall velfels. See HuLK.
SuEER-Rai/s. See Rail.

SHEER-Straie, the upper ftrake or drakes on the topfide
in midlhips. It forms the chief drength of the topfide, and
is therefore thicker, and continued the wliole length parallel
to the top timber-fine and fcarfs at the butts between the
drifts.

SHEER-lVaks, thofe drakes of thick duff in the topfide
of thrcL-decked (hips, which are wrought between the

8

middle and lower deck ports. Sometimes they are called
middle-iualcs.

SuEEK-ll^nter, in OrnithoIo;:y. See SnE.\R-Water.

SHEER-BUCKS, in Geography, 3 town of Perfia, in
Khoradan ; 30 miles S.E. of Herat.

SHEERGOTTY, a town of Hindoodan, in Bahar;
68 miles S.S.W. of Patna. N. lat. 24= 30'. E. long.
84^ 56'.

SHEERGUR, a town of Hindoodan, in Malwa ; 30
miles N.W. of Ragoogur. N. lat. 24° 40'. E. long. 77°. —
Alfo, a town of Hindoodan, in the circar of Gohud ; 5
miles E. of Narwa. ,

SHEERING, or Shearing, in the Woollen Manufac-
tures, the cloth-worker or (heerman's craft, or' office; or
the cutting off, with large (heers, the too long and fuper-
fluous knap, or (h.ig, found on the furface of woollen fluffs,
fuftians, cottons, &c. in order to make them more fmooth
and even.

Stulfs are fliorn more or fewer times, according to their
quality and fincnefs.

Some ufe the X)\\rsXe Jheering of hats, for the paffing of
hats made of wool over the flame of a clear fire made of
draw, or fpray, to take off the long hairs : others call
l\i\i flaming, and olhers finging. Other hats, as cadors,
femicadors, &c. are (horn, by rubbing them over with
pumice-done» See H.AT.

Sheering, or Shearing, in Sea Language, a term ufed for
the motion of a (hip, when (he deviates from the •line of the
courfe, either to the right or left, fo as to form a crooked
and irregular path through the water, either by reafon that
(he is rot fleered fleadily, or on account of the fwift run-
ning of the tide, &c. in which cafe (he is (aid to (heer, or
go a (heering. Hence, to fheer off, is to remove to a
greater didance.

When (he lies at anchor, near port, &c. by reafon of
the fwift running of the tide-gate, &c. (he is often faid to
be in danger r>i fheering home her anchor, or Jheering q/horc.
See CiiE'ir-Rope.

SHEER MOHAMMED PETT, in Geography, a.
town of Hindoodan, in the circar of Condapilly, on the
borders of Golconda ; 21 miles W.N.W. of Condapilly.

SHEERNESS, a fea-port rnd market-town in the Ifle
of Shepey, and county of Kent, England, is feated at the
mouth of the river Medway, and has derived its origin
and importance from this circumdance. In the reign of
king Charles II. it was deemed advifeable to form a fort
here, to protect the entrance to the river ; and in 1667 that
monarch, with an engineer and other officers, furveyed this
fpot, and drengthened the works. The Dutch, however,
fent a fleet to this point, deilroyed the fortifications, and
failed up the Medwav, as far as Upnor cadle. After re-
turning again from this enterprife, the governmeut direfted
fome drong wurks to be formed here, becaufe tiie fpot was
deemed of great importance. A regular fortrefs was foon
condrufted, and mounted with a line of large and heavy
cannon : and at the fame time feveral fmaller forts were
built at different llations on the banks of the river. Since
that time Sheernefs has progrelfively been augmented and
drengthened by new works, and now conditutes a regular
garrifon. It is commanded by a governor, lieutenant-go-
vernor, a fort-major, and inferior officers : and the ordnance
eltablilhment is under the controul of a (lore-keeper, a
clerk of the cheque, and a clerk of the furvey. Adjoining
the fort is the king's yard or dock, which has been made
lubfequent to the former. This yard is chiefly ufed for
the repair of (hips that have been (lightly damaged, and for
building frigates and fmaller veilels. A refident connmif-

fioner.

i

SHE

fioner, with two clerks, a mafter-fhipwright, and other
officers, with libowrers, are ftatioiicd here.

A modern chapel has been eredled at the expence of
government; but in eccleliaftical rites and privileges this is
fubordinate to the parilh church of Minller. According to
the population reports of iSll, Sheernels was returned to
contain 134 inhabited houles, and 96 uninhabited ; and the
inhabitants, including the conviii-ts in the hulks, and inde-
pendent of the garrifon, were eltirr.ated at 1685. The
hulls of the (hips, called break-iuaters, are occupied by about
feventy or eighty families, and altogether prefent a very
Angular appearance, the chimnies being raifed of brick
from the lower gun-decks. The market-day at Shcerr.cfs
is Saturday, weekly.

For a long period, the garrifon and iniiahitants of Shcer-
nefs experienced a fcarcity of frcfh water, the chief lupply
being brought in veflels from Chatham ; but it was deter-
mined by the Board of Ordnance, that an attempt ihould be
made to fink a well within the fort ; and the execution cf
this was entrufted to tir Thomas Hyde Page, an able engi-
neer, whofe iltiU and perfeverance were f.iund fully equal to
the trull that had been repofed in him. The preparation cf
the materials, and the boring, to alcertain the difltrent (Irata,
were b.-gan in April, 1781 ; and the linking of the well
was commenced in June following. The land-fprings, &c.
which greatly interrupted the progrels of the work during
the firli 100 or 150 feet, were excluded by regularly ilein-
ing the infide of the well ; till, at kngth, the workmen
came to an immenfe ftratum of chalk, whicli prevented
the further neceffity of ileining, and enabled them to pro-
ceed with lefs inconvenience. They went on, however,
with great caution ; and having dug to the valt depth of
328 feet, the auger with which they were trying the llrata
dropt down, and the water rufhed up with fuch velocity,
that the workmen could hardly be drawn out with fufficient
hafte to elcape drowning. In fix hours it rofe 189 feet,
and in a few days was within eight feet of the top ; and has
ever fince produced a never-tailing fupply ; for, though con-
ftantly drawn from, it has never been lowered more than
20O feet. The quality of the water is fine and loft, and
it« temperature is fomewhat warmer tinn commonly happens
in other well". From tliis well, conjointly with that of
Queenborougli, not only the garrifon and inhabitants are
fupplied, but alf ) the fhipping which lie at anchor at the
entrance of the Midway. ( See Queenborough. ) Halled's
Hiftory, &c. of the County of Kent, fol. 1. 8vo. edit.
Canterbury, 1 798. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii.
by E. W.'Brayley, 8vo. 1806.

SHEERPOUR, a town of Hindoollan, in Bahar ; 43
miles S.S.W. of Patna N. lat. 24°55'. E. long. 85^ 10',
— Alfo, a town of Hind)ollan; 30 miles E. of Di-lhi. —
Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat ; 25 miles N.E. of
Dig.

SHEERS, in Shlp-Buitdingt are two mads or fpars, fet
acrofs at the upper end of each other, and there lafhed
together with tackles depending from the interfedion ; and
they are kept upright by guys extending each way from the
heads. The heels are Ipread and lafhed, or cleated, to
prevent their (lipping. By this contrivance very heavy
bodies are raifed, lucii as the Hem, (leru-frame, and the
frame-timbers of (hips : likewife (hips are malted by Ilieers,
or have their malts taken out where there is no (heer-hulk.

SHEET, in X\\e Manege. See Cai'ARIson'.

Sheet, m Sea Lrtngunge, a rope fattened to one or both
the lower corners of a (ail, to extend aiiJ retain it in a par-
ticular ftation. When a (hip fails with a lat r.ii wind, the
lower corner of the main and fore-fail arc taltened by a

SHE

tack and a (heet ; the former being to windward, and the
latter to leeward; the tack, however, is tnlirtly d fufcd
with a Item wnid, whereas the fail is never (pread without
the aflidance of one or both of the fhcets. The itay-fails
ar.d Itudd.ng-faiis have pnly one tack, and one fheet each ;
the itay-fail tacks are always faflened forward, and the
fheet drawn aft ; but the fluddirg-fall t;-.ck draws the under
clue of the lail to the extremity of the boom, uhereas the
fheet is employed to extend the iniv.oll. Falconer. See
She.its.

Sheet, To hale home the. See Homk.

Shzkt- Anchor, See Anchor.

StiizET -N at h. See Nail.

SiiKET-Sicpper. See Stopper.

SHEETING, a term fignifying the flooring of jointed
planks, under the lock-gates of a canal, and at the tail of
every lock and fluice, &c.

SHEFFIELD, John, in Biography, duke of Bucking-
hiimrtiire, fon of the earl of Mulgrave, was born in the year
1649. At the death of his father he fucceeded to his title •
tins was in the year 1658. At an early age he difmifled hi»
governor, but iupplying the want by his own indultry, he
acquired a confiderable proficiency in literature. His mar-
tial ardour broke out at the age of feventcen, when he en.
gaged in the firft Dutch war as a volunteer. The indica-
tions which he gave of the love of pleafure, united with lite-
rary talents, which had a peculiar value in the reign of
Charles II. rendered him a favourite at court, and he mate,
rially afhlted in the obtaining for Dryden the appointment
to the polt of laureat. At the commenctmeHt of the
fecond Dutch war, he was a volunteer in tlie fleet com-
manded by the duke of York, and was prefent at the battle
of Solebay, in which lie behaved with l"o much gallantry,
that on his return he was made captain of a fecond-rate (hip
of war. In the following year he was appointed colonel of
a regiment of foot under general Schomberg. In 1674 he
was decorated with the order of the Garter. He was, in
1679, appointed lord-lieutenant of Yorklhire, and governor
of Hull, in which year he wrote a piece, entitled " The
Charader of a Tory, in anfwer to that of a Tri.Timer." In
this we have an avowal of his political principles, j^-hich
were thofe of the party in whofe name he wrote, and to
which he adhered during life. lu 1680 he went out with
a force to the relief of Tangier, then invelled by the Moors.
In this expedition he completely fucceeded, and with it
ended the military fervices of lord Mulgrave. On the ac
celTion of James II. he was chofen of the privy. council, and
made lord-chamb.-rlaiii of the houfehold. He returned thele
favours by a zealous attachment to his mailer, which led
him to take a feat in the cccleliadical commiliion ; but in
this he oppofed thofe meafures of the pricltt; which brougiit
on the fpeedy ruin of that infatuated prince. Though
inimical to the revolution, yet he voted for the conjund
fovereigiity of king William with Mary. In 1694 he was
made marquis of Normanby ; iiotwithllandiiig this, and hii
admiHioii into the cabinet, with a penlion, yet he iliU had a
great didike to the king. On the accefliun, however, of
queen Anne, his former attachment to the court was revived,
and he experienced her favour by an appointment to the privy,
ieal, and by other honourf, which were terminated in lioj,
by a nomination to the dukedom of Buckiiighamlhire.
Jealous of the influence of the duke of Marlborough, he
religned the otllcc of privy-leal, and remained out ol ollicc
feveral years, during which lie built tlielioufe in St. James's
park, winch has, during thib reign, been the principal
relidencc of the queen. At the great change of the minillry
in 1 7 10, he was again introduced, llrll a« llcwird of the
3 O 2 houlc.

SHE

SHE

hourehold, and then as prefident of the council. After the
death of qjieen Anne he was an opponent of the court, and
employed his time chiefly in hterary purfuits, till liis death,
in 1721.

The duke had been thrice married, and each time to a
widow : his laft wife was a natural daughter of James II.,
by whom he had a fon that furvived him. Following the
example of the court of Charles II., he freely indulged in
licentious amours ; neverthelefs, it lias been faid that he
had occafionally ferious thoughts of religion, though pro-
bably not reftricfted to any particular party. The following
is the epitaph which he compofed for himfelf : " Dubius
fed non improbus vixi : incertus morior, fed inturbatus :
humanum eii nefcire et errare. Chriftum adveneror : Deo
confido omnipotenti, bcnevolentifllmo : Ens entium miferere
mei." This was infcribed on his magnificent monument in
Weltminfter Abbey, with the exception of the claufe refpeft-
ing Chrift, which bifhop Atterbury rejefted, thinking fimple
veneration a derogatory expreffion applied to the fecond
perfon in the Trinity.

In the capacity of poet, the duke of Buckinghamfhire
does not rank very high ; his compofitions are on a variety
of topics, of which, however, the chief is «' An Eday on
Poetry," which, according to Dr. Johnfon, contains judi-
cious precepts, which are fometimes new, and often hap-
pily exprefled, but with many weak lines, and feme ftrange
inftances of negligence. In his " Eflay on Satire," he
is fuppofed to have been affifted by Dryden, who, for fome
peculiarities in it, had the misfortune to be taken as the
real author.

The duke of Buckinghamfhire compofed two tragedies,
entitled " Julius Ca;far," and the " Death of Brutus ;"
for the latter of which, at his requeit, Pope wrote two
chorufles : of thefe Warburton fays, that they have the ufual
efFeft of ill-placed ornaments, they make the meannefs of
the piece more confpicuous. In the colledlion of the duke's
works are likewife hiftorical memoirs, fpeeches, eflays, &c.

Sheffield, or Sbeaffidd, in Geography, a large and
populous market and manufafturing town in the fouth
divifion of the wapentake of Strafford and Tickhill,
liberty of Hallamfhire, Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, England,
is fituated at the diftance of 36 miles S. from Leeds, and
162 N.N.W. from London. The origin and remote hif-
tory of this town are totallv unknown. In the 13th cen-
tury it was noted as a ftaple for articles of iron manufailure.
Chaucer, who wrote in the reign of Edward III., men-
tions the " Sheffield Wiiittle" in one of his poems. At that
period it was likewife diftinguifhed by a ftrong cafHe, which
flood at the north-eaft of the town, and is faid to have been
built during the fovereignty of Henry III. This caftle
defcended from the Lovetofts to the Nevils, lords Furnival,
and pafi'ed from them to the Talbots, earls of Shrewfbury,
and fubfequently to the Howards, dukes of Norfolk, in
whofe family the lordfhip of the manor is ftill veiled.
During the civil wars between Charles I. and his parliament,
Sheffield caftle fuftained a long fiege in the caufe of royalty,
but eventually furrendcred upon honourable terms, on the
lOthof Auguft, 1644, and was foon afterwards ordered to be
demohfhed, which feems to have been done moil effeftually,
as fcarcely a veflige of it can now be difcovered.

Though Sheffield, as already faid, was confidered as a
ftaple for iron manufaftures at a very early period, its trade,
for feveral centuries, was comparatively confined and pre-
carious, and confiited almoft entirely in the making of fheath-
knivea, fciffors, fickles, and fcythes. About the commence-
ment of the 17th century, an erdinary kind of tobacco-box
of iron,; and Jews' harps, began to be manufaftured here ;

10

and in 1625 the matter manufafturers were firfl incor-
porated by the ftyle of " The Company of Cutlers of
Hallamfhirc." This corporation is governed by a mafter,
elefted annually, fix fearchers, and twenty-four afTiftants,
and is the only body corporate yet exifling in Sheffield.
It was not, however, till after the year 1750, that this
town affuraed the rank it now holds in manufaftunng
opulence. Previoufly to that period, none of the rr.anu-
faAurers had extended their traffic beyond the limits of
Great Britain ; but in the fame year Mr. Jofeph Broadbent
opened a dirett trade with the continent ; and in 1751, the
river Don having been rendered navigable to within three
miles of the town, that facility was given to exportation,
which has fince proved fo beneficial to its manufafturing
intereils. Soon afterwards Mr. Thomas Bolfover began
to plate brafs and copper buttons with filver ; and in 1758
tlie filver plated manufafture was commenced on an exten-
five fcale by Mr. Jofeph Hancock, and has fubfequently
been profecuted with great advantage by a numerous clafs
of individuals. The opulence and population of the town
increaied from that time with great rapidity, and foon
gave rife to numerous conveniencies and improvements,
both ufeful and ornamental. In 1760, the firft flagc -coach
ftarted from Sheffield for London ; and in 1762, the
theatre and all'embly-room were built by fubfcription. In
1770, the firft bank in Sheffield was opened by Mr. Roe-
buck ; and in 1786, ttie new market-place was formed,
about the fame time tliat Meffrs. Prodlors eredled the firft
fteam-engine grinding-wheel. In 1793, hackney coaches
were introduced ; and in the fame year alfo was laid the
foundation of the General Infirmary. Thefe circumftances
are mentioned, becaufe they are calculated to difplay the
progrefTive benefits refulting from fuccefsful induftry and
ingenuity, the contemplation of which can fcarcely tail to
excite pleafurable emotions in every breaft.

To notice particularly the various articles manufaftured
at Sheffield of late years, would occupy too cTonfiderable .
a fpace to admit of the attempt. The two great divi-
fions of them are into cutlery and plated goods, each of
vs'hich branch out into numerous ramifications. The
manufafture of the latter is almoft entirely confined to the
town, and comprehends a great diverfity of articles : fuch
as tea-urns, coffee-pots, tankards, cups, candletlicks, and
other pieces of table furniture. The cutlery divifion em-
braces the making of edge-tools, combs, cafes, buttons,
fenders, files, anvils, joiners' tools, lancets, forks, hafts,
ink-ftands, nails, knives of every defcription, fciffors,
fcythes, fickles, awl-blades, bellows, &c. to which we fhall
only further add the refining of fteel. Many of tliefe
manufaftures are carried on in the country, as well as in
the town, efpecially in the villages and hamlets of Alter-
chffe, Bentfgreen, Brightfide, Butterthwaite, Caibrooke,
Darnal, Dyfon-Holmes, Dungworth, Ecclesfield, Greeno-
fide, Grimesthorpe, Hallam, Miln-houfes, Newfield-Green,
Ovvlerton, Pittfraoor, Stannington, Shircgrecn, Upper-
Heeley, Wadfley, Woodfeats, &c. ; all of which are
fituated within feven miles of Sheffield. Befides the above
manufaftures, there are in the town and its vicinity feveral
extenfive founderies for iron, brafs, and while metal.

Sheffield occupies a fine eminence at the confluence of
two rivers, the Sheaf, whence the name of the town is
derived, and the Don. In former times the houfes were
entirely built of ftone ; but for the laft century they have
been chiefly compofed of brick. There are few towns
wliich furpafs it in the regularity of its ftreets, many of
them running in a direft line, and difplaying a feries of
uniform and refpeftable edifices. Sheffield extends about

a mile

SHE

a mile in length, from north to fouth, and nearly as much
in breadth, from eaft to well. According to the popu-
lation cenfus of 1811, it contains 7927 houles, and 35,840
inhabitants, being an increafe of 4526 perfons fuicc 1801,
the date of the preceding report, notwithllanding the re-
tardation its manufafturing prolpcrity has fiiftaiiied during
that eventful period. According to Gofliiig's plan of the
town, made in 1732, there were 32 ftreets in Sheffield at
that time : in 177 1 thefe were increafed by 25 new itreets ;
and in 1792, feventeen additional llreets had been made.

Sheffield is not particularly diftinguiflied by the fupe-
riority of its public buildings, which are rather calculated
for purpofes of utility than for (how. The principal of
them are the Town-hall, built in 1700, Cutlers'-hall, the
General Infirmary, the allembly-room, and theatre, and four
churches belonging to the eilablifhment. Neither the
Town-hall nor Cutlers'-hall deferve attention as architec-
tural produftioBS ; but the infirmary' and theatre are hand-
fome ftruftures. The former, commenced in 179^, Hands
on the well fide of the town ; and in refpeft of iituation,
plan, medical aid, ar.d comfortable treatment, may vie with
almoft any fimilar inllitution in Great Britain. The latter,
which occupies the. fame building with the aflembly-room,
ftands in Norfolk-ltreet. The iour churches are Trinity
church, St. Paul's, St. James's, and a chapel belonging to
the duke of Norfolk's hofpital. Trinity church, anciently
called St. Peter's, is the parifh church of Sheffield, and
appears to have been eretled as early as the reign of
Henry I. On the fouth fide of the chancel is the Shrewf-
bury chapel, which contains four monuments to the
memory of the earls of Shrewfbury of the family of Talbot :
and on the north fide is a monument commemorating judge
Jetlbp of Broom-hall, and his lady. At tlie entrance to
the fame divifion of the church are depofited the remains of
William Walker, of Dariial, in this parilh, who is laid to
have been the executioner of Charles I. Bi-fides the above
churches, Sheffield contains fcven meeting-houfes for Pro-
tellant diflenters, one for Unitarians, two for Methodills,
one for Quakers, and a Roman Catholic chapel.

The duke of Norfolk's hofpital, mentioned above, ftands
on the eaftern bank of the Sheaf. It was founded and
endowed in 1670, by Henry, earl of Norwich, and received
a confiderable acceffion of property by Edward, duke of
Norfolk, in 1770. Tlie building confifts of two quad-
rangles, each containing eighteen dwellings, for the accom-
modation of eighteen men, and the fame number of women,
all of whom receive five (hillings a-week, with clotliing and
coals. Here is alfo an hnfpital founded by Mr. Thomas
HoUis, a merchant of London, in 1703, for poor cutlers'
widows ; likewife a free grammar-fchool, and two cliarily-
fchools ; one for boys, and another for .jirls.

The other objects of a public kind which remain to be
noticed are, the military barracks, fituatcd at the uorth-
eaftern extremity of the town ; and the bridges thrown
over the Sheaf and the Don. Tiiat upon the latter river
is called Lady's bridge, from a religious houfe, which for-
merly Hood near it, and was dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
It was built in 148J, but underwent great alterations and
improvements in 1762.

Sheffield lias two market days, weekly, Tucfday and
Saturday ; the firft for corn, &c. and the fecond for
butchers' meat. There are alfo fifh-markets on Monday
and Thurfday, and two annual fairs, one on the firll
Tucfday after Whitfun week, and another on the 28th of
November. A new market-place, with extenfive and com-
modious fliambles and other conveniencies, was fornnd and
finifhed here Aug. 31, 1786. Sheffield lupports a weekly

SHE

newfpaper, called the " Iris," which is edited by Mr. James
Mont^gomery, the author of "The World before the
Flood," and other interefting poems.

The fcenery in the vicinity of this town may be cha-
rafterized as romantic. It is furrounded by lofty hills,
commanding fine views over a populous and variegated
country. At the diftancc of about a mile and a half to the
eaft ward, ftand the ruins of Sheffield manor-houfe, the ancient
ieat of the earls of Shrewsbury, where cardinal Wolfey
was feized with the difeafe which terminated his life about
a week afterwards, at the abbey of Leicefter. Wharncliffe
park, the feat of the honourable James Archibald Stuart
Wortley, fituatcd on the river Don, fix miles to the north-
weit of Sheffield, is equally remarkable for the elegance of
its manfion, and the beauty of the furrounding grounds.
In the neiglibourhood of Sheffield are fome alum mines ;
and at Wiekerlley, near the town, is a quarry, which fup-
plies the manufatturcrs with grind-ftones for the finer articles
of cutlery. Aikin's Defcription of the Country round
Mancheiter, 4to. 1795. Magna Britannia, 4to. 1703.
Camden's Britannia, fol. edit, 1789. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland, 8vo. 181 2. Gentle,
man's Magazine, April and September, 1764.

Sheffield, a town of America, in the Itate of Vermont,

and county of Caledonia, containing 455 inhabitants.

Alfo, a town of the ftate of Mallachulctts, in the county of
Berkffiire ; incorporated in 1733, and containing 2439 in-
habitants. It is traverfed by Houfatonic river, which
fupplies water for feveral mills and river-works. South
mountain extends along the whole length of the town, on
the E. fide of the river.

SHEFFIELDIA, in Botany, Forft. Gen. t. 9, was fo
called by Forfter in honour of the Rev. Mr. Sheffield,
who;n he defignates as the chief botanift at Oxford. This
gentleman was, we believe, one of the companions of the
illultrious Banks, in the early part of his ftudies, and re-
tained to the la'l a love of the fcience, tliough without
having materially contributed to its advancement. He was
living as a fellow of a college, at rather an advanced age, in
1788. The genus in queltion is now funk in S.i.molus ;
fee that article

SHEFFORD, in Geography, a market-town in the
parifh ol Compton, hundred of Clifton, and county of Bed-
ford, England, is filuated at ttie diftance of 10 miles S.E.
from Bedford, and 41 miles N.N.W. from London. It was
formerly a place of much more importance than at prefcnt,
and had a large weekly market on Friday, which has now
become almoll nominal. Still, however, it podeifes the ad-
vantages arifing from f )ur annual fairs, held on the 23d of
January, Ealfer Monday, the 19th of May, and the loth
of Ottober. The two firft ufually aHord a large fupply of
iheep and cows; the third is lefs important ; and the fourth
is now onlv a holiday fair. ShefFord is a chapelry, having
diltintt officers of its own, and maintaining its own poor.
Here is a Roman Caltiohc chapel, endowed with an annual
ftipend left in trult for that purpofe. According to the
parliamentary returns of 1811, this town contained 123
honfea and 536 inhabitants.

In the p.irifh of Flitton, and at the diftance of about four
miles from ShefforJ, is Wreft Park, the feat of baronefs
Lucas, as reprefentative of the family of the Greys, earls
and dukes of Kent. In its prefcnt ftate the houfe retains
little appearance of antiquity, having been at various tiraej
altered and modernized. It contains a large collection of
portraits, forming nearly a complete ferics of all the mem-
bers of the noble family jnft mentioned, from Henry, earl
of Kent, one of the peers who lul on the ui»l of Mary,

queen

SHE

queen of Scots, down to the prefent time. Here are like-
■wiTe Icveral portraits of the Caw family, and olhrri- ; among
which are fir Randolph Crew, lord chief jiifticc of the court
of king's bench ; a fine piAure of Thomas lord Crei<', by
fir Peter Lely ; Nathaniel lord Crew, biihop of Durham ;
and the late lord chancellor Hardwicke.

The ffarden attacht-d to this manfion exhibits a fpecimen
of the old (lyle of arrangement and ornament, modified and
improved by the celebrated Brown, who formed the ferpen-
tine canal, which nearly furrounds the garden, and is fup-
plied by a ipring rifing near the houfe. At the fpring-
kad is a cold bath, over which is a building, defigned by fir
William Cliambers, in imitation of a Roman temple. The
late duke of Kent, who was very partial to this refidcnce,
adorned the gardens with obelifks, and other building^:,
particularly a magnificent banquetting houfe, which termi-
nates a fpacious avenue in front of the houfe. Lylons's
Magna Britannia, Bedfordlhire, 410. 1806. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. i. by John Britton and E. W.
Bravlev, 8vo. 1803.

SHE FN A L. See Shifpnal.

SHEHERON, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak; 15 miles E. of Kermanfliaw.

SHEHERVERD, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 30 miles S.W. of Sultania.

SHEHOUN, a town of Syria, under the jurifdiAion
of an independent aga, anciently called " Cappareas ;" 18
mile? N. of Hamah.

SHEHRBAN, or Shereban, a town of the Arabian
Irak, on the Diala ; 50 miles N. of Bagdad. N. lat. 34°
8'. E. long. 44° 5'.

SHEHRIGHERD, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 33 miles W.S.W. of Kom.

SfiEHRISTAN, a town of Perfia, in KhoralTan ; 210
miles W. of Herat. N. lat. 3 j° 10'. E. long. 56° 20'. —
Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chufiitan, or
Kuziftan ; 50 miles N.W. of Schiras.

SHEIB, a lake of Egypt ; 48 miles E.N.E. of Cairo.

SHEIDEK, a mountain of Switzerland, in the S.E.
part of the canton of Berne; 10 miles S.E. of Inter-
lacken.

SHEIK, or ScHEiK, in the Oriental Cujloms, the perfon
who has the care of the mofques in Egypt : his duty is the
fame as that of the imams at Conftaiitinople. There are
more or fewer of thefe to every mofque, according to its
fize or revenues. One of thele is head over the reft, and
anfwers to a parifli-priell with us, and has under him, in
large mofques, the readers and people who cry out to go to
prayers ; but in fmall mofques the llicik is obliged to do all
this himfelf. In fuch it is their bufinefs to open the mofque,
to cry to prayers, and to begin their {hort devotions at the
head of the congregation, who ftand rank and file in great
order, and make all their motions together. Every Friday
the rtieik makes an harangue to his congregation. Pococke's
Egypt, p. 171.

SnElK-Bellel, the name of an ofBcer in the Oriental
nations.

In Egypt the (heik bellet is the head of a city, and is
appointed by the pacha. The bufinefs of this officer is to
take care that no innovation be made, which may be pre-
judicial to the Porte, and that they fend no orders which
may hurt the liberties of the people. But all his authority
depends on his credit and intereft, not his office : for the
government of Egypt is of Inch a kind, that often the
people of the leaft power by their polls have the greateft
influence ; and a caia of the janizaries, or Arabs, and fome-
times one of their meaneft officers, an oda-bafha, finds means,

SHE

by his parts and abilities, to govern all thing?. Pococke's
Egvpt, p. 161.

SHEIKH AUT, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 8
mile'' N. of Klaiv.abad.

SHEIKH-ULJEBAL, Dominions of, or lord of the
mountains (cominoiily called the old man of the m.ountain)
compriffd the whole of that elevated trail in the province
of Azerbijan in the Perfian empire, which runs parallel
with the courle of the Kizilozein and the greater part of
Ghilaii. When dellroyed by Holaku, the Houlieines, or
Affaifins, pofieffed upwards of loO Itrong holds ; but the
refider.ce of the prince was generally confined to the callles
Roiidbar and Allah Ahmaut, both of which are fituatcd in
the Kohr Caucaufan, near Kazween.

SHEIKPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 28
miles E. of Bahar. N. lat. 2f 9'. E. long. 86° 3'.

SHEIMERS, a town of New Jerfey ; 34 miles N.W.
of Mornllown.

SHEK Abade', a town of Egypt, anciently called y/n-
tinoe ; 8 miles N. of Abu Girge.

Shek Ahdalla, a village of Syria, in the pachalic of
Aleppo, where are fome Ipriiigs of water; 20 miles S.E.
of Aleppo.

Shek Abu Ennur, a town of Eg)'pt ; 7 miles S. of
Benifuef.

Shek /Immer, a town of Egypt, fituated on the Nile ;
17 miles N. of Svene.

Shek Embade, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of ■
the Nile ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Girge. iT

Shek Eredi, or Haradi, a town of Egypt, on the E.
fide of the Nile. Here is the tomb of a Turkifii laint,
who after his death is (aid to have been metamorphofed into
a ferpent, which never dies, and is confulted as a phyfician ;
8 miles N.N.E. of Achmim.

Shfk ;'/ Etman, a town of Egypt, on the Nile ; 7 miles
S.S.W. of Cairo.

Shek Fadle, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile ; 10 miles S. of Abu Girge.

Shek Z,einedd'm., a town of Egypt, on the left bank of
the Nile ; 3 miles N. of Tahta.

SHEKEL, Shekle, ShecUe, Sidus, an ancient Hebrew
filvcr coin, which was originally a didrachm, but, after the
Maccabees, about the value of the Greek tetradrachm, or
four Attic drachmas, or four Roman denarii, allowing the
drachma and denarius to be of the fame value ; and, accord-
ing to Mr. Raper's valuation of the drachma at 9''. 2 86,
equal to 37"*. 144. See Denarius and Drach.m.

In the Bible, the (hekel is fomctimes alfo rendered fo/idui,
and fometimes_^<7/^r.

The Jewilh doctors are in great doubt about the weight
of the (hekcl ; and it is only by conjefture, and by the
weight of the modern (hekel, that the ancient one is judged
equal to four Attic drachmas.

Father Souciet has defcnbed feveral of thefe (hekels in
his Ditlertation on the Hebrew Medals. By the way he
obferves, that the third and fourth parts of a (ht-kel, de-
fcribed by Waferus, de Aut. Numb. Heb. are counterfeits
of that author.

The Hebrew (hekel, according to F. Merfenne, weighs
268 grains, and is compofed of 20 oboli, each obolus
weighing 16 grains of wheat. This, he fays, is the jull
weight, as he found by weighing one in the French king's
cabinet. He adds, that fuch as come (hort of this weight
have been filed or clipped. Bi(hop Cumberland tells us,
he has weighed feveral, and always found them near the
weight of a Roman femuncia, or half ounce. Mr. Raper
infers from various confidcrations (fee Drach.m), that the

mciB

S H E

S H E

mean didracKm, of 133 troy grains, mult be very near its
juft weight, and its half, or 665 grains, that of thf Attic
drachm. The weight of the fhekel would therefore be
665 X 4 = 266 troy grains.

Some are of opinion, that the Hebrews had two kinds
of (hekels , the common, ov profane fhekel, called didrachma ;
and the (hekel of the fanduary ; which lall they will have to
be double the former. By this expedient th'.y think we
may get clear of fome difficulties occurring m Scripture,
■where things are mentioned as of incredible weight ; parti-
cularly that paffage where it is faid, that every time Abfa-
lom cut off his hair, the weight of which ufed to incom-
mode him, he cut off the weight of two hundred (hekels.

But Villalpandus will rot hear of fuch a diilinttion ; nor
do bifhop Cumberland, M. Morin, Greaves, &c. take the
opinion to have any foundation. The profane fhekel, or
(hekel of four drachmas, they agree, was the fame with
the facreii fliekel ; and it was only called by this lall na'r.e,
becaufe the ilandard of it was kept in the fanftviary by the
priefts.

Greaves apprehends, that the Tpuxovra afyvftx, or 30
pieces of filver, which were given to Judas, as the reward
of his treafon, were 30 fhekels. Some modern writers, he
fays, imagine they were 30 denarii, and others, that they
were tri/tnta Vthrti, or tnginta talenta. Greaves's Works,
vol. i. p. 257, note n.

It is maintained by feveral, that the Jews had alfo a gold
ftiekel, fulus aureus, of the fame weight with the filver one ;
and valued at 1/. i6j. 6d. fterling.

The (hekel is fuppofed to have been firit (truck in the
Defert, on the footing of lOO to the Attic mina, weigliing
l6o grains of wheat, and current for 10 geratis, or oboli ;
but that afterwards they were (track of double that weight.
Some will have the fhekel to be the oldeft piece of money
in the world, as being in ufe in Abraham's time ; but this
was not coined, or Itamped, nor had any other value be-
fides its intrinfic worth.

Xenophoii mentions (hekels as current in Arabia ; and
Dii-Cange fpcaks of othersi (truck and current in England.
Pinkerton, in his Effay on Medals, (vol. i. p. 291.) (ug-
gelts, that the Hebrew fliekel, and alfo the brafs coins, with
Samaritan charafters, were not molt of them later than the
• Chrillian era, and generally the fabrications of modern Jews.
At any rate, the fame imprefiion of a fprig on one fide, and
a vafe upon the other, runs throu;^h all the coins of that
barbarous nation ; and the admiflion of but one of them is
rightly elteemed to be almoll a difgrace to a cabinet.

SHEKIDJEK, in Geography, a town of Gr.nnd Bu-
charia ; Go miles N.W. of Saganian.

SHEKOABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Dooab ; 60
miles W. of Canoge. N. lat. 27-9'. E. long. 79'^ 2'.

SHI'IL.'VH, a tovvn of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, near
the Black fea ; 12 miles N. of Ilmid.

SHELAN, a town of P.rfia, in the province of Far-
(illan, near the Perfian gulf; 75 miles S.S.W. of Jarom.

SHELBURN, a town of America, in the province ot
Vermont, and county of Chittend-n, on the E. fide of lake
Champlain, containing 987 inhabitants.

SiiuLuuuN Bay, a bay on the N. coad of New Hol-
land, between Oxfordnefs and Cape Grenvillc.

SHELBURNE, (ometimcs called Port Rofetvay, a fea-
port town of Nova Scotia, at the head of a bay, in the
S.W. part of the province. At the conclufion of the
American war, this place was made the feat of royalty, and
it was defigned to ereft many buildings here, and in 17H3 it
contained above 600 families : but being neglefted and un-
able to defend thcmfclves, many of them afterwards left

the town ; 90 miles W. of Halifax. N. lat. 43* 50'. W.
long. 63" 15'.

Shelburne, a town of America, in the province of
MalTachufetts atid county of Hampfliirc, containing 961 in-
habitants ; 98 miles W. of Bolton. — Alfo, a town of New
Hamplhire, in the county of Cors, incorporated in 1769,
and containing 176 inhabitants.

SHELBY. SeeSllEBBY.

SHELDAFLE, a name ufed in feveral parts of the
kingdom for the chaffinch.

SHELDON, GlLiiEiiT, iii Biography, arclibifliop of
Canterbury, was born in 1598, at Stanton, in StafTordlhire.
His father was a menial fervant of Gilbert, earl of Shr^-wi-
bury, though defcended from an ancient family in Stafford-
(hire. The fubjetl of this article took his name from the
earl, who was his god-father. Having laid the foundation of
a good education, he was entered of Trinity college, Oxford,
in 161 3, and after taking the ufual degrees was eleiSed fellow
of All Souls' college, in 1622. When he had taken orders
he became chaplain to lord keeper Coventry, who made ufe
of his fervices on various important occafions. As a reward
for tliefe fervices he prefented him with a prebend of Glo-
celter, and recommended him to his majelly, as one ex-
tremely well verfed in pohtical affairs. When he had taken
his doctor's degree, in 1634, he wa? elefled warden of All
Souls' college. He was alio chaplain in ordinary to the king,
and clerk of the college, and was in the road to farther pre-
ferment when the civil wars broke out, ai:d checked his ca-
reer. He was a zealous adherent to the royal caufe, at-
tended the king on various occafions, and rendered himfelf
obnoxious to the parliament : on which account he was
ejedted from his wardenfliip, and imprifoncd fur fix months.
On his liberation, he retired to his friends in the country,
and from his own purfe, and the contributions of others,
he fent frequent fupplies to Charles H. during his exile.
On the relloration he received ample rewards for his fuffer-
ings and Ready loyalty, being reitored to his offices, and pro-
moted to the fee of London.

The conference between the epifcopal and prefbyterian
divines in 1661, was held at the Savoy, in bilhop Sheldon's
lodgings. On this occafion he is accufed by the oppofite
party of want of fairnefs, and he reje£led the propolal of
an amicable difcuffion, and infilled that the Prefbyterians
lliould firft bring in writing all their objeftions againft the
liturgy, and all the additions which they propofed. He did
not appear often at the conference, and never entered into
difpiitation, yet he was known to have had the principal
fliare in the determination. To conciliate was not his ob-
jedt ; he was refolved to carry his point by power : when it
was deba.*.cd in council in Augult 1662, whether the aft of
Uinrormity fliould be punttually executed that month, or be
fufpended for a tin-.e, bilhop Sheldon pleaded againll the
fufpeiifion, and carried the council with him. " If," fays
his biographer, " in thefe and other iiillances he appears too
much the political churchman, in public fpirit and muni-
ficence he lulLiiiied, after an exemplary manner, the cha-
raiter of a great prelate. He expended large luins upon
the epifcop.al iioufes of the fee of London, and being in
K.65 tranllated to that of Canterbury, he rebuilt the library
at Lambeth, and made many additions to its contents."

On the removal of lord Clarendon from the chanccllor-
(liip of the univerfity of Oxford, he was chofen to luccced
him in December 1667, and he immortalized his name in
that univerfity by the ereftii-n, .it his fole ex pence, of the
celebrated theatre at Oxford. Of this atl bilhop Lowth fays,
" iMuiius dignuni audore — quod cum intueor et circum-
fpieio vidcor mihi in ipfa Roma, vel in mcdiis Athenis, an-

tiquis

SHE

SHE

tiquis illis, et cum maxime florentibus verfari." This edi-
fice was opened in July 1679, and almoft immediately after
the archbilhop refigned the chancellorlhip, and retired from
all public bulinefs : during the latter part of his life he
chiefly rclidcd at Croydon. He died at Lambeth, OB the
9th of November, 1677, in the 80th year of his age.

This prelate appears to have been more attached to the
duties of morality, than to the profefRon of any particular
doftrinei of rehgion : to young men of rank his advice
was always this : " Let it be your principal aim to become
honell men, and afterwards be as devout and religious as
you will. No piety will be of advantage to yourfelves or
others, unlefs you are honell and mora) men." Burnet fays
that " he feemed not to have a deep fenfe of rehgion, if any
at all, and fpoke of it commonly as an engine of govern-
ment, and a matter of pohcy ;" but he allows that he was
a very generous and charitable man. From his own books
it appears, that from the time of his becoming biihop of
London till his death, he expended for public and charitable
ufes 66,000/. He publifhed a fermon at the thankfgivmg
for the king's relloratiou. He was intimate with Chilling-
worth, and found means to overcome his fcruples refpefting
fubfcriptioii to the articles of the church of England.

Sheldon, formerly Hungerford, in Geography, a poft-
town of America, in the (late of Vermont, and county of
Franklin, containing 883 inhabitants; 14 miles E. of lake
Champlain.

SHELE, a river of England, in the county of North-
umberland, which runs into the Tyne, near its head.

SHELF, a term ufed by tiie miners in many parts of
England, to exprefs a dillinftion of the inner tlruClure of
the earth, fo little known to philofophers, that they have
no word to exprefs it by. Thefe workmen fometimes alio
exprefs it by the term fajl ground, or faji country. What
they mean by this is, that part of the earth, which they
find lying even, and in an orderly manner, and evidently
having attained its primitive form and fituation, unmoved by
the waters of the general deluge, while the circumjacent,
and upper ftrata, have plainly been removed, and tofled
about.

It is evident to reafon, that there mud have been a verj'
violent concufiion of the fuperficial part of the earth, in the
time of its being covered by the waters of the deluge ; and
experience as much evinces this as reafon. Before this con-
cuflion it appears probable, that the uppermofl furface of
mineral veins, or loads, did in mofl places lie even with the
then furface of the earth. The remains of this furface,
found at different depths in digging, the miners exprefs by
the word Jhelf.

In this concuffion of the waters covering the whole earth,
its natural furface, together with the uppermofl; furface of
thofe mineral veins, were then in many places loofened, and
torn off; and the earth, and with it the mineral nodules,
called /hoad-flones, were carried down with the defcending
waters from hills into the adjacent vallies, and fometimes
into the ftreams of rivers, by which they were wafhed to
yet greater didances from their original place. On this de-
pends the method of training mines. Phil. Tranf. N° 69.
See Training.

SHELFY, or Sl.\ty Soil, in Agriculture, that fort
which is chiefly formed of a kind of thin laminated, brittle,
flaty material, or which has it much mixed and incorporated
with its other earthy parts. It is a prevailing fort of land
in fome diflrifts ; this fort of rotten flaty matter being
largely intermixed with the light loamy mould that confti-
tutes the earthy parts of it.

Where the fubfoil or fubllratum is a fchiftus, or foft

flate, as is the cafe in fome places in Cornwall, there is
great difference, in point of fertility, in the land, according
as the difpofition of the lamim is more flat, or the con-
trary ; as when flat, the furface is more retentive of the
manure which is employed ; but when on the edge, what is
called a greedy or hungry fort of land is formed, that per-
raits the manure to be wafhed down through it in too ready
a manner, and be loil. See Soil.

SHELL, Testa, in Natural Hijlory, a hard calcareoui
crull, ferving to cover and inclofe a kind of animal, hence
called tejlaceous. See Conchology and Testaceology.

Shells, ColkHing and cleaning of. See Conchology. ,

Shell.s, Figures and Colours, isfc. of. It is obferved, fl
that river-fhells have not fo agreeable or diverfified a colour •
as the laud and lea-lhells ; but the variety in the figure, co-
lours, and other charafters of fea-fhells, is almoft infinite.
The number of dulindl fpecies we find in the cabinets of
the curious is very great ; and doubtlefs the deep bottoms
of the fea, and the yet unfearched fhores, contain multi-
tudes more, yet unknown to us. Even the fame fpecies
ditter in fome degree in almoft every individual, fo that it is
rare to find any tu o ftiells which are alike in all refpefts.
Bonan. Recreat. Ment. et Ocul. p. 49.

This wonderful variety, however, is not all the produce
of one fea, or one country ; the different parts of the world
afford us their different beauties. Bonani obferves, that the
moft beautiful (hells we are acquainted with come from the
Eaft Indies, and from the Red fea. This is in fome de-
gree countenanced by what is found to this day ; from the
general obfcrvations of the curious, it feems that the fun,
by the great heat that it gires to the countries near the line,
exalts the colours of the fhells produced there, and gives
them a luftre and brilliancy, that thofe of colder climates
always want ; and it may be, that the waters of thofe vait
feas, which are not fubjecl to be weakened by frefh rivers, m
give a nourifhment to the fi(h, that may add to the brilliancy I
of their (hells. ^

The ftiores of Afia furnifli us with the pearl oyfters and
fcallops in great perfection. About Amboyna are found J
the moft beautiful fpecimens of the cabbage-fhell, the arro- H
fuir, the ducal mantle, and the coral oyilers, or echinated
oyfters. Here alfo are found a great variety of extremely
beautiful mufcles, tellinje, and volutas ; fome fine buccinums,
and the (hell called the Ethiopian crown, in its greateft per-
fection.

The dolia, the murices, and the caffandrx, are alfo found
on thefe coafts in great beauty. Many elegant fnails and
fcrew-fhclls are alfo brought from thence ; and finally the
ferapion and fpider-fhells. Hift. Nat. Eclairc. p. 168.

The Maldive, and Phihppine iflands, Bengal, and the
coaft of Malabar, abound with the moft elegant of all the
fpecies of fnails, and furnifh many other kinds of fhells in
great abundance and perfeftion.

China abounds in the fined fpecies of porcelain fhells, and
has alfo a great variety of beautiful fnails.

Japan furnifhes us with all the thicker and larger bi-
valves ; and the ifle of Cyprus is famous above all other
parts of the world, for the beauty and variety of the patella,
or limpet, found there.

America affords many very elegant fhells, but neither in
fo great abundance nor beauty as the fhores of Afia.

Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we
have befide, from the fame place, fome good porcelains,
and a very fine fpecies of dolium, or concha globofa, called
from this place the Panama purple (hell. One of the mofl
beautiful of the cylinders is alfo known among our na-
turalifts under the name of the Panama fhell.

About

SHELLS.

About Braiil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found
murices and dolia of extreme beauty, and alfo a great variety
of porcelains, purpurae, peftens, neritz, bucardias, or heart-
iheils, and elegant limpets.

The iflc of Cayenne affords one of the mod beautiful of
the buccinum kind, and the Midas ear is found principally
about this place.

Jamaica, and the idand of Barbadoes, have their (hores
covered with porcelains, chamae, and buccina ; and at St.
.Domingo thrre are found almoft all the fame fpecies of (hells
that we have from the Eall Indies, though they are lefs beau-
tiful, and the colours more pale and dead. The pearl oyiter
is found alfo on this coatl, but fmaller than in the Perfian
gulf. At Martinico there are found in general the fame
(hells as at St. Domingo, but yet lefs beautiful.

About Canada are found the violet chamre, and the lakes
of that country abound with mufcles of very elegant pale
blue and pale red colours ; fome fpecies of thefe are re-
markably light and thin ; others are very thick and heavy.

The Great Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in
(hells : the principal kinds found there are mufcles of feveral
fpecies, fome of which are of confiderable beauty.

About Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl (hells,
but thev are not of fo brilUant colours as thofe of the Perfian

The ifland of Magellan, at the fouthern point of America,
furnirties us with a very remarkable fpecies ofmufcle, called
by its name ; and feveral very elegant fpecies of limpets are
found there, particularly the pyramidal.

In Africa, on the coaft of Guinea, there is a prodigious
quantity of that fmall fpecies of porcelain, which is ufed
there as money ; and there is another fpecies of porcelain on
the fame coail, which is all over white : the women make
bracelets of thefe, and the people of the Levant adorn their
hair with them.

The coatt of Zanguebar is very rich in (hells : we find
there a valt variety of the large porcelains, many of them of
great beauty ; and the nux maris, or fea-nut, is very fre-
quent there. Befide thefe, and many other (hells, there arc
found on this coaft all the fpecies of nautili, many of which
are very beautiful.

The Canary Ides are found to abound with a vaft variety
of the murices, and fome other good (hells ; and we have
from Madeira great variety of the echini, or lea-eggs, dif-
ferent from thofe of the European fcas. Several fpecies
of mufcles are alfo common there, and the auris marina is no
where more abundant.

The Red fea is beyond all other parts of the world abun-
dant in (hells, fo that fcarcely any kind is wanting there ; but
thofe wc principally have from thence are the purpurae, porce-
lain?, and echini marini.

The Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain a great
variety of fliells, and many of very remarkable elegance and
beauty : they are upon the whole, however, greatly inferior
to thofe of the Ealt Indies. The Mediterranean abounds
much more in Ihells than the ocean.

The gulf of Tarcntum affords great variety of purpurse,
of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oylters ; the coails of
Naples and Sardinia afford alfo the fame, and with them a
vaft number of the folens of all the known fpecies.

The ifland of Sicily'v s famous for a very elegant kind of
oyiter, which is white all over ; pinnx marina; and porce-
lains are alio found in great plenty there, with tellinse aud
chamx of many fpecies, and a great variety of other beau-
tiful (hells.

Corlica is famous beyond all other places for vaft quan*
Vol. XXXIl.

titles of the pinnse marina;, and many other Ttry beautiful
(hells are found there. Lifter, Hift. Conchyl.

About Syracufe are found the gondola (hell, the alated
murex, and a great variety of elegant fnails, with fome of
the dolia and ncritar.

The Adriatic fea, or gulf of Venice, is lefs furnilhed
with (hells than almoft any of the fcas thereabout. Mufcles
and oyfters of feveral fpecies are, however, found there,
and fome of the cordiformes or heart-(hells ; there are alfo
fome tellina;. About Ancona there are found valt number*
of the pholades buried in (tone, and the aures marinac arc
particularly frequent about Puzzoli. Bonani. Recreat.
Ment. et Ocul.

The ports of Marfeilles, Toulon, and Antibes, are full
of pinnre marina;, mufcles, tellinx, and chamae. The coafts
of Bretagne afford great numbers of the conchae anatiferae
and pouffepieds ; they are found on old rotten boards, oa
fea fubftances, and among clufters of fpunges.. The other
ports of France, as Rochelle, Dunkirk, Bre(t, St. Maloes,
and others, furnilh oyfters, excellent for the table, but of
the common kind, and of no beauty in their (hells; great
numbers of mufcles are al(o found there ; and the common
tellinae, the onion-peel oyfters, the folens, and conchas ana-
tiferae, are alfo frequent (here. At Granville, in Lower
Normandy, there are found very beautiful peftens, and fome
of the cordiformes, or heart-(helU. Our own Enghlh caalti
are not the leaft fruitful in (hells, though they do not pro-
duce fuch elegantly painted ones as the Indies.

About Plymouth are found oyfters, mufcles, and folens,
in great abundance ; and there, and on molt of our other
(hores, are numbers of the aures marinx and dentalia, with
peftens, which are very excellent food ; and many elegant
fpecies of the chamx and tellinx are fi(hed up in the fea about
Scarborough, ar.d other places.

Ireland affords us great numbers of mufcles, and fome very
elegant fcallop (hells in great abundance, and the pholades
are frequent on moft of our (hores. We have alfo great
variety of the buccina and cochlex, fome voluti ; and oo
the Guernfey coaft a peculiarly beautiful fnail, called thence
the Guern/ey-fnall.

The coafts of Spain and Portugal afford much the fame
fpecies of (hells with the Eaft Indies, but they are of much
fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty. Hift. Nat.
Eclairc. p. 172.

There are, according to Tavernier and others, fome river*
in Bavaria, in which there are found pearls of a lino water.
About Cadi/, there arc found very large pinnx marinx, and
fome (ine buccina. The ides of Majorca and Minorca afford
a great variety of extremely elegant (hells. The pinnz
marinx are alfo very numerous tiicre, and their iilk is
wrought into gloves, (lockings, and other things. The
Baltic affords a great many beautiful fpecies, but parti-
cularly an orange-coloured pedten, or fcallop (hell, which
is not found in any other part of the world.

The frc(h-watcr (hells are found much more frequently,
and in much greater plenty, than the fea kinds ; there ia
fcarcely a pond, a ditch, or a river of frelh water, in any part
of the world, in which there are not found vaft numbers of
thefe (hells with the li(h living in them. All thefe Ihells are
fmall, and they are of very little beauty, benig ufually of
a plain greyidi or brownilh colour. Our ditches altord u»
chamx, buccina, neritx, and lonu- palelLx' ; but the Nile,
and fome other rivers, furnidied the ancients willi a lpccic»
of tellina, which was large and rat.ible, and fo much (iipcriur
to the common fea tellina in ll.ivour, that it ia lonunonly
known by the name of tellina retia, the ro^at ttllina,

3P Wc

SHELLS.

We have a fmall fpeciee of buccinum common in our
fre/h waters, which is very elegant, and always has its oper-
culum in the manner of the larger biiccina ; a fmall kind of
Tnufcle is alfo very common, which is fo extremely thin and
tender, that it can hardly be handled without breaking to
pieces.

The large frefh-water mufcle, commonly called in England
the horfe mufcle, is too well known to need a defcription,
and the fize of this gives it a difference from all other frefh-
water (hells.

Shells, Policing ef. ( See Conchology. ) This is an
art of no long ftanding in the world, in its prefent per-
feftion ; and as the love of fca-ftiells is become fo common
among us, it may not be difagreeable to the reader to find
fome inftruftions in executing fo pleafing a method of adding
to their natural beaui}'* the ndes for which are at prefent fo
little known, though the effett of then: be fo much cfteemed.

Among the immenfe variety of fhells which we are ac-
quainted writh, fome are taken out of the fea, or found on
its Ihores in all their perfeftion and beauty ; their colours
being all fpread by nature upon the furface, and their natural
pohfh fuperior to any thing that art could give. Where
nature is in herfelf thus perfeft, it were madnefs to attempt
to add any thing to her charms ; but in others, where the
beauties are latent and covered with a coarfer outer fjcin, art
is to be called in, and the outer veil being. taken off, all the
internal beauties appear.

Among the fhells which are found naturally poliflied are
the porcelains, or cowries, the caflanders, the dolia, or
conchs globofae or tuns, fome buccina, the volutes, and the
cyhnders, or olives, or, as they are generally though im-
properly called, the rhorabi ; excepting only two or three,
as the tiara, the plume, and the butter-tub rhombus ; where
there is an unpromifing film on the furface, hiding a very
great (hare of beauty within. Though the generality of the
ihells of thefe genera are taken out of the fea in all their
beauty, and in their utmoft natural polini, there are feveral
other genera, in which all, or mod of the fpecies, are taken
up naturally rough and foul, and covered with an epidermis,
or coarfe outer (Icin, which is in many rough and downy, or
hairy. The tellinae, the mufcles, the cochleae, and many
others, are of this kind. The more nice colleftors, as na-
turalilts, infill upon having all their (hells in their native and
genuine appearance, as they are found when living at fea ;
but the ladies who make colleftions hate the difagreeable
outfides, and will have all fuch polilhed. It would be very
advifeable, however, for both kinds of colleftors to have the
fame fhells in different fpecimens, both rough and polifhed ;
the naturalift would, by this means, befides knowing the
outfide of the (hell, be better acquainted with its internal
charaflers than he othcrwife could be, and the lady would
have a pleafure in comparing the beauties of the (hell, in its
wrought ftate, to its coarfe appearance as nature gives it.
How many elegancies in this part of the creation mull be
wholly loll to us, if it were not for the alTiflance of an art
of this kind ! Many fliells in their native flate arc like
rough diamonds, and we can form no jull idea of their
beauties till they have been pohlhed and wrought into
form.

Though the art of polifhing fliells is a very valuable one,
yet it is very dangerous to the fhells ; for without the utmoll
care, the means ufed to polifh and beautify a fliell often
wholly deftroy it. When a fliell is to be polifhed, the firil
thing to be examined is whether it have naturally a fmooth
lurface, or be covered with tubercles or prominences.
A fhell which has a fmooth furface, and a natural dull

12

polifh, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with a piece
of chamoy leather, with fome tripoli, or fine rotten ftone,
and will become of a perfeftly bright and fine pohfh.
Emery is not to be ufed on this occafion, becaufe it wears
away too much of the (hell. This operation requires the
hand of an experienced perfon, that knows how fuperficial
the work mult be, and where he is to (lop ; for in many of
thefe fliells the lines are only on the furface, and the wear-
ing away ever fo little of the fhell defaces them. A fhell
that is rough, foul, and crufty, or covered with a tartareous
coat, mutt be left a whole day fteeping in hot water ; when
it has imbibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed
with rough emery on a flick, or with the blade of a knife,
in order to get off the coat. After this it may be dipped in
diluted aqua fortis, fpirit of fait, or any other acid ; and
after remaining a few moments in it, be again plunged into
common water. This will greatly add to the fpeed of the
work. After this it is to be well rubbed with linen cloths
impregnated with common foap ; and when by thefe feveral
means it is made perfedlly clean, the polifhing is to be finifhed
Wlti'i fine emery and a hair-brufh. If after this the fhell
when dry app«.\ars not to have fo good a pohfh as was defired,
it mull be rubbed over with a folution of gum arable ; and
this will add greatly to its glofs, without doing it any fort
of injury. The gum water mud not be too thick, and then
it gives no fenfiblc coat, only heightening the colours. The
white of an egg anfwers this purpofe alfo very well ; but it
is fubjecl to turn yellow. If the (hell has an epidermis,
which will by no means admit the polifhing of it, it is to be
dipped feveral times in diluted aqua fortis, that this may be-
eaten off ; and then the fhell is to be polifhed in the ufual way
with putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine
brufh. When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours,
the fhells muft be lleeped in hot water, and after that the fkin
worked off by degrees with an old file. This is the cafe with
feveral of the cylinders, which have not the natural polifh of
the refl.

When a (hell is covered with a thick and fatty epidermis,
as is the cafe with feveral of the mufcles and tellina ; in this
cafe aqua fortis will do no fervice, as it will not touch the
fkin ; then a rough brufli and coarfe emery are to be ufed ;
and if this does not fucceed, feal-fliin, or, as the workmen
call \\.-,JiJh-Jhin and pummice-Jlone, are to be employed.

When a (hell has a thick crull, which will not give way to
any of thefe means, the only way left is to plunge it feveral
times into flrong aqua fortis, till the llubborn crull is wholly
eroded. The limpets, auris marina, the helmet- fhells, and
feveral other fpecies of this kind, mull have this fort of
management ; but as the defigH is to fhew the hidden beauties
under the crull, and not to deflroy the natural beauty and
polifh of the infide of the fhell, the method of ufing the aqua
fortis muft be this ; a long piece of wax mull be provided,
and one end of it made perfectly to cover the whole mouth of
the fhell ; the other end will then ferve as a handle, and the
mouth being ftopped by the wax, the liquor cannot get in
to the infide to fpoil it ; then there mull be placed on a table
a veffel full of aqua fortis, and another full of common
water.

The fhell is to be plunged into the aqua fortis ; and after
remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken out, and plunged
into the common water. The progrefs the aqua fortis
makes in eroding the furface ij thus to be carefully obferved
every time it is taken out ; the point of the fhell, and any
other tender parts, are to be covered with wax, to prevent
the aqua fortis from eating them away ; and if there be any
worm-holes, they alfo mull be ftopped up with wax, other-
wife

SHELLS.

wife the aqua forti'3 would foon eat through in thofc places.
' When the repeated dippings into the aqua fortis fliew that
the coat is fufficiently eaten away, then the fhell is to be
wrought carefully with fuie emery and a bruih ; and when it
is polifhed as high as can be by this means, it muft be wiped
clean, and rubbed over with gum-water, or the white of an
egg. In this fort of work the operator mull always have
the caution to wear gloves, otherwife the Icall touch of the
aqua fortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yellow ; and
often, if it be not regarded, will eat off the Ikin and the
nails.

Thefe are the methods to be ufed with fliells, which require
but a moderate quantity of the furface to be taken oft ; but
there are others which require to have a larger quantity taken
off, and to be uncovered deeper ; this is called entirely (caling
a (hell. This is done by means of an horizontal wheel ot
lead or tin, impregnated with rough emery ; and the fliell is
wrought down in the fame manner in which ftoncs are
wrought by the lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, how-
ever, than the performing this work with nicety ; very often
(hells are cut down too far by it, and wholly fpoiled ; and
to avoid this, a coarfe vein muft be often left Handing in
fome place, and taken down afterwards with the file, when
the cutting it down at the wheel would have fpoiled the ad-
jacent parts.

After the fhell is thus cut down to a proper degree, it is
to be polilhed with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten ilonc, with
a wooden wheel turned by the fame machine as the leaden
one, or by the common method of working with the hand
with the fame ingredients, when a ftiell is full of tubercles,
or protuberances, which mutl be preferved. It is then im-
poffibleto ufethe wheel ; and if the common way of dipping
into aqua fortis be attempted, the tubercles, being harder than
the reft of the fhell, will be eat through before the reft is
fufBciently fcaled, and the (hell will be ipoiled ; in this cafe
induftry and patience arc the only means of effefting a polilh.
A camel's-hair pencil muft be dipped in aqua fortis, and
with this the intermediate parts of the (liell mull be wetted,
leaving the protuberances dry ; this is to be often repeated,
and after a few moments the (liell is always to be plunged
into water to (lop the erofion of the acid, which would other-
wife eat too deep, and dellroy the beauty of the" (hell.
When this has fufficiently taken off the foulncfs of the (hell,
it is to be polilhed with emery of the finell kind, or with
tripoli, by means of a fmall Hick, or the common polifhing
ftone of the goldfmiths may be ufed.

This is a very tedious and troublefomc thing, efpecially
when the echinated oyllcrs and murices, and fome other
fuch (hells, are to be wrought ; and what is worll of all is,
that when all this labour has been employed, the bufinefs is
not well done ; for there ftill remain feveral places which
could not be reached by any inftrument ; fo that the fliell
muft neceflarily be rubbed over with gum-water, or the
white of an egg afterwards, in order to bring out the co-
lours, and give a glofs : in fome cafes it is even neceffary to
give a coat of varnifli.

Thefe are the means ufed by artifts to brighten the co-
lours, and add to the beauty of fliells ; and the changes
produced by polifhing in this manner are fo great, that the
(hell is often not to be known afterwards for the fame it
was ; and hence we hear of new (liells in the cabinets of
colleftors, which have no real exitlence as fcparatc fpccics,
but are the polKhed appearance of others well known. To
caution the reader againll errors of this kind, it may be
proper to add the moll remarkable fpecies thus ufually
altered.

The onyx-(hell, or volute, called by us the purple or

violet-tip, which in its natural ftate is of a fimple pale
brown, when it is wrought (lightly, or polilhed with juil
the fupcrficies taken off, is of a fine bright yellow ; and
when it is eat away deeper, it appears of a fine milk-white,
with the lower part blucifh : it is in this ftate that it is called
the onyx-fliell ; and it is preferved in many cabinets in its
rough ftate, and in its yellow appearance as different fpecies
of ihells.

The violet-fhell, fo common among the curious, is a
fpecies of porcelain, or comm.on cowry, which does not ap-
pear in that elegance till it has been polifhed ; and the com-
mon auris marina (liews itfelf in two or three different forms,
as it is more or lefs deeply wrought. In its rough ftate it it
dullcy and coarfe, of a pale brown on the outfidc, and pearly
within : when it is eaten down a little way below the fur-
f icc, it (hews variegations of black and green ; and when
ftiU farther eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within
and without.

The nautilus, wlien it is polilhed down, appears all over
of a fine pearly colour ; but when it is eaten away but to a
fmall depth, it appears of a fine yellowifti colour, with
dnn<y liairs. The burgau, when entirely cleared of its
coat, is of the moil beautiful pearl-colour ; but when only
digiitly eroded, it appears of a variegated mixture of green
and red : whence it has been called the parroquet-dicll.
The common lielmet-fhel!, when wrought, is of the colour
of the finell agate ; and the mufcles, in general, though
very plain fhclls, in their common appearance, become very
beautiful when polifhed, and fhew large veins of the moil
elegant colours. The Pcrfian fhell, in its natural Hate, is
all over white, and covered with tubercles ; but wlien it has
been ground down on a wheel, and polifhed, it appears of a
grey colour, with fpots and veins of a very bright and
highly polifhed white. The limpets, in general, become
very different when polifhed, moll of them (hewing very
elegant colours ; among thele the tortoife-fhell limpet is the
principal ; it does not appear at all of that colour or tranf-
parence, till it has been wrought.

Tliat elegant fpecies of (hell called the junquil-chama,
which has deceived fo many judges of tliefe things into an
opinion of its being a new fpecies, is only a white chama,
with a reticulated furface ; but when this is polKhed, it
lofes at once its reticular work and its colour, and becomes
perfcdlly fmooth, and of a fine bright yellow ; and the
violet-coloured chama of New England, when worked
down and poliflied, is of a fine -.uilk-white, with a great
number of blue veins, difpofed like the variegations in
agates.

The affes ear-fliell, when poliflied, after working it down
with the file, becomes extremely glofly, and obtains a fine-
lofe-colour all about the mouth. Thefe are fome of the
mofl frequent among an endlefs variety of changes wrought
on fliclls by poliftiing ; and we find there are many of the
very greateft beauties of this part f tiie creation wiiith
muft have been loft, but for tliis method of fearching deep
in the fubflance of the fticll for them.

The Dutch are very fond of fliells, and are very nice in
their manner i)f working them : they are under no reftraint,
however, in their works, but ufe the moll violent methods,
fo as often to dillroy all the beauty of the fliell. They file
them down on all fides, and often take them to the wheel,
when it mnfl deflroy the very charjfters of the fpecies.
Nor do they Hop at tliis, but, determined to have beauty at
any rate, they are for improving upon nature, and frcqnently
add fome lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards cover-
ing them with a fine coat of varnilh ; Id tliat tliey Iceni the
natural liiieationi of the (hell. The Dutch tabincli arc by
3 P 2 thi«

SHELLS.

ihis'iTseans made very beautiful, but they are by no means
to be regarded as inllruftors in natural hiftory. There are
feme artificers of this nation who have a way of covering
ftiells all over with a different tinge from that which nature
gives them ; and the curious are often deceived by thefe
tricks into the purchafing of them as new fpecies.

There is another kind of work beitowed on certain fpecies
of fhells, particularly the nautilus ; this is the engraving on
it lines and circles, and figures of ftars, and other things :
this i»too obvious a work of art to fuffer any one to fuppofe
it natural. Bonani has figured feveral of thefe wrought
fhells at the end of his work ; but it is miferably throwing
away labour to do them : the (hells arc fpoiled as objefts of
natural hiftory by it, and the engraving is feldom worth any
thing. They are principally done in the Eaft Indies.

Shells are fubjeft to feveral imperfeftians : feme of thefe
are natural, and others accidental ; the natural ones are the
eifeft of age, or ficknefs in the fifh. The greateft mifchief
happens to fhells by the fifh dying in them. The curious
in thefe things pretend to be always able to diftinguifh a
fhell taken up with the fifh alive, from one found on the
fhores : they call the firft a living, the fecond a dead fhell,
and fay that the colours are always much the faintelt in the
dead fhells. When the fhells have lain long dead on the
ftiores, they are fubjeft to many injuries, of which the being
eaten by fea-worms is not the leafl : age renders the finefl
ftells livid or dead in their colours.

The finelt fhells are thofe which are fiflied up at fea, not
found on the fhores. The other natural defefts of fhells are
their having morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts
where there fhould be none. When the fhell is valuable,
thefe faults may be hid, and much added to the beauty of
the fpecimen, without at all injuring it as an objeft of na-
tural hiftory, which fhould always be the great end of col-
lefting thefe things. The cavities may be filled up with
maftic, diffolved in fpirit of wine, or with ifinglafs : thefe
fubitances muft be either coloured to the tinge of the fliell,
or elfe a pencil dipped in water-colours muit finilh them up
to the refemblance of the reft, and then the whole fhell
being rubbed over with gura-vvater, or with the white of an
egg, fcarcely any eye can perceive the artifice : the fame fub-
itances may alfo be ufed to repair the battered edge of a fhell,
provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And
when the excrefcences of a fliell are faulty, they are to be
taken down with a. fine file. If the lip of a fhell be fo bat-
tered, that it will not admit of repairing by any cement, the
whole muft be filed down to an evennefs, or ground on the
wheel.

Shells, FoJJil. See Cokchology and Petrifactions.

Shells are frequently found under ground, in places far
remote from the fea, in mines, and even on the tops of
mountains ; but how they fhould come thither is a thing
that naturalifts are greatly divided about. The moft ufual
and eafy opinion is, that thofe parts have been formerly fea,
or, at leafl, have been overflown thereby ; and many even
go back as far as the grand deluge for this. Others take
thefe to be the natural places of their birth or formation,
fome of them being found little other than crude clay,
others of the fame texture with the rock to which they
grow, though others feem of as abfolute a fhelly fubftance
as any in the fea. In effeft, they fay, thefe may be only
fo many different gradations of nature, which can as well
produce fhells in mines as in the fea, there being no want
of faline or earthy particles for the purpofe ; nor is there
any great difference between fome forts of fpars and fea-
ihells.

Dr. Lifter judges, that the lh«lls found in ftone quarries

were never any part of an animal, and gives this reafon for
it, that quarries of different ftone yield quite different fpecies
of fhells ; different not only from one another, but from
any thing in nature befides, which either fea or land does
yield. This opinion has been fince proved erroneous, and
all thefe bodies to have been really once parts of living ani-
mals. See Fossils, Adventitious, Marine Remains, and
Formed Stones.

Of thefe fhells, fome are found remaining almoft entirely
in their native ftate, but others are varioufly altered, by
being impregnated with particles of ftone, and of other
foflils ; in the place of others there is found mere ftone or
fpar, or other native mineral body, expreffing all their
lineaments in the greateft nicety, as having been formed
wholly from them, the fhell having been firil depofited in
fome folid matrix, and thence diffolved by very flow de-
grees, and this matter left in its place, on the cavities of
ftone and other fohd fubftances, out of which (hells had
been diffolved and wafhed away, being afterwards filled up
lefs flowly with thefe different fubftances, whether fpar or
whatever elfe ; thefe fubftances, fo filling the cavities, can
neceflarily be of no other form than that of the ihell, to the
abfence of which the cavity was owing, though all the nicer
lineaments may not be fo exaftly expreffed. Bcfide thefe,
we have alfo in many places maffcs of ftone formed within
various fliells ; and thefe having been received into the ca-
vities of the fhells, while they were perfectly fluid, and
having therefore nicely filled all their cavities, muft retain
the perfect figures of the internal part of the fliell, when
the fhell itfelf fhould be worn away, or perifhed from their
outfide. The various fpecies we find of thefe are in many
genera as numerous as the known recent ones ; and as we
have in our own ifland not only the (hells of our own fhores,
but thofe of many other very diitant ones, fo we have alfo
many fpecies, and thofe in great numbers, which are in
their recent ftate, the inhabitants of other yet unknown or
unfearched feas and fhores.

The cockles, mufcles, oyfters, and the other common
bivalves of our own feas, are very abundant ; but we have
alfo an amazing number of the nautilus kind, particularly
of the nautilus graecorum, which though a fhell not found
living in our own, or any neighbouring feas, yet is found
buried in all our clay-pits about London and elfewhere ;
and the moft frequent of all foflile fhells in fome of our
counties, are the conchx anomix, which yet we know not
of in any part of the world in their recent ftate. Of this
fort alfo are the cornua ammonis and the gryphitae, with
feveral of the echinitas and others.

The exadt fimihtude of the known fhells, recent and foffile,
in their feveral kinds, will by no means fuffer us to believe,
that thefe, though not yet known to us in their living ftate,
are, as fome have idly thought, a fort of lufus naturae.

It is certain, that of the many known fhores, very few,
not even thofe of our own ifland, have been yet carefully
fearched for the flacll-fifh that inhabit them ; and as we fee
in the nautilus grascorum an inftance of fhells being brought
from very diftant parts of the world to be buried there, we
cannot wonder, that yet unknown fhores, or the unknown
bottoms of deep feas, fhould have furnifhed us with many
unknown fheU-fifh, which may have been brought with the
reft ; whether that were at the time of the general deluge,
or the effeft of any other catailrophe of a hke kind, or
by whatever other means to be left in the yet uiihardened
matter of our ftony and clayey ftrata. Hill's Hift. of
Foft". p. 616.

FolTiIe fhells are found to be of great ufe in manuring
land. S«e Manuring.

4 They

SHELLS.

They are much ufed in France for this purpofe ; and Mr.
Reaumur treats of their effefts in fertihzing the earth
very fullyi concluding his ufeful account of thefe fub-
itances by obferving, that it is much more eafy to account
for the manner of their afting upon land, than for the
manner of their coming where they are found. It has been
the favourite fyitem of our Dr. Woodward, that all thefe
(hells were the remains of the 'univerfal deluge, whicJi
having overflowed the whole earth, might eafily leave them
in all places ; but Mr. Reaumur has much more rationally
accounted for their coming to thofe parts of France, where
they are found at this time m fuch vaft abundance, by care-
fully tracing the courfe of the beds of them, fo far as known
there, and ealily proving that all that extent of country,
under which they are found, may have been once overflowed
by the fea without a deluge ; it being the very track that a
large body of waters, let in at one part of the kingdom,
mull have taken, in order to getting out at another. Mem.
de I'Acad. Par. 1720.

Shell, Arabian, a name given by fome to a fpecies of
porcelain (hell, not becaufe it is found on the coalt of Ara-
bia, but becaufe its lines and variegations are fuppofed to
reprefent the figures of Arabic characters.

Shell, Aurora, a very remarkable fpecies of (hell-fifli,
found in cabinets of the curious. It is of the figure of
a bird, having a head, wings, and tail, and is of a flame-
.colour ; it owes much of its beauty, however, to art and
accident ; the Ihell is an oyfter of a peculiar variation of
figure from the common one ; the head of the bird is the
cardo or hinge ; the wings are the body of the fhells ; and
the tail is a peculiar procefs, like that of the marteau, only
fingle.

It is naturally of a dufl<y brown on the outfide, and
pearly within, but when its rough coat is taken off, it
appears of this beautiful flame-colour.

Shell, Caterpillar. See Turbo.

Shell, Centre, a name given to the balanus marinus, a
kind of fea-(hell of the multivalve kind, with an open
mouth, frequently found fixed to the bottoms of fliips,
and other things covered with fea-water. See Balanus and

CONCHOLOGY.

Shell, Chalice, or Cup-Jhell, a fpecies of the balanus.
See Balanus.

Shell, China-letter, a name given by many t© that fpe-
cies of chama, ulually called by authors the chama Arabica.
It is of a pale brownifh ground, and is variegated with
a great number of black lines, which are as flcnder as
the Itrokes of a pen, and are of fuch odd figures, that they
reprefent fome of the Arabic, or, as others fancy, Chinefe
charaflers. See Chama.

Shell, Croivn Imperial, a fpecies of the voluta.

Shell, Dog-tooth, a ipecies of dentalis.

Shell, Ear, See Auiiis.

Shell, Guinea, the Enghfh name for a very beautiful
variegated fpecies of voluta, called by the French la /pe-
culation.

Shell, Heart. See Cakdium, under Conchologv.

Shell, Helmet, the name of a kind of murex, of which
there are fevcral fpecies. They all approach fomewhat to-
wards a triangular figure, and are free from any long fpines.

Shell, Leopard, the Englidi name of the parduii, a kind
of voluta, fo called from its fpots refembliug thofe of a
leopard. There are three kinds of this, one fpotted with
black, another with yellow, and another witli red.

Shell, Leveret, a name given by many to a Ipecies of
porcelain-fhell, rei'embling a young hare in colour.

Shell, Lightning, a name given by fome authors to a
fpecies of murex, with variegations on its body, refembling
the pidures we commonly fee of flallies of lightning.

Shell, Map, the name given by fome to a peculiar fpe-
cies of porcelain-lhell, the figures on which reprefent the
lines on a map.

Shell, Needle. See Centkonia and Needle.

Shell, Noah's Ark. See Noah.

Shell, Oyjler. See Oyster.

Shell, Old Wife, the name given by fome to that
fpecies of chama, which the French alfo have called •oicHe
ridee.

Shell, Onion, a fpecies of oyfter.

Shell, Pipe. See Entalium.

Shell, Saddle, the name of a fpecies of oyfter, which
in fome degree reprefents a faddle in its fliape.

Shell, St. James's, a name given by writers on fliells to
a very beautiful fpecies of variegated peften.

Shell, Si. Michael's, a name given by authors to a fpe-
cies of peften, or fcallop-fliell. It is of a bright yellow
colour.

Shell, Scorpion, the name of a fpecies of murex, very
much approaching to the nature of the fpidcr-fhell. This
is a common fliell in cabinets ; it is of a yellow colour, and
very deeply ridged, and full of tubercles ; there arife from
the lip of the (hell five large ipines, or, as they are ufually
called, fingers, and two others, which are very much bent,
the one from the head, the other from the tail : thefe are very
elegantly radiated with white, and a fine violet colour on the
lips.

Shell, Screw. See Turbo.

Shell, Small-pox, a name given to a remarkable kind of
concha venerea, or porcelain-lhell, the protuberances on the
furface of which are fuppofed to reprefent the puftules of
the fmall-pox. There are two fpecies of this fliell, the one
white, with flattifli protuberances, the other greenifli, with
more elevated ones.

Shell, Snake, the name given by many to that beautiful
fpecies of porcelain-fhell, the fpots of which reprefent thofe
of a fnake's flcin.

Shell, Spider. See Aranea.

Shell, Straiuberry, a name given by colleflors of (hells
to a very beautiful fpecies of cordiformis, fpotted with fmall
round red fpots.

Shell, Sivallow, a name given by authors to a fpecies
of oyller, which in fome degree reprefents the figure of a
fmall bird flying.

Shell, Tiger, the name of a fpecies of porcelain, or
concha venerea, fuppofed to reprefent the fpots on a tiger's
fkin.

Shell, Toe. See Polmcii'es.

Shell, Tortoife. See 'I'oktoise.

Shell, Trumpet. See TuuMiET.

Shell, Turban. See Turban.

Shell, Turnip. Tliis is a fpecies of fea-fliell, by others
called the radijh fliell ; it is cxaftly of the fliape of a tur-
nip, and is of the dolium, or concha globola kind. Thofe
who have called it the radifli fliell, allude to the great
black round-rooted radifli, not to our common radifli.

Shell, Turtle, the name of two fpecies of (hells. See
MuuEX and Voluta.

Shell, in Agriculture, a term applied to a hard, and as
it were (lony covering, with which certain fubflancis and
animals are defended, and thence in the latter c;i(e called
fliell-fifli. It is obferved that the vait beds of foflile (hells
found at great depths in the t.-u-th, aa well as thofe found

lying

SHELLS.

lyinff on the fea-ftiore, make an excellent manure for cold
clayey lands. See Sand and Clay.

It IS likewife a term applied to the light calcined pieces of
calcareous ftones, which have been converted into lime ; and
alfo to the rind of turnips fcooped by fheep, which are
moftly applied to the purpofe of feeding the ftore-iheep.
See Lime and Turnips.

SuELL-Jppk, in Ornithology, an Englilh name for the
loxia or crolsbill, given from his manner of fplitting an
apple, and feeding on the kernels, leaving the fhell of the
pulp untouched.

SHELL-Draie, a common Englilh name for the tadorna.

SHELL-Fi/h, a collcAive name for filhes naturally inclofed
in (hells. Thefe animals are in general oviparous, very few
inftances having been found of fuch as are viviparous.
Among the oviparous kinds, anatomiits have found that
fome fpecies are of different fexes in the different individuals
of the fame fpecies, but others are hermaphrodites, every
one being in itfelf both male and female : in both cafes their
increafe is very numerous, and icarcely inferior to that of
plants, or of the moft fruitful of the infeft clafs. The
eggs are very fmall, and are hung together in a fort of cluf-
ters by means of a glutinous humoui", which is always placed
about them, and is of the nature of the jelly of frogs'
fpawn ; by means of this they are not only kept together
in the parcel, but the whole duller is fallened to the rocks,
fhells, or other folid fubllances, and thus they are preferved
from being driven on Ihore by the waves, and left where
they cannot fucceed.

SHELL-Ga/l-In/eS,?Ln infeft of the gall-infeft clafs, fome-
what refembling thofe which are calkd the boat-fafhioned
ones, but differing in this, that as the two ends of that fpe-
cies are not very different in form, in this kind one of the
ends is fharp and pointed in comparifon with the other.

It has its name of flicll-infedl from the refemblance it bears
to a mufcle-fhell ; as it is, in its whole form, not unhke one
of the two fhells in which the common fea-mufcle is in-
clofed, but the pointed end of this infeft is much more ex-
tended in length than the fmaller end of this fhell.

This fpecies is extremely fmall, and may be eafily miftaken
for the minute cafe out of which fome fmall infeft has
efcaped ; or in another ftate, for the nell in which fome
fmall infeft had depofited its eggs ; but if the alTiftance
of the microfcope be called in, they will eafily be difcovered
to be true gall-infefts, even as foon as they are hatched from
the eggs. This fpecies, at its full growth, is fo fmall, that
it requires good eyes to difcover it : it is brown, very fmooth,
and polifhed on the furface, and much of the colour of the
bark of fome trees ; it has ufually an edge of a cottony
matter, vifible where its fides touch the tree, and its eggs
are always depofited on a fine cottony bed ; the young ones
are white, flat, and have two fmall horn?, and fix legs ; in
this flate they are known to be of the gall-infeft clafs, not
by their likenefs to their parent, but to the young gall-
infefts of other fpecies. They march about very brillvly for
fome time after they are hatched, and after that fix them-
felves, and then begin to grow, and by degrees alter their
form, till they at length are of the fame fhape with their
parent. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. torn. iv. p. 69, 70.

SHELL-Mar/e, in Agriculture, a fubftance of ilic m. rly
kind, which is of a flaky or (helly nature. Though Mr.
Marthall has not feen this material made ufe of in any of
the fouthern parts of this country, he fuppofes it highly
probable, that in the more northern counties it maybe found in
confiderable quantity ; and that in different parts of Scotland,
it ia in common ufe as a manure. And he confiders it as ufually

found in low moift fitiiations, under what is termed bog-
meadow, a fort of half-reclaimed morals ; namely, tough,
coarfe fward, formed upon a depth of black moory earth,
which reits on the marie : this being, in fome inftances, feve-
ral feet in depth. In refpeft to appearance, the colour is
nearly white. Its confiftence, in the pit, is that of foft
curd, roughly broken ; with the perceptible remains of
fmall Ihells interfperfed among it ; and generally with fome
portion of earthy particles. It was found by analyfis, that
one hundred grains of a fpecimen taken in 1793, fro™ the
extraordinary pits on the eftate of Auchtertyre, belonging
to the late fir WiUiam Murray, on the fouthern fliirts of the
highlands of Perthfhire, yielded eighty-two grains of cal-
careous earth : the refidue being brown earthy matter,
mollly, it is probable, animal mould, with a flight intermix-
ture of vegetable fibres. One hundred grains, taken from a
pit in Strath Tay, within the central highlands, yielded
feventy-four grains of chalk ; the refidue being fimilar to
the above. The fearch for this fpecies of marie is fo obvious
and eafy, that nothing but -unpardonable negleft can fuffer
a quantity of it to remain within an eftate (fituated in a
country where it is known to abound) unknown to its ma-
nager. Wherever, in vallies and dips of furface, level
water-formed lands (whether they are already f warded over,
or yet remain in a flate of morafs) are found, there infert the
borer : not in one place only, but in various parts of it, that
no hollow receptacle of marie may be miffed by the farmer.

And with marles of the folTile kmds it is remarked, that
where, by analyfis, the proportion of chalk is found to be
fmall, as not more than one- third of the whole ; if the
earthy matter with which it is combined appears to
be of a rich fertilizing nature, fuch marie becomes, he
thinks, a proper fubjeft of trial in the field. And a good
method for making this fort of trial, is to fpread the marie,
at a leifure time, as in winter, or the early part of fummer,
upon grafs-land ; and catching a favourable opportunity,
when the foflil is in a mellow friable ftate, between wet and
dry, to break down and fpread the lumps, with the roller
and harrow, to give freedom to the grafs, and an opportu-
nity of gathering off the ftones and rubbifh, which may
have been carried on with the marie ; and in order that fum-
mer fhowers may wafh the finer parts of it down into the
foil, while it is open to receive them ; repeating the opera-
tion as often as it may be required. And he knows no better
method than this, by which to apply marles, on a large
fcale, in praftice.

SHELL-SatiJ, a name given by the farmers, in fome part*
of England, to the fragments of Ihells found on the fea-
fhores, and ground to a fort of powder, fo that they refera-
ble fand. See Manuring.

There is alfo another kind, ufed as this is, in fome parts
of Cornwall, and compofed of fragments of a fort of ten-
der white coral. This is found principally about Falmouth,
and is called by the fame name of fhell-fand, though very
improperly. All the kinds are of great ufe in agriculture,
but they are differently cfteemed by the farmers, as they
are more or lefs rich, which they know by their colours :
the reddifli kind is efteemed moft of all ; next to this the
blue is judged the belt, and after this the white. Such
as is dredged up from under the water, is always found
better than fuch as is found dry on the fhores ; and fuch as
is entirely compofed of fliells is to be chofen, rather than
fuch as has fragments of ftone among it, which is a yery
common cafe. See Sand, and She/ly Sand.

Shell-7"oo;/W, in the Manege, an appellation given to a
horfe that from four years old to old age, naturally, and

without

I

SHE

without any artifice, bears mark in all his fore-teeth, and
there ftill keeps that hollow place with the black mark,
which is called in French germc de feve, i. e. the eye of
a bean, infomuch, that at twelve or fifteen he appears with
the mark of a horfe that is not yet fix ; for in the nippers
of other horfcs, the hollow place is filled, and the mark
difappears towards the fixth year, by reafon of the wearing
of the tooth. About the fame age it is half worn out in the
middling teeth, and towards the eighth year it difappears in
the corner teeth : but after a (hell-toothed horfe has
marked, he marks ftill equally in the nippers, the middling,
and the corner teeth ; which proceeds from this, that having
harder teeth than other horfes, his teeth do not wear, and
fo he does not lofe the black fpot.

Among the Polifli, Hungarian, and Croatian horfes, we
find a great many of them hollow-toothed, and generally
the mares are more apt to be fo than the horfes.

Shell, in Artillery. See Bomb and Mortar.

Shells, Mejfage, are howitz-lhells, within which are in-
clofed a letter, or other papers ; the fuze-hole is Hopped up
with wood or cork, and the fhells are fired into a garrifon or
camp.

Shell of a Block, in Mechanics, is the outer frame or
cafe, in which the (heave or wheel is contained, and traverfes
about its axis.

Su^hh-Room, in Ship-BuiU'mg, a compartment in a bomb-
vefTel, fitted up with ftrong (helves, excavated fo as to re-
ceive the bomb-(hells when charged; it is therefore built as
fecure as polTible, to prevent accident from fire.

Shells, Littoral. See Littoral.

SiiELL-Gold. See Gold.

SHELL-Sllver. See Silver.

Shell IJland, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coaft
of Carolina, in Pamhco found. N. lat'. 34° 50'. W. long.

76" 30'.

Shell Key, a fmall ifland, or rather rock, in the gulf of
Mexico. N. lat. z<f 48'. W. long. 89° 15'.

SHELLA, a walled town of Morocco, on the caftern
fide of Rabat, in N. lat. 34^ 3'. This is facred ground, and
contains many Moorifh tombs, that are held in great vene-
ration ; and the town is a facred afylum, entered only by
Mahometans. ShcUa was probably the Carthaginian metro-
pohs on the coalt of the ocean. Various Roman and ancient
African coins were frequently dug up here, but their high
price induced the Jews to imitate them, and thus to deceive
amateurs, and hence has arifen a fufpicion even of the an-
tiques thcmfelves. The place is now in a Itate of decay ;
4 miles E. of Salee.

SHELLACK Point, a cape of the Ifle of Man, form-
ing the N. part of Ramfay bay.

SHELLDRAKE River, a river of Canada, which
runs into the river St. Lawrence, N. lat. 50"^ 20'. W. long.

64' 5°'-

SHELLENBERG, a mountain of Bavaria, occupied
by the Swedes, and Itrongly fortified in the 30 years' war ;
jmilesN.E ofDonawert.

SHELLIFF, the C^'na/a of antiquity, a river of Africa,
and the moH confiderable in the kingdom of Algier.-, wliich
rifes ill the northern fide of the Atlas, and runs into the Me-
diterranean, N. lat. 36° 10'. E. long, o" 24'.

SHELLNESS, a cape at the E. end of the ifland of
Shepey. N. lat. 51° 22'. E. long. 0° 50'.

SHELLUHS, a clafs of the inliabitants in the domi-
nions of the emperor of Morocco : they occupy the Atlas
mountains, and the various branches of thcni S. of Morocco ;
living generally in towns, and, for the mod part, occupied in
hufbandry like the Berebbers, though differing from them in

SHE

their language, drefs, and manners. They fubfid almofl
wholly on Affoua (barley meal made into gruel), aiul barley
roallcd or granulated, which they mix with cold water when
traveUing, and they call it " Zimata." They occafionally
indulge in the ufc of " Cufcufoe," a nutritive farinaceous
food, made of granulated flour, and afterwards boiled by
fteam, and mixed with butter, mutten, fowls, and vege-
tables. Many families among them are faid to be defcended
from the Portuguefe, who formerly poilcfTed all the ports on
the coafl, but who, after the difcovery of America, gra-
dually withdrew thither. Eaft of Morocco, near Dimenet,
on the Atlas mountains, there is Hill remaining a church,
having infcriptions in Latin over the entrance, (uppofed to
have been built by them, which, being fuperftitioufly re-
ported to be haunted, has efcaped dellruftion. Their lan-
guage is called Amazirk.

SHELOPGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 18 miles N.W. of Tricolore.

SHELTER, in Agriculture, a term applied to the means
of affording warmth, and procuring proteftion for lands and
live-flock in fituations which are too much expofed to ftorm$.
and inclement feafons. This is moftly accomplifhed by the
ufe of trees, which fhould be chofen of the moll proper
fhapes and kinds for effedling the purpofe, as Vhofe which
are the mod branchy from the ground, ar.u the molt per-
manent and clofe in their foliage. The fir tribe, the holly,
and the beech, are probably the ciofl fuited to this intention,
though there are great numbers that may be made ufe of in
this way.

Proper fhelter has the effeft of producing much improve,
ment in land, trees, plants, and livc-ltoek. See Sheltering
Plantations.

Shelter Ifland, in Geography, a fmall ifland at the E.
fend of Long ifland, in Suffolk county. New York, about
five miles from E. to W., and feven from N. to S. It is
fertile, and contains about 8000 acres ; it was incorporated
in 178K, and is faid to contain 201 inhabitants. It furnifhes
cattle, fheepi and poultry.

SHELTERING Plantations, in Agriculture, the
means of guarding and protefting them, fo as to promote
the growth and advancement of the young trees. This is
frequently neceffary, and of very great utility. In fome
very expofed fituations, trees cannot indeed be raifed to any
advantage without it. The bufinefs is performed in dif-
ferent manners, according to their nature and circumllances.
See Plantation.

SHELTERS, Horizontal. See Horizontal.

SHELTIE, the name of a fmall, but (Irong kind of
horfe, found in the ifland of Zetland, commonly called Shet-
land. In the country, the price of one of ihcfe horfes was
formerly about a guinea.

SHELVES, in Sea Language, a general name given
to any dangerous fhallows, land banks, or rocks ; Ij'ing
immediately under the furfacc of the water, fo as to
intercept any iliip in her paffage, and endanger her dc-
(truftion.

SHELVING-Roads, in Rural Economy, are fuch as
are formed in a fomewliat flielving manner, cither on both
fides from the middle part, or in the whole fr.ini fide to fide.
It is a mode that fornn a great improvement in making roads
in difl'ercnt fituations ; as a greater travellable breadth is
gained without ruts being formed. And it is particularly ap-
plicable in making the fide long roads o;i the declivities of
hills, &c. .See Road.

SHELVINGS, in Agriculture, a name applied to the
moveable fide-rails of a waggon or cart, which .ire occa-
fionally put on for top loads.

SHEMEN,

SHE

SHEMEN, in Gfo^raphy, a town of Curdiftan ; 44
miles N.W. of Kerkuk.

SHEMIUM, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
raflan ; 10 miles N.W. of Herat.

SHENANDOAH, a county of Virginia, bounded N.
by Frederick, and S. by Rockingham. It contains 13,646
inhabitants, of whom 1038 are flaves. Its chief town is
Woodfl-ock.

Shenandoah, or SheniinHo, a river of Virginia, which
rifes in Auguila county, and after running a N.E. courfe
of about 200 miles, joins the Patowmack in about N. lat.
38" 4', juft before the latter burfts through Blue Ridge.
This river is compofed of four branches, S. river, Middle
river, N. river, and Shenandoah, which, though the fmalleft
branch, gives name to the united ftreams. It is navigable
about 100 miles, and might be rendered fo through its
whole courfe, at a fmall expence. When this is done, it
■will convey the produce of the richefl: part of the ftate to
Wafhington.

Shenandoah Valley, a valley which extends from Win-
ehefter in Virginia, to Carlifle and the Sufquehannah m
Pennfylvania, chiefly inhabited by Germans and Dutch.

SHENANGO, a town of Pennfylvania, in Crawford
county, containing 727 inhabitants.

SHENAW, a town of Auftria ; 4 miles S. of Kirch
Schlag.

SHENCOTTY, a town of Hindooftan ; 45 miles N.E.
of Travancore.

SHENECTADY. See Schenectady.
SHENGANA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
25 miles S.S.W. of Madura.

SHENKAFELD, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles W, of
Freyftadt.

SHEN-SEE. Sec Chensi.

SHENSEN, in Rural Economy, a term applied, in fome
diftriAs, as Devonfliire, to dried cow and horfe-dung, which
is laid up and ufed as fuel for the winter feafon.

SHENSHIL, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile ; 2 miles N. of Achmim.

SHENSTONE, William, in Biography, a poet of
celebrity, was born at Hales Owen, in Shropfliire, in the
year 17 14. His father was an uneducated gentleman
farmer, who cultivated an eftate of his own called the
Leafowes, which the fon afterwards rendered celebrated.
WiUiam received the elements of inltruftion from a village
dame, whom he has finely defcribed in one of his poems.
After this he was fent to the grammar-fchool at Hales
Owen, whence he was removed to that of a clergyman at
Solihull, from whom he not only acquired folid learning in
claflical knowledge, but a cultivated tafte. In 1732 he was
entered of Pembroke college, Oxford, where he did not
make a large acquaintance, but he was one of a few who
met at each otlier's rooms to read and examine the beft works
in Engli(h literature. Here it was he difcovered his poetical
genius, and produced fome compofttions of confiderable
merit, and he had thoughts of taking his degrees, and pro-
ceeding to ftudy for a profeffion, but coming, by the death
of his father, into the full pofTeflion of his paternal pro-
perty, he gave himfelf up to literary eafe, and rural retire-
ment, abandoning at once all intentions of adtive purfuits ;
hence his biographer jultly remarks, " that nothing is more
unfavourable to the exertion of thofe energies which lead to
a ufeful and honourable ilation in fociety, than the early pof-
feflion of a fortune juft fufficient to gratify prefent wifties,
and preclude the neceffity of immediate entrance into any vi-
gorous courfe of adion." An acquaintance which Shenftone
formed with Mr, Graves of Mickleton, in Gloucefterftiire,

SHE

infpired him with an affeftion for that gentleman's fitter j
but the paflion of love, which, in fome minds, operates as a
ftimulus to enterprize, feems to him to have wafted its force
on plaintive elegies, and other eftufions of fentimental
poetry. To one fpecies of employment, indeed, he was
probably animated by his vifit to Mr. Graves, — that of
rural embellilhment, — which he afterwards beftowed on his
favourite place of the Leafowes, with a tafte that conduced
more to his celebrity than his comfort.

In 1737 he printed, but without his name, a fmall volume
of juvenile poems, which obtained fcarcely any notice. In
1740 he came to London, and was introduced to Dodfley,
who printed his poem of " The Judgment of Hercules,"
dedicated to lord Littleton. This was followed by " The
School-mi ftrefs," of which the heroine was the village
dame already referred to. This is thought, by fome very
refpeclable critics, to ftand at the head of Shenftone's com-
pofitions.

Shenftone, from this time, devoted himfelf to improving
the piAurefque beauties of the Leafowes, and fometime*
exercifing his pen in effufions of verfe and prole. The ce-
lebrity of this place led him into expences which his fortune
was unequal to, and he was perpetually under the prefture
of poverty ; which, with the deficiency of regular employ-
ment, and the perpetual defire of doing more, and appear-
ing better off, than his means admitted, preyed on his
fpirits, and rendered him the milcrable inhabitant of the
Eden which his tafte and genius had created. Grey has de-
fcribed him in the following fentence, which may in fome
refpefts be rather a caricature likenefs. " Poor man ! he
was always wiftung for money, for fame, and for other dif-
tinftions; and his whole philofophy confifted in living againft
his will in retirement, and in a place which his tafte had
adorned, but which he only enjoyed when people of note
came to fee and commend it." It has been thought a mat-
ter of furprize, confidering his connexions, that nothing was
done to place him in eafier circumftances. Apphcation was
faid to have been made to lord Bute ts procure him a pen-
fion from the privy purfe, but before the wifties of his
friends could be realized he died. This event took place
in February 1763, when he was in the 50th year of his
age : he was interred in the church-yard of Hales Owen.

Of his poetical compofttions many were inlerted in Dodf-
ley's colleftion of original pieces ; and after his death, his
" Works in Verfe and Prole" were publilhed in two vols.
8vo. in 1764, and a third volume, confilling of " Letters,"
was publilhed in 1769. " Of his poetry," fays the critic,
" the general opinion was almoft uniform ; it is regarded as
commonly elegant, melodious, tender, and correft in fen-
timent, and often pleafing and natural in defcription, but
verging to the languid and feeble, and never exhibiting
either the powers of the imagination, or the energy and
fplendour of diftion, that charaAerize compofttions of the
higher order. His profe writings difplay good fenfe and a
cultivated tafte, and contain juft and fometimes new and
acute obfervations on mankind."

SHENUZ AN, in Geography, a town of Candahar ; 42
miles E. of Ghizni.

SHEPEY, IJle of, an ifland within the liberty of the
fame, lathe of Sway, and county of Kent, England, is
fituated near the mouth of tlie river Thames, and is feparated
from the mainland by a narrow arm of the fea, called the
Swale, which bounds it on the fouth, while the elluary of
the Medway, and the German ocean, bound it on the well,
north, and eaft. It is uncertain by what name this ifland
was known to the Romans ; for though Ptolemy, in his
Geography, mentions two iflands in this part of Britain by

the

SHE

SHE

the appellations Toliapis and Counus, he does not defcribe
either of thc-m fa precifely as to identify it with Shepey.
Hence this fubjeA is a matter of difpute among our moll
eminent antiquaries ; Camden and Batteley contending for
Toliapis ; and Lambarde, Leland, and others, for Counus.
In Saxon times it was called Sceapige, or the ifland of
(heep, from the great numbers of that animal which were
then pallured upon it, whence originated, by corruption,
the name by which it is now diftiiiguilhcd. Baxter, in his
GlofTary, under the word Malata, remarks, " Vervecurn Pa-
tria, or the ide of fheep, now named Shepey. This is cor-
ruptly called by the book of Ravennas, Malaca, by the Bri-
tons Verves ;" but thefe obfcrvations are r:ither conjetlural
than well authenticated.

The Ille of Shepey, including the fmall adjoining ifles of
Elmley and Harty, which lie at the fouth-ealt fide of it,
meafures about 32 milts in circumference, being about 11
miles long and fix broad. On the fouthern iide the lands
are flat and marlhy, but the interior is diverlitied hy hills,
and the northern ftiore prelents a range of clifis, extcndmg
fix miles in diredl length. Thefe cUffs are chiefly compofed
of a loofe friable marie, abounding in pyrites, and in fome
places rifing perpendicularly to the height of 90 feet. They
belong principally to the three manors of Minlter, Shurland,
and Warden, the owners of which let them to the copperas
ir.akers, who employ the poor inhabitants to coUett the
pyrites, or copperas ilones, which are continually walhed
out of the cliffs by the force of the waves, and are of various
forms, as globular, oblong, Sec. Their external covering
is a ferruginous coat ; ar.d within they are of a ftriated tex-
ture, commonly radiated from a centre. The ludi Helmontii
alfo abound in thefe cliffs. They are in general of a com-
prclfed form, from twelve inches to two feet and a half long,
and covered with a thick crufl of indurated clay. Where
the clay is moil tenacious, felenites are found of feveral va-
rieties. Large nodules of petrified wood, retaining the ap-
pearance and grain of oak, are likewife met with in thcle
cliffs and on the fhores ; alfo a vail number of fruits ; but as
thefe are always faturated with pyritical matter, they foon
fall to pieces. Animal remains liave likewife been found
here of many different kinds ; as the thigh-bcncs, tufl<s, and
grinders of elephants ; two fpecics of tortoifes ; the liead*;,
tails, and palates of fi(h ; the teeth and vertebrx of (harks ;
crabs, lobfters, fhells. Sec.

The greateJl part of this ifland is of an exceeding (lifF clay
foil, and confills chiefly of upland paflures and marfh lands.
Towards the north fide, however, in the parilhes of Minlter
and Eallchurch, it is very fertile in corn, the inclofurcs of
which are fmall, and furroundcd with thick hedge-rows of
elm. The roads throughout the ifland are very good during
the whole year, owing to the great plenty of fine gravel
found in the beach-pits, and the profpefts from them are
very pleafmg and cxtenfive on every fide. Frcfli water is
very icarce, and the greatell part of it brackifli, though be-
tween Eallchurch and Minlter there are a few Ipringa,
which, notwithllanding they rife near the fea, the waters of
them are perfectly good and frefli. The air is generally
thick, and much fubjec\ to noxious vapours, arifing from
the large quantity ol inarlhes in and near it. Hence, and
from the badnefs of the water, few people of fubllance live
in it, the inhabitants confilling in general of lookers, bailills,
farmers, and fervants. The garrifon and dock of Shcer-
ncfs and its environs, the reader will however of courfe ex-
cept from tliis obfervation, where there are many gentlemen
employed in the government fervice conft;antly rcfident. See
Sheernkss,
The water which flows between thii ifland and the main
Vol. XXXII.

land is called the Swale, and the two extremities of it the
Ealt and Weft Swale. It reaches about twelve miles in
length, and is navigable for (hips of two hundred tons bur-
then. This water feems formerly to have been accounted
a part of the river Thames, and to have been the ufual, as
being the fafell, pafl'age for the fliipping between London
and the North Foreland. Accordingly Sandwich i8 fre-
quently lliled by our ancient hiftorians Lunden'wic, or the
Thames mouth, being the name given to it by the Saxons,
and the town of Milton is faid by them to ftand on the
fouth bank of the Thames. Leland in particular fays, in
his Itinerary, " that towne (lands on an arm of the
Taniife ;" and he fpeaks of the point againft. " Quinbo-
rough entering into the mayne Tamys."

The ufual pafTage to this ifland is by a ferry, called King's
Ferry, for carriages, horfes, cattle, and paflengers. The
ferry-boat is moved forward by a long cable, of about one
hundred and forty fathoms, or more, which being fattened
at each end acrofs the Swale, ferves to move it forward by
hand. On the fide oppofite to the ifland there is a fmall
houfe of Hone, in the room of one formerly crefted by one
George Fox, who having (laid a long while in the cold
waiting for the boat, and being much affefted by it, built
it to flielter others from the like inconvenience.

The very convenient fituation of the Ifle of Shepey for the
dcvaftating purfuits of the Danes, occafioned it to be made
their accullomed rendezvous ; and they fometiraes wintered
here during the courfe of the ninth century. The inhabit-
ants were then but few, and chiefly congregated in the neigh-
bourhood of Minfter, where Sexburga, widow of Ercombert,
king of Kent, had founded a nunnery, which, after being
feveral times plundered by the invaders, was at length, in a
great meafurc, dellroyed, and the nuns dilperfed. The
large tumuli in the lower or fouthern part of the ifle, and
which are termed coterets by the country people, arc fup-
pofed to cover the remains of different Danifli chiefs, who
were flain in battle during their piratical incurfions. The
years which have been particularly recorded as thofe wherein
thefe marauders were moll attive here, are 832, 849, 851,
and 854: in the year 1016, king Canute is faid to have
colledled the fcattered remains of his army in this ifle, after
his defeat in the vicinity of Otford, by Edmund Ironfide.
Hafted's Hiltory and Antiquities of Kent, 8vo. 1798.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iii. by E. W. Braylcy
and John Britton, 8vo. 1806.

SHEPHERD, in ^gricullurf, a labourer or other perfon
who has the care and management of a flock of (heep. It is a
bufincfs that requires much care, attention, and knowledge
of the various methods of treating animals of this kind.
Mr. Bannifter thinks, that it is ncccliary to have for this em-
ployment a perfon who is well (killed in the nature and ma-
nagement of flieep, and hath been brought up in that em-
ployment from his infancy ; who is fober, diligent, and
good-natured ; qualities cflentially necefl'ary in a ihcphcrd,
who, although he may fccm to live a life of indolence, when
contralted with the more laborious fervants of the farm, need
rarely to have a minute's time hang heavily on his hands, if
he will be attentive to his bufinefs, which will funiiih him
with (ulTicient employment throughout the d.iy, particularly
in the lambing feafon, or where there arc two lold'i at work;
nor will he want opportunity for the exercife of his patience
and good temper in his attendance on the flieep, which are
by nature animals of great obRiiiacy and perverfeiief*, and
whicli iiave often paid the forfeit of their lives to thefe innate
qualities, where the (hepherd was a man of morofe and fiirly
diipofition. It is (aid that on the conlinenl they hav*
fchooU wherein young flicpherds are inltrutled in the ne-
3 Q ccfl'ar?

SHE

celTary knowledge of their bufinefs, as well as the anatomy
and phyfiology of Iheep, the food and treatment proper for
them in difTc-rent feafons, and the nature of their difeafes,
and the common operations refpetting them, efpecially re-
gardinaf the parturition of the ewes, &c. And in the Ge-
neral Treatife on Cattle, it is remarked, that the method of
encouragement, adopted in fome diftriAs, of allowing the
fhepherd to poffefs a fmall flock, or as many ewes as his
means will allow, is probably one of the moll powerful. It
gives him that fteadinefs appertaining to property, and is
an additional and itrong incentive to the attainment of
knowledge in his bulinefs. A fhepherd fhould be naturally
aftive, both in body and mind, clear-headed and clear-
fighted ; fuch an one, for inftance, as can diitinguifh the
individual countenances of a numerous flock, and running
over them with his bodily and mental eye, infl:antly give
the exaft number and condition ; or perceive at a glance, a
bird's neft; in the thickeft quickfet. Fond of animals and
attraftive totjiem, the latter quality of which is well known
to inhere in fome perfons ; pofleffing a mufical voice and
fhrill whiftle ; hardy, patient, watchful ; fatistied with little
fleep, and temperate in drink. It is conceived that he ought
never to be fuffered, if he profefs, to praftife phyfic, nor
any but the moil eafy and common operations, a farce that
too often ends in a tragedy ; for if of two evils we ought
to choofe the leafl:, the office of medical praftice had better
devolve on the mailer. And for his comfort in the fevere
weather, in fome fituations, the moveable wooden houfe on
wheels may be of ufe. Alfo that he ought to be clad dur-
ing winter, with fubitantial woollen next his fl<in, from his
feet upwards, as the bell defence ajtainfl thofe rheumatic
ails to which he muft be neccffarily fubjett ; and he fiiould
always go provided witli the inltruments proper to his pro-
feffion, ready for immediate occalions, namely, fciflbrs, knife,
ftecl, fleam, falve-box, &c. And in folding, as the fliep-
herd will have the flock perpetually under his eye, the firll
writer thinks, he will be capable of judging with certainty
and precifion refpefting the Hate of every individual, fo that
the earlielt remedy may be applied to every diforder, and fuch
ftieep may be turned out of the fold which are found not to
be able to go through their work without manifeft injury to
their health ; and if a flieep or lamb be feized with a dan-
gerous and incurable malady, to kill and drefs it immedi-
ately ; for it is one part of the bufinefs of a fhepherd to be
fo far fliilled in the butcher's trade, as to be able to flaughter,
flea, and drefs a fheep on occafion. Farther, that a good
fliepherd will be careful that his flock be driven late to
fold of an evening, and releafed early in the morning from
their confinement, in order that they may enjoy the coolell
parts of the day on the food. He will be cautious that
they are allowed a fufficient time to graze in the uplands pre-
vious to their being driven into the fold, that they may retire
to reft with full bellies, by which the quantity of the dung
and urine will be confiderably augmented. He will like-
wife be careful in reviewing the hurdles, and providing that
thefe are fixed in the ground, left by any accident they
fhould be thrown down during the night, and the flock by
thefe means get into mifcliief, or intermix with other (heep ;
he will count his fheep regularly every evening when he drives
them to the fold, and take a frefii tale in the morning, when
he turns then^ on their feed ; he will, previous to difmiffing
them from the fold, worry them gently round the fame, in
order to caufe them to dung and Hale plentifully, that the
manure may be left in the field, othcrwife the greatefl part
of the trundles will be dropt on the road, or carried on to
the marfh, where lying thin, this dreffing can do but little
fervice, and where in truth it is not wanted ; he will bellow

SHE

a particular attention on every individual in his flock, and for
thofe which fliew any appearance of being ftung by the fly,
he will be prepared with a pair of flieers to clip away the '
wool from the part, and having taken out the maggots, will
anoint the place with a mixture of train-oil and brimftone ;
but if (lightly attacked, he will dellroy the maggots by
itrewing on them powder of white lead ; and if any of the
flock fiiould haply break with the fcab, a diforder to which
folding Iheep are continually tubjeft, and which feldom fails
to ftiew itfelf in the fpring and fall, he will be provided with
a proper remedy to keep tt under, and prevent the contagion
from fpreading. See Scab.

It is likewife thought, that one fliepherd will be able to
look after three hundred fheep.

In refpeft to the neceffity of a dog, as an affiftant to the
fhepherd, Mr. Lawrence thinks, that it has of late very
rationally become a queilion among the moil intelligent
fheep-mallers : it may probably be thus fettled, — there can
be no occafion for fuch aid, nor any neceffity for incurring
the danger of it, amidil convenient inclofures, or where
quiet breeds of fiieep are kept, and where it is made an ob-
jeft to render them tame and docile : and if upon extenfive
wattes and mountain diftridts, the fervice of dogs cannot
well be difpenfed with, it ought to be made a main point,
that they be trained early to a kindnefs for the fheep, and to
view them rather as their companions, than their prey ; a
thing which he knows by experience to be moll ealy ; and
he alfo knows that luch dogs are infinitely of the greater ufe,
as the fheep, far from dreading or fhunning, will run to
them, in cafe of need, for protedlion ; and he has often
witnefled the carefTes and gambols of thefe and the lambs,
with a delight which he never experienced in the combats of
animals.

Shepherds of Egypt, Shepherd kings, or royal Shepherdr,
in /Indent Hiflory, the denomination of a clafs of inhabit-
ants of a part of Egypt, concerning whofe origin, place
of abode, and migration, ancient and modern writers havev
entertained different opinions. Some fl<etches of their hif-
tory will be found under the articles AuRixiE, Cush, Dis-
persion of Mankind, and Egypt. The learned Bryant
has pubhfhed, befides feveral notices that occur in his
" Analyfis of Ancient Mythology," an elaborate " Difier-
tation" on this fubjeft. Differing from others concerning
the fituation of the land of Gofhen, (fee Goshen,) he con-
ceives it to have been the Nome called the Arabian, from
the Arabian fhepherds who had formerly fettled in thofe
parts, and held them for many years, and denominated by
the LXX, Ttaatiji T/i,- A^a/3iaf. The province of Arabia, fays
this author, was one of the three moil remarkable nomes,
the other two being thofe of Bubailus and Heliopohs.
Thefe three nomes were contiguous to each other, and
towards the fnmmit of Lower Egypt. The nome of Helio-
pohs, according to his flatement, was a Mediterranean
diilrifl ; and confequently the two provinces, or that of
Phacufa (i. e. the Arabian nome), and that of Bubaflus,
that are always mentioned with the former, were fo likewife.
Phacufa, mentioned by Strabo only as a village, was the
province at whofe fummit the Nile was firll divided, where
flood the city of Cercafora. It was called the Arabian
nome for the reafon above-mentioned, and had for its metro-
polis Phacufa, and the places fituated upon its borders were
Babylon, Heliopolis, and Heroum. From Syncellus we
learn, that Egypt had been in fubjeftion to a three-fold race
of kings, who are termed the Aurita;, the Mellraei, and
the Egyptian. The Auritx were the Arabian fliepherds
and their kings, who reigned here a confiderable time,
maintaining themfelves by force ; till, after many flruggles,

they

S H K

they were finally expelled by the natives. According to
Manetho, the whole body of this'people bore the appellation
of Hukfos, that is, royal fhepherds ; the firft fyllable, in
the facred dialeiS, fignifying a king, and the latter, in the
popular lanp^uage, fignifying a Jhepberd ; and by a compo-
fition of tliele two was formed the word Hukfos. Thefe
people are faid to have been Arabians. Jofephus further
informs us from Manetho, that the Ihepherds maintained
themfelves in Egypt 511 years. At lail the people of
Upper Egypt rofe in oppofition to them, and after fome
time expelled them the country. However, on their de-
parture, they were afraid of going towards Ailyria, and
therefore reforted to the country called afterwards Judea,
and built Jerufalem. We learn alfo, from the fame au-
thority, that another clafs of people fojourned in Egypt in
the reign of Amenophis ; and that they were treated as
fiaves by the prince of the country, becaufe they were in-
fefted with the leprofy. As their number very much in-
creafed, he employed them in the Hone quarries that lay on
the eall fide of the Nile, in company with fome of the
Egyptians. Upon a remonitrance afterwards made to him,
he granted them for a retreat the city of Abaris, where the
former (lieplierds had refided, that now lay defolate. The
people belonging to each of the two clalies now mentioned
were efteemed iliepherds : the firft lliepherds were lords
and conquerors ; the others were fervaiits, to whom was
afligned the city which the former had evacuated. The
latter were Ifraelites, as appears from the name of their
leader and lawgiver, Mofes; and the former were Arabians,
who are faid to have come from the Ealt : and they are,
without doubt, the Auritae, who founded the city Auris or
Abaris, which is no other than the city "llf^, Ur or Aur,
fignifying light and fire, of which element the Auritae mull
have been worfiiippers, as all the Arabians were. Their
chief god was Alorus, (Al Orus, ) the god of fire. Ac-
cordingly the fhepherds were called AuritK from the chief
objeft of their worlhip, and their king^ were Ityled priefts
of Alorus, or, according to the Greeks, priefts of Vulcan.
Hence it has been inferred that they came from Babylonia,
^a country that lay due eaft from Egypt, which country was
the original feat of the genuine Arabians, and the true
fource whence their religion flowed. The two principal
cities of that country were Ur or Aur, and Babylon : 'n
memory of which they built two of the fame name in
Egypt. Wherever they refided, they introduced the Tzeba
Sclianain, or Zabian worlhip, togetlier with the worfhip of
fire. Hence we are informed by Herodotus, that Vulcan
was particularly honoured :it Heliopolis and Memphis,
wliich places they are faid to have built. Tlie tru<.' name
of thefe people, fays Bryant, who were called by the Greeks
and Romans Arabians, was Cuflian or Cufieans, the fame
that tlicy gave to the province wliere they fettled. (Sec
Cu.sii.) Thefe ftrangers, therefore, who fettled in Egypt,
were no other than the Cufxans ; and they have been llylcd
Arabian fhepherds, becaufe all the primitive Arabians were
Nomades, or fliepherds. Tliefe people becoming lords of
the country, imdoubtedly chofe that part which was the
moll eligible, and their profeflion wosld lead them to the
bed land for patturage ; in refpeCt of which Goflien had not
its equal. For it was part of the TiSiov i\iyv:!\n, the rich
champaign of Egypt ; fo that this circumftance among others
would induce one to think that tiiey lettled here. This it
confirmed by the worfliip which they fettled in thefe parts ;
the cities they built ; and the names which they bequeathed to
the province. According to the Mofaic account, the land
of Goflien is repeatedly faid to be in the land of Egypt,
" in the belt of the land ;" and yet the LXX call it

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Fio-o-E/i T«; A{xgi«c, which could be owing to no other reafon
befides its being the land of Cuflian, (Gofhen,) which wai
interpreted Arabian ; for in Arabia it was not fitua'ed.
Hence it has been concluded, that the place where the
children of Ifrael refided in Egypt was the principal Ara-
bian nome, at the extreme and higheft part of Lower E?vDt.
called Cuflian. ^^^ '

This was the land to which the childreH of Ifrael fuc-^
ceeded, after it had been abandoned by its former inhabit-
ants ; but it is uncertain at what interval. It appears to
have been an unoccupied dillrict ; and as it was the bell of
the land, there is no accounting for its beuig unoccupied
but by the feceflion of the Culicans, whofe property it had
lately been. Accordingly Manetho exprefsly affirms, that
the fecond fliepherds fucceeded to the places which had
been deferted by the former ; and he moreover fays, that
the city Abaris, which had been built by the firll fliepherd
king, was given to thofe of their body who were employed
in the quarries.

Bryant fuggefts, that the migration of the fhepherds was
about the time of Serug or Nahor : and this is the time
when archbifliop Uflier fuppofes it to have happened, who
refers it to the year of the world 1920, according to the
Hebrew computation, in the 10 ill year of the life of Serug,
the 7th from Noah, and in the 42 d year of Terab, 88 years
before the birth of Abraham. Bilhop Cumberland fuppofes
that the fhepherds invaded Egypt A. M. 1937, in the time
of the fame patriarchs, according to the Hebrew chronology.
Our author has alleged feveral arguments to prove, that
the Arabian fliepherds were diltincl from the Ifraelites, and
prior to them. When the Arabians came into Egypt, they
arc faid to have been 240,000 in number, whereas tiie Ifrael-
ites were but 70 perfons. The former took pollcfTion by-
force, the latter were invited, and had a grant of all that
they poiiefled. The one held the people in flavery ; the
others were themfelves enflaved. The Arabians were
driven out of the land; the Ifraelites were not fuffered to
depart. See Bryant's Oblervations and Inquiries, &c.
Cont. 1767.

Shepherd's IJlands, in Geography. See New Hebrides.

Shei'IIERu's Dog, a variety of the common dog, ufed in
guarding flocks, or driving herds of cattle. See Dog.

Shei'HERd'.s Needle, or Femit's Comb, in Botany. Sec

ScANDIX.

Siiei'HERd'.s Pouch, Bur/a pnjloris, a common weed in
moll parts of England, which propagates itfelf fo fall
by feeds, as not to be eafily cleared where they are per-
mitted to Ihcd ; for fo fall do the feed ripen, and the plants
come up, that there are commonly four or five generations
of them ill a year ; they cannot, therefore, be too cirefully
rooted out of a garden or field. It is early, and lalls molt
part of the year. It may be dellroyed by frequent plough-
ing, and preventing its going to leed. In the Liinnxan lyllem,
this is a fpecies of the ihLijpi,

This is an officinal plant ; its juice has been reputed
allringcnt and vulnerary, and as fuch is ufed againlt hx-
morrhages, dyfcnteriea, diarrhoeas, &c.

The country people apply it to cuts and frelh wounds,
and fome hold it of great virtue when made up into a cata-
plafm, and applied to the wrilts againll tertians and quar-
tans ; but Dr. Lewis obferves, that he could perceive no
pungency or allringency, either in the leaves of this plant,
or in the extracts made by water and reilified Ipirit, and that
a decoftion of them llrikes no degree of blacknels with lo-
lution of chalybeate vitriol. Hence he infers, tliat there
feems to be no foundation for tiie llrong llyptic virtue?, for
which this herb has been generally recommended by writer*
3 O 3 iu

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in the materia medica, or for the acrid inflammatory power
which fome (probably mifled by its botanic affinity with
multard, and fome other acrid vegetables) have afcribed to
it. Lewis's Mat. Med,

Shepherd's Staff, or Shepherd's Rod. See Teazle.

SHEPHERDSTOWN, in Geegraphy, a pott-town of
America, in the Hate of Virginia, and county of Jefferfon,
on the S. fide of Patowmack river. Its fituation is agree-
able and healtliy, and the neighbouring country fertile and
well cultivated. It is faid to contain 1033 inhabitants,
chiefly of German extraftion.

SHEPHERDSVILLE, a poft-town in Bullet county,
Kentucky; 640 miles from Wafliington.

SHEPPECK, in ylgriculture, the provincial name of a
prong or fort of hay-fork, employed in fome places.

SHEPPEY, in Geography. See Shepey.

SHEPREVE, John, in Biography, an Englilh poet,
was born in Berkfliire, and educated at Corpus Chrift;i
college, Oxford, where he took his degrees in arts, and be-
came Hebrew profeflbr about the year 1538. He had a
moft furprifing memory, and was one of the moft learned
men in his time. He died in the year 1542. His works
are " Summa et Synopfis Novi Teft." &c. ; " Hippolytus
Ovidianae Phsdras rcfpondens," &c. Wood.

SHEPTON MALLET, in Geography, imar'^t'i-X.owam
the hundred of Whiteflone and county of Somerfet, Eng-
land, is fituated about five miles E. from the city of Wells,
and 115 W. by S. from London. This town has been
long celebrated for its manufafture of woollen cloths and
knit ftockings, which aff^ords employment to upwards of
2000 perfons refident in the town or its vicinity. Ed-
ward II. granted a charter for a market to be held here on
Monday, weekly ; but it is now kept on Friday ; befides
which there is an annual fair, called Silver-ftreet fair, which
takes place on the 8th of Auguft. The market-place is
remarkable for a very curious ftone crofs, which appears,
from an infcription upon it, to have been erefted in the
year 1500, by " Walter Bucklond and Agnes his wyff."
It confifts of five arches, fupported by pentagonal pillars,
with an hexagonal column in the centre. From the roof,
which is perfeftly flat, rifes a lofty pyramidal fpire, adorned
with Gothic niches, and crowned with an oblong entabla-
ture, on which are reprefented figures of our Saviour on
the crofs between the two malefaftors ; alfo thofe of feveral
faints. Lands of confiderable value are appropriated for
the repair of this fingular ftruAure. The church here
is a large and handfome edifice in the pointed ftyle of archi-
tefture, and compofed of a nave, chancel, north and fouth
fide aifles, and tranlept, with a tower at the weft end, orna-
mented with effigies in niches of the Virgin Mary, St. Peter,
and St. Paul. The pulpit and font are each cut out of
one folid ftone, and from the rudenefs of their workman-
ftiip would feem to be of very great antiquity. In two of
the windows are fome remains of painted glafs, difplaying
the mutilated effigies of knights Templars, faid to repre-
fent the two WiUiams Mallet, who had commands in an
expedition to the Holy Land during the reign of king
Henry II. The monuments in this church are numerous,
but none of them are particularly remarkable, either for
their ftyle of execution, or for the charafter of the perfons
they commemorate.

Shepton Mallet, in ancient times, formed part of the
manor of Pilton, which king Ina gave to the abbey of
Glaftonbury, A.D. 70J. At the time of the Conqueft it
was held from the abbot by Roger de Curcelle ; but foon
afterwards pafled into the pofieffion of the barons Mallet,
from whom it derived the latter part of its name. After a

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variety of changes, this manor was divided into two moie-
ties, one of which came to the crown, and was annexed to
the duchy of Cornwall, to which it ftill belongs. The
other moiety became the property of the family of Sherfton.

Shepton Mallet is noted as the birth-place of three men
of diftinguifhed talents and learning ; viz. Hugh Inge,
D.D. archbiftiop of Dublin, and chancellor of Ireland,
who died in 1J28 : Dr. Walter Charleton, an eminent
phyfician, and author of Chorea Gigantum, or an account
of Stonehenge, who died in 1707 ; and Simon Browne,
a learned didenting minifter, celebrated for his controverfial
writings againft Woolfton and Tindal, who died in 1732.

The parifh of Shepton Mallet is of fmall extent, but
populous, containing, according to the parliamentary re-
turns of 181 1, 1 129 houfes, and 4638 inhabitants. Within
its bounds are fituated the county Bridewell, and a large
parifh workhoufe. The Hillory and Antiquities of the
County of Somerfet ; by the Rev. J. CoUinfon, F.S.A.
4to. vol. iii. Bath, 1791.

SHERARD, William, in Biography, a very learned
and munificent botanift, on whom the titles of prince and
Maecenas of botany have been, more juftly than ufual, be-
ftowed, was the fon of George Sherwood, (for fo it feems the
name was written by the father,) of Buihby, in Leicefterthire.
He was born in 1659 ; educated firit at Merchant Taylors'
fchool, and then at St. John's college, Oxford, where he
entered in 1677. He fubfequently became a fellow of this
college, and took the degree of Bachelor of Law, Decern-
ber II, 1683. Being appointed travelling tutor, fuc-
ceffively, to Charles, afterwards the fecond vifcount Town-
ffiend, and to Wriothefley lord Howland, fon of the mur-
dered lord Ruflel, who in 1700 became the fecond duke of
Bedford, Sherard made two fucceffive tours through Hol-
land, France, Italy, &c. returning from the laft, as we
prefume, not much before the year 1700, when his laft-
mentioned pupil was twenty years old. Dr. Pulteney fup-
pofes him to have come back in 1693, led perhaps by the
date of Ray's Sylloge Stirpium Europaarum, printed in 1 694,
to which Sherard communicated a catalogue of plants
gathered on mount Jura, Saleve, and the neighbourhood
of Geneva. Thefe were probably collefted in his firll
journey ; for it fhould feem by Collins's Peerage, that the
lord Howland, fo created on account of his union with the
heirefs of the Howland family, was married to her in May
1695, when he was little more than fourteen years of age.
He was made a peer June 13, 1695 ; " after which," fays
Collins, " he travelled into France and Italy." So youth-
ful a bridegroom was, doubtlefs, beft in the hands of his
tutor, in a diftant country from his, ftill more youthful,
fpoufe. The fubjeft of our memoir is faid to have fulfilled
his truft to the fatisfaclion of both the noble families who
confided in him. His vifit to his friend fir Arthur Rawdon,
at Moira, in Ireland, was apparently made in the interval
of thefe two foreign journies. Long before either of them,
he had travelled over various parts of England, and pro-
ceeded to Jerfey, for the purpofe of botanical inveftigation ;
and the fruits of his difcoveries enriched the publications
of the illuftrious Ray ; fee that article.

Botany was ever the prominent purfuit of Sherard in
all his journies. He cultivated the friendftiip and corre-
fpondence of the moft able men on the continent, fuch as
Bocrhaave, Hermann, Tournefort, Vaillant, Micheli, &c.
He is univerfally believed to have been the author of a
i2mo. volume, entitled Schela Botanica, publiflied at Am-
fterdam in 1689, and reprinted in 1691 and 1699. This
is a fyftematic catalogue of the Paris garden. Its preface,
dated London, Nov. 1688, is Cgned S.W.A., which the

French

li

SHERARD.

French writers have interpreted Samuel Wharton, Anglm,
under which name the book occurs in Haller's Btblhth.'ca
Botan'ica, v. I. 643. But as no one ever heard of iuch a
botanift as Wharton ; and the preface in queftion difplays
the objefts and acquifitions of one of the firft rank, who
could certainly not long remain in obfcurity, the above initials
are prefumed to mean William S!ierard, to whom alone in-
deed, with or without a fignature, that preface could belong.
Its writer is defcribed as having attended three courfes of
Tournefort's botanical leisures, in 1686, 87, and 88, all
which years, he fays, he fpent at Paris. In the fummer
of 1688 he defcribes himfelf as having pafTed fume time in
Holland, coUefting fpecimens of plants from the rich gar-
dens of that country and getting them named by profcllor
Hermann himfelf, who allowed him to perufe the manu-
fcript rudiments of his Paradifus Batavtu, to examine his
herbarium, and to compofe a Piodromus of thai work,
which is fubjoined to the little volume now under our con-
fideration. All this can apply to Sherard only, who be-
came the editor of Hermann's book itfelf, and who in its
preface, dated from Geneva in 1697, appears under his
own name, and fpeaks of himfelf as having long enjoyed
the friendlhip and the communications of that eminent mai,
whofe judgment and talents he juftly commemorates, and of
whofe various literary performances, as well as <if his bota-
nical principles, he gives an account. Dr. Pulteney con-
ceives this preface to have been written during a third tour
of its author to the continent ; but we prefume him to
have then been with the young lord Howland, and confe-
quently on his fccond tour only.

Sherard communicated to the Royal Society, in 170c, a
paper relative to the making of Chinefe or .Japan varr.ilhes,
which is printed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, v. 22.
The information which it contains was fent by the Jefiiits
to the grand duke of Tufcany, and probably obtained by
our author at Florence.

He now entered on a more public walk of life, becom-
ing one of the commilTioners for fick and wounded feamen
at Portfmouth, and about the year 1702, or foon after,
was fent out as Britifli conful to Smyrna. Here his bota-
nical tafte met with fre(h gratification ; nor was he negleft-
ful of other curiofities of fcience or literature. He vifited
the feven churches of Afia, copied feveral ancient infcrip-
tions, and communicated to the Royal Society an account
of the new volcanic idand, near Santorini, which rofe out
of the fea May 12, 1707.

Botany, however, continued to be his leading objeft.
He had a villa at Sedekio, near Smyrna, where he could with
the more eafe refign himfelf to the contemplation of plants,
and where he began that great herbarium of which we (hall
fpeak hereafter. Haffelquill vifited this fpot, with the de- ■
votion of a pilgrim, in the fpring of 1750. He faw the
houfe, with a fmall garden laid out by Sherard, but not
enriched at any great cxpence, nor Itored with extenfivc
coUeAions of exotics. Many of llie latter indeed might,
in the courfe of thirty-two years, have difappeared. What-
ever fpecimens Sherard could obtain from Greece, and the
neighbouring countries, he here carefully preferved ; and
being well aware of the infufficicncy of Bauhin's Pinax,
as a clue to the botanical knowledge then in the world, he
IS faid to have here formed the projcCl of continuing it, and
even to have made fome progrels in that arduous under-
taking, before he returned to his native country in 17 18.
Soon after his return he received at Oxford the degree of
L.L.D.

In 1 72 1 Dr. Sherard rcvifited the continent. Vaillant
was now in a declining Itate of healtli, and died in May

1722. Previous to his deceafe he concluded, through the
mediation of Shernrd, ilie fale of his manufcript^^ and draw-
ings of Parifia.. plants, to Bocrhaave, who publiflied in
1727 the fplendid Botankon Pariftenfe. This work, though
not free from imperfeftions in the dillribution of its ma-
terials, would doubtlefs have been far lefs coiretl, but for
the fuperintendance of Sherard, who palled a fummer with
Boerhaave in revifing the manufcript. Our great botanift
had already rendered a more important fervice to his
favourite fcience by bringing with him from Germany, in
Auguft 1 72 1, the celebrated Dillenius (fee that article).
By a comparifon of dates, it appears that Sherard made
feveral vifits to the continent. He went from Paris to
Holland in 1721, and thence with Dillenius, the fame
year, to Eniiland. He Itayed fome time with Boerhaave
again in 1724, or perhaps 1725. We know not precifcly
when or where it happened that he was, hke Linnsus in
Norway, in danger of being (hot for a wolf, or a thief, by
iome half-humanized rullic, akin to the thief-takers and
Oxfordfhire juftice, who feized upon another illullrious
botanift, of our time, as a highway-man.

What principally attached Sherard to Dillenius, was
the fimilarity of their taftes refpeftiiig thofe intricate tribes
of vegetables, now termed cryptogamic. To thefe the at-
tention of both had long been direded, and hence origi-
nated the cultivation, which this line of botanical ftudy
has received, from that period, in England and Germany.
This tafte, however, was not exclufive ; for thefe friends
and fellow labourers left no department of botany unim-
proved. James Sherard, feven years younger than his
brother, who had acquired opulence by medical praftice,
firft as an apothecary, and then as a phyfician, in London,
had a great fondnefs for the fame purfuit, and reared at his
country feat at Eltham, a number of exotic plants, from
every climate. Hither the more learned fubjcft of our
prefent article frequently reforted. He had acquired af-
fluence by his public appointments, but his ilyle of living
was fimple and private. Devoted to the cultivation of
knowledge in himfelf, and to the diffufion of that of others,
he lent his aid to all who required it, without coming for-
ward confpicuoudy as an author. He alTifted Cate(by with
information and with moi.ey, to bring out his Natural Hil-
tory of Carolina, though neither that work, nor tl.e Hoitut
Elthamenfu of Dillenius, appeared till fome time after his
deceafe, which happened on the 1 2th of Augult, 1728,
when he was 69 years of age. Of the place ot his inter-
ment we find no mention. His brother died Feb. 12, 1737,
aged 72, and is buried in Evington church, near Leiceftcr,
with his will-, whofe maiden name was Lockwood, by whom
he had no children.

The moft oitenfible and fplendid fervice to botany, though
it for a long time yielded but little fruit, was rendered by
the will of Dr. William Sherard, wiio lelt 3000/. to found
and fupport a botanical profeliordiip at Oxford, of wliich
we have fpokcn under the biographical article Dillen'IUS-
He bequeathed to tliis eltablilhment his choice botanical
library, his ample herbarium, and the manufcript of his
Piriitx, the completion of which he intended (hould be one
of tlie objects and duties of the new profeflor. We have
already exprefted our doubts whether the failure of the
latter, in this point, were any great lots to fcience. Never-
tlielefs, the manufcript, as Siicrard left it, would probably
have been a great acquifition to the world, and might Ihll
be worthy of publication. Dillenius accomplillied more
appropriate, .ind perhaps more diflieult deligns ; but every
fcicntilic objed flcpt with his fucceffor for forty years.
Sherard has lomctimes been blamed for excluding clergymen

from

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from his profefTorfhip, and it is ufual to hear a complaint
at Oxford, that this order of men has no interefl therein.
If by intereft is meant the acquifition of a very moderate
ftipend, which only one can enjoy, the complaint is juft :
but furely the more important intereit of a whole univerfity
confifts in having this, or any other, fcience taught in the
bell manner. Sherard therefore would have done much
more wifely, inltead of limiting the appointment at all, to
have left it open, like the Cambridge profefforfhip and gar-
den, to all the world ; and to have placed the choice in
the hands of thofe who would perceive their own advan-
tage, and probably feel ferae fenfe of duty, in not making
any profeilorlhip a fmecure or a job.

The herbarium of Sherard is perhaps, except that of
Linnsus, the mod ample, authentic, and valuable botani-
cal record in the world. In it may be feen original fpeci-
mens from Tournefort, and all the writers of that day,
named by themfelves, accompanied by remarks, or by
queries fcarcely lefs initruftive. He coUefted alfo copies
of original drawmgs, from botanilts whofe fpecimens were
not to be had, fuch as Plumier. The moll rare, and even
unique, books are to be found in his library, as the firfl
volume of K.aAheck's Campi Elyfii. (See Rudbeck.) All
thefe precious colleftions arc ilill in good prefervation,
though the noble Hone building, originally conilru£led to
receive them, wai facrificed a few years fince to public con-
venience, that the adjoining llreet might be widened.

The name of Sherard has been commemorated by Vail-
lant, in fome plants referred by Linnxus to Verbena.
Dillenius eftablilhed a SherarJ'ia, which has remained ; fee
the next article. Pulteney's Sketches of Botany. Hal-
ler's Letters, and Bibl. Bot. Aikin's Gen. Biog. S.

SHERARDIA, in Botany, fo named by Dillenius, in
honour of his munificent and learned patron William Sherard.
(See the lall article.) — Dill. Gid. append. 96. t. 3. Linn.
Gen. PI. 50. Schreb. 67. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 574.
Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 171. Prodr. Fl.
Grxc. Sibth. 86. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 234. Jufl". 196.
Lamarck lUuftr. t. 61. Gaertn. t. 24. — Clafs and order,
Tcirandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stellatii, Linn. Ru-
iiacent, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, fmall, with fix teeth,
permanent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-lhaped ; tube cylin-
drical, various in length ; hmb flat, in four acute deep feg-
ments. Stain. Filaments four, inferted into the top of the
tube, between the fegments of the limb ; anthers roundilh,
two-lobed. Pi/l. Germen inferior, oblong, two-grained ;
lj;yle thread-fliaped, divided at the upper part ; lligraas
blunt. Peri^. none. Fruit oblong, crowned, feparating
lengthwife into two parts. Seeds two, oblong, convex at
the oulfide, flat on the other, each crowned with three
points.

Ell. Ch. Corolla of one petal, funnel-lhaped, fuperior.
Seeds two, naked, each crowned with three teeth.

I. S. arverjis. Blue Sherardia, or Little Field Madder.
Linn. Sp. PI. 149. Willd. n. i. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl.
Bot. t. 891. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 13. Fl. Dan.
t. 439. (Afperula flore carneo, acuto folio ; Barrel. Ic.
t. 541.)— All the leaves whorled. Flowers terminal. — Na-
tive of cultivated or fallow fields, throughout Europe, from
Sweden to Greece, flowering all fummer long. The root
is annual, fibrous, fmall. Heri generally hairy. Stems
leveral, branched, leafy, angular, fpreading in every direc-
tion, from three to five inches long; moil flender at the
bafe. Leaves fpreading, moftly fix in each whorl, elliptical
or obovate, pointed, entire, roughell at the ed^es and
keel. Flowers from four to fix or eight, in a little ter-

minal umbel, enveloped in the uppermoft whorl, which
confifts of more leaves than the reft. Calyx of two three-
cleft acute leaves, afterwards enlarged, and forming a
creft, or crown, to each ieed. Corolla purpbfh-blue, with
a flender tube, much exceeding the calyx.

2. S. muralis. Wall Sherardia. Linn. Sp. PI. 149.
Willd. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. v. 2. 13. t. 115.
(Galium murale ; AUion. Pedem. v. i. 8. t. 77. f. i.
G. minimum, feminibus oblongis ; Buxb. Cent. 31. t. 30.
f. 2.) — Stems diffufe. Leaves four in a whorl, or in pairs,
fpreading. Whorls two-flowered. Stalks of the fruit re-
flexed. — Native of old walls, and rocks, in Italy and the
Levant. Found in Crete by Dr. Sibthorp. Annual,
about the fize of the former, decumbent, and rough, but
the leaves are fmaller, fometimes fix, fometimes but two,
ufually tour, in a whorl. Flowers axillary, oppofite, mi-
nute, fliorter than the leaves, ftalked. Corolla yellow,
with a fliort tube. Fruit reflexed, of two hifpid, oblong

feeds, itarting from each other in the middle, meeting at
top and bottom, their crown, or calyx, hardly dif-
coverable.

3. S. ere8a. Upright Sherardia. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth.
V. 2. 14. t. 116. (Afperula muralis verticillata minimal
Column. Ecphr. 302. t. 500. A. verticillata luteola ;
Bauh. Pin. 334.) — Stems eredl. Leaves four in a whorl,
or in pairs, deflexed. Whorls many-flowered. Fruit
nearly eretl. Native of rocks and walls, in Italy and the
Archipelago. Annual, creft, and more flender than the
lall, a fpan high. The fliorter deflexed leaves, numerous

jiowers, and ereft fruit, diitinguifh this fpecies clearly,
though Linnaus confounded its fynonyms with his muralis.
The crown of the feeds is equally obfcure in both, and the
habit of the plants ar\fwers better to that of the genuine
Valantin, though the fruftification differs. They but ill
agree with Sherardia ; yet their fruit will not allow them to
be referred to Galium.

4. S.fruticofa. Shrubby Sherardia. Linn. Sp. PI. 149.
Willd. n. 3. Swartz. Obf. 46. — Leaves four in a whorl,
linear-lanceolate, revolute. Stem flirubby. — Gathered by
Olbeck in the ifland of Afcenfion. The fern is woody,
branched, leafy, ilraggling or proftrate, and the whole
plant has the afpeft of Ernodea montana (fee Erxode,\) ;
but is dillinft. Leaves an inch long, rather downy. Calyx
of only four teeth. Corolla white, as long as the germen.
Swartz juttly obferves, that this fpecies but ill accords with
Sherardia, being intermediate, a< it were, between Diodiii
and Spermacoce.

SnER.4RDi,\ is alfo a name given by Pontedera to the
genus of plants, called by Linnaeus galenia.

SHE RA RIB, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
Bergoo ; 115 miles S.W. of Wara.

SHE R A VEND, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Ghilan, on the Cafpian fea ; 20 miles S. of Allara.

SHERBET, or Sherbit, a compound drink, fird
brought into England from Turkey and Perfia, confiding
of fair water, lemon-juice, fugar, amber, and other in-
gredients.

Another kind of it is made of violets, honey, juice of
raifins, &c.

The word Jherhet, in the Perfian language, fignifies plea-
fant liquor.

SHERBORNE, or Shekbourxe, anciently called
Sareburn, in Geography, a market-town and pariih in the
hundred of that name, county of Dorfet, England, is
fituated in the vale of Blakemoie, near the borders cf So-
merfetfliire, at the diftance of 16 miles W. from Shaftef-
bury, 18 N. by W. from Dorchciter, and 117 W.S.W.

from.

SHERBORNE.

from London. It is a town of very high antiquity, but its
origin is not precifely afcertained. Baxter contends that it
was the Arianus, or Aranus of Ravennas, deriving its name
from " Arian Uifc, Argenteus Fluxus Aquas," or " Fons
Claras." This opinion, however, is rendered extremely
doubtful, by the total abfence of all thofe appearances
which almoll invariably charafterize the fcites of Britilh or
Roman towns. It fcems, therefore, more probable that it
had its commencement in Saxon times, and germinated from
a religious houfe, founded here foon after the converfion of
the Saxons to Chrillianity. This monadery was richly en-
dowed by feveral of the king? of Weflex, paiticulaily by
Cenwalch, and the great Alfred. After the Conquelt, it
was raifed to the rank of an abbey, and the abbots were
efteemed fpiritual barons, and in confequence were fre-
quently fummoned to alFill in the parliament or great council
of the nation. At the dilTolution, its revenues were rated,
according to Speed and Dugdale, at 612/. 14J. yf^A per
annum.

Sherborne was further diftinguifhed, in ancient times, as
the feat of an epilcopal fee, having been conllituted fuch
by king Ina, on the division of the bifhopric of Wincheller,
A.D. 704. The firit bifhop of this diocele was Aldhelm,
nephew to Ina, who is reported to have been a man of ex-
traordinary talents, and a great benefaftor to the fee. His
fucceilbrs have been differently named by different writers,
fo that much uncertainty prevails refpefting them. The
mod probable view of the fubjeft, however, is, that they
were Iwenty-iive in number, and conjointly prefided a period
of 366 years. The moft celebrated among them was Alier
Menevenfis, who wrote the life of Alfred the Great, and
affilled him in his literary purfuits. In his time the fee of
Sherborne comprehended the counties of Dorfet, Bucks,
Wilts, Somerfet, Devon, and Cornwall ; but in 904, fhortly
after his death, the three latter counties were feparated from
it, and united to other bifhoprics, by a bull of pope Ser-
gfius III. Herman, the 26th biihop, attempted to remove
the feat of the bifhopric to Malmelbury, but his intentions
were thwarted by Godwin, earl of Kent, and the monks of
that abbey. He fncceedcd, however, in eftedling its re-
moval fome years afterwards, w'z. in 1075, '^^ ^^'^ Sarum,
in confequence of the edicl of the council at London, which
direifled that all bifliops' fees (hould be transferred from
obfcure places to the molt important town in each diocefe.
See Salisbury.

From the great cagerncfs of Herman to quit Slicrborne,
it might rcafonably be inferred that it was become a town
of much lefs extent and importance than it was under his
predecclfors. Accordingly fuch is the fat\, and the cir-
cumltance is eafily accounted for ; it being Hated by liif-
torians, that it was laid in aflies by the Danes, under king
Sweyn, during one of liis vindictive cxcurfions tlirough this
part of the kingdom. Befidcs, both Matthew of We!l-
minlter and William of Malmlbury defcribe it " as a fmall
Itreet, in which was nothing agreeable in number of in-
habitants, or pleafantnefs of fituation ; and that it was
matter of reproach and wonder that an epifcopal feat liad
continued tliere fo long." In this fituation it appears to
have remained for feveral centuries ; but in the time of Le-
land it had recovered itfelf very confiderably, as we find
Sherborne mentioned in his Itinerary as the moll frequented
town in the county, and that in which the woollen trade was
turned to the befl account. After his time, however, this
branch of bufinefs very much decreaied ; and the manufac-
ture of liuttons, habcrdafhery wares, and bone-lacc, intro-
duced in its ilead. Thefe trades have alfo dccreafe<], and

J

now the filk and linen manufadures conftitute the principal
employment of the inhabitants.

Sherborne, though neither a borough by charter nor
prefcription, on one occafion fent members to parliament,
in the reign of Edward HI. At that time the alhzcs were
regularly held liere ; but fince the reign of his fucceflor,
that pradlice has only been occalional, as in cafe, of epi-
demical dilorders, or otherwife. The general quarter fef-
fions for the peace, however, arc tlill lield here once a year,
on Tuefday after the clofe of E .ler. The market-day
here is Satuniay, weekly ; and there are fairs annually on
Wedncfday before Holy Thurfday, l6tli and 1 8th July,
aiul the liril Monday after loth Odobcr.

Tile church of Slicrborne, which is the orjy public
building within the town of any importance, is a large and
magnificent flrufture. It is built in the form of a crofs,
and entirely of free-llone. The original edifice was the
work of bifhop Aldhelm. But no part of that building
probably now remains, as ;t has undergone frequent altera-
tions, and in the time of king Henry VI. was alnioft wholly
rebuilt. Hence, though difplaying various ftyles of archi-
tecture, the greater part of it is in the pointed ftyle of that
age. The moft material exceptions to this remark are the
pillars fupporting the tower, the foutli porch, and the
chipel of our Lady, all of which are of early Norman origin,
and the large lancet window at the ealtern end of the chapel
north of the chancel, which, with fome fmaller fragments in
other parts, feem to be of the fame date with Salifbury
catliedrai, in%. about the year 1220. All the later parts
of the church are richly ornamented with tracery work,
vine leaves, and flowers. The piers between the windows
on each fide are fupported by light flying buttrefles ftretch-
ing over the fide aifles. The roof is of flone, and fup-
ported by numerous groins fpringing from the fide aifles ;
and between the tracery work is a number of fhields
bearing different arms, with rofes, portcullifes, and cut
devices. This church was made parochial after the diffolu-
tion of the abbey, to which it previoufly belonged. It con-
tains the afhes of many perfons of diftinftion, and among
others thofe of Ethelbold, king of Wellcx, and his brother
Ethelbert. The only modern monuments of note are thofe
of .lohn, earl of Brillol, wlio died in 1698, and of a fon and
daughter of William, lord Digby. On the latter are in-
fcribed the following beautiful lines by Pope.
" Go, fair example of untainted youth.

Of modeft rcafon, and pacific truth ;

Compofed in fuflering, and in joy fedatc.

Good without noile, without prctenlion great.

Go, jult of word, in every thmight finceie.

Who knew no wifli but what the world might hear.

Of geiitlell manners, unafleCted mind ;

Lover of peace, and friend of human-kind.

Go, live, for heaven's eternal year is thine ;

Go, and txalt thy mortal to divine.

And thou, too clofe attendant on his doom,

Blell maid, has halleiied to the filent tomb,

Steer'd the lame courfc to the fame quiet fliore ;

Not parted long, and now to part no more :

Go, then, where only blils lincerc is known,

Go, where to love and to enjoy ii one.

Yet take thcfe te.irs, mortality's relief,

And, till we Ihare your joys, forgive our grief.

Tiiele little riles, a Hone and verle, receive;

'Tis all a father, all a friend ean give."
Thefe lines, as printed in flie diflerent editions of Popc'«
works, vary very materially from the original-

Befidc*

SHE

SHE

Befides the eftablidied church, there were formerly in Sher-
borne two meeting-houfes for diflenters ; but at prefent
there is only one, fituated in Long-ftreet. The other public
ftruftures here are the market -houfe, the work-houfe,an alms-
houfe, and a free grammar-fchool. The alms-houfe was
formerly a religious hofpital dedicated to St. Auguftine, and
has a chapel attached to it, which appears to have been erefted
in the fifteenth century, and contains a very curious ancient
painting upon oak in high prefervation. This pifture con-
fifts of three pieces, reprelenting three of our Saviour's moll
remarkable miracles, and is charaAeriztd by Mr. Hutchins,
in his Hiftory of Dorfetfhire, as " very beautiful, and evi-
dently executed by a maftcrly hand." The free grammar-
fchool was founded and endowed by king Edward VI., and
the government of it veiled, by charter, in twenty principal
inhabitants of Sherborne. At prefent, there are two mailers
attached to this fchool, who mull be clergymen, and gra-
duates of one or other of the univerfities. The buildings
occupy the fcite of part of the ancient abbey, fome con-
fiderable portions of which are dill Handing. The plan of
education adopted here is fimilar to that of Eton. There
are likewife in Sherborne two charity-fchools on a contrafted
fcale, three beTicfit focicties, two for mca, and one for wo-
men ; and an inftitution of rather an uncommon kind, called
the Green Girls' Society, which, from its excellent tendency,
deferves to be more generally adopted. It was eftablifhed in
1 7 7 1 . The members pay into it a fmall fura weekly, and wear,
till they arrive at a certain age, gicen gowns and draw hats.
When a girl attains the age of eighteen, Ihe is at liberty to
leave it, and if married before flie is twenty-five, is entitled to
1 2/. on her wedding-day, ar.d i/. on the birth of her firll child.
If unm.arried till twenty-five, (he is then entitled to the firll
fum, provided (he has lived a fober and virtuous life, other-
wife her claims are forfeited to the fociety. The founder of
this inltitution was the late Mr. John Toogood.

The parifh of Sherborne extends about three miles and a
half in length, and two miles and a half in breadth, and con-
tains, according to the population cenfus of 1811, ygy
houfes, and 3370 inhabitants, of whom above 2000 refide in
the town. The late eminent Dr. Jofeph Towers is generally
ftated to have been born at Sherborne, but we know from
authority that he was not even a native of the county.

In a hamlet, or fuburb called Caitleton, about half a mile
eaftward from the town, Hood the ancient caftle of Sherborne.
This fortrefs was built by Roger, third bifliop of Salifbury,
and occupied a rocky eminence on the north bank of the river
Ire. The area contained within the deep folle, which inclofed
the whole works, meafured about .*bur acres in extent. Few
callles furpafled this in ttrcngth and magnificence of ftruc-
ture. It was one of the three, erefted by the fame bilhop,
which William of Malmlbury mentions among the wonders
of the world. It was of an oAagonal form, and had feven
courts, with ftrong battlements furrounding it, and was built
after the plan of a fpider's web. It had alfo a tower at each
angle, there being fixteen in all without the citadel, and ap-
pears to have been in every refpeft admirably calculated for
fecurity and defence ; for if any one of the courts were fcaled
or taken, the foldiers in the gallery above would fo annoy
the alTailants with their arrows and other miffile weapons,
as to render it impoffible for them to retain pofleffion of it.
But notwithftanding the llrength and importance of this
callle, it does not appear to have been the fcene of any
events of intereft in the hidory of the kingdom, till the reign
of Charles I., when it was one of the firll befieged by
the parliament, and one of the lad which abandoned the
caufe of the king. Since that time it has been gradually
6

falling into ruin, fo that only a few fragments of it now
remain.

The manor of Sherborne was very early granted to the
fee, and continued attached to it, during its fucceflive re-
movals, till the reign of king Henry VIII., who compelled
bilhop Piers to alienate it to the crown. Queen Elizabeth
granted it to fir Walter Raleigh, on whole unjull execution
by king James I. it was feized and given to the favourite
Carr, notwithftanding the intereeflion of various dillin-
guilhed individuals to obtain it for the family of its great,
though unfortunate pofTeffor. It afterwards became the
property of fir John Digby, whofe defcendants ftill continue
to enjoy it. The Hiftory and Antiquities of the County of
Dorfet, by John Hutchins, M.A., 2d edition, correAed
and improved by Richard Gough, efq. and John Bowyer
Nichols, efq. vol. iv. fol. 1815.

SHERBURN, a market-town in a parifh of the fame
name, partly within the liberty of St. Peter of York, and
partly in the upper divifion of the wapentake of Barkftoa
Afli, Weft Riding of Yorkfliire, England, is fituated at the
diftance of 14 miles S.W. from the city of York, and 181
miles W. by N. from London. The market is held on
Friday weekly, but is little frequented, and there is only
one annual fair, on the 25th of September. This place was
formerly, however, much more important, and was diftin-
guilhed by a palace belonging to the archbiftiops of York,
of which not a veilige now remains. It is only at prefent,
therefore, remarkable for a particular fpecies of plum called
the Winelour, which grows in the vicinity. Sherburn town-
Ihip, according to the parliamentary returns of 181 1, con-
tains 188 houfcc, and 958 inhabitants. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland, 1812.

SHERBURNE, Edward, in Biography, an ingenious
writer, was born in London in 1618, and educated under
Farnaby ; after \vhich he went abroad, but returned in
1 64 1, and fucceeded, on the death of his father, to the
office of clerk of the ordnance. He was impriioned for
fome time by the parliament, and, on his recovering his
liberty, joined the king, whom he ferved with fidelity and
great bravery, by which he fuffered confiderably in his
eftate. After the battle of Edgehill he went to Oxford,
where he was created mafter of arts. At the reftoration he
recovered his fituation under government, was knighted,
and made commilfary-general of the artillery. He died in
1702. He tranflatcd Seneca's tragedies, the Sphere of
Marcus Manilius, and other works, into the Englifh lan-
guage, and was author of a volume of poems.

Sherburne, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in
Chenango county. New York ; containing 1282 inhabitants.
— Alfo, a town in the (late of MalTachufetts, and ifland of
Nantucket. The ifland contains 6807 inhabitants. (See
Nantucket.) — Alfo, a town in Middlefex county, Maf-
fachufetts, containing 770 inhabitants; 18 miles S.W. of
Bodon. — Alfo, a town of Herkemer county. New York ;
containing, by the cenfus in 1796, 483 inhabitants. — Alfo,
a town of Rutland county, Vermont ; containing 1 1 6 in-
habitants.

SHEREBATOF, Prince, in Biography, a learned
Ruffian nobleman, who pubhftied feveral works in his own
language, the chief of which is " The Hidory of Ruffia
from the earlieft Times," which is faid to be well arranged,
and faithfully drawn up. Mr. Coxe, in fpeaking of this
writer, fays, feveral perfons have publifhed collections of
Hate-papers and other documents, but the honour of com-
pofing a complete hiftory of Ruffia is probably referved for
prince Sherebatof; who, if we except Mr. Mullcr, has

contributed

1

SHE

SHE

fcftntributed more than any other perfon towards illuftratiiig
the Rufiian annals. This learned nobleman is editor of
" A Journal of Peter the Great," in 2 vols. 4to., which
he found in the archives, and publiflied by order of the
emprefs ; of " The Ruflian Hiftory, by an ancient Annalift,
from the Beginning of the Reign of Vladimir Monomaca
in 1 1 14 to 147Z ;" "The Life of Peter the Groat," in
the Ruffian language, firft publirtied at Venice, which the
prince reprinted in 1774, and, according to his ufual cuf-
tom, enriched with many hiftorical obfervations. Of his
Hiitory, already referred to, our author fays, " I have
read the German tranflation of this performance, which ap-
pears to me a molt valuable addition to the hiitory of the
North. The author has had accefs to the imperial ar-
chives ; he draws his information from the molt ancient and
unqueftionable fources, is particularly exatt in quoting his
authorities, and ranges the events in a chronological Icries
with great perfpicuity." Coxe's Travels, vol. iii.

SHE RET, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the government of Trebifond ; 30 miles S.W. of Trc-
bifond.

SHEREZUR, or SherzouRj or Scherezur, a town
of Curdillan, the capital of a government, and refidence of
a Turkifh pacha; 150 miles N. of Bagdad. N. lat. 35°
46'. E. long. 44° 25'.

SHERIBON. See Cheribon.

SHERIDAN, Thomas, in Biography, was bom pro-
bably about the year 1684, in the county of Cavan, where
his parents lived in luch a Itate of indigence, as not to be
able to afford him the advantages of a liberal education ;
but being obferved to give early indications of genius, he
attrafted the notice of a friend to his family, who fent him
to the college of Dublin, and contributed towards his fup-
port, while he remained there. Afterwards he proceeded
to a doftor's degree, and took orders, and fet up a fchool
in Dublin, which long maintahied a very high degree of re-
putation, as well for the attention beftowed on the morals
of the fcholars, as for their proficiency in literature. He
does not appear to have had any confiderable preferment ;
but his intimacy with Swift procured for him, in 1725, a
living in the fouth of Ireland, worth about 150/. per annum,
■which he went to take poliefiion of; and, by an aft of in-
advertence, it is laid, dellroyed all his future expeftations
of rifing in the church: for being at Cork on the ill of
Augult, the annivcrfary of the king's birth-day, he preached
fram the text " Sufficient for the day is the evil thereof."
The report of the faft was fpread abroad : he was llruck
out of the lilt of chaplains to the lord-lieutenant, and for-
bidden the calUe. He afterwards changed his living for
that of Dunboyne, which by the knavery of the farmers,
and power of the gentlemen in the neighbourhood, lell in
value to 80/. per annum. He willingly refigned it for the
free-fchool of Cavan, where lie might have lived well ; but
the air being raoill, and as he thought unhealthy, and being
difgulted with fonie of his parilhioners, he fold the fchool
for about 400/. ; and having fpent the money, he fell into
ill health, and died September loth, 1758, in the 55th
year of his age. He is thus charafterized by lord Corke :
" Dr. Sheridan vi'as a fchoolmaller, and in many inllances
perfeftly adapted to that ilation. He was deeply verled in
the Greek and Roman languages, and in their culloms and
antiquities. He had that kind of good nature, wliich ab-
fence of mind, indolence of body, and carelelinels of for-
tune, produce ; and though not over-llrift in his own coii-
duft, yet he took care of the morals of his fcholars, whom
he lent to the univerfity remarkably well grounded in all
kinds of clalhcal learning, and not ill inllruftcd in the locial
duties of life. He wa« flovenly, indigent, and cheerful.

Vol. XXXII.

He knew books much better than men, but he knew the
value of money lealt of ;.'.!. In this fituation, and with thi»
difpofition. Swift faltened upon him as upon a prey, with
wh:-h he intended to regale himfelf, whenever his appetite
fhould prompt him." Dr. Sheridan publifhed a profe
tranflation of Perfius, to which he added the belt notes of
former editors, together with fome very judicious ones of
his own. He alfo tranflatcd the Philo6tetes of Sophocles.

Sheridan, Thomas, fon of the preceding, was born at
Quilca, in the county of Cavan, in Ireland ; and he had for
his god-father dean Swift. Tlie early part of his education
he received from his father, who afterwards fent him to
Wellminlter fchool, and at a time when he could very ill
afford it. Here, upon examination, he attrafted notice ;
and although a mere llranger, he was elefted a king's
fcholar, on account of his merit. But their maintenance
fometimes running fliort, the doftor was fo poor that he
could not add fourteen pounds, to enable his fon to fini(h
the year ; which it he had been able to have done, he would
have been removed to a higher clafs, and in another year
would have been fent off to a fellowlhip at college. Being
thus recalled to Dublin, he was fent to the univerfity, where
he obtained an exhibition, and in 1738 he took his degree
of M.A. Having no interelt in the church, nor tlie means
of preparing himfelf for one of the liberal profeffions, he
rcfolved to feck a fupport on the itage. He was received
with great applaufe, and in a fliort time became manager of
the Dublin theatre; in which capacity he fuccefsfuUy un-
dertook the curbing of that licentioufnefs, which had long
reigned with an almoft unhmited empire behind the fcenes,
and the putting a Hop to the liberties daily taken by the
young men with the female aftrelles. During eight years
Mr. Sheridan polleffed this important office of manager of
the Dublin theatre with all the fuccefs, both with refpeft
to fame and fortune, that could well be cxpcfted, when an
unfortunate circumltance led him to oppofe the wilhes of
the public, which obliged him to withdraw from the ma-
nagement of the theatre, and even to quit the country.
He continued in England till the year 1756, when he re-
turned to Dublin, and was again received on the Itage with
the iiighelt applaufe ; but he did not continue long in that
fituation, being oppofed and ruined by rival adlors.

In 1757 he publiflied a plan, in which he propofed to
the Irilii the eftablifliment of an academy, for the accom-
phlhment of youth in every qualification ncceflary for a
gentleman. In the formation of this defign he included
oratory, as one of the effentials ; and in order to give a
tlronger idea of the utility of that art, he opened his plan
to the public in fomc orations, which were fo well written,
and fo admirably delivered, as to give the higlull proofs of
the ability, of the propofer, and his fitnels for the office of
fuperiiitendant of fuch an inllitution, for which poll lie had
offered himfelf. Neverthclefs, though tiie plan was, in a
meafure, carried into execution, Mr. Sheridan was excluded
from any fliare in the conduct of it. He now came again
to England, and delivered leftures on elocution and oratory
in the theatres of Oxford and Cambridge, to very uumeroui
audiences, .and with the highell reputation. From thence
he again came to London, where he was engaged as an
aftor and a letturcr. In 1778 he publiflied "A pro-
nouncing Diftionacy of the Englifh Language ;" and after
this he became a manager of the Drury-lane theatre, under
his fon, the prelent Mr. Sheridan, wlu) was then one of the
patentees. He died in Augult, 1788. His works arc at
follow: I. " A Diftionary of the Engiilh Language."
2. " Leftures on the Art of Reading." 3. " Bntifli
Education, or the Source of the Diforders of Great Bri-
tain." 4. " A Differtalion on the Caufca of the Difficultic*
^ R w\\Kk

SHE

SHE

which occur in learning the Englifli Tongue." ^. " A
Courfe of Leftures on Elocution." 6. " The Life of
Swift," prefixed to an edition of his works, edited by Mr.
Sheridan. 7. " Elements of Englilh." His wife Frances,
wliofe maiden name was Chamberlaine, was a very in-
genious woman, and was author of a novel, entitled
" Sidney Biddulph ;" a moral romance, entitled " Nour-
jahad ;" " The Difcovery," a comedy ; and another, en-
titled " The Dupe." She died at Blois, in 1767.

Sheridan, the late Mrs., was daughter of the excellent
mufician, Mr. Linley, fo well known at Bath, by his pro-
feffional merit as a mafter, by the beauty and talents of his
family, and by his vocal compofitions, particularly his
Elegies. If this were a place to celebrate the beauty and
fafcinating manners of Mrs. Sheridan, we could dwell upon
them as long as on her voice and mufical talents ; but to
thefe we muft confine ourfelves. There was a brilhancy, a
fpirit, and a mellifluous Iwectnefs in the tone of her voice,
which inftantly penetrated the hearts of her hearers, as much
as her angelic looks delighted their eyes. Her fhake was
perfeft, her intonation truth itfelf, and the agility of her
throat equal to any difficulty and rapidity that was pleafing.
But in Handel's pathetic iongs, in Purcell's " Mad Befs,"
in the upper part of fcrious glees, or whatever vocal mufic
had impaffioned words to exprefs, fhe was fure to make
them felt by every hearer poffefled of intelligence and
fenfibility.

She knew mufic fo well, that (he was fure to do juftice to
every kind of Italian compofition, as much as a foreigner
ever did to a language not her own ; though the energy and
accent given by the natives of Italy, particularly in recita-
tive, is ever comparatively deficient in the bell fingers of all
other countries ; as nothing but a long refidence, early in
life, in a foreign country, can acquire the correft pronunci-
ation of its mufic, any more than of its language. It was
obferved by Sacchini, who heard Mifs Linley ling at Ox-
ford for the laft time, that if (he had happened to have been
born in Italy, (he would have been as much fuperior to
all Itahan fingers, as (he was then to thofe of her own
country.

SHERIF, in the Egyptian Orders, the relations of Ma-
homet, the fame tribe of pcrfons called emir by the
Turks.

The word is Perfian, and fignifics great or nolle; and
thefe perfons have the privilege of being exempt from ap-
pearing before any judge but their own head ; and if any of
the military orders are obliged to punilh them for any mif-
demeanor, they firlt take off their green turban, in refpecl
to their charader ; and the fame is done even when they are
puni(hed by their own magilirate.

The (herif, Iherriflfe, or fcherif of Mecca, is the title of
the defcendants of Mahomet by Haffan ibn Ali. Al-
though this branch of the polterity of Mahomet has never
attained to the dignities of caliph or imam, it appears to
have always enjoyed the fovereignty over molt of the cities
in the Arabian province of Hedsjas. The family of Ali-
Bunemi, being one branch of the defcendants of Hallan ibn
Ah, and coafilling of at leaft 300 individuals, enjoys the fole
right to the throne of Mecca. This family is hkewife fub-
divided into two fubordinate branches, of which fometimes
the one, fometimes the other, has given fovereigns to Mecca
and Medina, when thefe were feparate ftates ; but the
Turkifh fultan is indifferent about the order of fuccefiion in
the family, rather wifhing to favour the Itrongell, that he
may weaken them all. As the order of fucceffion is not
abfolutely fixed, and the Ihcrriffes may all afpire alike to
the fovereign power, this uncertainty of right, aided by the
intrigues of the Turkifli officers, occafion frequent revolu-

tions. The grand fherriffe is feldom able to maintain bini«
felf on the throne ; and it ftill feldomer happens, that his
reign is not difturbed by the revolt of his nearell relations.
The dominions of the (herrilfe comprehend the cities of
Mecca, Medina, Jambo, Taaif, Sadie, Ghunfude, Hali,
and thirteen other lels confiderable, all fituated in Hedsjas.
As thefe dominions are neither extenfive nor opulent, the
revenue of their fovereign cannot be confiderable. He finds
a rich refource, however, in the imports levied on pilgrims,
and in the gratuities offered him by Mufiulman monarchs.
Every pilgrim pays a tax of from 10 to 100 crowns, in pro-
portion to his ability. The Grand Mogul remits annually
60,000 rupees to the fherriffe, by an affignment on the go-
vernment of Surat ; but fince the Englifh have made them-
fclves mailers of this city, and the temtory belonging to it,
the nabob of Surat has no longer been able to pay the fum.
The power of the (herriffe extends not to fpiritual matters ;
thefe are entirely managed by the heads of the clergy of
dift'erent fefts, who are refident at Mecca. Rigid Mufful-
niauE, fuch as the Turks, are not very favourable in their
fentiments of the flierriffes, but fufpetl tlieir orthodoxy,
and look upon them as tacitly attached to the tolerant feA
of the Zeidi. See Schi;iuf.

SHERIFF, or SiiiRE-KEVE, an officer in each county of
England, of very great antiquity ; his name being derived
from the two Saxon wovA^fcire, province orjllre ; or rather
from fdran, to divide, znii gere/a, grave, reve, or prefeS ; the
fheriff being denominated from the firft divifion of the king-
dom into counties.

He is called in Latin vice-comes, as being the deputy of
the earl or comes, to whom the cuftody of the (hire is faid
to have been committed at the firfl divifion of this kingdom
into counties : but the earls being afterwards unable, by
reafon of their high employments, and attendance on the
king's perfon, to tranfadl the bufinefs of the county, the
labour was committed to the fiierifF ; who now performs all
the king's bufinefs in the county ; and though he be flill
called vices-comes, yet he is entirely independent of, and not
fubjetl to, the earl : the king, by his letters patent, commit-
ting cujlodlam comitatus to the fheriff.

Sheriffs were formerly chofen by the inhabitants of the
feveral counties ; in confirmation of which, it was ordained
by 28 Edw. 1. c. 8. that the people fhould have elefkion of
fheriffs in every (hire, where the (heriflalty ij not of inherit-
ance ; for anciently in fome counties the fheriffs were here-
ditary, as judge Blackflone apprehends they were in Scot-
land, till tlie llatute 20 Geo. II. c. 43. and ilill continue in
the county of Weflmoreland to this day : fhe city of London
having alfo the inheritance of the flieriffalty of Middlcfex
veiled in their body by charter. This election, fays the
fame author, was, in all probability, not abfolutely veiled
in the commons, but required the royal approbation. For
in the Gothic conltitution, the judges of their county-
courts (which office is executed by our (heriff ) were elected
by the people, but confirmed by the king ; and the form of
their eleftion was thus managed : the people, or Incolii tir-
rltorll, chofe twelve eletlors, and they nominated tliree pcr-
(ons, ex qulbus rex unum corjirmabat. But with us in Eng-
land, thefe popular eleftions growinj^ tumultuous, were
put an end to by the (latute 9 Edw. II. ft. 2, which enact-
ed, that the (lierifTs fhould from thenceforth be afiigned by
the chancellor, treafurer, and the judges, as being perfons
in whom the fame truft might with confidence be repofed.
By ftatutcs 14 Edw. III. c. 7, 23 Hen. VI. c. 8, and
21 Hen. VIII. c. 20, the chancellor, treafurer, prefidentof
the king's council, chief jutticcs, and chief baron, are to make
this eledlion on the morrow of All-Souls in the exchequer :-
and the king's letters patent, appointing the new fheriffs,

2 ufed

SHERIFF.

ufed commonly to bear date the fixth day of November.

12 Edw. IV. c. 1.

And the cullom now is, which has obtained fince the
time of Henry VI. that all the judges, together with the
other great officers, meet in the exchequer chamber on the
morrow of All-Souls yearly (which day is now altered to
the morrow of St. Martin, by the lall aft far abbreviating
Michaelmas term), and then and there propofe three perfons
to the king, who afterwards appoints one of th'-m to be (herifF.

This cuftum of the twelve judges propoling three perfons,
feems borrowed from the Gothic conftitution before-men-
tioned ; with this difference, that among the Goths the
twelve nominees were firll elefted by the people themfelves :
which ufage of our's was probably founded upon fome fta-
tute, though not now to be found among our printed laws.
But notwitlillanding an unanimous refolution of all the judges
of England to this purpofe, entered in the council-book of
5 March, 34 Hen. VI. and the itatute 34 & 35 Hen. VIII.
cap. 26. feft. 61. which exprefsly recognizes this to be the
law of the land ; fome of our writers have affirmed, that the
king, by his prerogative, may name whom he pleafes to be
(heriff, whether chofen by the judges or not. This is grounded
on a very particular cafe in the fifth year of queen Elizabeth,
when, by reafon of the plague, there was no Michaelmas
term kept at Wellminfter, £0 that the judges could not meet
there in erajlino animarum, to nominate the fheriffs ; upon
which the queen named them herfelf, without fuch previous
affembly, appointing for the molt part one of the two re-
maining in the lad year's lilt. And this cafe, fo circum-
ftanced, is the only authority in our books for making thefe
extraordinary Ihcnfts.

However, it muil be acknowledged, that the praftice of
occafionally naming what are called pocket-fherilFs, by the
fole authority of the crown, hath uniformly continued to
the reign of his prefent majefty, George III. in which, fays
Blackftone, few, if any, inilances have occurred.

By four feveral Itatutes it is enadled, that no one (hall be
(heriff, except he have fufficient land within the fliire to
anfwer the king and the people in any manner of complaint.
9 Edw. II. It. 2. 4 Edw. III. c. 9. 5 Edw. III. c. 4.

13 & 14 Car. II. c. 21.

It has been judged, that an attorney is exempted from the
office of (heriff, by reafon of his attendance on the courts
of Weftminlter.

By 2 Geo. HI. c. 20. no perfon, during the time he is
afting as a militia-officer, (hall be obliged to ferve the office
of (herifF.

Protellant diffenters, who are exempted by the Toleration
aft from the obligation of complying with the requifition of
the Corporation aft, and who can plead their non-compli-
ance as a reafonablc and fufficient excufe, are not compel-
lable to ferve this office, nor of courfe to pay any fine for
refufal. Sec Furneaux's Letters to Blackftone, cd. 2, and
particularly the Appendix, containing lord Mansfield'8 fpeech
in the houfe of lords 1767, on the caufe between the city of
London and the difl'enters, when the houfe affirmed the unani-
mous judgment of the commiffioners' delegates, who delivered
their o^\\mm% fcitntim on the 5th of July, 1 762, after hearing
counfel feveral days.

By a by-law of the city of London, paded in a common-
council June nth, 1799, amending an aft of April the
7th, 1748, no freeman chofen (heriff, &c. fiiall be excufed,
unlefs he voluntarily fwears he is not worth zo,ooo/. &c.
which oath (hall be attelted by the oaths of fix other (reemcn ;
and if he refufes to take the office, he incurs a forfeiture of
400/. and twenty marks towardi the maintenance of the
miniflers of the feveral prifont within the city, together with
the ufual fines. If, however, he (hall afterwards take upon

him the office of an alderman of the city, he (liall be eligible
to the faid office of (heriffalty, notwithitanding the fore-
mentioned payment.

The fheriff, before he exercifes any part of his office, and
before his patent is made out, is to give fecurity in the king's
remembrancer'^ office in the exchequer, under penalty of
100/., for the payment of his proffers, and all other profits
of the (heriffwick ; he mult alfitake the oaths of allegiance
and abjuration, and all, except the flieriffs of Wales and
Chefter, an oath appointed by 3 Geo. I. cap. 15. feft. 18.
for the due execution of their office. This oath may be ad-
miniitered in purfuance of a writ of dedimus potejlatem.

ShcrifTs, by virtue of feveral old (latutef, are to continue
in their office nc longer than one year : and yet it hath been
faid, that a (heriff may be appointed durante bene placito, or
during the king's pleafure, and fo is the form of the royal
writ ; therefore, till a new flieriff be named, his office can-
not be determined, unlefs by his own death, or the demifeof
the king.

And by i Ann. ft. i. c. 8. all officers appointed by the
preceding king may hold their offices for lix months after
the king's demife, unlefs fooner difplaced by the fucceffor.

We may farther obferve, that by i Rich. II. c. 11. no
man, that has ferved the office of fheriff" for one year, can
be compelled to ferve the fame again within three year»
after.

The power and duty of a (herifF are thofe that belong to
him as a judge, as a keeper of the king's peace, as a minif-
terial officer of the fuperior courts of juitice, or as the king's
bailiff.

In his judicial capacity he is to hear and determine all
caufes of forty (hillings value and under, in his county-court ;
and he has alf'o a judicial power in divers other civil cafes.
He is likewife to decide the eleftions of knights of the (hire
(fubjeft to the controul of the houfe of commons), of coro-
ners, and of verderors ; to judge of the qualification of voters;
and to return fuch as he (hall determine to be duly elefted,
but incapable of being elefted himfelf for the county, &c.
of which he is returning officer.

As the keeper of the king's peace, both by common law
and fpecial commiffion, he is the firft man in the county, and
fuperior in rank to any nobleman therein, during his office.
He may apprehend and commit to prifon all perfons who
break the peace, or attempt to break it ; and may bind
any one in a recognizance to keep the peace. He may, and
is bound, ex ojficio, to purfue and take all traitors, murder-
ers, felons, and other mifdoers, and commit them to gaol for
fafe cultody. He is alio to defend his county agaiiill any
of the king's enemies when they come into the land ; and,
for thii purpofe, as well as for keeping the peace and pur-
fuing felons, he may raife the p-Jfe comilalus.

However, by the cxprefs directions of the great charter,
the flieriff, together with the conllable, coroner, and certain
other officers of the king, .ire forbidden to hold any pleas
of the crown, or, in other words, to try any criminal of-
fence ; for it would be highly unbecoming, that the execu-
tioners of julticc (hould be alfo the judges ; (liould im-
pole as well as levy fines and amercements ; (liould one day
condemn a man to death, and perfonally execute him the
next.

Neither may he aft as an ordinary judicc of the peace
during the time of his office, for this would be equally
inconliltent, he being in many refpefts the fervant of the
jullices.

In his miniflerial capacity, the (heriff is bound to execute

all procefs ifl'uing from the king's courts of judicc. In the

commencement of civil caufes, he is to ferve the writ, to ar-

relt, and to take bail : when the caufe comes to trial, he

5 K. 2 a\\x\.\.

SHE

SHE

muft rummon, and return the jury ; when it is determined,
he muft fee the judgment of the court carried into execu-
tion. In criminal matters, he alfo arrelts and imprifons ; he
returns the jury ; he has the cuitody of the dehnquent ;
and he executes the fentence of the court, though it extend
to death itfelf.

As the king's bailiff, it is the {hcriff's bufmefs to preferve
the rights of the king withiu his baihwick ; for fo his county
is frequently called in the writs. He muft feize, to the
king's ufe, all lands devolved to the crown by attainder or
efcheat ; muft levy all fines and forfeitures ; muft feize and
keep all waifs, wrecks, eftrays, and the like, unlefs they be
granted to fome fubjeft ; and muft alfo coUeA the king's
rents within his baihwick, if commanded by procefs from
the exchequer.

To execute thefe various offices, the flierifF has under him
many inferior officers, an under-fheriff, baihffs, and gaolers,
who muft neither buy, fell, nor fai'm their offices, on for-
feiture of 500/. 3 Geo. I. c. 15.

The under-fherifF ufually performs all the duties of office,
few excepted, with regard to which the perfonal prefonce
of the high (herifF is neceffary. But no under-fherifF fhall
abide in his office above one year by 42 Edw. III. c. 9, and
if he does, by 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. he forfeits 200/. ; and no
under- ftierift', or (heriff 's officer, (hall praftife as an attorney
during the time he continues in fuch office, by i Hen. V.
c. 4. But thefe regulations are evaded, by practiling in the
names of other attornies, and putting in them deputies by way
of nominal undcr-lheriffs.

The under-flierifl, before he enters upon his office, i- to
be fworn, by 27 Eliz. c. 12. And by 3 Geo. I. c. 15.
feft. 19. it is enafted, that all under-fherifls of any counties
in South Britain, except the counties in Wales, and the
county palatine of Chefter, fhall take an oath for the due
execution of their office. Blackft. Com. b. i.

Sheuiff's Court. See County CouRT, and Mayor's
Courts.

Sheriff's Tourn, or Turn. See Turn.
Sheriff, Appofal of. See Apposal.
Sheriffs, IJfuss on. See Issues.
Sheriff, in Comnurce. See Xeriff.
SHERIL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir, on the Euphrates ; 20 miks E.
of Anah.

SHERILLA, a town of Africa, in Kaarta. N. lat.
14° 29'. W. long. 6^ 25'.

SHERLING, or Shirlinc Lambs, in Rural Economy,
the praftice of cutting or fliearing the fhort woolly coats or
coverings of thefe young animals in the fummer feafon,
about the time at whicli the old (heep are clipped. Botli
the term and the cuftom are common in the northern diftridts,
though they are fcarcely known in the more fouthcrn paits
of the ifland. Probably the greateil part of the lambs
which are brought to Smithfield market, as well .->.s cf thofe
which are bought by the butchers of the metropolis, are
never Jherkd or freed from their coats, by which a very
great individual as well as national lofs is fuftained. Per-
haps the lambs are more faleablc when kept in their full
coats. The praftice is, however, worthy of being more
attended to in all fituations.

The clipping or fhirling of the lambs in fome diftrifts
has, however, been confidered as injurious, by the opera-
tion's hurting the growth of them ; though no fuch effeft
has been difcovcred to take place in the South Down fheep
traft of the county of Snflex, or thofe of many otlier parts
of the north. The profit in the above diftrift is, however,
thought to be trifling, or fuch as only to repay the ex-
pences, and a little more ; but it has a tendency to improve

the wool, and caufe it to throw out a more luxuriant (laple.
See Wool..

SHERLOCK, William, in Biography, an eminent di-
vine in the Englifh church, was born in London in 1641.
He was educated at Eton, and thence he went to Peter-Houfe,
Cambridge, where he applied himfelf with much afliduity to
his ftudies, obtained a good reputation, took orders, and
officiated as a curate till the year 1669, when he was pre-
fented to the redtory of St. George's, Botolph Lane, Lon-
don. He ftood high in charafter among the London clergy,
when he publifhed " A Dlfcourfe concerning tlie Knowledge
of Chrift, and our Communion with Him," being intended
as a confutation of the Antinomian doftrine, which brought
upon him' feveral antagonifts, againll whom he vindicated
himfelf with judgment and zeal. In 1680 he took the de-
gree of D.D. and in the following year he obtained a pre-
bend in the cathedral of St. Paul's. The difcovery of what
was called the Rye-houfe plot, having cdled forth the fpirit
of loyalty. Dr. Sherlock appeared as an afl'ertor of tiie doc-
trine of non-refiftance, in a work entitled " The Cafe of
Refiftance to the fupreme Powers ftated and refolved ac-
cording to the Doctrines of the Holy Scriptures." In this
piece he maintained that the authority of the fovereign was
in his per/on, and not in the laiu : — that he does not receive
his authority from the laws, but that the laws receive their
power from him ; — and that it does not become a man who
can reafon at all to talk of the authority of the laws in de-
rogation to the authority of the fovereign power. From
thefe llavifh prir.ciples he did not in the lealt fwerve, even
after the acceflion of James II. had ftill more endangered
the public liberties and religion of the country. His notion
of paffive obedience did not, however, prevent him from op-
poling Popery, for he was among the firfl who, in thofe
times, engaged in controverfy witii the Papifts, in which he
wrote a great number of trafts.

After the revolution. Dr. Sherlock for fome time re-
mained firm in his high monarchical principles ; and refufing
to take tlie oaths to the new government, was fufpended
from all his preferments, among which was the mafterfhip
of the Temple. It was during this fufpeniion from hie
labours as a preacher, that he publillied the treatife on
" Death," to which he is chiefly indebted for celebrity as
an author. It was entitled " A Practical Dlfcourfe concern-
ing Death," and few works have been more popular among
all clafl'es. It went through thirty editions in a fhort fpace
of time, has been printed in all fizes and forms, and has
been applauded by the mofl able critics.

Not long after the publication of this work. Dr. Sher-
lock's fcruples with refpeft to government gave way ; he
took the oaths, and was reinftated in all his preferments.
This ftep of courfe expofed him to the cenfure of the party
with whom he had long afted, and to vindicate himfelf he
publifhed a piece, entitled " The Cafe of the Allegiance due
to fovereign Powers ftated and refolved." In 1692 he pub-
lifhed his " Vindication of the Doftrine of tke Holy and
Ever-blefTed Trinity." In this he maintained that there
were three eternal minds, which expofed him to the charge of
tritheifm ; it did not, however, prevent his promotion to the
deanery of St. Paul's, on the recommendation of Dr. Tillot-
fon, who was raifed to the archbifhopric of Canterbury.

This rife in the church exafperated ftill more thofe who
were already indifpofed againft him for his defcrtion of his
former principles, and Dr. South publiihed in 1693, " Ani-
madverfions upon Dr. Sherlock's Book, &c." An eager
controverfy followed, in which the univerfity of Oxford took
part, bv cenfuring in a public decree the hypothefis of Dr.
Shtrlock, as maintained by a preacher at tliat place. Thi^
co; tell being canied on with great acrimony, the king, at
5 the

SHE

SHE

the defire of the bifliops, interpofed with a prohibition of
the ufe of new terms in the explication of the doftrine of
the Trinity.

In 1704 Dr. Sherlock publifiied "A Difcourfe on the
Immortality of the Soul," in which he made an attack on
Locke's opinion concerning innate ideas. He died in 1707,
in the 67th year of his a;Te. After his deceafe, his fermons,
which had been printed during his life, were collected, and
with others printed in tvvo volumes, 8vo.

Sherlock, Thomas, a diltinguifhed prelate, and fon of
the preceding, was born in London in 1678. He received
his clafTical education at Eton, and from thence he removed
to Catharine-hall, Cambridge, about the year 1693. In pro-
cefs of time he became a fellow of that fociety, entered into
holy orders, and upon the refignation of his father in 1704,
he fucceedt'd to the office of mailer of the Temple. In the
duties of this oflice he exerted himfelf with fo much fuc-
cefs, that few Englifh divines have acquired fo high a repu-
tation for pulpit oratory, in the qualities of ftrength and
folidity of reafoning, and forcible and manly eloquence.

He commenced doftor of divinity in 1707, and in 1714
was eleiSted maiter ot Catharine-hall. Being promoted to
the deanery of Chicheller in 1726, he foon after made his
firit appearance in print, as a champion of the eitablilliment,
in " A Vindication of the Corporation and Tell Afts, in
• anfwer to the Bifliop of Bangor's Reafons for the Repeal
of them." This was replied to by the worthy prelate, and
fupported in a rejoinder by the dean.

Dr. Sherlock's next work was entitled " The Ufe and
Intent of Prophecy in the feveral Ages of the World,"
which was the iubilance of fome fermons preached in the
Temple church, occafioned by the controverfy between
Collins and feveral divines on the fubjefl of prophecy. In
1728 he was promoted to the fee of Bangor, in which he
fucceeded his antagonill Hoadly, as he did, in 1738, in that
of Salifbury. As a member of the upper houfe, he took
an aftive part in its debates, and was always a fupporter of
the interefts of the crown and the church. He was con-
fidered, in parliament, as a great authority in ecclefiallical
law, and frequently led the judgment of the houfe ; and
. fuch at length was the reputation which he had in tlie epif-
copal charatter, that upon the death of archbidiop Potter,
in 1747, he was offered to fucceed him in the fee of Canter-
bury, which he declined on account of ill health, but after-
wards recovering, he accepted the fee of London in 1749'
In 1 7 J? he reilgned the mallerfliip of the Temple, and was
very foon after incapacitated for any very aftive itrviee : he
nearly loll the ufe of his limbs and Ipeech, but ilill retained
the vigour of his undertlanding, and was capable of reviling
and correfting a volume of fermons : this was followed by
four others, which are in high ellimation. The biftiop died
in 1 761, in the 841!! year of his age.

SHERMA, or CllEU.MA, in Geography, a province of
the kingdom of Morocco, which lies between the province
of Hea and that of Moroccq, and has been difmembercd
from that of Hoa. Sec Siiedma.

SHERMAN, a tov^n of America, in the (late of Con-
neftirut and county of Fairfield, containing 949 inhabitants.

SHERMANSLI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia -, 48 miles W. of Burfa.

SHERONA, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of
the Nile ; 8 miles N. of Abu Girgc.

SHERRINGHAM, in Eiogmphy, a compofer of fongs
in parts during the reign of Henry VII. which have been
preserved with thofe of other contemporary compolers in
the Fairfax MS. the moll ancient book of the kind that we
have ever been able to difcovcr. See Fairfax.

SHERSHELL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Algiers, generally fuppofed to be the city calk-d
Jol, and by the younger Juba named Ctfarea, in compli»
ment to Augullus. This town, when Dr. Shaw faw it, in
the year 1730, was in great reputation for making fteel,
earthen vellels, and fuch iron touls as are wanted in the
neighbourhood: but a few years afterwards (1738) it was
entirely thrown down by an earthquake. The ruins upon
which this town was fituated, are not inferior in extent to
thofe of Carthage ; and we may likewife conceive no fmall
opinion of its former magnificence, from the fine pillars,
capitals, fpacious cifterns, and beautiful Mofaic pavements,
that are every where i-eniaining. They have a tradition,
that the ancient city was deilroycd, as the new one was
lately, by an earthquake ; and that the port, formerly very
large and commodious, was deltroyed by the arfenal and
other adjacent buildings being thrown into it by the fliock.
The cothon, or artificial harbour, that had a communica-
tion with the weilern part of the port, is the bell proof of
this tradition : for when the fea is calm, and the water low,
(as frequently happens after ftrong fouth orealt winds,) all
over the area of it fo many mally pillars and pieces of great
walls may be fcen, that it cannot well be conceived how
they fiiould come there without fuch a concuffion. The
port is nearly of a circular form, of 200 yards in diameter ;
but the fecurell part of it, which, till of late was towards
the cothon, is now filled up with a bank of fand, that daily
increafes. However, there Ilill lies in the mouth of it a
fmall rocky illand, which at prefent is the main flielter and
defence againft the northern tempell. N. lat. 36^' 35'. E.
long. 2° 30'.

SHERVEND, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 32 miles N. of Confar.

SHERWOOD FoKEST. See Shirewood Forejl.

SHERZOUR. See Sherezur.

SHESBEOUIN, a poll-town of America, in Luzerne
county, Pennsylvania ; 80 miles N.N.W. of Philadelphia.

SHESHME-BAND, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Segelhin ; 50 mik-s W.S.W. of Ferah.

SHESHMESHA, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Khoralan ; .(j miles W. of Tabas-Kileki.

SHETABAVA, a town of Hindoollan, in the Carna-
tic ; 40 miles S. of Tanjore.

SHETERU, a town of Hindoollan, in Coimbctorc ;
5 miles N.W. of Erroad.

SHETLAND Islands. SeeZv.i-LASD IJlam/s.

SnErLASD-Sheep, in JgrinillNrc, a breed of iine-wooUcd
flieep peculiar to the Shetland iflands. Sec Sheli'.

SHETUCKET, in Geography, a river of America, in
Conncdlieut, formed by the juni'lion of Willomantic and
Mount Hope rivers, which after running E. a few miles
purines a fouthern courfe, and uniting with Qninnabang
rivf-r difcharges itfelf into the Thames in the fouthern part
of the lownlhip of Norwich.

SHEVADY, a town of Hindoollan ; 8 miles W. N.W.
of Piilluniiiare.

SHEVAGUNGA, a town of Hindoollan, in Myforc {
25 milej N.W. of Bangalore. N. lat. 13" 6'. E. long.

77° 'V-

SHEV AGURY, a town of Hindoollan, in Madura ; 15

miles N.W. of Coilpctla.

SHEVALORE, a town of Hindoollan, in Marawar ;
8 mik-s N.W. of Trumian.

SHEVALPETTORE, a town of Hindoollan, in Ma-
rawar ; 32 miles N.N.W. of Ramanadporum. — Alfo, a
town of i lindoollan, in the province of Madura ; 35 milci

S.S.W. of Madura.

SHEV A-

S H I

SHI

SHEVAPORUM, a town of Hindooilan, in the coun-
try of the Nayrs ; 15 miles E. of Tellicherry.

SHEVGUNGA, a town of Hindooilan, in Marawar ;
20 miles S. of Tripattore.

SHEVITOON Indians, Indians of North America.
N. lat. 47^ ;;o'. W. long. 104° 45'.

SHEW-Box/or Prints. See Camera.

SHEWAGE. See Scavage.

SHEW-BREAD, in the Jewi/lj Economy. The Hebrew
(Exod. XXV. 30.) C'C Q:"l'^>^;''«; suTiii, tignifies literally
" bread of faces, or of the faces." This denomination was
given to the loaves of bread, which the priell of the week
placed every Sabbath-day on the golden table in the fanc-
tuary, before the Lord. Thefe loaves were of a fquare
form, with four faces, as the rabbins fay, and were twelve
in number, reprefenting the twelve tribes of Ifrael. They
fupplicd the place of thofe which had been expofed the whole
week, and none could lawfully eat them but the priefts.
This offering was accompanied with frankincenfe and fait.
Of the firft fruits and tenths prefented by the Ifraelites to
the priefts, the latter took that which was neceflary for
making the fhew-bread, asd for fupplying the fervlce of
the temple with any thing elfe which it was their duty to
furnifh.

SHEWIN, or Sewix, in Ichthyology. See Grey.

SHGIGATCHEE, in Geography. See Sgioatchee.

SHIAB, a town of Arabia, in the province of Heds-
jas ; 84 miles S.E. of Calaat al Moilah.

SHIANDAMANGALY, a town of Hindooftan, in
the province of Ti'.ievelly ; 10 miles S. of Tutacorin.

SHIANSHIA, a town of Egypt ; 25 miles S. of Man-
fora.

SHIANT Islands. See Shaint.

SHIBBOLETH, or Sibboletu, a Hebrew word
which iignified fpica, or an ear of corn. It was ufed by
way of diftinguifhing the Ephraimites from the men of Gi-
lead. For the latter having killed a great number of the
former, fet guards at sll the paii'es of Jordan ; and when an
Ephraimite, who had cfcaped, came to the water-fide, and de-
fired to pafs over, they afted him if he was not an Ephraimite ?
If he faid no, they bade him pronounce Shibboleth. But
he pronoimcing it Sibboleth, according to the manner of
the Ephraimites, and thus not enunciating the firil letter,
was killed on the fpot : on this occafion, 42,000 Ephraim-
ites were killed. By thus not diltinguifhing between the \>}
and the tj», the fchin and the fin, they expofed themfelvcs
to this maffacre : hence the terms have been ufed to denote
the trivial grounds on which contending parties, particularly
in theological difputes, often differ, and proceed to think ill
of, and aftually to perfecute, one another.

SHIBKAH, in Geography, an extenfive falt-plain of Al-
giers, overflowed in winter, but dry in fummer ; 10 miles S.
of Oran.

SHICARAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Diarbekir ; 18 miles W.S.W. of Hazou.

SHIDES. See Shingles.

SHIEL, Loch, in Geography, a lake in the parifh of Ard-
namurchan, and county of Invernefs, Scotland ; extending
ten miles in length, and two in breadth. Near its centre
rifes an illet, called Ifland Finan, which contains the ruins
of a chapel dedicated to the faint of that name. This lake
difcharges its waters into theWeftern ocean at Caltle Tioram,
by the river Shiel. Statiftital Account of Scotland, by
fir John Sinclair, vol. ii. 1 792.

SHIELD, an ancient weapon of defence, in form of a
light buckkr, borne on the arm to fend off lances, darts,
&c.

The form of the fhield is reprcfented by the efcutcheotJ
in coats of arms.

The (hield was that part of the ancient armour on which
the perfons of diftinftion in the field of battle always had
their arms painted ; and moft of the word^ ufed at this time
to exprefs the fpace that holds the arms of families, are de-
rived from the Latin name for a fhield, fcutum. The French
efcu, and efcvjfwn, and the Englifh word, efcutcheon, or, as
we commonly fpeak it, fcutcbeon, is evidently from this
origin ; and the Itahan fcudo fignities both the ihield of
arms, and that ufed in war.

The Latin name clypeus, for the fame thing, feems alfo
to be derived from the Greek word y'Xvlfit, to engrave ; and
it had this name from the feveral figures engraved on it,
as marks of diftniftion of the perfon who wore it.

Tile fhield in war, among tlie Greeks and Romans, was
not only ufeful in the defence of the body, but it was alfo a
token or badge of honour to the wearer, ar.d h" who re-
turned from battle without it, was always treated with in-
famy afterwards.

People have at all times thought this honourable piece of
the armour the properelt place to engrave or figure on the
figns of dignity of the poileflor of it ; and hence, when
arms came to be painted for families in after-times, the
heralds always chofe to reprefent them upon the figure of a
fliield, but with feveral exterior additions and ornaments, as
the helmet, fupporters, and the reft.

The form of the fhield has not only been found different
in various nati ons, but even the people of the fame nation,
at different times, have varied its form extremely ; and
among feveral people there have been fhields of feveral forms
and fizes in ufe, at the fame period of time, and fuited to
different occafions.

The moft ancient and univerfal form of fhields, in the
earlier ages, feems to have been the triangular, vulgarly
called the heater fhield, from its refemblance to that inltru-
ment of houfewifery. This we fee inftances of in all the
monuments and gems of antiquity : our own moft early mo-
numents fhew it to have been the moft antique fhape alfo
with us, and the heralds have found it the molt convenient
for their purpofes, when they had any odd number of figures
to reprefent ; as if three, then two in the broad bottom
part, and one in the narrow upper end, it held them very
well ; or if five, they flood as conveniently, as three below,
and two above. Moft of the monumental figures of crofs-
legged knights are armed with triangular fh elds, which ar»
generally a little convex, or curved in their breadth ; their
upper extremity terminated by a line parallel to the horizon,
and their fides formed by the interfedion of the fegments of
two circles. Such are generally reprefented on ancient feals
and windows : fometimes, though not often, their furfaces
are flat. On the infide of the Norman fhields were two or
more loops of leather, or wooden handles, through which
the arm and hand were palled, when the fhield was brafed,
and prepared for ufe ; at other times it was carried by a
leathern thong worn round the neck. The other form of a
fliield, now univerfallv ufed, is fquare, rounded, and pointed
at the bottom : this is taken from the figure of the Sam-
nitic fhield ufed by the Romans, and fince copied very gene-
rally by the Englifh, French, and Germans. See Target.

The fliield, though it was not entirely relinquifhed fo
long as the ufe of the long and crofs bows continued, feems
to have undergone fome alteration in its form ; the triangu-
lar, or heater fhield, gradually giving place to thofe of a
circular or reftangiilar figure. Shields were firil left off by
the cavalry ; they were, however, ufed in the army of king
Edward I., at the fiege of Karlaverok, in the year 1300.

A fort .

S H I

A fort of fliields was worn by the Scots at the battle of
Muflelborough, in the firlt year of Edward VI. Shields or
bucklers fi?ern to have been ufed in affrays and private quar-
rels, by perfons in the civil line, as late as the reigns of Eli-
sabeth and king James I. The common appellation for a
quarrclfome or fighting fellow about that period was a fwafh-
buckler, that is, a breaker or clafher of bucklers. Maurice,
prince of Orange, was a gre.it advocate for the fhield, and
even attempted to revive the ufe of it. His company of
Dutch guards was armed with targets and roundels, and he
formed a regular plan of exercife for them. The target and
broad fword were the favourite arms of the Scotch High-
landers as late as the year 1746, and even after. Swords and
bucklers were anciently borne before great military officers,
as infignia of their dignity : thofe carried before king Ed-
ward HI. in France, arc fhewn in Weftminfter Abbey. The
fhield borne before the commandant of the forces on board
the Spaniih Armada, is preferved in the Tower, and a fword
was borne before the bifhop of Norwich, as commander of
the troops with which he intended to ferve king Richard II.
Mod of the ornamented metal (hiclds, and many of the very
large fwords, were dcfigned for this ufe.

The Spaniards and Portuguefe have the like general form
of fhields, but they are round at the bottom, without the
point ; and the Germans, befide the Samnite fhield, have two
others pretty much in ufe : thefe are, i . The bulging
(hield, diftinguifhed by its fvvelling or bulging out at the
flanks ; and, 2. The indented fhield, or fhield chancree,
which has a number of notches and indcntings all round its
fides. The ufe of the ancient fhield of this form was, that
the notches ferved to relt the lance upon, that it might be
firm while it gave the thruft ; but this form being lels pro-
per for the receiving armorial figures, the two former have
been much more ufed in the heraldry of that nation.

Another form of fhield derived its name roundel, or
rondacha, from its circular figure ; it was made of ofiers,
boards of light wood, finews or ropes, covered with lea-
ther, plates of metal, or tluck full of nails, in concentric cir-
cles, or other figures. The Ihields and roundels of metal,
particularly thofe richly engraved or embofled, feem rather
to have been infignia of dignity, anciently borne before gene-
rals or great officers, than calculated for war ; mofl of them
being either too heavy for convenient ufe, or too flight to
refill the violence of a itroke either from a fword or battle-
axe. Although moil roundels are convex, we meet with
many that are concave ; but thefe have commonly an umbo.
The handles are placed as in the fhield and target. The
roundel feems, in many inltances, to refemble the Roman
parma. For another form of fhield, fee Pavais.

Befides this different form of the fli:eld^ in heraldry, we find
them alfo often diftinguifhed by their dilfcrent pofitions, fome
of them Handing crecl, and others Handing various ways, and
in different degrees ; this the heralds exprefs by tlie word
ptndanl, hanging, they feeming to be hung up, not by the
centre, but by the right or left corner. The French call
thefe ecu ptndant, and the common antique trian',nilar ones
ecu ancieii. The Italians call tliisy6u/</yi;ni/.7//c ; and the rea-
fon given for cxinbiting the fhield in thefe figures in heraldry
in, that in the ancient tilts and tournaments, they who were
to jult at thefe military exercifcs, were obliged to hang up
their fhields, with their armories or coats of arms on them,
out at the windows and balconies of the houfes near tiie
place ; or upon trees, pavilions, or the barriers of the
ground, if the exercife was to he performed in the field.
Thofe who were to fight on foot, according to Colunibier,
had their fhields hung up by the right corner, and thofe who
were to fight on horfc-back, had theirs hung up by the left.

SHI

This pofition of the fhields in heraldry is called couche by
fome writers, though by the generality pendant.

It was very frequent in all parts of Europe, in arms given
between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries ; but it is to
be oblerved, that the hanging by the left corner, as it was
the token of the owner's being to fight on horfe-back, fo it
was elleeraed the moll honourable and noble fituation ; and
all the pendant fhields of the Ions of the royal family of Scot-
land and England, and of our nobility, at that time, are
thus hanging from the left corner. Tiie hanging from this
corner was a token of the owner's being of noble birth, and
having fought in the tournaments before ; but no fovercign
ever had a fhield pendant any way, but always ereft, as they
never formally entered the lifts of the tournament.

The Italians generally have their lliields of arms of an
oval form ; this feems to be done in imitation of thofe of
the popes, and other dignified clergy ; hut their herald,
Petro Saniflo, feems to regret the ule of this figure of the
Ihield, as an innovation brought in by the painters and en-
gravers, as moll convenient for liolding tlie figure;, but
derogatory to the honour of the pofleffor, as not repre-
fenting either antiquity, or honours won in war, but rather
the honours of fome citizen, or perfon of learning. Some
have carried it fo far, as to fay that thofe, who either have
no ancient title to nobility, or have fullied it by any un-
worthy a£lion, cannot any longer wear their arms in fliields
properly figured, but were obliged to have them painted in
an oval or round fhield.

In Flanders, where this author lived, the round and oval
fhields are in the difrepute he fpeaks of ; but in Italy, be-
fides the popes and dignified prelates, many of the firil fa-
milies of the laity have them.

The fecular princes, in many other countries, alfo retain
this form of the fliield, as the mofl ancient, and truly ex-
preffive of the Roman clypcus. Nifbet's Heraldry, p. i2.
Componille, Herald.

Shikld, in Heraldry, denotes the efcutcheon, or field
whereon the bearings of the armoury are placed. See
Escutcheon.

SHIELDRAKE. See Tadorna.
SHIELDS, William, in Biography. Though this
miifical profeflor, for the happinefs of his acquaintance,
ilill ranks with the living, and we can tell our contempo-
raries nothing concerning his worth and talents which is not
already well known, yet as his name has penetrated into
Germany, and has furniflied an article in Gerber's Conti-
nuation of Waltiier's Mufical Lexicon, we cannot refill
confirming the account given of \\\s compofitions in that
work.

Shields, North, in Geography, a market-town and fea-
port in Callle ward, county of Northumberland, Eng-
land, is fituated near the entrance of the river Tyne, on its
nortlicrn bank, at thediftancc of half a mile W.S.W. from
the town of Tyncmouth, and 279 miles N. by W. from
I.,ondon. This town is indebted for its origin to the monks
of Tynemouth ])nory, wiio ereded a number of houfes here,
and encouraged the fettlement of lliip-owners and tradelinen,
early in the reign of Edward 1. They at the fame time
formed a harbour here for lading .ind unlading of (hips, and
eltabliflied a weikly market and fairs; but the oxcrcile of
thefe privileges having been difputed by the corporation of
NewcalUc, they were inhibited by a decreet of the itinerant
judges. Fnmi that pcricid it continued to be a mere lifliing
village till the middle of the feventecnth century, when newr
efforts were made to render it an important fea-port, for
winch juirpofe its fituation i^ admirably adapted. Cromwell,
who then held the reins of government, with the cond-iit of

parliament

SHIELDS.

parliament palTed an aA, in which it was ordered, " that
fufficieiit and well-fenced ballaft-lliores, quays, and fteaths,
be built at Sliields," and " that North Shields be made
a market-town two days in the week, for t!ie relief of the
country and garrifon of Tynemouth, and for all the great
confluence of people and fleets of (hips."

In confequence of this aft, North Shields would foon
have become a place of great commercial importar.ce ; but
on the rettoration, the rights claimed by the corporation of
Newcaftle were refumed ; and North Shields was deprived of
its markets and fair. From that time every mean which a
narrow and illiberal policy could devife, was employed to re-
tard the growing profperity of this port ; but towards the
conclulion of laft century, many of the ur.jull reltriAions
which formerly fubliited were removed, and the different
trades permitted to be followed without molellation. It
was only, however, in the year 1804, that North Shields
obtained t!ie privilege of holding a weekly market and fairs,
by petition of the inhabitants to the duke of Northumber-
land, as lord of the manor of Tyneinouth, iu which the fcite
of North Shields is included. The day of the firlt opening
of the market was^ufliered in with great rejoicings, and at
noon a falute of cannon announced the completion of the
long wi(hed-for event. The market-day is Friday, and the
fairs are held on the laft Friday in April, and the firft Fri-
day in November.

North Shield^;, from thefe circumftances, and the patriotic
exertions of the duke of Northumberland, is become, in
the courfe of a few years, a large and populous town. It
contains many handfome Itreets, and two elegant fquares, be-
tides the market-place, lately formed, which may rival any
provincial market-place in the kingdom. On one fide is a
fpacious quay, with a crane for the delivery of goods,
where fhips of 300 tons burthen mav difcharge or take in
cargoes with perfect faiety. Another fide is adorned with
a noble Itdne building, which is now ufed as an inn, and is
furmounted with the Percy arms. North Shields, forming
part of the parilli of Tynemouth, has no parifh church,
but it pofFefles feveral chapels of cafe, and meeting-houfes
for almoft every clafs oi^ did'entors. The other pubhc
itruftures and eltablilhments here are a theatre, a difpenfary,
asd a large fchool-houfe, erected by fiibfcription, in com-
memoralion of the royal jubilee, where a great number of
boys and girls are educated on the Lancaltrian plan. Here
are likewile many well-condufted and flourifhing benefit fo-
cieties, an afylum for fick and friendlefs feamen, and a lying-
in-hofpital. A fiibfcription library has alfo been opened in
North Shields, and is laid to contain an extenlive coUeftion
of valuable books.

The harbour of North Siiields is calculated to accommo-
date 25CO fail of (liips ; and in fpring tide?, veflels of 5C0
tons burthen can pafs the bar without danger. The veilels
belonging to this port, exclufive of Imall coalters, are Hated
in the " Hillorical View of Northumberland," to amount to
1000 ; but this number, we prefume, includes the (hipping
of Newcaltle and South Shields alfo, of which Nt>rth Shields
may juitly claim one half. One great inconvenience com-
plained of by the commercial intereft here and at South
Shields, is the want of an independent cuiLom-houlc ; which
obliges the captains of all veflels failing from this port to
clear their fliips at Newcaftle, a diftance of ten miles up the
river.

The principal trade of North Shields, as of the river
Tyne generally, confifls in the exportation of coals to Lon-
don, and other parts of the eaftern coaft of England ; but
fome veilt Is are likewile employed in the Baltic and Ameri-
can trade ; and during the late wars, 9 great number was

hired to government for the tranlport fcrvice. The maoUf
faftures eftablidied here are chiefly fuch as depend upon the
fhipping intereft, as (hip and bocit-building, rope and fail-
cloth making, brewing, baking, &c. ; but there are bkewife
in North Shields a foundery for call iron, an extenfive tan-
nery, one ikinnery, a tobacco manufactory, a glove manu-
faftory, and five hat manufactories.

The feamen of this port are frequently very riotous and
turbulent, when they want a rife of wages, or are in any
way diflatiafied with the conduit of the (hip-owners. In
thefe inflances they have generally acted upon a regular
plan ; forcing every failor to remain on fiiore, and preventing
any vetlel from proceeding to f^a until their demands were
complied with. An alarming combination of this kind was
formed in the months of September and October laft, (1815,)
and threatened fuch ferious confequences, as to render go-
vernment interference necelTary, when order was happily re-
flored without bloodfhed.

North Shields, according to the parliamentary returns of
181 1, contains 804 houfes, and a population of 7699
perfons.

For fome further account of this port and the adjoining
country, fee the articles NEWC.^sTLE, Tyne, Tynemouth,
and South Shields. A Hiftorical and Defcriptive View of
the County of Northumberland, S:c. two vols. 8vo. New-
caftle, 1812.

Shields, South, a market -town and fea-port in the parifh
of Jarrow, eaft divifion of Chefler ward, and county pala-
tine of Durham., fituated dircdtly oppofite to North Shields,
at the diftance of 21 miles N.N.E. from the city of Dur-
ham, and 278 N.N.E, from London. Like North Shields,
it owes its importance chiefly to the coal trade and ftiipping
intcrelt, but the proportion of manufactures carried on here
is greater than at the former town. About fifty years ago
this place poffeHed upwards of two hundred faltpans, but
that branch of bufinefs has greatly declined, and others of
higher importance are fubftitutud in its ftead, as (hip-building,
and the manufacture of glals, foap, &c. South Shields
was conftituted a market-town by bilhop Trevor, in the
year 1770. The market-day is Wednefday, and there are
two annual fairs, on the 24th of June and the 4th of Sep-
tember. The vcfTels belonging to this port am.ount to about
300 in number. The church, which is a chapel of eafe un-
der .larrow, is evidently a flrufture of great antiquity ; the
ftyle of its architecture being that of the Anglo-Norman
era. Some antiquaries are of opinion that there was a Ro-
man ftation at the point of land near South Shields, which
forms the fouthcrn entrance into the Tyne, and the conjec-
ture is certainly probable, though by no means authenticated
as a fadt.

South Shields, like North Shields, has of late years
greatly incrcafed in population and extent ; but it is utfti-
tute of many of the advantages poflefled by the other.
Here are, befides the eltabliftied church, feveral diflenting
meeting-houfes ; alfo feveral benefit focicties and charity-
fchools. The petty fefTions for the eaft divifion of Cheftcr
ward are hi-ld in the towu-houfe here, which is a refpeClable
building, fituated in the centre of the market-place. Moft
of the ftreets of this town, however, are narrow, and the
houfes very indifferently built. According to the parha-
mentary returns of 1811, it contains 528 houfes, and a po-
pulation of gooi perfons.

About two miles to the weftward cf South Shields is the
village of Jarrow, celebrated for its monallery, which was
originally founded about the year 68j ; but has fince been
frequently rebuilt. This religious lioufe was dedicated to
St. Paul, and appropriated to the reception of Benediftine

monks.

S H I

SHI

Kionks. Its remains, together with the church of Jarrow,
occupy the fiimmit of an elevated ridge, but d\fplay httle
worthy of notice. The Hidory and Antiquities of the
County Palatine of Durham, by W. Hutchinfon, 4to.
1778. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi. by E. W.
Brayley, and John Britton.

SHIFFNAL, a market-town in the parifti of ShifFnal,
hundred of Brimftrey, and county of Salop, England, is
fituated at the diltance of 19 miles E. by S. from Shrewf-
bury, and 143 niik-s N.W. from London. The market-
day here is Friday weekly, and there are fairs on the
5th of Augull and the 2 2d of November. The petty fef-
lions for ShifFnal divilion of the hundred are held here ; but
in other rcfpefls this town is a trifling place, the whole
parifh, which is extenfive, and includes lour townftups, con-
taining, according to the parliamentary returns of 181 1,
only 808 houfes, and 4061 inhabitants,

SHIFT, a term in Mufic, ufed for conducing the h-ind
on the finger-board of the violin, and inllruments with a
ueck.

By moving the left hand a little towards the bridge, and
placing the fi:rft finger where the fecond was, on the fecond
ilring of the violin, in the natural pofition of the hand, it
will produce C inftead of B, and the little finger will then
produce C on the firll itring, its oftave : and this is called
the half fliift. The firll, or '•jjhole (hift, is placing the firft
finger where the third was, in the natural pofition of the
hand, which will produce D on the fecond firing, and the
little finger its ottave on the firlt. The next movement of
the hand towards the bridge is placing the firlt finger on E
of the fecond firing, when the little finger will give its
0<5lave on the firll Itring, and this is termed the double fhift ;
each fhift commanding all the intermediate notes of an
odiave to the firll finger. By this means a half, a whole
note, or any number of notes, may be gained upwards
upon each firing, to the end of the finger-board. A rea-
dinefs at thefe fliifts, on fhort notice, in all keys, and in true
intonation, is faid to be knowing the Jingcr-board well. At
prefent ( 1809) high folo parts for the violoncello are writ-
ten in the treble clef.

Shift, in Ship-Building, a term applied to difpofing the
butts of the planks, &c. fo that they may over-launch each
other, without reducnig the length, and fo as to gain the moll
£lrength. The planks of the bottom, in Britifh-built fhips
of war, have a fix-feet fhift, with three planks between
each butt, fo that the planks run twenty-four feet long.
In the bottoms of merchant-fhips, they have a fix-feet fliift,
with only two planks between each butt, making but
cighteen-feet planks in length. The fliift of the timbers is
from three feet to ten feet fix inches in length, according to
tlie fize of the fliip.

SHIFTED, in Sea Language, denotes the Hate of a
fiiip's ballalt or cargo, when it is fliaken from one fide to
the other, either by the violence of her rolling in a turbu-
lent fea, or by an extraordinary inclination to one fide, when
under a great prcllure of fail. This circumltance rarely
happens, unlefs to thofe cargoes which are flowed in bulk,
as corn, fait, and I uch materials.

SniFTni), as exprcllcd of the wind, implies rt/zirfr/.
SHIFTER, a perfon appointed to afiill the fliip's cook,
particularly in wafliing, llecping, and fhifting the fait pro-
vifions.

SHIFTING, in Ship- Building, the aft of fetting off
the length of the planks, &c. of a (hip, fo that the butts
may over-launch each other, as to produce a good lliift.
(See Shut,) Replacing old Huff with new is alio called
Shifting.

Vol. XXXII.

Shifting a Tackle, in Sea Language, the aft of remov-
ing the blocks of a tackle to a greater dillance from each
other, on the objeft to which they are applied, in order to
give a greater fcope or extent to their purchafe. This ope-
ration is othcrwife cAXed Jlteling.

Shifting the Helm, is altering its pofition from one fide
to the other, or from one fide to midfhips.

Shifting the Voyal, or Mejfmger, clianging its pofition
on the capilern, fo as to heave in the cable from the flarboard
or larboard fide.

Shifting of Plants, in Gardening, the bufinefs of re-
moving plants in pots, from fmaller into larger ones, &c. to
give them frclh earth or mould. It is neceffary occafionally,
in all plants in pots, to affill them with larger ones, accord-
ing as the advanced growth of the particular forts renders it
proper ; and at the fame time to fupply an- additional propor-
tion of frefii earth about the root-fibres of the plants, to
promote their growth : and fometimes, for the application
of frelh compoll, either in part or wholly, from the plants
having remained long unremoved, and the old earth in the
pots being much decayed, or on account of fome defeft of
growth in the particular plants.

In regard to the neceflity of Ihifting, it is, in fome de-
gree, according to the advancing growth of the different
forts of plants : fome forts of a Itrong free growth require
fhifting once every year or two : others, more moderate
growers, or of more fettled growths, once in two or three
years ; and fome large growing kinds, which are advanced
to a confiderable fize, having been occafionally Ihiftcd, in
their increafing growth, from fmaller into larger pots of
different proportionable fizes, and fome from large pots into
tubs of Hill larger dimenfions, as large plants of the Ame-
rican aloe, orange, and lemon-tree kinds, &c. in that ad-
vanced Hate, fometimes only need occafional (Iiifting once
in three or fevcral years, especially when the pots or tubs
are capacious, containing a large fupply of earth, and are
-occafionally refreflied with fome new compoll at top, and a
little way down, round the fides about the extreme roots.
And in fome fmall flow-growing plants, as in many of the
fncculent tribe, fiiifting them once in two or three years may
be fufficient ; other forts want fiiifting annually into larger
pots, according as ihey advance in a free growth, as the
hardy and tender kinds of herbaceous and fiirubby plants,
&c. And fome of the tender annual flower-plants, culti-
vated in pots, and forw.irdcd in hot-beds being planted firll
in fmall pots, want fliifting, in their increafing growth, into
larger fizes, once or twice the fame feafon, as from April
to the beginning of June, when being fliifted finally into the
requifite fuU-fized pots, they remain during their exificncc.
But thougii large-grown plants, either of the flirnb or tree
kind, a-i well as other plants of large growths, after being
finally Hationcd in the fulleH-fized large pots and tubs, fuc-
ceed fevcral years without ftiifting, they lliould in the inter-
val have the top earth loofened, and down round the lides
to fome little depth, removing the loofened old foil, and
filling up the pots, tubs, &c. with frefh earlh, fettling it
clofe by a moderate watering.

The ufual fealim for occafional fliifting fucli plants a£ re-
quire it, is principally the fpriiig and autumn, as from
March to May for the fpring (Iiifting ; and from AnguH to
the end of September for the autumn ; though in phuits that
can be removed with the full balls of earth about the roots,
it may be occafionally performed almoll at any time ; how-
ever, for any general fliifting, the fpring and autumn are the
moH fuccefsful feafons, as the plants tiien fooncr Hnke frcfli
root ; and m.iny forts preferably in the fpnng, by having
the benefit of the fame growing feafon, and thai of fum-
■, tj mer.

SHI

mer. In performing the bufiners, it is moftly proper to re-
move the plants from the fmallerto tlie larger pots, with the
balls of earth about the roots, either wholly, or fome of
the outward old earth, the dry or matted radical fibres only
being carefully trimmed away, fo as not to difturb the prin-
cipal roots in the bodies of them, as by this means the plants
receive but little check in their growth by tlie removal.
Sometimes, when any particular plants, flirubs, or trees,
&c. in their pots, difcover by their tops that they are in a
dechning ftate, as probably the defeft may be either in the
root, or the old balls of earth, it may be proper to fhake
all the earth entirely away, in order to examine the roots,
and to trim and drefs them as the cafe may require, re-
planting them in entire frefh compoft or mould.

And in preparing for this fort of work, where neceflary
to give larger pots, &c. it is proper to provide them of
fuitable fizes, in fome regular gradation larger than the
old ones, according to the nature and growth of the plants,
the whole being placed ready, with a proper quantity of
frefti compolt earth, in proportion to the number and fize
of the plants intended to bo fhifted : then let thofe plants
intended to be removed with balls, be taken out of their
old pots feparately, with the whole balls or clumps of earth
about the roots as entire as poflible ; and when large, or
tolerably full, with a knife trim off fome of the outward
loofeft earth, and the extreme fibres of the roots ; but when
fmall, and adhering together compaftly, the whole may be
preferved entire ; and in cither cafe, where there are very
matted, dry, or decayed fibres furrounding the balls, they
Ihould be trimmed as it may feem nccelTary : in thofe of a
fre(h lively growth, the loofe llraggling parts only fliould
be cut away. The requifite pruning, trimming, or dreff-
ing in the heads or tops, fhould alfo be given where it may
feem proper, according to the ftate of growth, and the na-
tural habit of the different plants ; but many forts require
little or none of this fort of attention.

Then having prepared the intended pots for the reception
of the plants, by placing fome pieces of tile or oyfter-lhell,
&c. loofely over the holes at bottom, and laid in a little frefh
earth, two, three, or four inches deep, or more, according
to the fize of the pot, the plant fhould be fet in with its
ball of earth, as above, filling up around it with more frefh
mould, raifing it an inch or two over the top of the ball ;
and giving direclly a moderate watering, to fettle the earth
clofe about the ball and roots regularly in every part, in a
proper manner : in fuch cafes where the ball in particular
plants appears very compaAly hard and binding, it may be
proper to loofen it a little, by thrulting a fharp-pointed ilick
down into the earth in different parts, giving it a gentle
•wrench, to open the earth moderately ; or fometimes it may
alfo be proper to trim away fome of the old earth on the top
and fides, then planting it as above, and filling up round and
over the ball with frefh earth, and watering it afterwards.

Alfo, in fhifting hardy or tender, fhrubby, fucculent, or
herbaceous plants, when any appear of a fickly, weak, or
unhealthy growth, it may be advifeable to clear off a confi-
derable part of the outward old earth from the balls about
the roots, or, in fome cafes, to fliake it wholly away, that
the defefts in the growths, occafioned either by faults in
the roots or in the earth, may be removed by pruning out any
decayed or bad parts of the roots, and replanting them
wholly in frefh earth.

And fometimes particular forts of plants in pots require
fliifting, more for the advantage of having frefh eaith, than
for want of new, or larger pots ; and as in this cafe fome of
tht fame pots may be fl:ll of an eligible fize to repot them in,
thefe Dot8 fhould be well cleaned from all the adhering parts
7

SHI

of the old earth, and be replenifhed with entire new, at the
time of repotting the plants ; which being removed out of
their pots, either with the entire balls about the roots, and
part of the old mould cleared off all round, to admit of a
larger portion of frefli earth in the pot at replanting ; or in
fome, appearing of an infirm or declining habit, the whole
balls of old earth difplaced clean to the roots ; then having
furnifhed the pots with frefh earth, the plants fhould be re-
placed in them, filling up the pots regularly with a fufEciency
of the fame frefh mould, and finifhing with a moderate
watering to fettle the whole clofe about their roots.

Likewife after fhifting, when the plants ai-e not watered
at the time, a moderate watering, both to the earth in the
pots to fettle it clofe about the roots, and in moft forts
highly over the tops or heads of the plants, fhould be given,
in order to wafh off any foulnefs ; then the pots of plants
fhould be fet in their refpeftivc ftations in the garden, &c. :
the hardy kinds, if warm funny weather, may be placed
in a fhady border fur two or three weeks, till they have
ftruck frefh root in the new earth : the tender forts fhould be
difpofed in their places among the green-houfe and flove-
plants, or to have the benefit of fliade in the middle of hot
funny days, till frefh flruck, or probably fome of the more
tender particular forts may require to be plunged in a hot-
bed or bark-bed, efpecially fome of the ftove kinds : fome
principal forts of the more curious cr tender grcen-houfe
plants, in order to expedite their frcfh-rooting more eflec-
tually ; and fometimes tender annuals in hot-beds, potted
in their early young growth, may require to be replunged
in the hot-bed to frefh Itrike, and forward them till June ;
but generally all the full ground or open air plants only re-
quire a little occafional fhade in hot dry weather the firfl
two or three weeks, and fome fhifted with full balls about
the roots, only need occafional watering ; afterwards, on
the whole, both the hardy and tender kinds fhould have re-
peated moderate waterings given them., according to their
kinds.

SHIFTS, fuch parts of a farm as are allotted for the
reception of either flock or crops. It is alfo a term ap-
plied to the rotations of cropping lands : thus we have
three, four, five, and fix-courfe fhifts. See Courfe of
Chops.

SHIJASCHKOTAN,in Geography. See Syaskutan.

SHIITES, in the Hijlory of Mahometan SeSs, were the
opponents of the Kharejites ; fee that article. This name
properly ^\gmhe5 feclaries or adherents in general, but is pe-
cuharly ufed to denote thofe of AH Ebn Abi Taleb ; who
maintain him to be lawful caliph and imam, and that the
lupreme authority, both in fpirituals and temporals, of
right belongs to his defcendants, notvvithflanding they may
be deprived of it by the injuftice of others, or their own
fear. They alfo teach, that the office of imam is not a
common thing, depending on the will of the vulgar, fo that
they may fet up whom they pleafe ; but a fundamental affair
of religion, and an article which the prophet could not have
negleiled, or left to the fancy of the common people ; nay
fome, thence called Imamians, go fo far as to affert, that
religion confifts folcly in the knowledge of the true imam.
The principal fefts of the Shiites are five, which are fub-
divided into an almofl incred.ble number ; fo that fome un-
derlland Mohammed's prophecy ofthefeventy odd fefts, of
the Shiites only. Their general opinions are, i. That the
peculiar defignation of the imam, and the teftimonies of the
Koran and Mohammed concerning him, are necefTary points.
2. That the imams ought neceflarily to keep themfelves
free from light fins as well as more grievous. 3. That
every one ought pubhcly to declare who it is that he ad-
here*

I

SHI

S H I

heres to, and from whom he feparates himfelf, by woi-d,
deed, and engagement, and that herein there (houid be no
diflimulation. But in this lad point fome of theZeidians, a
feft fo named from Zeid, the fon of Ali, furnamed Zcin al
Abedin, and great grandfon of Ali, didented from the
reft of the Shiites. As to other articles, wherein they
agreed not, fome of them came pretty near to the notions
of the Motazalite,^, others to thofe of the Moihabbehite;;,
and others to thofe of the Sonnites. Among the latter of
thefe, Mahommed al Baker, another fon of Zein al Abedin's,
feems to claim a place : for hi? opinion as to the will of God
was, that God willeth fomething in us, and fomethi;;^
from us,' and that he willethyrom us he hath revealed to us ;
for which reafon he thought it prcpolterous that we fhould
employ our thoughts about thofe things which God willeth
in us, and negledt thofe which he willethyrom us : and as to
God's decree, he held that tiie way lay in the middk, and
that there was neither compullion nor free liberty. A tenet
of the Khattabians, or difciplcs of one Abu'l Khattab, is
too peculiar to be omitted. Thefe maintained paradife to
be no other than U\-i pkafurcs of this -world, and hell-fire to
be the pains thereof, and that the world will never dccav :
which propofition being firft laid down, it is no wonder they
went farther, and declared it lawful to indulge themfelves in
drinking wine and whoring, and to do other things forbidden
by the law, and alfo to omit doing the things commanded
by the law.

Many of the Shiites carried their veneration for Ali and
his defcendants fo faV, that they tranfgrefled all bounds of
reafon and decency ; though fome of them were lefs extra-
vagant than others. The Gholaites, who had their name
from their excejfive zeal for their imams, were fo highly
tranfported therewith, that they raifed them above the de-
gree of created beings, and attributed divine properties to
them ; tranlgrefiing on either hand, by deifying of mortal
men, and by makii;g God corporeal : for one while they
liken one of their imams to God, and another while they
liken God to a creature. The fetts of thefe are various, and
have various appellations in different countries. Abd'allah
Ebn Saba, (who had been a Jew, and had aderted the
fame thing of Jofhua the fon of Nun,) was the ring-leader
of one of them. This man gave the following falutation
to Ali, vi%. Thou art Thou, i. e. thou art God: and here-
upon the Gholaites became divided into feveral fpecies ;
fome maintaining the fame thing, or fomething like it, of
Ali, and others of fome of one of his defcendants ; affirm-
ing that he xras not dead, but would return again in the
clouds, and fill the earth with juftice. But howmuchfoever
they difagreed in other things, they unanimoufly held a me-
tempfychqfs, and what they call al Holul, or the defcent of
God on his creatures ; meaning thereby that God is prefent
in every place, and fpeaks with every tongue, and appears
in fome individual perfons ; and hence fome of them aderted
their imams to be prophets, and at length gods. The Nofai-
rians and the Ifliakians taught that Ipiritual fubllanccs ap-
pear in grofler bodies ; and that the angels and the devil
have appeared in this manner. They alio affert that God
hath appeared in the form of certain men ; and fince, after
Mohammed, there hath been no man more excellent than
Ali, and, after him, his fons have excelled all other men,
that God hath appeared in their form, fpoken with their
tongue, and made ufe of their hands, for which reafon, fay
they, liie attribute divinity to them. And to fupport thefe
blafphemies, they tell feveral miraculous things of Ali, as
his moving the gates of Khaibar, wliieh tiiey urge as a plain
proof that he was endued with a particle of divinity, and
with fovereign power, and that he was the pcrfon in whofc

form God appeared, with whofe hands he created all things*
and with whofe tongue he publilhed his commands; and
therefore they fay he was in being before the creation of
heaven and earth. In fo impious a manner do th.-v feem to
wrell thofe thmgs which are faid in fcripture of Chnft, by
applying them to Ali. Thefe extravagant fancies of the
Shiites, however, in making their imams partakers of the
divine nature, and the impiety of fome of thofe imams in
laying claim thereto, are fo far from being peculiar to this
feet, that moft of the other Mohammedan fefts are tainted
with the fame madnefs ; there being many found among
them, and among the Sufis efpecially, who pretend to be
nearly related to heaven, and who boall of ftrange revela-
tions before the credulous people. To this account of the
Shiites of the firlt ages we (hall fubjoin a brief mention of
the great fchifm at this day fubfifling between the Sonnites
and the Shiites, or partisans of Ali, and maintained on
either fide with implacable hatred and furious zeal. Though
the difference arofe at firft on a political occafion, it has,
notwithftanding, been fo well improved by additional circum-
ftances, and the fpirit of coutradidion, that each party de-
tell and anathematize the other as abominable heretics, and
farther from the truth than either the Chriftians or the Jews.
Tlie chief points wherein they differ are, i. That the Shiites
rejeft Abu Beer, Omar, and Othman, the three firft caliphs
as ufurpers and intruders ; whereas the Sonnites acknowledge
and refpeft them as rightful imams. 2. The Shiites prefer
Ali to Mohammed, or, at leaft, efteem them both equal ;
but the Sonnites admit neither Ali, nor any of the prophets,
to be equal to Mohammed. 3. The Sonnites charge the
Shiites with corrupting the Koran, and neglefting its pre-
cepts ; and the Shiites retort the fame charge on the Son-
nites. 4. The Sonnites receive the Sonna, or book of tra.
ditions of their prophet, as of canonical authority ; where.
as the Shiites rejeft it as apocryphal and unworthy of credit.
And to thefe difputes, and fome others of lefs moment, ia
principally owing the antipathy which has long reigned be-
tween the Turks, who are Sonnites, and the Perfians, who
are of the feci of Ali. Sale's Koran, Introd.

SHILACON, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
E. fide of the Nile ; 8 miles N. of Cairo.

SHILL, in ylgriculture, provincially to feparate the
rind, hudc, or (kin, as of oats, or other crops. It alfo
fignifics the ttirning a fmall portion of milk into curd.

SHILLAY, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the W.
coaft of the ifland of Lewis ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Toe
Head. N. lat. 54" 48'. W. long. 7" 14'.

SHILLELAH, a town of Algiers, anciently Tura-
philum ; 10 miles S.W. of Burg Hamza.

SHILLER-Stone, or SHILLEK-^/x/r, in Mineralogy,
the diallage mctalloide of Haiiy, a mineral nearly allied
to ferpeutine. (See Skki'bntine.) It is confidered by
fome mineralogiftg as a cryllalline variety of that rock ; in
which it generally occurs, either in beds or dilfeminated.
Its colour is commonly olive-green, with a fhinlng lullrc,
which is fometimes femi-metalhc. The llrufture is lamellar,
with joints in one direction : it yields to the knife. In the
vicinity of New Radnor, in Wales, there is a rock of this
mineral intermixed with ileatite.

SHILLING, an Englifh filver coin, equal to twelve
pence, or the twentieth part of a pound.

Frolierus derives the Saxon fcilling, whence our Jl/illing,

from a corruption of /iliqua ; proving the derivatio.i bjr

feveral texts of law, and among others, by the twenty-fixtn

law, De anniiis legatis. Skinner deduces it from the Saxon

fcild, Jlncld, by rcjifon of the efcutcheon of arms upon it.

Bilhop Hooper derives it from the Anhic fchccle, figni-
3 S 2 fyiiig

SHILLING.

fying a weight ; but others, with greater probability, de-
duce it from the l,?ili\\ficHicus, which fignified in that lan-
guage, a quarter of an ounce, or the forty-eighth part of a
Roman pound. In confirmation of this etymology, it is
alleged, that the (hiUing kept its original fignification, and
bore the fame proportion to the Saxon pound, as ficilicus did
to the Roman and the Greek, being exaftly the forty-
eighth part of the Saxon pound ; a difcovery which we
owe to Mr. Lambarde. Explicatio Rerum et Verborum
in Legg. Sax. voc. Libra.

Others fay, that the (hilling was at firfl a German appel-
lation, fchelUng ; coins of which name had been ilruck at
Hamburgh in 1407.

However, the Saxon laws reckon the pound in the round
number at fifty fhiUings, but they really coined^ out of it
only forty-eight ; the vdue of the (hilling was five-pence ;
but it was reduced to four-pence above a century before
the Conqueft ; for feveral of the Saxon laws made in Athel-
ftan's reign, oblige us to take this eltimate. Thus it con-
tinued to the Norman times, as one of the Conqueror's laws
(Legg. Sax. p. 221.) fufficiently afcertains ; and it feems
to have been the common coin by which the Englifh pay-
ments were adjufted. After the Conqueft, the French
folidus of twelve-pence, which was in ufe among the Nor-
mans, was called by the Englifli name of fhilling ; and the
Saxon (hilling of four-pence took a Norman name, and
was called the groat, or great coin, becaufe it was the
largeft Engli(h coin then known in England.

The groat, from the French gros, a large piece, was in-
troduced by Edward IIL in 1354, and continues, though
not in common circulation, to this day. The half-groat, or
two-pence, is of the fame date and continuance. In Scot-
land, about the year 1553, were firft coined teftoons, or
fhiUings, bearing the butt of the queen, and the arms of
France and Scotland on the reverfe : they being of the
fame intrinfic value as thofe of England, were then worth
four (hillings, and the half-teftoon two, Scottifh money.

It has been the opinion of bilhops Fleetwood and Gib-
fon, and of the antiquaries in general, that though the
method of reckoning by pounds, marks, and (liillings, as
well as by pence and farthings, had been in conftant ufe
even from the Saxon times, long before the Norman con-
queft, there never was fuch a coin in England as either a
poinid or a mark, nor any fhilling or teftoon, till the year
1503, 1504, or 1505; but in the twentieth year of king
Henry VII. (A.D. 1505,) a few filver (hillings, or twelve-
pences, were coined, being about one-half the fize of the
modern (hillings, or forty out of a pound weight of filver,
which were fair and broad pieces. Thefe, however, it is
faid, have long fince been folely confined to the cabinets
of colleftors.

Mr. Clarke combats this opinion, alleging, that fome
coins mentioned by Mr. Folkes, under Edward I. were
probably Saxon (hillings new minted, and that archbi(hop
Aelfnc (Gram. Saxon, p. 52, at the end of Somner's
Saxon Diction,) exprefely fays, that the Saxons had three
names for their money, wa. mancufes, (hillings, and pen-
nies. He alfo urges the different value of the Saxon (bil-
ling at different times, and its uniform proportion to the
pound, as an argument, that their fhilling was a coin ; and
the teftimony of the Saxon gofpels, in which the word we
have tranflated piecei of filver, is rendered fhiUings, which,
he fays, they wouid hardly have done, if there had been no
fuch coin as a (hilling then in ufe. Accordingly, the
Saxons expreffed their fhilling in Latin by ^rA/j and ar-
genteus.

He farther adds, that the Sa.xon iliiUing was never ex-

preffed hj folidus, tiU after the Norman fettlements in Eng..
land : and howfoever it altered during the long period that
elapfed from the Conqueft to the time of Henry VII. it
was the moll conftant denomination of money in all pay-
ments, though it was then only a fpecies of account, or
the twentieth part of the pound llerling : and when it was
again revived as a coin, it lellened gradually as the pound
fterling leffened, from the twenty-eighth of Edward III.
to the forty-third of Elizabeth. Clarke on Coins, &c.
p. 120. 152. 155. 200. 376.

Silver farthings ceafed with Edward VI., but the filver
half-pence continued the fole coins till Charles II. The
filver penny was much ufed to the end of the reign of
George I., and fo far from being no where to be found, as
Hume affirms (Hill. vol. vi.), is fuperabundant of every
reign fince that period, not excepting even the prefent
reign of George III.

In the year 1560, there was a peculiar fort of fhiUing
llruck in Ireland, of the value ef nine-pence Englifli,
which paded in Ireland for twelve-pence. The motto
on the reverfe of thefe is, posui deu.m adjutore.m

MEUM.

Eighty-two of thefe fhiUings, according to Malynes,
went to the pound, they therefore weighed twenty grains
one-fourth each, which is fomewhat heavier in proportion
than the Englifh fhilling of that time, fixty-two of which
went to the pound, each weighing ninety-two grains feven-
eighths ; and the Irifti fhilling being valued at the Tower
at nine-pence Englifh, that is, one-fourth part lefs than
the Englifh (hilling, it fhould, therefore, proportionably
weigh one-fourth part lefs, and its full weight be fomewhat
more than fixty-two grains ; but fome of them found at
this time, though much worn, weighed fixty-nine grains.
In the year 1598, five different pieces of money of this
kind were ftruck in England for the fervice of the king-
dom of Ireland.

Thefe were (hillings to be current in Ireland at twelve-
pence each ; half (hillings to be current at fix-pence ; and
quarter (hillings at three-pence.

Pennies and halfpennies were alfo ftruck of the fame kinds
and fent over for the payment of the army in Ireland.
The money thus coined was of a very bafe mixture of
copper and filver ; and two years after there were m.ore
pieces of the fame kinds ftruck for the fame fervice, which
were (till worfe ; the former being three ounces of filver
to nine ounces of copper ; and thefe latter only two ounces
eighteen pennyweights, to nine ounces two pennyweights
of the alloy. Simon's Iri(h Coins.

The Dutch, Flemidi, and Germans, have likewife their
fiiilling, cMed fchelin, fehilling, fcalin, &c. ; but thefe, not
being of the fame weight or finenefs with the Englifli (hil-
ling, are not current at the fame value. See Schillixg
and Skillixg.

The pound Flcmifh in accounts is divided into twenty
ftiillings, and fubdividcd into twelve groots or pence Flerai(h.
The coins in Holland are good (hillings, or efcalins, and
half ditto, at fix and three ftivers ; unilamped or bafe (hil-
lings reckoned at five and a half (livers, and called fefthalfs.
At Hamburgh, accounts are kept in fliillingo, fixteen of
which are equal to a mark, and each containing twelve
pfenings ; and fometimes in pounds, (hillings and pence
Flemiih ; the pound being equal to twenty fhiUings, and
the (hilling equal to twelve-pence or grotes.

The Englifh fiiilling is worth about twenty-three French
fols ; thofe of Holland and Germany about eleven fols and
a half; thofe of Flanders about nine. The Dutch fhiUings
are alfo called yi/f de gros, becaufe equal to twelve gros.

The

S H I

The Danes have copper (hillings, worth about one-fourth
of a fan hint; Iterling. See Coix.

SHILLUK, in Gcngraphy, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Sennaar, on the E. fide of the river Bahr-el-
Abiad, and not far removed from it. This town is built
of clay, and its iniiabitants are idolaters. They have no
other clothing than bands of long grafs, which they pafs
round the waill and between the thighs. They arc all
black, and thole of both fexes (have their heads. The
people of Shilhik have the dominion of the river, and take
toll of all paffengers, in fuch articles of traffic as pafs
among them. Thefe people, who adame importance from
their command of the river, are reprefented as hofpitable
to thofe who come among them in a peaceable manner,
and as never betraying thofe to whom they have once avow-
ed friendlhip ; 50 miles W. of Sennaar.

SHILOH, in Scripture Crilicifm, a term that occurs
in Jacob's celebrated prophecy concerning the Mefiiah
(Gen. xlix. 10.) ; concerning the etymology and applica-
tion of which, biblical commentators have differed in opi-
nion. " The fceptre fhall not depart from Judah, and a
law-giver from between his feet ; till Sh'iloh come ; and to
him flaall the gathering of the people be." The word
Shiloh, fays one writer (Mr. Mann), is a modern reading ;
unknown in any other part of the fcripturc, or any of the
old commentators ; coined by the Jewifh correftors of the
bible into H"?'^*) a word of no fignification ; whereas the
LXX read l'7^, that is, 1^7 "Iti^J^i he, to whom it is;
he, to whom it, viz. the fceptre, belongs ; J aroxwlzi ; he
for whom it is referved, as it is in the original belt edition
of the LXX verfion, as Jiillin Martyr long ago affirmed,
(Dial, cum Trypli.), and as it now llands in the Alexan-
drian MS. And if this be the true meaning, it plainly re-
fers to the king of the Jews ; for whom the fceptre was
referved, and to whom the people were to be gathered.
Mr. Ainfworth and iome otliers render Shiloh the profperor
or fafe-maker ; others the peace-maker, from ri'7w'' > all
which agree to the fame perfon. But the moll probable
interpretation, as the author of Mordecai's Letters, (Mr.
Taylor,) apprehends, is given us by the very learned and
judicious Dr. Hunt, profelfor of Arabic at Oxford. He
underllands the true etymology of the word Shiloh to re-
main in the Arabic X^il'' Jhcla, liberavit, fubduxit ab
anguftia et exitio. According to this etymology, Shiloh
will be the deliverer from diilrefs and dellruilion ; a title,
whicli jullly belongs to Jefus Clirill, the Lord of life, and
Saviour of the world. If it fliould be objcfted to this
etymology, that the yoj/ (') is wanting between ihe /chin
and the lamed, he obfervcs, that in the Samaritan copy
of Genefis, xlix. 10. tlie word is written without the
jod, as it i-i likevvife in one of the mod ancient He-
brew MSS. which Dr. Kennicot has conlulted on this
text. Some moderns have pretended, in order to evade
the prophetic force of this text, that the fceptre departed
from Judah before tlie advent of Chrill, by its falling into
the hands of foreigners, which objection is fufficiently an-
fwered by Cunaeus (De Republ. Heb. 1. 50. c. 9.) and
others: who have (hewn, tiiat tlie text only regards the
contimiance of the Jewilh (late; and that Judea, as fepa-
rated from Ifrael, fhouid remain a kingdom till the coming
of the Mediah. On tlie other hand, Abravanel and others
fuppofe, tiiat the Iceptre is not yet departed from Ifr>icl;
and Meralfeh Ben ilrael allege",, that it is ftill in the hands
of the tribe of Judah. The ancients undoubtedly under-
ftood tliis text of the Mediah. The Ciialdce Paraphrad
fays, " He that hath dominion rtiall not be taken away from
Judah, nor a fcribe from his children's children, until the

S H 1

time when Chrift fliall come, whofe the dominion is ; and
him diall the people (or nations) obey." And the Jerufa-
lem Targum fays, " ICings diall not ceafc from the houfe of
Judah, nor dodors that teach the law from his children's
children, until the time that Chrill do com.e, whofc kmgdom
is ; and all the kings of the earth fhall be fubjeft unto him ;"
fo that both the Targums confine the fcnfe to this ; that the
peoples (/. e. both Jews and Gentiles) {hould gather unto
and obey Chrift : or, in other words, that the perfon here
fpoken of fhouid be .the prince that fliould reign over all ;
57;-eiTjo<ix £«;:, as the LXX fay in this place ; and that this
fliould happen before Judah fhouid ccafe to be a kingdom :
which is verified by fa£l". Ben Mordecai's Letters, Letter iv.

Shiloh, or Silo, in y/ncicnt Geography, a famous city of
Ephraim (Jofh. xviii. xix.xxi.), 12 miles diftant from She-
chem or Sichem, according to Eufebius, or 10 miles accord-
ing to Jerom, and fituated, according to both, in Acraba-
tene. In Jerom's time this city was ruined, nothing re-
maining but the foundation of the altar of burnt offerings,
which had been erefted when the tabernacle was there. At
Shiloh, Jodiua adembled the people to make the fecond dif-
tribution of the land of promife. (Jofh. xviii. i, 2, 3.)
Here the tabernacle of the Lord was fet up, when tiie peo-
ple vTere fettled in the country. (Jodi. xix. ji.) The ark
and the tabernacle of the Lord continued at Sliiloh, from
A.M. 2560, when it was fet up by JcHiua, to A.M. 2888,
B.C. 1 1 16, when it was taken by the Philillines, under the
adminillration of the high-prielt Eli. At Shiloh Samuel
began to prophefy. (i Sam. iv. 4.) Here the prophet
Abijah dwelt, (i Kings, xiv. 2.) .Teremiah foretold that
the temple of .Icrulalem fliould be reduced to the fame con-
dition as Shiloli was. (Jcr. vii. 12. 14. xxvi. 6. 9.) After
the return of the ark out of the country of the Philillines,
inllead of returning it to Shiloh, it was taken to Kirjath-
jearim. (1 Sam. vi. 21.) Mr. Roland conjedtures, that
from the name Shiloh, Paufanias (1. vi. c. 24.) took occa-
fion to fay, that Silcnus, the companion of Bacchus, was
buried in Palelline. Benjamin of Tudela affirms, that the
tomb of Samuel was to be feen here.

SHIM, in y/griciillure, a tool of the tillage kind, ufed
in breaking dov/n and reducing the more llifl and heavy
fort j of land, as well as cutting up and clcaritii» them from
weeds. They are made in different forms and conllrudtions,
to fuit dilferent purpofcs. In the Hertford Agricultural
Survey by the Board of Agriculture, the writer remarks,
that a tool of this kind is in ule by Mr. Calvert, of Albury,
which differs from thofe ufually employed, iu which the
cutting-iron or plate, which for the work it is adapted for,
as that of cutting up weeds on two-bout or four-furrow
Edex ridges, or of cleaning land without ploughing or
burying tiic foil, is a fmall legment of a large circle. It
difpatches a ridge at a time, and is an implement that per-
forms its bufincfs well, and which delerves the notice ol the
tillaire-farmer in other places. It is readily altered fur flat
work, and i; faid to be had recourle to by other fanners with
fnccefs in the fame dillriiit.

And an ufeful tool of this fort has alfo been recom-
mended by Mr. Ycuing, in his Annals, the hint of which he
took from the Berkfliire one, and to which the beam and
block is capable of being applied. In a wide interval, the
three fhares may be worked on a level. Between the rows
of cabbages, after earthing up, the two external (hares may
be fet to cut the weeds th;:t are apt to rife on the lides of
the ridges, without dillurbing too much earth, and the
centre (hare funk to fcrape the bottom of the furro\<'. The
centre one may alio be worked alone, between narrow rows.
In forging the fhares of all fliims, he has well obfervcd, that

the

SHI

SHI

the blackfmith fliould be careful to give them tendency
enough into the ground, by bending them downwards : ' for
want of this caution, he has found many of them to work
badly. The wheel in the beam counterafts this tendency
fufficiently when at work.

Thefe tools Ihould be upon all tillage farms, in all their
different and beft conflruftions.

Shim Potatoe, a tool of the (him kind, ufed for cleaning
potatoe crops.

SHIN, Loch, in Geography, an extenfive lake in the
county of Sutherland, Scotland. This lake extends above
20 miles in length, but no where exceeds two miles in
breadth, and feldom above a mile and a half. The banks
are finely covered with natural wood, particularly the
fouthern bank. It is connefted with the Northern ocean,
at Dornoch Frith, by the river Shin, which abounds with
falmon, and forms feveral falls in the fhort courfe of eight
miles. Sinclair's Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xi.

1794-

SHINAAS, a fmall town of Perfia, in the province of
Lariftan. This and Boftana lie between Linga and Cape
Boftana ; but though they are fmall towns, they afford
fome refrefhment. Linga, the chief town of the piratical
tribe of Joafmis on the Perfian fliore, is fituated clofe to
the fea, in N. lat. 26' 3^', about eight leagues from Kilhm.
It has a fecure road, where fhips may ride out a north-weit
gale in five fathoms water. Cape Boftana forms to the
eaftward the roadftead of the town of Mogoo, which is one
of the moft fecure in the gulf; and this roadftead has to the
weftward the point improperly called Cortes. This road-
ftead is capable of holding the largett fleets.

SHINDAN, a mountain of Perfia, between the pro-
vinces of Adirbeitzan or Azerbijan and Ghilan.

SHINGARIN, a town of Africa, in the countr)' of
Sahara, where fait is found ; 9 miles N. of Walet.

SHINGEIAT, a town of Africa, in the country of
Bergoo ; 90 miles W. of Wara.

SHINGLE, in ylgricuhure, a term fometimes applied
to the thinnings of fir and other timber trees, in the northern
diftrifts, and which are of much ufe for various purpofes in
farming, as the making of fences, &c.

Shingle, a fubftance found and coUefted on the fea-
beach, or fhore, which is ufed for feveral purpofes, as bal-
lafting of fhips, filling furface hollow drains, protecting the
foundations of embankments, and other fimilar ufes. See
Surface Drain, and Surface Draining.

It is faid to be a very valuable fubftance for the ufe of
filling drains, as being particularly durable in its nature.
In the county of Suflex, as well as in Effex, much of it is
made ufe of in this way ; in the former, under the deno-
mination of fea-beach, or beach.

Shingle Shoal, in Geography, a fhoal in the Englifh
Channel, near the coaft of Hampfhire. N. lat. ro° 38'.
W. Ion?. 1° 26'.

SHINGLES. See Shambles.

Shingles, or Shiiies, in Building, fmall pieces of wood,
or quartered oaken boards, fawed to a certain fcantUng, or
more ufiially cleft to about an inch thick at one end, and
made like wedges, four or five inches broad, and eight or
nine inches long. They are ufed in covering, cfpecially for
churches and fteeples, inftead of tiles or flates.

This covering is dear ; yet where tiles, &c. are very
fcarce, and a light cover is required, it is preferable to
thatch. If made of good oak, and cleft, not fawed, and
well feafoned, ftiingles make a fure, light, and durable
covering.

The building is firft to be covered all over with boardtp
and the ftiingles then nailed thereon.

Shingles, in Medicine, the popular appellation of a
•veficular eruption, which appears on the trunk of the body»
extending generally half round, like a belt : whence pro-
bably the term is a corruption of the Latin word cingulutt
or cingulum, fignifying a belt. It is the herpes zqfler of
medical writers, the Greek word, (^u.-T-r.p, having the fame
fignification. It is fometimes called fimply zona, or zojler.
For the defcription and treatment of this curious and harm-
lefs, though fometimes painful, affeAion, fee Herpes
Zojler. See alfo Bateman's Practical Synopfis of Cutan.
Difeafes, p. 226.

SHINGLING, in the Iron-Worh, in many parts of
England, is the operation of hammering the fow, or caft
iron, into blooms. The tongs, ufed for holding the iron in
this operation, are called ftiingling-tongs, and the iron to
be thus wrought is called a loop.

SHINING Mountains, in Geography, mountains that
bound Louifiana on the weft, which, though little known,
are fuppofed to terminate in N. lat. 47° or 48^ ; whence
fpring a number of rivers, that difcharge themfelves
into the North Pacific ocean, Hudfon's bay, the waters
which lie between them, or the Atlantic ocean. They are
alfo called the " mountains of bright ftones," on account
of the immenfe number of large cryftals ftiootmg from the
rocks, and fparkling in the rays of the fun, fo as to be feen
at a great diftance.

SHIOBERT el Yemeni, a town of Egypt, on the right
bank of the Nile ; 8 miles S.E. of Mehallet Kebir.

SHIONKAN, a town of Pegu ; 8 miles N. of Sirian.
SHIP, a general name for all large veftels navigated
with fails. Among people unacquainted with marine dif-
tintlions, this tenn has a very vague and indifcriminate
acceptation. In the fea-language, however, it is more par-
ticularly applied to a veffel furnilhed with three mafts, each
of which is compofed of a lower maft, topmait, and top-
gallant maft, with the ufual rigging and appendages thereto
belonging. r

The fieur Aubin defines a ftiip, a timber building, con- I
fifting of various parts and pieces, nailed and pinned to-
gether with iron and wood, in fuch form, as to be fit to
float, and to be condudled by wind and fails from fea
to fea.

The invention of fhips is verj' ancient, and, at the fame
time, very uncertain. Mythologifts attribute it to Dae-
dalus, and pretend that the wings he invented to fave himielf
withal from the labyrinth of Crete, were nothing but fails,
which he firft gave to veft'els, and with which he eluded the
vigilance and purfuit of Minos. Others give the honour to
Janus, on the credit of fome ancient Greek and Latin coins,
on one fide of which is reprefented his double face, and on
the reverfe a ftiip. Laftly, others look on Noah to have
been the firlt fliip-builder.

The moft celebrated (hips of antiquity are, that of Pto-
lemy Philopater, which is faid to have been two hundred
and eighty cubits (i.e. four hundred and twenty feet) long,
thirty-eight broad, and forty-eight high : it carried four
thoufand rowers, four hundred failors, and three thoufand
foldiers. That which the fame prince made to fail on the
Nile, we are told, was three hundred and twelve feet long,
forty-five feet broad, with a maft one hundred and twenty
feet high. Yet thefe were nothing in comparifon with
Hiero's ftiip, built under the diredion of Archimedes, on
the ilrufture of which Mofchion, as we are told by SneUius,
wrote a whole volume. There was wood enough employed
in it to make fixty gallies. It had all the variety of apart-
ments

SHIP.

mfnts of a palace ; banquetting-rooms, galleries, gardens,
fifli-ponds, (tables, mills, batlis, a temple of Venus, &c.
It was encompafled with an iron rampart, and eight towers,
■with walls and bulwarks, furnifhed with machines of war,
particularly one, which threw a ftone of three hundred
pounds, or a dart twelve cubits long, the fpace of lialf a
mile ; with many other particulars related by Athenxus.
Deipnofophill. lib. v. p. 204, &c. ed. Caufab. Lugd.

A (hip is undoubtedly the nobleft machine that ever was
invented, and confiils of fo many various parts, that to form
feme idea of its importance and qualities will require the at-
tention of the gentleman and the artift.

All (hips at firft were of the fame form, whatever ufes
they were deiigned for ; but the various ends of navigation,
fome of which wtre better anfwered by one form, (ome by
another, foon gave occafion to build and fit out fhips, not
only different in fize, but alfo in their conftruftion and
rigging : and as trade gave occafion to the fitting out large
fleets of different kinds of merchant-fhips, fo fhips of war
became necellary to preferve them to their juft owners.

The gradually improving ftate of (hipping, in the lad
century, has kept pace with the regular advancement of
every other branch of mechanical fcience. For, prior to
that period, even our firft-rate (hips, now equal in perfec-
tion to thofe of any other rate, were then extremely de-
fe&ive, as their want of (lability made their magnitude
highly objeftionable. Thefe difadvantages have been gra-
dually obviated, fince the ufual caufes of inftability have
been difcovered, the dimenfion enlarged, and the praftical
management familiarized ; and they are now, in general,
efpecially thofe that have moll (lability, admirable (liips in
mod rcfpefts ; as they fail v;cll, and combine almolt every
good quality. Large as they are, they are perfeftly ma-
nageable ; and their evolutions are generally made with
wonderful facility.

Second-rate Jhips, or thofe about ninety guns, have too
generally thofe defefts in their condruiilion, which con-
tribute to inftability, arifing from want of that capacity
which moil of the firll -rates poffefs. The French, on this
account, have difcontinucd this clafs of (hipping.

Third-rale Jhips, or thofe of eighty and feventy-four guns
upon two decks, are altogether the moft ufeful and valuable
(hips in the navy ; and pollelling, in an eminent degree, all
the properties of capacity, (lability, and fwiftnefs ; the
particulars of which lad property will be found hereafter
under Siiii'-building, and this (hip may be confidered as
the firll of its clafs, from its great length and fuperior
capacity.

The above are particularly diftinguifhed as line-of-battle
fliips, and are found in general to fuit the moft powerful exi-
gencies of the naval fervices. About ten years ago an addi-
tional lieutenant was appointed to the line-of-battle (hips.
Sec Rate.

Fourth-rate Jhips are thofe of fifty guns. They may be
employed, if neccffary, in the line-of-battle, but moft fuit-
able to be dationcd amongft the foreign colonies, or on ex-

peditions of great didance ; fmce thefe vefTcU are ufually
excellent for keeping a;id fuilaining tiic fea.

Fijth-rate Jhips arc frigates of from forty-four guns to
thirty-two jfuns upon one d'.ck, and even to fifty gunc ia
America, (being reftrifted formerly to vcdels of war with
one deck ) ; and though too weak to fuffcr the (Ik ck of
a line-of-battle, they are very ufeful to accompany fleets, to
lead the convoys of merchant-fhips, to protctt colonial
commerce, to cruize in different ftations, or to be fent ex-
prefs with neccdary intelligence and orders.

The forty-four gun frigate being the moft powerful, and
moft valuable of this clafs, has induced us to give a plate of
one, fo conllrufted as to have all the qualities which can
pofTibly be united in one (hip ; for having but one deck,
her breadth and height are fo proportionable to her length,
that (he may be brought down in the water to that depth
which is allowed to be the bed failing trim for (hips in
general. Ships of fifty and thirty-tight guns have four
lieutenants. See Rate.

The Jixth-rale includes all the fmaller clafs ©f veffels in
the navy, except the yacht, fire-fhip, and bomb-veffel :
they are claffed as fifth-rates, to increafe the pay ; the former
by way of diftinftion, the latter on account of the dangers
to which they are expofed. Frigates of twenty-eight,
twenty-four, and twenty guns, are in this clafs ; but thofe
with the thirty-two gun (hip, in the former clafs, are fo
inferior to the forty-four and thirty-fix gun frigate, as not
to deferve notice nor continuance hy a great maritime power.
Ships of twenty gune, and all veliels upon the eftablilhment
of (loops of war, have two lieutenants. See Rate.

The large (loop of war and brig are very ferviccable
veliels to cruize againft privateers, contraband trade, and for
fmall convoys. Some of the latter have lately been built in
this country, and are admirably adapted for good fea-boats,
as well as good failers ; their upper works being light, all
unnecefTary top-hamper avoided, having a fnug ftern, and
apparently every good quality that can be expefted in a
vedel of this defcription.

One of thefe vedels, the Raven, upon being fitted for
fea at Woolwich, under the diredlions of her very ingenious
and aftive commander, captain William Layman, had,
agreeably to his recommendation and widies, among other
alterations, the two foremoft ports clofed up, and the guns
taken away ; in lieu of which was fitted in middiips, im-
mediately before the f«re-maft, a fixty-cight pounder car-
ronade upon a fixed traverfe carriage, fo as to fire in alinoll
every diredlion clear of the giniwalc ; and, in lieu of tlie
two (tern-chafers, a carronade ot the fame power, upon an
mclined plane abaft. The wonderful accedion of force
derived from thefe alterations, and the great advantages to
be derived from them in chace, in clearing an enemy's
coaft, &c. are too obvious to need comment.

Ships in the royal navy are commanded by pod-captains
to 22 guns ; (loops by mafter and commander.

The following Table furnillies a correft lid of the dimen-
fions of (hips of different rates. See Rate, under which
article a kfs pcrfcA tabic is uiiericd.

SHIP.

[ 1
Three Decks, i Two Decks. 1 Frigates.

Sloop.

Eaft

Weft

Guris

'

India
Ships.

India
Ships.

ift
Rate.

r1 3d Rate. R+i 5th Rate.

6th Rate.

I lO

j 98 80 i 74 1 s° 40

38 j 36

22

18

i

Length from the"]

Ft. In. Kt. In. Ft. In. \ Ft. In. , Ft. In. j Ft. In.

Ft. In. j Fl. In. j Ft. Id.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

fore-fide of the

1 1

rabbet of the

i ' ! !

ilern-poil to the

t ' ;

aft-Cde of the

; 1

•

1

rabbet of the }.

205 0 '1S5 0 187 2 1180 0154 0 |i6o 3

'54 3 i'37 0 |ii8 0

110 2

165 6^124 9

fteni, on the gun

1

or lower deck,

or between the

perpendiculars in

i

merchant-fhips -

1

Length of the keel

for tonnage
Extreme breadth

171 io|ii52 6| 154 ioiji48 o|i27 3I

135 35

129 III

"3 2i

987^

90 8i

'34 0

ICO 0

53 7 51 0 50 loij 48 8| 41 II

40 8

39 H 38 0

31 6

29 9

42 0

32 0

Depth in hold
Burthen in tons,T

24 0 21 6 21 7 ' 19 9 17 6

13 6

13 5 '3 4

10 3

8 6

17 0

14 9

i

builder's ton- >■

2547w

2110^1 21254^

18644^'-

1189^

1189

1089^4

869^

52014

427A

1257

544

nage - -J

I

No. lbs.

No. lbs. No. lbs.

No. lbs.

Nn. lbs.

No. lbs.

No. lbs. No. lbs.

No. lbs.

No. lbs.

No. \bs.

§ r Gun-deck -
"^^ Middle-deck -

30 32

28 32: 30 32

28 32

26 28

32 28

30 24] —

—

—

—

—

—

—

26 18

t '^ ^ Upper-deck -

32 24

30 18; 32 28

30 24 28 18

30 24

28 18 28 i8| 24 12

18 12

10 18

3 o 1 Quarter-deck

12 12

12 9

14 9

12 9 I

10 12

10 9

10 9

o (_Forecaftle
Totals

4 12

2 9

4 9

4 9; —

4 12

4 9

2 9

IIO

102

80

74 54 44

42 40

24

18

36

I'ncht, as a veflel of ftate, is ufually employed to convey
princes, arabafTadors, or other great perfonages, from one
kingdom to another, or even kmgs, to take pleafure in ;
of which our prefent gracious majelty was very fond.
The Royal Sovereign yacht was launched for the particular
fervice of his majelly at Deptford, in the year 1 804 ; a
ftiip whofe exterior and interior are of incomparable beauty,
but whofe ornaments, fplendid as they are, will fcarcely be
confidered by the artift as more than adequate to the
beauties of her form ; and her qualities as an excellent failer
and good fea-boat, from experiment, ftand unrivalled.
We have, therefore, given a plate of this excellent veflel,
by a quarter of an inch fcale.

Yachts, as may be expefted from the purpofes for which
they are defigned, are the moll beautiful of all veflels which
navigate the ocean ; nor are their fuperb embellilhments and
ftately apartments their highell excellencies. They are
models, in which may be feen a combination of the beft
principles of the art.

The Jin-Jliip differs but little in its outer conftruc-
tion from a floop of war. She may be built light anil
very clean for fait failing ; but the inner part is very dif-
ferently fitted, in the manner defcribed under the article
YvB.v.-Sh'ip.

The bomb-vejfel is particularly conllrufted for throwing
ftiells from a mortar. They are built very ilrong, and firmly
ridered ; are ufually fitted with two bomb-beds, which are

6

platforms or ftrong frames of thick fluff and timber, laid
tranfvcrfely over large beams, and are rabbeted and folidly
bolted all together. The mortar-bed, or carriage which
carries the mortar, traverfes on a large iron pivot, in the
centre of the bomb-bed, in a circular excavation. The
fides of the bomb. bed, round the mortar, are fitted with
Urong cheeks of oak, of an oftagonal form ; in every fquare
of which are driven two ring-bolts, for traverfing the mor-
tar in any diretftion. The bomb-bed underneath, to fup-
port the fhock in throwing the fhell, has three ranges of
large pillars, fix in a range, tenoned at the head and heel
into large carlings fore and aft the bed, along the middle
and fides, which are fcored on the riders below, and into
the beams above the pillars, Handing double in the middle
of the bed athwart-fhips.

A ftrong compartment, called the ftiell-room, is built
round the outfide of the pillars. See SHELL-i?ooni. See
alfo BoMB-F'f^eh and Ketch.

Ship, Armed. See Arm.

Ship, Guard, is a veflel of war appointed to fuperintend
the marine affairs in a harbour or river, and to fee that the
fhips which are not commiffioned have their proper watch
kept duly, by fending her guard-boats around them every
night : fhe is alfo to receive feamen who are imprelfed in
time of war.

Ship, Hofpital, a veflel fitted up to attend on a fleet of
men of war, and receive their fick or wounded ; for which

purpofe

S II 1

ij II I

purpofe her decks flioulJ be high, and her ports fufficieiuly
large; her cables ought alfo to run upon the upper deck,
to the end that the beds or cradles may be more com-
ir.odioufly placed between decks, and admit a free pallage
of the air, to difpcrfe that which is offenllve or corrupted.
Falconer.

Ship, Lee-'ward. Sec L,EE-ivaril Ship.

Smi', Merchiwt, a velFel employed in commerce, to carry
commodities of various forts from one port to another.

Merchant (liipping, in general, being fcarcely definable
into didinif claiie?, we cannot fpeak with that degree of
precifion of them as of thole of the royal navy ; becaufe their
refpeftive forms and dimenfions are dependent, almolt entire-
ly, on the local practice or ideas of their refpeftive owners or
conltruclors, and fluftuate acci'jrdingly. Thofe belonging to
the Eaft India Company are by far the largelt, and are very
fine (hips, and of courle rank in tiie firll clafs of merchant
(hips. Weft India (hips are little inferior to the former,
but in fize ; and fome of the largeft have been employed
occafionallv either to the Eall or Weft Indies.

The Eaft India (liip {Plale XII.) has been aftually
built, and found upon trial to anfwer every purpofe expelled
from her.

Some (hips of a very line model, being lefs burthenfome
than Weft India fliips, are employed in the Straits' trade ;
and others ufed in the Eaft country trade, for carrying of
limber, exceed cither of the latter for iize, the largeft of
them being no lefs than 700 tons.

Ship of Pl^ar, Private. See Phivatekrs.

Ship, Store, a veilel employed to carry artillery or naval
Itores, for the ufe of a fleet, fortrefs, or garrifon.

Ship, Tranfporl. See Tkan'spout Ship.

Ship, Troop. See Tkoop Ship.

Wc (liall here obferve in general, that it is highly neccf-
fary to the health of feameii, that (liips rtiould be cleared of
foul air ; for it has been found by frequent experience, that
air (hut up, and confined in a clofe place, without a fuc-
cefiion and fre(h fupply of it, becomes unwholefome, and
unfit for the ufe of life. This is more fenllbly fo, if any
ftagnating water be pent up with it. But it grows ftill
worfe, if (uch an air as this is made ufe of in rcfpiration ;
that i.<, becomes moiftcr, and hotter, and phlogillicated,
by palling and repafTing through the lungs.

Tlicfe bad effefts, in dilferent degrees, according to the
diderent manner in which air is inclofed, arc obferved in
many cafes, particularly in deep wells and caverns of the
earth, in prifons or dole iioufes, where people are flint up
with heat and naftinefs ; but moft of all in large (liips, in
which, with the llencii of water in the hold, many men
being crowded up in thofe quarters, all the inentioni-d cii-
cumllaiiccs concur in producing greater mifchiefs than
would follow from any of them (ingly. For an account of
Mr. Sutton's contrivance for clearing the holds of fliips of
the bad air contained in them, wc refer to the article Aiii-
Pipes.

The n.ixture ufed fometimes for covering the bottom and
fides of (liips is made of one part of tallow, of one part of
brimllone, and 6f three parts nearly of rofin. The tallow
and rolin are melted together, and the brimftone is llirred
into them ; <;ne hundred and forty pounds of brimftone
will ferve for a veliel of one hundred and forty tons. See

r.w.

To prevent (hips, whofe bottoms arc worm-eaten, from
leaking, this method has been propofed. Caulk well the
iiifide planks or linings, then fill the vacant fpaces between
the timber , and the out and infide |)laiiks, with boiling pitch
<>r rolin, fo high as the main gim-deck. The pitch being

Vol.. XXX II.

put in very hot, will run into the fmalleft cranny, and make
the (hip as tight as a bottle. There will be no room left for
vermin, as rats, &c. ; and the pitch will ferve for other
ules when taken out, therefore the cxpence will be but
fmall. Phil. Tranf. N' 476. p. 372.

For the laws relating to fiiips, &c. fee ./la of EiigFifh
N.wiGATiON. Sec alfo Fkkight, Mahineus, and Navv.

Ship, lulk, burden, captain, clerk, company, corporal,
flag, grounding, mafler, mine, regifter, rigging, run, fheathing,
fquadron, flay, flervard, luarp, luafhing a'way, -weather, in
reference to a (hip, fee the relpeAive articles.

For further particulars refpccling (liips, the reader is re-
ferred to the article Ship-bi'ildixo.

Ship, To, in Sea Language, i* ufed either aftively, as to
embark any pcrfon, or put any thing aboard fliip ; or paf-
fivoly, to receive any thing into a fliip ; as we (hipped a
heavy fea, cSiC.

To JJjip alfo implies to fix any thing in its place, as tojhib
the oars ; to Jliip the fwivel guns, i e. to fix them in their
focket?, &c.

Ship of Pleafure, among the Ancients. See Tiiala-
11IKGU.S.

Ship, in the Salt Works, is a large ciftern, out of which
the falt-pans are fupplied for boiling.

This ciftern is built clofe to the faltern, and is made
either of wood, brick, or clay ; and it ought always to be
covered with a (lied, that the fea-water, contained in it,
may be kept clean from foot, and other impurities, and not
mixed with frefh water in rains ; and it muft be always
placed lo high, that the water may eafily run out of it into
the pans, to fupply them for boiling.

Ship Guns. See Cannon.

Ship Cove, in Geography, a cove of Queen Charlotte's
found, in the foutliern iiland of New Zealand. This har-
bour, according to captain Cook, is not inferior to any
found, cither for convenience or fafety. It lies on the weft
fide of the idand, and is the fouthernmoft of three cotes,
that arc fituatod within the iiland of Motuara, which bears
call of it. Ship Cove may be entered either between Mo-
tuara and a long ifiand called by the natives Hamotc, or
between Motuara and the weftern (hore. In the lad of
thefe two channels are ledges of rocks, three fathoms under
water, which may be eafily known by the fea-weed that
grows upon them. S. lat. 41"^ 10'. E. long. 175^6'.

Ship Ifiand, a fmall ifiand in the gulf ot Mexico, near
the coaft of Weft Florida, nine miles long and two broad.
It produces pine-trees and grals, and has a tolerable well of
water. N. lat. ^O' 5'. W. long. SS' 48' — Alfo, a fmall
ifiand of Upper Canada, in lake Erie.

Ship Point, a cape on the coaft of North Carolina. N.
lat. 55 ' J9'. W. long. 76^ 30'.

SHIP-BUILDING, i^t Naval ArchiteBurt, is the art
of conftrufting and raifiiig, or building that nnble fabric
called a fiiip.

This fciencc, or whatever relates to navigation, is, with-
out doubt, one of the molt important and moft ufeful emiiloy-
meiits of the human mind ; efpecially in a country whofe
marine is its bulwark, and its commerce the admiration, and,
we may add, the envy of the world.

Neverthelef^■, the fcientific part of (hip-building has been
too much ncglefled ; and although fome few years have
elapfed lince mathematicians (particnhirly in France) hare
laboured with fome fuccefs, yet their difcovcries arc fo much
enveloped in profound calculations, that ftiip-builders, in ge-
neral, have fcirccly been able to derive any advantage from
them.

It muft be allowed, that an exad knowledge of tlic
^ T true

SHIP.BUILDING.

true principles upon which the conftruftion of (hips, fo as
to anfwer the particular purpofes of war or commerce, is
founded, muft conduce to remedy all the prefent defefts, to
render the theory more perfeft, and enable the Englilh
artifts to become as eminently Ikilful in the fcientific, as
they now confelfedly are in the praftical branches of fhip-
building.

In order to fmooth the way in a fcience thought fo incom-
prehenfible, our readers muil be made familiar with the
feveral draughts and plans requifite to conftruft and raife fo
noble a body of architefture ; for the proportional fize of
every part muft be laid down, from whence the form and
dimenfions of the feveral timbers, and every particular part
that enters into the conltruttion, are to be obtained. There-
fore, as a fhip has length, breadth, and depth, three dif-
ferent plans at lealt are neceffary to reprefent the form of
the feveral parts of her ; as in the (heer-draught, Plate I.
of Ship-building, which comprehends the (heer-plan, the body-
flan, mA ihehalf-breaJlh plan.

The Jhecr-plan, or, as it is called in civil architefture, the
plan of elevation, is a vertical feftion, palling through the
veflel in its whole length, or fore and aft. Upon this plan
the length and depth of the keel are reprefented, alfo the
height and rake of the ftem and ftern-poft ; the fituatiou
and height of the midfhip and other frames ; the water-
lines ; heights of the decks, gun-ports, and wales; the centres
of the mails ; the fituation of the channels ; length and
depth of the head and rails, quarter-galleries, rudder,
&c. &c.

The body-plan, or plan of projeSion, to the left of the
fheer-plan, is a tranfverfe feftion of the fliip at the midfhip.
frame, or broadeft place perpendicular to the keel. The
feveral breadths, and the particular form of every frame-
timber, are defcribed on this plan. Now as the two fides
of the fhip are, or fliould be, exaftly fimilar to each other,
it is therefore unneceilary to reprefent both : hence the
frames contained in the fore-body, between the midlliip-frame
add the ftem, are defcribed on the right-hsnd fide of the
middle line, and the aftermoft frames on the left of the faid
middle line.

The half-breadth or floor-plan, under the (heer-plan, and
parallel thereto, or as it is frequently called, the horf^ontal
plan, contains the feveral half-breadths at every frame-
timber, at the different heights of the water-lines, main-
breadth, top-fide, ribband-lines, &c.

The confideration of thefe three principal plans is fo
much the more important, as it comprehends a fufficient
knowledge of the figures of all vefTels. For although thefe
three plans do not really determine the figure of the veffel,
and may belong to an infinity of different kinds, yet all
thefe differences cannot exceed certain limits fufficiently con-
fined ; fo that whatever idea we might form of the figure of
the veffel, it cannot deviate confiderably from the truth.

In order to explain this better, we will proceed to con-
ftruft the (heer-draught, Plate I.; and here the nature, and
all the properties of the veffel, according to her defign for
war or commerce, muft be taken into confideration, upon
which the whole theory of the art depends : fuch are, capa-
city, ftability, velocity, and eafe in the fea or at anchor.
Thefe properties are not to be adopted merely from fpecu-
lative theory, but from thofe that have aftuallybeen demon-
ttrated by repeated experiments. That our readers may
have the cleareft conception of the various parts of a
fhip, reprefented by the plates of the 74-guii fhip, we
will endeavour to defcribe them in as familiar a manner as
pofGble, introducing alfo all that is neceffary to be known as
we proceed. The 74-gun fhip is preferred as the medium

between the firfl-rate and the frigate, and is efleemed the
moft ufeful of all others.

Therefore, the firft thing to be determined is the length
on the gun-deck ; and here fufficient dittance muft be
allowed for the ports, which are fifteen in number, three
feet five inches wide, or fore and aft, each, fo as to hare
a fufficient diftance between each port for working the
guns, which is about feven feet eight inches ; likewife
room forward, between the foremoft-port and the ftem, for
the manger ; and alfo abaft the after-port, to the tranfoms ;
thefe confidered make the length on the gun-deck 180
feet.

Draw therefore, as in (heer-plan, Plate I., a ftraight line,
which reprefents the upper edge of the keel, and in naval
(hips the upper edge of the rabbet (Eait India (hips and
mcrchant-fhips in general have the rabbet in the middle of
the keel), leaving under this line fufficient fpace for the
main and falfe keels, fcale, and half-breadth plan. Upon-
this line fquare up a perpendicular towards the right hand,
leaving a fufficient fpace to reprefent the head, and call it
the foremoft-perpendicular ; then, at 22^ inches abaft it,
fquare up the after-perpendicular, which is 180 feet, by
one-eighth of an inch to a foot, or the length on the
gun-deck, from the aft-fide of the rabbet of the ftem to the
fore-fide of the rabbet at the ftern-poft. Below the upper
edge of the keel, and parallel thereto, fet down two feet
for the main and falfe keel, and under it draw the fcale of
equal parts, of one-eighth of an inch to a foot, and from
this fcale fet off all the following dimenfions. Obferve,
draughts in general are drawn from a fcale of one quarter
of an inch to a foot, but this, for convenience, to ene-
eighth.

The length between the foremoft and aftermoft perpendi-
culars, in merchant-fhips, is given from the aft-fide of the
ftern-poft, at the height of the wing-tranfom, to the fore-fide
of the item, at the lame height.

The ftem, or fore-boundary of the fhip, may now be drawn, '
and a fegmcnt of a circle for its lower part has long bees
confidered as the beft form for dividing the fluid ; therefore,
fix its centre fo that the aft-fide of the rabbet (which is in
the middle of the ftem, towards the upper part) may inter-
feft the foremoft-perpendicular at the height of the gun-
deck ; thus, fet aft from the foremoft-perpendicular, as in
Plate I. upon an horizontal line, 24 feet above the upper
edge of the keel, 24 ft. 3 in. ; and from thence, as the centre,
draw an arc of a circle from the upper edge of the keel-
line, and another arc 18 inches before it, from the fame
centre ; then will the moulding, or fore and after-fides
of the ftem, be reprefented : fweep likewife the rabbet,
as in Plate I.; then fet up 36 feet for the height of the
head of the ftem, and at that height fet forward 15 inches
from the foremoft-perpendicular ; from thence draw a faint
curve, to interfeft with the foremoft fegment, and the
fore-part of the ftem will be fhewn : continue upwards an-
other parallel thereto, and the aft-fide or whole ftem is com-
pleted, except the lower end or boxing, which will be de-
termined hereafter.

The itern-poil, or after-boundary under water, may be
next drawn ; thus, fet up from the upper edge of the keel-
line 26 ft. 10 in., which is the upper fide of the wing-tran-
fom at the after-perpendicular, and upon that line fet aft
from the perpendicular I ft. 10 in., and upon the upper edge
of the keel, fix inches before the after-perpendicular; then
a line drawn through thefe points will reprefent tlie aft-fide
of the ftern-poft ; another fine, drawn at fourteen inches be-
fore the aft fide of the ftern-poft, at the wing-tranfom, and
at two feet one inch on the upper edge of the keel, will be
II the

SHIP-BUILDING.

the aft-fide of the rabbet ; and another line parallel four inches
before it (or at the thicknefs of the bottom plank) is the
fore-fide of the rabbet, which will iiiterfeft the after-perpen-
dicular at the gun-deck. Thus far the llern-polt at prelent.

Having fixed on the length of the gun-deck, the next
principal dimenfion to be confidered is the main-breadth, and
this, in fhips of war in general, is about three-elevenths of
the laid length for their moulded breadth, and in merchant-
ftiips about three-twelfths of their length ; excepting cutters
and fmaller venels. The moulded breadth given in Plate 1.
of the 74-gun fhip, is 48 feet.

Before we proceed, it will be necefl'ary here to remark,
that much has been faid in regard to the breadth to be given
to a vell'el in refpeft t.i her length, and in what part of that
length it is bell to place it ; as being the feftion of the greateft
area of the whole vefiel, its true Ctuation becomes an objeft
of importance.

Thofe who would diminifh the breadth have alleged,
and truly, that a narrow veffel meets with lefs refiltance in
palling through the water, and by increafing in length, the
▼effel will drive lels to leeward, and the water-lines confe-
quently be more delicately formed to divide the fluid ; that a
long narrovv (hip will require lefs fall to gain velocity, confe-
quently the malls' will be lower, the rigging lighter, and the
veffel navigated by fewer hands. On the contrary, a Ihip's
being broader at the line of floatation will admit of being nar-
rower on the floor, particularly at the fore and after parts ; that
by being broader it can carry more (ail, and more readily rife
upon the waves than a narrow one. The breadth, and its
fituation, when determined on, require much flcill in nar-
rowing therefrom, as we approach the keel, particularly
forward and aft, to give that form to the body under water
that fliall belt anfwer in dividing the fluid, enable her to
carry the lower tier of guns fufliciently out of the water,
prevent her pitching, and give a free padage to the rudder,
that ftiemay readily anfwer her helm.

Now to prevent the veffel pitching, the fore-body mull
be fo (haped, that its bearings fhould catch the vefiel in its
defcent, that is, the harpin fhould increafe in breadth up-
wards, and the bow be fo formed, as rather to throw off the
fea than pitch or bury in it: a long floor, with little rifing
afore and abaft, the difplacement of the fore-body to be duly
proportioned to the after-body, and hollow water-lines, or
infleftcd curves at the fore part, are to be carefully avoided.
Taking into confideration the weight of the anchors on the
bows, we may eafily conceive, that with the preflurc of the
wind upon the fails, without fufiicient bearing in the fore-
body, the bow would be prefTed down into the hollow of
every fea ; and if the greatefl area or midfhip-bend were
placed too far aft, the uipport would only be in the after-
body, and this would tend to plunge her bows iliU deeper,
and retard her velocity, and the free paffage of the water to
the rudder.

In order that the (hip fhould fteer well, and quickly an-
fwer her helm, the wing-tranfom mull not be placed too h)W,
nor the fafhlon-pieces too full below the load- water line; and
the narrowing of the floor, or half-breadth of the rifing, not
continued too full towards aft, but that the water-hnes, as
they approach the (Icrn-polt, may taper handfomely into
the fame, fo that every fucceeding water-line, as they ap-
proach nearer the keel, may have their curvature more deli-
cate, as may be feen by referring to the half breadth plan in
Plate I. It is alfo evident, that the prompt effeft of the
rudder mull depend in a great meafure on the clcannefs of the
fhip's run, fo that the fluid fhall have an unimpeded paflage
to it, whereby its iaclinatioo fhall have the greatcli effort
from the water.

That a fliip may carry her guns well above the water, a
long floor timber will be neceflary, and not much rifing ; the
midfhip-frame fhould be very full, upper futtocks nearly
ftraight, upper works very light, and kept as low as pof-
fible, and the wing-tranfom not placed too high.

To make a fhip tarry her guns well above water, carry
much fail, be a fail failer, and likewife fleer well, are four
fuch rare qualities, as are hardly to be united in the fame
vefiel, becaufe it would require a very full bottom and great
breadth to gain the two former qualities, and Icfa breadth
and z (harp or clean bottom to gain the latter ; but if we
confider that a full fhip will carry more fail <han a (harp
one, we may perceive the pofTibility of fo conllrufting the
body, as to poffefs thele qualities, and they may be fo
united, that each of them may be difcerntd in fome degree
of eminence, for it is not poflible that all of them can be
united in one budy to a degree of perfeftion ; we mud,
therefore, while we retain a portion of each, give the fupe-
riority to that which is moll confident with the purpofes for
which the veffel is peculiarly defigned.

Hence it is plain, that judicioufly placing the midfhip-
bend is of the utmoll conitqucnce in the conllrudlion of
fhips' bodies ; and its being placed nearer forward, will,
coiiftquently, make the fore body more full, and will bed
anfwer every purpofe, efpecially that of velocity ; and
although it is plain, that by fo doing the entrance of the
fhip will he more full, and prefent apparently more abfolute
force againll the refilling medium, than when the midfhip-
bend is placed nearer to the middle of the fhip's length, yet
by placing it more forward, the body will decline liori-
loiitally fo much the quicker, and part of the effeft of that
refinance, caufed by the lateral prelTurc of the water, will
be leflened, which mud certainly be of more Icr/ice to the
velocity, than what is loll by making the fore-part of the
fhip fomewhat fuller, and this feems to promife the conneflion
of capacity with velocity, the two great objeAs to be pur-
fued in the formation of fhips' bodies under water. In ad-
dition to this, by carrying the midfhip-bend forward, a fhip
will deer better, and the rudder have the more command to
bear up the fhip in a gale of wind ; for when a fhip ii under
a prefs of fail, the water is forced up at the bow above the
horizontal, and the bow likewife prefli-d down, which
amounts to nearly the fame, with refpeft to her helm, as if
the fliip was trimmed by the head : again, fhips that carry
their helm ainidfhips in light winds, require it more a-wca-
ther when the wind blows.

After all that has been written concerning the placing
of the midfllip-bend, all i.gree to place it before the middle
of the length, or about five-twelfths of the length abaft the
foremod-perpendicular ; but in Plate I. which (hip has flood
the ted of experiment, it was placed at 69 feet abaft the
foremod-perpendicular, confequently this is the broadell part
of the fhip, called the middiips, or dead-flat, known by this
charadler ,;, and where all the heights in midfliips are fet
up. From © the llations of all the timbers may be fet off;
but it will only be neceflary to fquare up a perpendicular at
the joint of every frame-timber, their didance being double
that of the room and (pace, which in Plait I. is two feet
nine inches.

The dead-flat in Plate 1. is a fingle timber, and the per-
pendicular, marked -j^, the middle of it : therefore, for the
joints of the annexed frames fet off before 0, two feet nine
inches for the joint of (A), and two feet nine inches abaft p
for the joint of (i), fquare up perpeiidicnlais from the upper
edge of the keel; then from (A) continue letting ofl five
feet fix inches for the joints of frame B, C, 1), to X, in the
fore-body, and the fame didance abaft (I) for the joint* of
3 T 2 frame

SHIP-BUILDING.

frame (3), 2, 4, 6, to 36 in the after-body, as fhewn in
P/atel. Now ®, (A), (r), (2), and (3), are called
flats, as they are the timbers which are placed in the flat
part of the rtiip amidfhips, have no bevellings, and confe-
quently do not partake of the rifmg.

The lower height of breadth is an imaginary line, not
only to aflill in the conftruftion of the body, but a line
confining the greateft breadths in the fliip, all fore and aft,
and (hould next be determined upon. Its height at 0 is
2 1 feet 3 inches above the upper edge of the keel ; and that
the faid height of breadth fhould be higher afore and abaft
is only reafonable as a referve, to be a fupport to the veiTel
when heeling by the preffure of the wind upon the fails ;
for when a fhip is clofe-hauled by the wind, and lies much
over, the weather-fide would lofe much of the breadth,
whereas, on the contrary, the lee-fide would then gain con-
fiderably, and meeting with a greater refillance, be enabled
to carry the greater fail ; therefore forward at the rabbet of
the ftem its height is 29 feet, and abaft at the counter-
timber 29 feet 6 inches ; and all the heights between fliould
form a fair curve, like the ticked line in the fheer-draught,
F/att I.

It may here be remarked, that flat-floored fhips do not
require their height of breadth to be raifed fo high forward
and aft, for by their conftruftion they are ttiffcr under fail,
and carry their weight of cargo low down.

The body below the lower height of breadth may now be
formed, as tlie frames or bends, when put together, and the
joint placed to the fore-mentioned perpendiculars, the fides
of every port will be formed fo as to cut none of the prin-
cipal timbers, and are fo difpofed as to weaken the fliip as
little as poffible. Now as capacity, velocity, &c. depend
upon the figure of the immerl^ed part of the body, and be-
caufe the properties which every fhip ought to pollcfs are,
in a manner, fubverfive of, or in oppofition to, each other,
as before obferved, the great art certainly is fo to form the
body, that none of the deflred qualities (hall be omitted,
giving, at the fame time, preference to that which is moll
required. In fhips of war, capacity, ftability, velocity, and
ftrength, are eflfentially neceli'ary ; the firft and fecond wc
fliall endeavour to prove by calculations hereafter ; the third
may be affirmed, as the veflcl was aftually built, and anfvvered
that purpofe ; and the lad is now fo well ellabhihed in the
Britifh navy as to need little addition.

The half-breadth plan muft be next drawn : thus, draw
a ftraight line below the (heer-plan, as in P/ate I., the whole
length of the fliip, and parallel to the upper edge of the
keel, which line will reprefent the middle line of the (hip,
at any height pafiing fore and aft, or lengthwife ; ob-
ferving to keep the faid middle line fufficiently below the
fcale, fo as to admit of the main half-breadth line coming
clear of it.

Then fquare down from the flieer-plan all the perpendi-
culars or joints of the frame-timbers, to the middle line of
the half-breadth plan, and likewife the foremott and after-
perpendicular. The main half-breadth line may now be drawn,
by fetting-off from the middle line in the plan the follow-
ing half-breadths at each refpeftive timber ; thus, at 0,
24 feet ; at F, 23 feet i li inches ; at H, 23 feet 1 1 inches ;
at K, 23 feet 10 inches ; at M, 23 feet 5^ inches; at O,
23 feet ; at Q, 22 feet 2 inches ; at S, 20 feet 4 inches ; at U,
17 feet 6 inches ; at X, 12 feet 6 inches ; and to end this
line at the fore part, let the height of the breadth-line in the
fheer-plan, where it interfefts the aft-fide of the rabbet at the
ftem, be fquared down to the middle line in the half-breadth
plan, and likewife the fore part of the lleni : upon the lines
laft fquared down, fet off the half-fiding of the ftem from

the middle line and parallel thereto, which is ten inches ;
then, with compafles, take the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
which is four inches, and defcribe the rabbet of the Item by
the triangle fliewn in the half-breadth plan ; from thence a
fair curve line drawn through the half-breadths fet oil, forms
the half-breadth line to ®. In the fame manner fet off^ the
half-breadths abaft ({-, and draw in the remainder of the
half-breadth line, as the endii:g of it abaft will be dcfcribcd
hereafter.

Obferve, the various curves rcprefented on the fevera!
plans ufed in ftiip-building, except where they are fegments
of circles, fuch as the fore part of the main half-breadth, &c.
are drawn by fmall pliable battens confined thereto by
weights, or by thin m.oulds made of pear tree veneers, whofe
edges are made to geometrical curves of all kinds.

Now the main half-breadth line being drawn, we have a
half feftion of the (hip lengthwife at the broadeft place,
that is at the height, and in the direction of the lower height
of breadth line in the fheer-plan, P/nle I.

The immerfed part, or body of the fliip under water, muft
be next formed, and the capacity of the veiiel afcertaincd,
before the upper works, or that above the water, need come
under confideration; it is therefore necellary to defcribe in
what manner the feveral forms of (hips' bodies are to be con-
ilrufted. In the royal navy, the raidfiiip parts of the body
of fliips are formed by fegments of circles called fweeps ;
fuch are the lower and upper breadth-fweeps, floor-fweep,
ajid reconciling-fweep, their feveral centres being given bv
lines, except the reconciling-fweep, whole centre is without
the limits of the draught. The lower-breadth and floor-
fweeps are joined by the reconciling-fweep, and make a fair
curve from the lower height of breadth to the rifing-line,
by which the floor-fweep is governed ; then, by drawing a
ftraight or curving line from the upper edge of the rabbet
of the keel to touch the back of the floor-(wecp, the form
of the midfhip part of the body b«low the lowir height of
breadth will be complete.

Obferve, the floor-fweep forms the body at the floor-
heads, particularly along the midfliip part of the body, and
is limited by an horizontal line above tlie keel in the body-
plan, and its dillance above the keel at the niidfhip-timber
is called the dead-rifing. The rifiiig of the floor in the flie.^r-
plan is a curve line interfering the dead-rifing at the mid-
fhips ; and in flat-floored, or burthenfome (hips, it continues
nearly parallel witli the keel for fonie diftance afore and
abaft tlic midfliip-timber ; and all the timbers, where the
rifing is parallel with the keel, are called flats, as before
obferved. Tlte rifing-line, which governs the floor-fweeps, is
not the Icaft interefting of the feries, becaufe it exhibits, on
many points, general dednflions, and tends to eftablilh theo-
ries which may ferve to diredl future obfervations ; and the
method of conftrufting the midlhip-floors of fhips, where ve-
locity is preferred, by lengthening the radii of the floor-
fweep forv.ard and aft, is preferable to the rifing-line, as
ufed in conftrufting merchant- (hips for burden, where the
radii of the floor-fweep= all fore and aft are of the fame
length as at the midfhip-timber ; becaufe by the former me-
thod, every floor-timber from the dead-flat is graduated by a
larger circle. By the Litter method, not only the conftruc-
tion, but the laying-off the fhip is facilitated, becaufe in any"
fliip conftrufted by the fame length of radii, we may venture,
fo far as the rifing-line is continued, not only to form all the
lower part of the fliip on the draught, but alfo on the m-ould-
loft-floor, without running any ribband or horizontal lines
till that part is finiflied. Again, this method aflfords a
greater affiftance, as by it the floors may be conftrufted all
fore and aft ; but the floors near the midfhips only can be

conftrufted.

II

SHIP-BUILDING.

..flrufted, Vi'lien the radii of the floor-fwccps alter much

their length.

Neither the rifing-line in the (hccr-plan, nor the half-
breadth of the rifing, would continue to be the curves as firll
conftrufted, if the form of the body firll defigned were to be
altered in that part. It is evident, then, that the rifing-line
may be drawn according to the judgment of the artill in the
conftruftion of any draught, obferviug to make it a fair
elliptical curve, (tor much depends on the conllruftion of
the lower part of the body,) by judicioufly narrowing the
floor-fweep, or half-breadth of the rifing ; for the more pa-
rallel it is kept with the middle line, the lefs will be the ve- '
locity of the (hip. Again, the quicker this curve is, the lefs
bearing will the fliip have ; and though it may be fuppofed,
when the rifing-line is formed in the (hecr-plan, and likewifc
its half-breadth, it is reafonable to expecl a fair body, yet we
cannot be certain of its producing that form of body which
is really intended agreeable to the ufe which the (hip is de-
figned for, unlefs by frequently defigning of bodies we can
form an exadl idea before we proceed. Therefore the young
artilt Ihould improve himfelf by drawing bodies conftrufted
by the rifing-line of (hips of different properties, till he forms
in his own judgment a perfeft idea of this mode of conftruc-
tion. For inftance, if it be required to make the fliip cleaner,
lift the rifing-line in the (heer-plan, and narrow its half-
breadth ; and where it may be required to make the fhip fuller,
lower tlie rifing-line in the (heer-plan, and increafe its half-
breadth ; which fufficiently proves that the rifing-line is as
■variable as the different forms of (hips' bodie:^ may require.
See for fulnefs the plate of the Eall India (hip, the plate of
the 74-gun fhip, which is ftiarper, and alfo the frigate of
40 guns, wliich is (harper (till ; and we (hall then find it a very
complete method ot conltruCting the lower parts of (ucli
fhips fair, particularly thofe that require fome provifion or
fulnefs of body to atiill them in taking the ground. The
further forward and aft the body is allilted by the lifing-
line, the more merit there will be in tlie conllruftion, and
the greater certainty of producing a fair body : notwith-
ftanding all this, fome bodies are conftrufted without any
floor-fweeps, which muft be the cafe in very fliarp bodies,
fuch as cuttere, &c.

It may be further obferved, that the rifing-line cannot,
from its nature, be formed by any regular proportional
method, from which there can be no variation without
impropriety; nor can it be conftrufted to any fixed
proportion, unlefs fhips of different clades were built ex-
aftly timilarto each other, becaufe the riiing-line in fhips of
war, and thofe wliicli are conftrufted for velocity, though
fuitable to the conllruftion of the lower part of cich fhip,
and likely to anfwer the purpofc for whicli they are de-
figned, cannot be equally proper for ftiips ot the fame length
and breadth, if required chiefly for burden ; as in ihelaft cafe
not only the form of the mid(hip-bend, but every part of
the bottom muft be differently formed, which will be clearly
feen by examining the plates of the 74 and 40-gun (liips,
and the plate of the Eaft India fhip, which was found to an-
fwer admirably well.

Whole-moulding was formerly a method nf conftruftiiig
the immerfed part of (hips' bodies, by the mould beuig made
to the form of the midfhip-bend, which, with the addition
of the floor-holiow, would mould all the timbers below the
main-breadth in the fipiare body. But fince the art of fliip-
building has arrived to its prefent perfeftion, the method of
whole-moulding, for the following reaions, has been jullly
laid afide. For by whole-moulding, 110 more is narrowed at
the floor than at the main-breadlh, that is to fay, the curves
of each are kept parallel; nor mull tiic rifing-line in the

ftieer-plan lift any more than the lower height of breadth ;
which, according to the form of fome midfliip-bcnds, would
make a very ill-con(lrufted body; for by continuing that
nearly forward and aft, the (hip would not only be incapable
of rifing in a heavy fea, but be deprived in a great meafure
of the more advantageous ufe of her rudder. Neverthelefs
this method is ftill continued in the formation of boats.

Proceed now to draw the plan of projtftion, or body-
plan, thus : continue the line at the upper edge of the keel
beyond the after-end of the (heer-plan, as in Plate I., and
fquarc up a perpendicular for tlie fide-line of the fore-body,
obferving to keep it clear of the ftern ; from that perpendi-
cular fet off 48 feet, the (hip's main breadth at dead-flat,
and fquare up another perpendicular for the fide-line of the
after-body, and equally between both fquare up another
perpendicular, which is the middle line to both bodies re-
fpectively ; then the line prolonged from the upper edge of
the keel is the bale line of the body-plan. Draw in the
horizontal lines, as may be feen in the body-plan, Plate I.
at the lower heights of breadth, by transferring their heights
from the flieer-plan at the fevcral frame-timbers : thofe before
the dead-flat, fet up in the body-plan to the right of the
middle line, which arc to reprefent tlie fore-body, and thofe
lieiglits abaft dead-flat, to the left hand for tlie after-body.
Then from the half-breadth plan take the main half-breadth of
each frame, and fet it off from the middle line in tlie body-
plan, upon its correfponding height of breadth-hne ; and
from thence fet ofi' towards the middle line the length of
their rcfpeftive lower-breadth fweeps : thus, to defcribe the
midfhip-timber, or dead-flat, extend the compafl'es to 18 feet
6 inches, the radii of lower-breadth fweeps at dead-flat, and
draw part of a circle downwards, interfefting its main
breadth at its horizontal height.

Then the centre heights of the floor-fweeps in the body-
plan muft be taken from the curve-line reprefenting their
heights in the fheer-plan, which at dead-flat will be found to
interfeft the upper edge of the keel ; but in the body-
plan, its height at dead-flat is 1 1 feet 6 inches, and there an
horizontal line is drawn to the diftance of the centre, or its
half-breadth from the middle line, and all the heights of
centres are refpeftively fet upwards above this line, on per-
pendiculars fquared upwards at the half-breadth of the centre
of each floor-ivveep of its correfponding frame or timber, as
taken from the half-breadth plan ; and the reafon for not
keeping the faid curve-line or heii;hts in the fheer-plan as in
the body-plan, i^ becaufe it would interfere with the curve-
lines above. Now by infpefting Plate I. it will be readily
feen, that by raifing tlie heights of thofe centres in the fheer.
plan, confequently in the body-plan, and by narrowing their
halt-breadths in tiie half-breadlli plan, liicir centres would be
brought nearer the middle line in the body-plan, the floor-
rifing would become quicker, and the fliip have lefs bearing,
and vice ver/,1, more full and burthenfome : thus mull the
rifing and narrowing of the centres be adjulledlill the body
of the vedel iias the capacity required for whatever fcrvice
(he may be defigned.

Uut as in this mode of conllruftion the centres only, and
not tlie length of the floor-fweeps, are given, a diagonal rib-
band muft be drawn in the half-breadth j)lan, as 111 /'/ate I., by
letting oft' from the middle line at ®, 16 fei.1 ; at D, 15 feel
(J inches ; at D, 15 feet 5 inches ; at F, 1 5 feet l inch ; at H,
14 feet 7 inclies; at K, 14 feet ; at M, 13 feet -.J an inch ; at
O, I 1 feet 1 1 inches ; at Q, 10 feet 4 inches ; at S, 8 feet
6 inches ; at U, 6 feet i inch ; and at X, 2 feet j inches.
Then in the after-body let oft at 2, 15 feet 11^ inches; at
4, I J feet I oi inches ; at 6, 1 5 feet 9 inches ; at 8, 15 feci (\
inches; at 10, 15 feet 4 inches ; at 12, 15 feci 1 inch; at l^,

14 feet

SHIP-BUILDING.

14 feet 1 1 inches ; at 16, 14 feet 5 inches ; at 18, 14 feet ; at
20, 13 feet 3I inches ; at 22, 1 2 feet 5 inches ; at 24, 1 1 feet
7 inclies ; at 26, 10 feet 5 inche'? ; at 28, 9 feet I inch ; at 30,
6 feet 7 inches ; at 32, 5 feet 10 inches ; at 34, 4 feet ; and
at 36, 2 feet.

Now to end this diagonal, it mult be drawn in the body-plan
thus ; fet up the middle line from the bafe 12 feet 2 inches,
and on the Safe, from each fide of the middle line, 1 1 feet
9 inches, then draw the diagonal ticked line, as (hewn in
Piatt I. In draughts, diagonal Imes are diltinguilhed by
red ink. Then in the body-plan draw the half-fiding of the
ftem in the fore-body, and the half-fiding of the ftern-poft in
the after-body : for the latter fet up 26 feet above the bafe,
and at that height fet off from the middle line 10 inches in
the half-fiding of the pott at the head, and 9 inches in the fore-
body, the half-fiding of the ftem at that height ; and on
the bafe line 75 inches from each fide the middle line, the
half-fiding of poft and Item at the heel ; then draw ftraight
lines to each fpot fet off, and the half-fiding of the Itern-poil
and ftem will be reprefented in the body-plan. Now to
complete or end the diagonal line on the half-breadth plan,
its height or interfeAion at the poil and ftem muft be taken
in the body-plan, and transferred relpettively to the fore-
fide of the rabbet of the ftem, and aft -fide of the rabbet of
the poft in the ftieer-plan, and from thence let them be
fquared down to the middle line of the half-breadth plan ;
then take with compaffes the half thicknefs of the poll and
ftem in the body-plan, in the direftion of the faid diagonal
line, and fet them off refpettivcly from the middle line in
the half-breadth plan, on the lines latt fquared down ; and
from the inlerfedlion as a centre, fweep an arc towards the
midftiips, with compaffes opened to the thicknefs of the
rabbet taken diagonally ; then a fair curve drawn through
all the fpotii as above fet off, touching the back of the arcs,
will form the diagonal line at the floor-heads, as fhewn in the
half-breadth plan, Plate I.

Now may the timbers, as far as the floor-fweeps are ufe-
ful, be completed in the body-plan below the lower height
of breadth, beginning at dead-flat : thus, take the half-
breadth of the floor diagonal at 0 in the half-breadth plan,
and fet it down the diagonal from the middle line in the
body-plan ; then take the half-breadth of the floor-fweeps
in like manner, and fet it off' from the middle line in the
body-plan on the horizontal fine before drawn at its height,
and from the interfeftion extend the compaffes to the half-
breadth of the floor diagonal, and fweep an arc upwards
from the dead-rifing, which is fix inches at ® ; then with the
reconciling-fweep, which is of a long radius compared with
the others, unite the lower-breadth fweep and floor-fweep
together ; for the more the midftiip-frames deviate from the
fegmentof a circle, the lefs will be the rolhng motion of the
fhip ; unite the floor-fweep with the upper edge of the rabbet
of the keel with a curve or ftraight fine, and the midfhip-
timber will be formed below the lower breadth. In the fame
manner may be formed the frame-timbers B, D, F, H, and
K, in the fore-body, and 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, to 24 in the after-
body, by fetting off the half-breadth of each frame's diagonal
as at 0, their correfponding heights of breadths, main half-
breadths, and centres of each fweep, as before direfted, and
by reconciling the lower-breadth fweeps and floor-fweeps
together, and ending them into the rabbet at the keel ; thus
the midfhip part of the body will be formed from K for-
ward to 24 abaft.

Hence it may be readily conceived, that bodies full or
ftarp, either for burthen or velocity, may be conftrufted by
altering the radii of the different fweeps ; and unlefs bodies
of fljips could be conftruded from feme geometrical

figure, a more certain method than the above cannot be
given.

The body being thus far formed, that is from K forward
to 24 abaft, proceed to prove it by horizontal lines, and
finifh the remaining part forward and aft. Thefe lines
are generally called water-lines, as the fhip's bottom at the
furface of the water, fuppofing the keel kept parallel there-
to, would be of the fame figure as thofe lines reprefented in
the half-breadth plan, with the addition of the thicknefs of
the bottom plank in that direftion. The upper one is called
the load-water-line, or line of floatation, when the veflel is
fuppofed fit for fea, which will be treated of more particularly
hereafter ; the other water-lines may be equally divided be-
tween the upper or load-water-line, andupperedgeof the keel
or rabbet. Although a fhip may draw more water abaft than
forward for her beft failing trim, yet to keep the feveral
water-lines horizontal, or parallel with the upper edge of the
keel, is the moft ufeful m conftruftion; and the water-lines,
as reprefented in the half-breadth plan, form curves, limiting
the various half-breadths of the fhip at the heights of their
correfponding lines in the body-plan. They are generally
drawn with green ink, but in Plate I. with correfponding
dotted lines, and are reprefented by ftraight lines in the
fheer-plan ; and if parallel with the keel they will be hori-
zontal lines in the body-plan, but if the veUel is to be con-
ftruCted to draw much more water aft than forward, the
water-lines will not of courfe be parallel with the upper
edge of the keel; then, owing to their various heights at each
timber in the fheer-plan, they will form curves at thofe
heights in the body-plan, and the more they vary from an
horizontal fine, the lefs accurate will the hmits of their half- u
breadths be delcribed in the half-breadth plan.

In Plate I. the upper horizontal water-line is 20 feet
above the lower edge of the keel; and between that and the
upper edge of the rabbet of the keel, are equally divided
four more wafer-lines, as in the fheer-plan. The water-lines
may now be drawn in the half-breadth plan from the body-
plan, as far as the timbers are there formed ; thus, continue
the water-lines aft from the Ihcer-plan acrofs the body-
plan, then take off with compaffes, or a flip of paper and
pencil, their various half-breadths from the middle line, to the
places where the feveral timbers interfecl each water-line, and
fet them off on t heir correfponding timbers from the middle line
in the half-breadth plan ; then to end each water-line fqnare
down where they interfeft the fore-part of the rabbet at the
ftem, and aft-part of the rabbet at the itern-poft in the
fheer-plan to the middle line of the half-breadth plan ; then
take the half-fiding of the ftem and the itern-poft at each
water-line from the middle line in the body-plan, and fet
them refpeftively on the lines laft fquared down from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan; from thence, as the
centre, with compaffes opened to the thicknefs of the bottom
plank, make a fweep, the back of which is the ending of the
line. Then complete the fore and after ends of each water-
line with curves, as in the half-breadth plan, avoiding all in-
flefted curves or hollow water-lines at the fore part, as they
may be drawn by arcs of circles, although their centres may
be without the limits of the plates of fhip-building.

Now the whole of the body may be completed under the
lower height of breadth, obferving to fweep each timber
below its height of breadth, as before direfted ; then by
taking off the half-breadth of each timber, where they in-
terfeft the water-lines from the middle line in the half-
breadth plan, and fetting them off on their correfponding
water-lines from the middle line in the body-plan, curves
palling through thofe fpots will fhape the timber ; but to
end them into the rabbet, or complete the heeling, the keel

muft

H

SHIP.BUILDING.

muft be drawn in the body-plan ; thus, fet ofF nine inches
on the bafe line from each fide of the middle line, being the
ihalf-fiding of the keel, and alfo i8 inches below the bafe
'. line, which fquared will reprefent the thwartlhip fedlion of
the keel in midfhips : then, with compalles opened to the
thicknefs of the bottom plank, fix one leg where the keel
1 interfefts the bafe line, which is the upper fide of the rabbet,
and fweep an arc within the keel to interfeft the fide, and
from that interfeftion fweep another arc upward? ; then a
triangle drawn within thole arcs, reprefents the rabbet of
the keel in midfhips, and all the timbers along the midfhips,
until the rabbet opens, end where the rabbet interfefts the
bafe line ; but when the rabbet opens by the timbers nfing
forward and aft, they will end over the back of the fweep
to the inner edge of the rabbet. The timbers near the after-
end of the keel muft be ended agreeably to the tapering of
the keel, which tapers in the Gding from frame 24 to ij
inches at the after-end : this muft be fet off from the middle
Ii^e in the half-breadth plan, and the half-fiding of the keel
taken at each timber, and fet off on the upper edge of the
keel from the middle line in the body-plan ; then fet within
the half-fiding of the keel the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
and that ends the timber. But as the frames in the fore -body
before O heel upon the ftem, their heights muft be taken in
the fheer-plan, where they interfeft the lower part of the
rabbet, and thofe heights fet up in the body-plan upon the
half-thicknefs of the ftem ; then with compaffes opened to
the thicknefs of the bottom plank, fix one leg in the heights
laft fet off, and fweep a circle within the fiding, and the
heel paffes over the back of the circle, and the rabbet com-
pleted by a fquare applied to the line of the timber, fo as
to interfeft the height fet up, as {hewn in the plan of the
fore-body, Plale I.

Now, as a further proof of the correftnefs of the after-
body, draw four or five perpendicular fetlions, or, as they are
commonly called, buttock-lines ; but firft prove the heels of
the after-timbers by the bearding-line, thus ; reprefent the
half-thicknefs of the dead or rifing wood in the body-plan,
by drawing a perpendicular from the bafe line to the head of
the ftern-poft. Then from the bafe line take the heights
where the after-timbers crofs the half-thicknefs of the dead
wood, and fet them up from the upper edge of the rabbet
on their correfponding timbers in the fheer-plan ; then draw
a curve through thofe heights, to break in fair with the fore-
fide of the rabbet on the ftern-poft, and this curve will re-
prefent the bearding-line in the fticcr-plan, and limits the
heels of the after-timbers, as far as they cut off or fay
againft the dead-wood.

The heels of the timbers being found to agree with the
bearding-line, from the fairncfs of its curve (obferve, the
term fair, fo often ufed in the delineation of the feveral
plans of a Ihip, fignifics that the variety of curved fines
therein ufed have no inequalities in them, but are even as
a circle llruck from its centre, as moft of the lines in the
formati;>n of ftiips' bodies are curves, but many of their
centres are too diftant for application ; and the fairnefs re-
quired is, that where every different curve unites no angle may
be difcoverable), proceed to prove the after-timbers by the
buttock-lines ; thus, fquare up from the bale line in the
after-body plan five perpendiculars, equally divided between
the outfide of the wing-tranfom, and the half-thicknefs of
the dead-wood; tliat is, the outer buttock-line at 15 fet-t
10 inches, and the intermediate four at 3 feet 2 inches
afunder.

Then take the heightr. at the firft buttock-line, or that
next the poll, at the interfcftion of cacli timber from the
bafe line in the after-body, and fet them up from the upper
edge of the rabbet on the correfponding timbers in the fheer-

plan ; and to end the buttock-lines, the upper fide of the
wing-tranfom and maririn-line muft be drawn in the feveral
plans ; thus, fet up 26 feet 10 inches for the height of the
upper fide of the wing-tranfom in the ftieer and body-plans,
drawing a horizontal line at the ttirnpoft and acrofs the body-
plan ; then from the middle line fet off 1 6 feet 6 inches, the half,
breadth of the wing-tranfom, and at that place fet down,belovT
the upper fide of the wing-tranfom, fix inches, and fweep the
arc, whofe centre will be in the middk- line ; and the round-
up of the upper fide of the wing-tranfom will be rcprtfented
as in the body-plan, Plate I ; from the fame cintre fweep
another arc fix inches below the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom, which is called the margin-line. Then, in the half-
breadth plan, fweep in the round aft or aft-fide of the wing-
tranfom ; thus, fquare down from tlie fheer-plan the fore-
fide of the rabbet of the ftern-poft, where it cuts the upper
fide of the wing-tranfom, to the half-breadth plan, and upoa
the line fo fquared down, fet oft" the half-breadth of the
wing-tranfom from the middle line, and at that place fet
forward feven inches, and fweep the arc reprefenting the
round aft of the wing-tranfom, the centre of which is in
the middle line.

Draw an horizontal line at fix inches below the upper
fide of the wing-tranfom in the fheer-plan, and upon it
fquare up the round forward of the wing-tranfom from the
half-breadth plan ; and from thence draw a fine to the upper
fide of the wing-tranfom at the rabbet of the poll, and the
upper fide of the wing-tranfom will be fhewn, both to it»
round down and forward in the fheer-plan. Transfer the
height of the margin-line from the body to the fheer-plan,
and there draw a line parallel to the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom laft drawn, and unite them at the fore part of the
wing-tranfom by a line parallel to the rabbet of the port.
The margin-line muft next be fhewn in the half-breadth
plan, by fquaring it down from the fheer-plan, and making
it a parallel curve to the aft-fide of the wing-tranlom ;
the diftance, however fmall, being equal to the rake of the
rabbet of the poft, in the depth of the margin at the aft-fide
of the wing-tranfom. The margin-line being drawn in every
plan of Plate I. proceed to end the buttock-lines in the fheer-
plan ; thus, take the diftance of the buttock-lines fquare
from the middle line of the body-plan, and fet them off the
fame from the middle line in the half-breadth plan, drawing
lines parallel thereto from the aft-fide of the wing-tranlom
to the after fquare timber, which will reprefent the buttock-
lines in the half-breadth plan : then, where thofe lines iiiter-
feft the margin-line in the half-breadth plan, fquare up fpots
to the margin-line in the fliecr-plan, which fpots will give
the true ending of the buttock-lines, alfo fquare up the in-
terffftion of the buttock-lines with the water-lines from
the half-bie.adlli to the fheer-plan ; then transfer all the
heights of the buttock-lines, where the timbers crofs them in
the body-plan, to the Ihcer-plan, as before directed, and draw
fair curves through all the fpots let off to the endings, and
the after part of the fliip will be reprefcntcd in the Ihier-
plan, as cut by thofe ]Krpendicular ledtions, as in Plate 1.

Now if the buttock-lines make fair curves, the after-
timbers will be proved cnrrett, and likewife the watir-lines
abaft in the half-breadth plan ; but if the buttoek-lines to
be made fair curves deviate from the fpots as fet off, then
muft the timbers be altered accordingly, and confequently
the water-lines. But as a further proof as to the corivft-
nefs of the buttock, or that part of the body clofe aft,
fquare up one or two imaginary or proof-timbers, rqually
between the after frame-timber 37 ar.d the wiiii{-tra.il >m at
the fide, as repref-nted by the ticked lines in tlu- Iheer-phn,
Plate I. Then take the heights on a perpendicular from
the upper edge of the keel in the fheer-plan, wlicrc the

proof-

SHIP-BUILDING.

proof-timbers interfeft the buttock-lines and bearding-line,
and transfer them to the body-plan above the bafe line upon
each correfponding buttock-line, and half-thicknefs of the
dead-wood ; take alio the half breadth of the proof-timbers
where thev interfed the water-lines in the half-breadth plan,
and transfer them to their refpeftive water-lines in the body-
plan ; but though the proof-timbers crofs the llern-poll, their
heels may be fet off, as before diretted for the after-timbers ;
then if the fpots fo fet oft" produce fair curves, as the ticked
timber (hewn in the body-plan, Plate I., we may conclude
that the after-body is fuf&ciently proved and its fairnefs ac-
curate. The fore-body may be proved by vertical feftions,
in a limilar manner as defcribed above, only their ending will
be determined by fquaring up their interfeftions with the
main-breadth line, from the half-breadth plan to the (heer-
plan.

Having completed the form of the body thus far, it will
be necelTary to afcertain the capacity and liability of the
part immerfcd, as in all fiiips of war there is a tixed height
for the lower fill of the midfhip port above the load-water-
line, allowing for fix months' llores, provifions, &c. to be
on board ; and the capacity fhould be fimply adequate for
this purpofe ; for the nearer this is approached unto, the
more merit is due to the conftrudor : it Ihould not be more,
to avoid fuperfluons expence in the building, and the addi-
tional men required to navigate lier ; nor (hould it be lefs,
from an obvious general infufficiency to anfwcr the required
purpofes : the bias ihould rather lead to increafe than di-
minifh in capacity. In fliips for commerce, an exa£l ellima-
tion of tlieir capacity is more frequently required to regu-
late the port duties, and tlie contrails between merchant
owners and builders, than to infure their liability, a fixed
line of floatation, and fall failing, as the charge may be re-
gulated by their ability to fupport it, and their load-water-
line may be confiderably varied, without any hurtful inter-
ference with other effential qualities.

Let us at prefent fuppofe the 74-gun (hip, Plate I. as
floating upon the water in equilibrium, ar.d the upper
water-line upon a level with the furface of the water, by
which the fliip is divided into two parts, the one above and
the other under the water, which we call the immerfed part
of the body. In order to judge of this Hate of equilibrium,
in which we fuppofe the vell'el to be, it is ncceffary to take
into confideration all the forces which act upon the veflel :
and firlt the weight of the whole veflel prefents itfelf, by
which it is prelTed down vertically in a line paffing through
the centre of gravity of the velfel. This force mull there- .
fore be counterbalanced by all the efforts which the water
exerts upon the furface of the immerfed part, and confe-
quently it will be necellary to determine the preliure that
each particle of the immerfed lurface fullains from the water,
which requires refearches veiy embarrafiing, and a long feries
of calculations : but the following confidcrations will eaCiy
lead us to the defired cud.

As the veiiel occupies in the water, by its immerfed part,
the cavity formed by the body under the upper water-line,
let us compare this cafe with another, tlie above cavity being
filled with water : it is at firll evident, that this mafs of
water will be in a perfeft equilibrium with the water that
furrounds it ; and it is alfo plain, that this mafs fultains
from the part of the furronnding water, the fame eflcirts
which the vedel fuffers from it. From whence we fee, tliat
thefe efforts of the water balance the weight of the mafs of
water which we have juft fubllituted in the place of the
veffel. Therefore, fince thefe fame efforts fullain aifo the
weight of the whole veflel, it follows that this weight is
precifely equal to the weight of the mafs of water which
fills the fame cavity as formed by the body of the veflel

I

under the upper water-line ; or rather, whofe volume
equal to the volume of the immerfed part of the veflel.

Here, therefore, is the firll great principle upon whichl
founded the theory of the floating of bodies that fwim upq
the water. It is, that the immerfed part mull always \
equal in volume to a mafs of water, which would have the
fame weight as that of the veflel : and it is from this prin-
ciple that we determine the true weight of a veffel, by
meafuring the volume of its immerfed part in the water ;
for then, by reckoning 64,375 lbs. avoirdupois for each
cubic foot, we fliall find the weight of the veffel exprcffed
in pounds.

However, this prir.ciple, only, is not fuflicient to deter-
mine the (late of the equilibrium of the velfel ; another mull
be (lill joined to it, and which we fliall find with the fame
facility. We have only to confider in Plate I. the centre of
gravity of the mafs of water under the upper water-lir.c ;
then we fliall eafily conceive that all tlie eflorts of the furronnd-
ing water are in equilibrium with a force equal to the weight
of the mafs of water difplaced by the bottom under the
upper water-line, which fliould a£l in a perpendicular direc-
tion through the centre of gravity of the faid mafs of water
downwards : therefore, in order that the veffel may be in
equilibrium with the fame efforts, it is necefl'ary that the
centre of gravity of the veflel be in the fame vertical fine
in which the centre of gravity of the immerfed part is found.
For that purpofe we have only to mark within the veffel the
very point where the centre of gravity of the immerfed
part would be, if it was compofcd of an homogeneous mat-
ter, and this point we fliall term the centre of cavity.

Now the ftate of the equilibrium of any velfel will be de-
termined from thefe two principles : i(l, that the immerfed
part mull be equal in volume to a mafs of water, whufc
weight would be equal to that of the velfel ; and, adly, that
the centre of gravity of the veflel, and the centre of cavity,
fall in the fame vertical line, which is the vertical axis of the
veflel. With refpeft to the centre of cavity, it is evident
that it mull always fall below the load-water line ; and if the
immerfed part (hould preferve, in defcending, every where
the fame furface, or that it had either a prifmatic or cylin-
drical figure, then the centre of cavity would fall in the
middle of the vertical axis between the load-water-line and
the keel. But if the extent dimiuiflied uniformly from the
load-water-line to the keel, and it at lafl terminated in a
right line drawn through the keel, equal and parallel to
the load-water-line, then the elevation of the centre of cavity
would be two-thirds of the immerfed part above the keel ;
and if the fame immerfed part fhould terminate in a point
at the keel as a pyramid reverfed, then the centre of cavity
would be three-fourths of the immerfed part above the
keel ; but with refpetl to the centre of gravity of the veflel,
it may fall either above or below the load-water-line, accord-
ing as the lading fhould be dillributed throughout the body
of the veffel. Thus in Plate I. of fliips of war in general,
where the guns conftitute a confiderable part of the weight,
fince they arc placed above the waler, the centre of gravity
will be fituated above its furface.

The bottoms, or immerfed parts of veflels in general not
llriftly agreeing with any of the above-mentioned geome-
trical forms, it will be neceffary to guage the form of the
immerfed part of the vellel's bottom, or, which is the fame
thing, the quantity of water difplaced by the bottom ; the
weight of which, as before obferved, is equal to the weight
of the Ihip, its rigging, provifions, and every thing on board.
If, therefore, the exaA weight of the Ihip when ready for fea
be calculated, and alfo the number of cubic feet of water
difplaced by the fiiip's bottom below the lo.ad-water-line,
it will then be known if the lead-water-line is properly

placed

SHIP-BUILDING.

placed on the draught. However operofe and difficult the
calculations neceffary to afcertain the capacity, ftability,
&c. of (hips may be, it muft be allowed that it will require
the utmoft care in the execution, to find the exaft dimenfions
of the feveral feftionn of the (hip from the draught, (efpe-
cially as every dimenfion in the (hip is forty-eight times
bigger than their fimilar ones on the draught, fuppofing it
to be drawn by a quarter of an inch fcale to a foot), as an
error of a quarter of an inch in the draught, which is only
the forty-eighth part of a real inch in the (hip, will occafion
an error of 110,592 cubic quarters of an inch in the (hip.

provided the error be in all the three dimenfion'!, viz. length,
breadth, and depth. Great prccifion, indeed, mud be ufed
to mcafurc to a quarter of an inch in Plate I., feeing it is
only drawn, for convenience, to an ciglith of an inch fcale.
But as thefe calculations cannot be made with too great
an cxaflnefs, the body had better be expanded on the mould-
loft floor to the full fize, and then the various dimenfions
may be taken very accurately.

The cftimated weight of a 74-gun (liip, as fitted for fea,
with fix months' provifions on board, is given in the follow-
ing table.

An Eftimate of the Weight of the 74-Gun Ship, P!ate I., as fitted for Sea, with Six Months' Provifions, Guns, &c.

Feet.

Tons.

Founds.

Weight of the Hull.
Oak timber, at 57.8 1 25 lbs. to the cubical foot --..--

47859

1236

208

Elm timber, at 37.5 to the cubical foot ....--

462

7

1645

Fir timber, at 34.25 to the cubical foot - -

4397

67

5'7

Copper bolts, rudder, braces, &c. &c. .......

20

1748

Iron knees, bolts, nails, &c. &c. .......

28

2070

Lead-work --.....-..

2

160

Pitch, tar, oakum, paint, &c. &c. .......

'3

Fire-hearth in galleys, &c. &c. - . . cwt. lbs. . - - ,

2

330

r32 Ounces, N° 1000, weight 85 0

Copper-lheathing of ■ 28 Ounces, 1820, 134 56 _

12

728

(_ 1 8 Ounces, 83, 5 80 ■ ~

Sheathing-nails - 21 32 J

Weight of the Furniture.
Complete fet of mafts, yards, booms, &c. with the fpare gear ... -

1390

686

70

1820

rigging ---------

30

1 1 20

fails with fpare --

13

1828

Cables, hawfern, &c. ---------

3*

II20

Anchors, with their (locks, &c. --------

«7

584

Blocks, pumps, and boats .---,.--

Weight of the Guns and Ammunition.
Guns, with their carriages ---..--.

27

560

192

3«2

'^1

•557

Powder and balls, powder-barrels, &c. - - - - - -

48

76

Implements for the guns, powder, &c. .-.-.--

Weight of the Officers' Stores.
Carpenter, gunner, and boatfwain's (lores .--..-

7

2034

211

1427

21

560

Weight of the Men, &c.

600 men, including the officers and their efFedls ------

95

Ballalt, iron and (hingle - ...----

Weight of the Provifions.
Provifions for fix months for 600 men, water, cades, &c. &c. . . - -

300

395

600

Recapitulation.

The hull

1390

686

The furniture -.-.------

192

3'*

Guns and ammunition .-..---•-

21 1

1427

Officers' (lores -.--.----•

21

560

Men and ballaft ----------

395

Provifions --,.------

Total wreight . - - -

600

2H10

745

Vol. XXXll.

3 IT

Br

SHIP-BUILDING.

By the preceding eftimate, we find the 74-gun fhip, PI. I.
weighs, when brought down to her load-water-line, 2810
tons 745 pounds, that is to fay, wherv fitted for fea, with
fix months' provifions on board. It may now be known,
with fome degree of certainty, if the upper water-line on
the fheer-draught, Plate I., be properly placed, only by
reducing the immerfed part of the bottom into cubic feet ;
for, if the 74-gun fhip, when brought down to the load-
water-line, weighs 2810 tons 745 pounds, the quantity of
water difplaced mull alfo be 2810 tons 745 pounds, or
6,295,145 pounds. Now a cubic foot of falt-water being
fuppofed to weigh 64,375 pounds, we (hall therefore
find, that if we divide 6,295,145 by 64,375, the quotient
will be 97,788 folid feet, which is the contents of that
volume of water which fhe mufl difplace correfponding to her
weight.

D'tfplacement or Capacity.

The iblid contents of a (hip's bottom, were it any regular
figure, might be eafily calculated geometrically ; but as its
curves are fo various, the following rule, by approximation,
may be near enough for practice.

Take the half-breadths of every other frame, and double
them, from 26 to O, in the half-breadth plan upon the upper
water-line ; then find the fum of thefe, together with half
the foremoft frame O, and aftermoft frame 26. Now, the
frames being equidiftant, multiply that fum by 1 1 feet,
the diftance between every other frame, and the produft is
the area of the water-hne contamed between the frames
26 and O ; then find the area of that part of the water-line
afore O, and abaft 26, by taking the half-breadth of every
timber, and proceed as before, and multiply by 2 feet
9 inches ; find alfo the area of the ftem, knee, and gripe,
before the foremoll-timber, alfo the area of the llern-polt and
rudder abaft the after-timber ; then thefe areas being added
to the firll found, will be the area of the furface of the
whole water-line. Note, the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
as taken in that direftion, mull be added.

The areas of the other water-lines may be found in the
fame manner : then the fum of all thefe areas, except the
uppermoft and lowermolt, of which only one-half of each
muft be taken, being multiplied by 3.6 feet, the diftance
between the water-lines (thefe lines in the Iheer-plan being
alfo equidiftant from each other), and the produft will
be the folid content of the fpace contained between the
lower and upper water-lines.

Add the area of the lower water-line to the area of the
upper fide of the keel ; multiply half that fum by the
diftance between them, the produft will be the folid content
of that part between the lower water-line and upper edge
of the keel.

The foHd contents of the keel muft be next found,
by multiplying the area by its depth ; then the fum of
thefe folid contents v/ill be the number of cubic feet con-
tained in the immerfed part of the bottom, below the upper
water-line.

The reafon of the above rule will be obvious, by refer-
ring to the article STEREOiviETRY ; for there, to find the
folid contents of any irregular body, the area of the fur-
faces muft be taken by ordinates ( and fuch are the joints
of the frames of a fliip), and thofe furfaces multiplied by
the' depth or depths (and fuch are the water-hnes), which
give the folid contents required.

The application of this rule, in finding the cubic feet
contained in the bottom of the 74-gun ftiip, below the
upper water-line in Plate I.

7

Area of the Upper Water-Line.
f frame 26 is 43 ft. 8 in. the half of which is

irame

22

frame

18

frame

14

frame

10

frame

6

frame

2

frame

(I)

frame

B

frame

F

frame

K

L frame O is 46 ft. 2 in. the half of which is

X by the diftance between the frames

Area between 26 and O - - - - 5794

Fi.

I(..

21

10

45

11

47

7

48

4

48

8

48

8

48

8

48

8

48

8

48

8

48

0

23

I

526
1 1

■ frame 26 is 43 ft. 8 in. the half of which is

timber 27 ----- -

frame 28 ----- -

timber 29 ----- -

frame 30 ----- -

timber 3 1 -
frame 32-
timber ^3-

frame 34 ----- -

timber 35 ----- -

frame 36 ----- -

timber 37 is 5 ft.

2 in. the half of which is

Ft.
21

43
42
41
40

38
37
34
32
27

19

2

X by the diftance between the timbers

Area of the poft and rudder

Area abaft 26 - . . -

*i

the half of which is

■ frame O is 46 ft. 2 in.

timber P - -

frame Q - -

timber R - -

frame S - -

timber T - -

frame U - -

timber W - -

frame X - -

timber Y - -
half the ftem

X by the diftance between the timbers

Ft.
23
45
43
41
38
36
3'
26

19

10

o

Area of the knee

Area before O -
Area abaft 26 - -

Area between 26 and.O

Area of upper water-line

In.

10
2
2
O
O

6

o

10

I

2
2

7

379

2

6
9,

1043
10

..X

1053

9

In.
I
2
2
8

10

o
8

3

4

8

10

316

8

2

9

S70

10

3

0

873

10

>o53

9

5794

3

7721

10
Area

SHIP-BUILDING.

Area of the Fourth Water-Line.

frame 26 is 40 ft. 4 in. the half of which is

frame 22

frame 18-

frame 14 ----- .

frame 10 ----- -

frame 6 ----- -

frame 2 ----- -

frame ( i ) -

frame B ------

frame F ------

frame K ----- -

_ frame O is 43 ft. o in. the half of which is

X by the diltance between the frames
Area between 26 and O -

501
II

55 '3

•a

" J

.0

01

' frame 26 is 40 ft. 4 in. the half of which is
timber 27 ----- -

frame 28 ----- -

timber 29 ----- -

frame 30 ----- -

timber 31-

frame 32 ----- -

timber 33-

frame 34 ----- -

timber 35-

frame 36 ----- -

timber 37 is 2 ft. 2 in. the half of which is

X by the diftance between the timbers

Area of the poft and rudder
Area abaft 26 -

frame O is 43 ft. o in. the half of which is
timber P ----- -

frame Q ----- -

timber R ----- -

frame S ----- -

timber T ----- -

frame U ----- -

timber W ----- -

frame X ----- -

timber Y is 4 ft. 6 in. the half of which is

Ft.
20

39
37
36
34
31
28
24
19
13

3

I

M

•T3

i

X by the diltance between the timbers

Area of the ftem and knee

Area before O - -

Area abaft 26 - -

Area between 26 and O

Area of the fourth water-line

F;.

In.

Ft.

In.

20

2

"frame 26 ir,

34 ft-

0 in. the half of which

is

17

0

43

3

frame 22

- - - -

-

39

I

44
45

9'

1^

frame 18
frame 14

-

- - - -

-

4'

42

0

5

46

8

■~

frame 10

-

- - - -

-

4^

2

46

S

-a

frame 6

-

. - - -

-

43

«

45

8

a ^

frame 2

-

- - - -

-

43

8

46

8

«J

frame ( 1 )

-

-

-

43

8

46

8

— H

frame B

-

. - - -

-

43

8

46

8

frame F

-

.

-

43

6

45

10

frame K

-

- - - -

-

41

8

21

6

^ frame O is

37 ft.

4 in. the half of wliich

13

18

8

3

o

Ip.
2

2
10

4
o

4
4
4
8
I

7
I

288

2

1 1
9

794

10

6i

804

7l

Ft.

In.

21

6

41

8

39

10

37

4

34

4

30

0

25

10

20

0

12

8

2

3

265

5

z

9

729

loi

4

0

733

io|

7i

804

55'3

9

7052 3^

Area of the Third Water-Line.

X by the diftance betvreen the frames
Area between 26 and O -

461
1 1

5072

'frame 26 is 34 ft. o in. the half of which is

timber 27 ----- -

frame 28 ----- -

timber 29 ----- -

frame 30 ----- -

1 timber 31-

] frame 32 ----- -

timber 33-

frame 34 ----- -

timber 35-

frame 36 ----- -

timber 37 is i ft. 6 in. the half of which is

17
32
30

27
24
21

17
12

9
6

3
o

201

X by the diftance between the timbers

Area abaft 26 - - - - -
Area of the poft and rudder

554
10

564

■frame O is 37 ft. 4 in. the half of which is

timber P ----- -

frame Q ----- "

timber R ----- -

frame S ----- -

timber T ----- -

frame U ----- ■

timber W ----- -

frame X - - - - - "

timber Y is i ft. 10 in. the half of which is

X by the diftance between the timbers

Area of the ftem and knee

Area before O - . - -

Area abaft 26

Area between 26 and O - - -

Area of the third water-line

3U 2

Ft.
18

35
32

29

26
22

17
12

3

o

o
o
I

7
6

3
4

5
I

o

6

9

;

In.

s

2
10

6
6
o
8
o
o
II

198

2

3
9

545

I

'\

546

564

507a

4i
3

10

6185

54

Area

SHIP-BUILDING.

Area of the Second Water-Line.

<;

Xi I

f frame
frame
frame
frame
frame
frame
frame
frame
frame
frame
frame

26 is 24 ft.

22

18

14

10

6

2

L" :

F
K

10 in. the half of which is

_frame O is 28 ft. 8 in. the half of which is

X by the diftance between the frames
Area between 26 and O -

Ft.

In.

12

5

f?2

2

36

0

37

10

39

2

39

6

39

6

39

6

39

4

3«

10

36

0

14

4

404

II

44JO

"frame

timber

frame

timber

frame

timber

frame

timber 33

frame 34

timber 35

frame 36
_timber 37 is

<

26 is 24ft. 10 in. the half of which is

27

28 - - -

29

30

31

32

I ft. 6 in. the half of which is

X by. the diftance between the timbers

Area of the rudder and poft

Area abaft 26 ....

rframe O is 28 ft. 8 in. the half of which is

timber P . - - . . .

frame Q - - _ . . .

J timber R

j frame S - - . . . .

j timber T - - . . . .

I frame U - - . . . .

L timber W

4 ft. o in. the half of which is

X by the diftance between the timbers

Area of the Item and knee

Area before O - -

Area abaft 26 - -

Area between 26 and O -

Aiea of the fecond water-line

Fi.

In.

12

S

22

0

19

0

15

10

13

4

10

3

8

I

6

1

4

3

3

0

2

2

0

9

117
2

2
9

322
9

2i

6"

331

^

Fi.

In.

25

4
6

23

0

19
16

0

2

12

0

8

8

3

0

120

2

8
9

331
5

10

10

337

33«

4450

8

H
5

5119

9h

Area of the Firft or Lower Water-Line.

o in. the half of which is

f frame 26 is

10 ft

frame 22

.

frame 18

_

frame 14

.

frame 10

»

frame 6

.

frame 2

.

frame ( i )

-

frame B

-

frame F

.

frame K

.

frame O is i

7 ft.

o in. the half of which is

Ft.

In

5

0

20

2

26

8

30

4

32

0

33

4

33

«

33

8

32

10

32

0

26

6

8

6

X by the diftance between the frames
Area between 26 and O - -

3'4
II

3461

'frame 26 is 10 ft. o in. the half of which is
timber 27 ----- -

frame 28 ----- -

timber 29 ----- .

frame 30 ----- -

timber 31-

framc 32 ----- -

timber 33 - . - . . -
frame 34 - - - . . .
timber 35 - - ... .

frame 36 ----- -

timber 37 is i ft. 4 in. the half of which is

X by the diftance between the timbers

Area of the rudder and poft

Area abaft 26 . . . .

iu

In.

i

0

2

7

0

5

II

4

10

4

1

3
2

5

8

2

2i

I

10

I
0

7
8

47
2

4^
9

130
9

3l
0

139

3f

4.J

rframe O

timber P

■a

frame Q

ID <

timber R

J3

frame S

a;

timber T

H

_ frame U

17 ft. o in. the half of which is

is I ft. 10 in. the half of which is

Ft.

In.

8

6

14

8

12

3

9

8

7

0

4

4

0

11

X by the diftance between the timbers.

Area of ftem and knee

Area before O - -

Area abaft 26 . .

Area between 26 and O -

Area of the lower water-line

57

2

4
9

''I

8
5l

164

«39

3461

4

3764

8|

Area

SHIP-BUILDING.

Area of the Upper Side of the Keel.
Length on the upper fide or plane of the keell

from the aft-fide of the rudder
Multiplied by its thicknefs -

Area of the upper fide of the keel

Difplacement of the Bottom.

Half the area of the upper water-line
Whole area of the fourth water-line
Whole area of the third water-line
Whole area of the fecond water-line
Whole area of the lower water-line
Half the area of the upper fide of keel

X by diftance between the water-lines

Area of the keel 265 ft. 9 in. x by 1
the depth, falfe keel included -)

Cubic feet difplaced - - -

X by pounds in a cubic foot of falt-water

Ft.

177

I

In.
2

6

- 265

Ft.

In.

3860

II

7052

34

6183

5?

5119

9h

3764

83

132

loi

261 14.0729
3-6

94010.6624
53' -5

94542.162

64-375

6086151 lbs.

As the eftimated weight of the Ihip, with every thing on
board, was 6,295,145 lbs. we find, by the above calculation,
the upper water-Hne, as parallel with the keel, is placed too
low, as the difplacement is only equal to 6,086,151 lbs.
Therefore proceed to find if the body of the (hip is con-
ftrufted to fail on an even keel, that is, whether the fhip
will be in her natural pofition when brought down to that
line. For this purpofe, lot the centre of cavity, or centre
of fupport, be next found, as then we may difcern what pro-
portion the difplacement of the fore-part of the (hip bears
to the aft-part ; for, (hould they not prove equal, the (hip
cannot be conftrufted to fail on an even keel.

Method of Jtndlng the Centre of Difplacement or Support.

The centre of gravity of a fliip, fuppofed homogeneous,
and in a Itate of equilibrium, is in a perpendicular fe6\ion,
palTing through the keel, and dividing the (hip into two
equal and fimilar parts, at a certain dillance from the Hern
and altitude above the keel.

To afcertaiii the centre of difplacement, or centre of
gravity, of the immerfed part of a (hip's bottom, in a ilate
of equilibrium, begin by determining the centre of gravity
of the upper horizontal fcftion, or water-line ; and as the
two fidei are equal and fimilar, the middle line may be con-
fidered as the axis of the equilibrium, in which the centre of
gravity of that furface is to be found ; and as the furface of
the upper water-line, and fo of the others, has been already
divided into equal parts, and the breadths taken at the
feveral timbers or ordinates to find the difplacement, we
have only to obferve that the fpaces between thofe timbers
are here confidercd as fo many parallelograms, the centres
of gravity of which parallelograms will form a fyftem dif-
tributed on the middle line.

Then to find the centre of gravity of the fyftem, in refpcft
to the aft-fide of the rudder, which is alfumcd for the firft
term of the momenta, we need not find the centre of gravity
of each parallelogram, but divide the whole furface into
three fedlions, and multiply their fums, as before, by the
diftance between the ordinates, and the produft will be the
area of each feftion.

Then to obtain the fum of the ipomenta of all the ele-
mentary parts of the furface, multiply the breadth of each
ordinate into its diftance from the axis of the momenta, or
firft ordinate ; then take the film of all thefe produfts, and,
by multiplying this fum by tlie dillance between the ordi-
nates, we (hall have the fum of all the momenta of the
elementary parts of the (urface ; which, divided by the fum
of the ordinates, will quote the diltaiice of the centre of
gravity of the whole furface from the axis of the mo-
menta.

I..aftly, the areas of the feveral planes or furfaces, and
their momenta, being found, divide one by the other, and
the quotient will be the diftance of the centre of gravity of
the whole feftion from the aft-fide of the rudder.

Cpiration

SHIP.BUILDING.

Operation/or the Plane of the Upper Horizontal Water-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 37, its firft ordinate.

Half of 37 ordinate is
Whole of 36

35 - -

34- - -

33 - -

32 - -

31 - -

30 - -

29 - , -

28 - -

Ft. Ib.

z 7

19 2

27 2

32 I

34 10

3r o

Mult.

Half of

27
26

38
40

41
42

43

Diflant

from 37-

by I =

2 =

3 =

4 =

5 =

6 =

7

Produas.
Fl. In.

21 10

19

54
96

139
185

231
280

8 = 328

9 = 379
431
240

10
II

Sum
Multiply by

Area

379 6 Sum 2384 5

2 9 dift. between ord. 2 9

1043 ll

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 379 6 ) 6557 ij

Centre of gravity

Diftance of the ordinate 37 from the aft-fide 1
of the rudder - . - - - 3

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

Diftance of the centre of gravity of the~j
feftion of the rudder and ftern-poft from >
the aft-fide of the rudder is - - -J

17 3i

6 9

24 o^

3 5

To find the centre of gravity of the plane between 26
and O, from 26, its firft ordinate.

Half of 26 ordinate is
Whole of 22

18 . -

14 . .

10 - -

6 - .

2 - -

i;> : :

F - .

K . -

Half of O . .

F(. In.

21 10
II

7
4

Diftant
from -26,

Pfodufls.
Ft. In.

45
47
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
23

Mult, by I =

I

2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
II

45

95

145

196

243
292

340
389
438
480

253

II
2
o

8

4
o
8

4

o

o

II

Sum

Multiply by

Area

526 9 Sum 2920 o

1 1 o dift. between ord. 1 1 o

5794 3

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 5269)32120

Centre of gravity .....

Diltance of the ordinate 26 from the aft-fide 7

of the rudder . - . - - \

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 98 jf

61
37

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before 0;
from O, its firll ordinate.

Half of O ordinate is

Whole of P - -

Q - -

R - -

S - -

T - -

U - -

W - -

X - -

Y - -

Half of Stem - -

Sum
Multiply by

Ft. In.

23 I

45

43

41

38

36

3'
26

19

10

o

Mult.

2
8

10
o
8
3
4
8

lO

Diftant

Pfoduflt

from 0.

Ft. In.

jy I =

45 2

2 =

86 4

3 ^

125 0

4 =^

155 4

5 =

180 0

6 =

lyo 0

7 ^

I ^'3 9

8 =

IJ4 8

9 =

96 0

10 ,=

8 4

316 8 Sum 1224 7

2 9 dift. between ord. 2 9

Area

870 10

Divide by the fum of the ordinates . 316 6

Centre of gravity . . . . .

Diftance of the ordinate O from the aft-fide 1

of the rudder - - - . . j

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

Centre of gravity of knee before the ftem is
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the "J
feftion of the knee, before the aft-fide of >
the rudder, is - - - - -J

3367

7i

10

7^

158

0

168

7i

I

0

186

6

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Ft.

Area of the after-plane 1043 7 2
1043 l\ Mult, by 24 05 its momentum =

Area of the midihip-plane 5794 3
5794 3 Mult, by 98 jf its momentum =
Area of the fore -plane 870 10
870 10 Mult, by 168 yi its momentum =
Area of rudder and poft 10 l^
10 li Mult, by 3 5 its momentum =

Area of the knee 3 o
3 o Mult, by 186 6 its momentum =

Ft. In.

25067
570612
146844

6|

3i

34 7i
559 6

7721 10 Whole areas. Sum of momenta 743 118 7I

Now 743118 ft. 7f in. divided by 7721ft. loin, gives
96 ft. 2| in., the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
whole feftion of the upper horizontal water-line from the
aft-fide of the rudder.

Operation

SHIP-BUILDING.

Operation for the Plane of the Fourth Horizontal Water-Line.

To find the

centre

of srravity of the plane abaft

26,

To

find the

centre 0

f gravity of the plane before 0,

from 37, its firft ordinate.

from 0, its firlt ordinate.

Difiant Produfls.

Diftant Pro lufls.

Ff.

[n.

from 37. Ft.

^^.

Ft. In.

from 0. Fc. In.

Half of 37 ordinate is i

I

Half(

jf 0 ordinate is

21 6

Wliole of 36

.

3

7

Mult.

by I = 3

7

Whol

eof P

- " -

41 8 Mult

by, I = 41 8

35

-

13

I

2 = 26

2

Q

-

39 10

2 = 79 8

34

-

19

8

3 = 39

0

R

-

37 4

3 = 112 0

33

-

24

4

4 = 97

4

S

-

34 4

4 = 137 4

32

-

28

4

5 = 141

8

T

-

30 0

5 = 150 0

31

-

31

4

6 = 188

0

U

-

25 10

6 = 155 0

30

.

34

0

7 = 238

0

W

-

20 0

7 = 140 0

29

-

36

4

8 = 290

8

X

-

12 8

8 = loi 4

28

-

37

10

9 = 340

6

8

Halt

of Y

-

2 3

9 = 20 3

27

"

39

10 _ 391

Half of 26

.

20

2

II = 221

10

Sum

-

265 5

Sum 937 3

Multiply by

Sum

_

288

II

Sum 1998

9

"■'••"•" ^ — . - y

Multiply by

2

9

dift. between ord. 2

9

Area

-

729 lof

Area

794

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 288 1 1 ) 5495 7|

Centre of gravity . . . . -

Diftance of the ordinate 37 from the aft-fide 1

of the rudder - - - - - 3

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

Diftance of the centre of gravity of the^
feftion of the rudder and Itern-poft from >
the aft-fide of the rudder is - - - J

19
6

25

9i

3 5

To find the centre of gravity of the plane between 26
and O, from 26, its firlt ordinate.

Diftant
Ft. 111. from 26.

20 2

ProduiSs.
Ft. In.

Half of 26 ordinate is
Whole of 22

18 - -

14 - -

JO - -

6 - .

2 - -

(I) - -

B - -

F - -

K - -

Half of O - -

Sum
Multiply by

43
44
45
46
46
46
46
46
46

45
21

3 Mult, by 1 =

8^
9l
8

10
6

I

2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
II

43
89

137
186

233
280
326

373
420
458
236

3

5

4^
8

4
o
8

4
o

4
6

501 3 Sum 2784 loi

II o dift. between ord. 11 o

Area

5513 9

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 501 3)30633

Centre of gravity ----- 61

Diftance of the ordinate 26 from the aft-fide \
of the rudder - - - - - 3

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

Ih

37

98

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 265 5 ) 2577

4f

Centre of gravity . - - - -

Diftance of the ordinate O from the aft-fide \

of the rudder - - - - - 3

9

158

H

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 167

H

Centre of gravity of the feAion of the ftem \
and knee before Y is - - - - 3

Diftance of the centre of gravity of the^
feftion of the knee, before the aft-fide of >
the rudder, is - - - - -J

184 I

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Ft. In.

Ft.

Areaofthemid<hip-plane55l3 9
5513 9 Mult, by 98 1 1 its momentum = 54iao3
Area of the after-plane 794 G\
794 6\ Mult, by 25 9^ its momentum = 20475

Area of the fore-plane 729 io|
729 lof Mult, by 167 8| its momentum = 122409 10
Area of rudder and poll 10 i^
10 1 5 Mult, by 3 5 its momentum =j: 34

Area of the ftem and knee 4 o
4 o Mult, by 184 I its momentnm = 736

Si

1\

7052 3i Whole areas. Sum of momenta 684659 95

Now 684659 ft. 9a in. divided by 7052 ft. 3^ in. gives
97 ft. I in., the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
whole feftion of the fourth horizontal water-line from the
aft-fide of the rudder.

Operation

SHIP-BUILDING.

operation for the Plane of the Third Horizontal Heater-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 37, its tirft ordinate.

^ Diftant

Ft. In. from 3".

O 9

Produas.
Ft. In.

Half of 37 ordinate is

Whole of 36 - - 3

35 - - 6

34 - - 9

33 - - '2

32 - - •?

31 - - 21

30 - - 24

29 - - 27

28 - - 30

6 Mult, by I

Half of

27
26

bum
Multiply by

Area

32
17

0
0

201
2

6
9c

554

•5

3
12

27
49
86

127.
171

8 = 220

9 = 270

10 = 320

11 = 187

2 —

3 ==

4 =

5 =

6 =

7 =

Sum

1476

9 dill, between ord. 2

Divide by tlie fum of the ordinates - 2or 6 ) 4060 4^

Centre of gravity - . . . .

Dillance nf the ordinate 37 from the aft-fide 1

of the rudder - - - . . j

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

Diftance of the centre of gravity of the"|
feftion of the rudder and ftern-poft from >
the aft-fide of the rudder is - - -J

20
6

26 lof

3 5

To find the centre of gravity of the plane betwreen 26
and O, from 26, its firft ordinate.

Ft. In.
Half of 26 ordinate is 17 o
Whole of 22

18 -

Diftant Produfls.
from 26. Ft. In.

39 1 Mult, by I = 39 i

Half of

H

10

6

2

(0

B

F

K

O

41
42
43
43

43 8

43 8

43 8

43 6

41 8

i8 8

2 = 82

3 = 127

4 = 172

5 = 218

6 =z 262

7 = 305 8

8 = 349 4

9 = 391 6

10 = 416 8

11 = 205 4

Sum
Multiply by

Area

461 2 Sum 2569 10

II o diit. between ord, 11 o

5072 10

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 4612)28268 2

Centre of gravity - - . . .

Diftance of the ordinate 26 from the aft-fide l

of the rudder r

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 98 S'

6' 34
37 o

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before O,
rom O, its firft ordinate.

Half of O ordinate is

Whole of P - -

Q - -

R - -

S - -

T - -

U - -

W - -

X - -

Half of Y - -

Diftant
Irom O.

Prodiifls.
Ft. In.

Ft. In.
18 8

35 2 Mult, by I = 35 2

32 10 2 = 65 8

29 6 3 = 88 6

26 6 4 = 106 o

22 o 5 = no o

178 6 = 106 o

12 o 7 = 84 o

30 8 = 24 o

in 9=83

Sum
Multiply by

Area

198 3

Sum

627

2 9 dift. between ord. 2

545

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 198 3 ) 1725 10^

Centre of gravity . - - . -

Dittance of the ordinate O from the aft-fide 7

of the rudder - - - - - j

8
158

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 166 8f

5 Y

he~j

Centre of gravity of Item and knee before Y is
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the
feftion of the knee, from the aft-fide
the rudder ....

o 6
183 3

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Ft. In.

554 H

5072 10

545

10 li

Area of the after-plane 554 li
Mult, by 26 lof its momentum
Area of midfhip-plaiie 5072 10
Mult, by 98 3A its momentum
Area of fore-plane 545 2^
Mult, by i66 85 its momentum
Area of rudder and poft 10 1 5
Mult, by 3 5 its momentum
Area of item and knee i 2
Mult, by 183 its momentum

Ft. Id.
14903 71

498616 I Of

90881 7I

34 7?

213 95

6183 51 Whole areas. Sum of momenta 604650 6|

Now 604650 ft. 6iin. divided by 6183 ft. 5|in. gives
97 ft- 9; •"•> the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
whole fedion of the third horizontal water-line from the
aft-fide of the rudder.

Operation

SHIP-BUILDING.

Operation for the Plane of the Second Horizontal Water-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of tlie plane abaft 26,
from 37, its liril ordinate.

Diftaiit rroilufts.

Ft. In. from a;. Ft. III.

Half of 37 ordinate is o 9

Whole of 36 - - 22 Mult, by i = 2*2

35 - - 30 '2=60

34 - - 4 3 3 = '2 9

33 - - 61 4 = 24 4

32 - - 81 5 = 40 s

31 - - lo 3 6 = 61 6

30 - - 13 4 7 = 93 4

29 - - 15 10 8 = 126 8

28 - - 19 o 9 = 171 o

27 - - 22 o 10 = 220 o

Half of 26 - - 125 11=1 36 7

Sum
Multiply by

Area

117 2 Sum 894 9

2 9 dift. between ord. 2 9

322

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 117 2)2460 6|

21 o
6 9

27 9

Centre of frravity -----

Diltance of the ordinate 37 from the aft-fide J

of the rudder - - - - -J

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

Dittance of the centre of gravity of thcj

feftion of the rudder and ftern-poft from > 3 5

the aft-fide of the rudder is - - -J

To find the centre of gravity of the plane between 26
and O, from 26, its firfl ordinate.

Diftjiit Proilufls.

Ft. In. from ib. Ft. In.

Half of 26 ordinate is 12 5

Whole of 22 - - 32 2 Mult, by I = 32 2

18 - - 36 o 2 =; 72 o

14 - - 37 10 3 r= 113 6

10 - - 39 2 4 = 156 8

6 - - 39 6 5 = 197 6

2 - - 39 6 6 = 237 o

(i) - - 39 6 7 = 276 6

B - - 39 4 8 = 314 8

F - - 38 10 9 = 349 6

K - - 36 o 10 = 360 o

Half of O - - 14 4 11 = 157 8

Sum
Multiply by

Area

404 7 Sum 2267 2

II o dift. between ord. 11 o

4450 5

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 404 7)24938 lo

Centre of gravity - . - . -

Diltnncc of the ordinate 26 from the aft-fide \

of the rudder - - - . .j

61 7

37 O

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 98

Vol. XXXn.

li

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before O,
from O, its fird ordinate.

DiPiani Produfls.

Ft. In. from O. Ft. In.

Half of O ordinate is 14 4

Whole of P - - 256 Mult, by i = 25 6

Q - - 23 o 2 = 46 o

R - - 19 o 3 z^ 57 o

S --162 4= 64 8

T --120 5=600

U - - 8 8 6 = 52 o

Half of W-- 20 7=140

Sum

Multiply by

Area

120 8 Sum 319 2

2 9 did. between ord. 2 9

33' 10

Divide by tlie fum of the ordinates

120 8)877 ^

Centre of gravity ----- 73?

Dirtaiice of the ordinate O from the aft-fide 7 q

of the rudder - - - - -J

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 165 35

Centre of gravity of the ftem and kneel

before W j ^ ^

Diftance of the centre of gravity of the \

feftion of the ftem and knee from the V 179 6

aft-fide of the rudder is - - - -J

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Ft. Iiu Ft. In.

Area of the after-plane 322 2^
322 2\ Mult, by 27 9 its momentum = 8941 3J
Area of the midftiip-plane 44JO 5
4450 5 Mult, by 98 7 J its momentum = 438968 77'-
Area of fore-plane 331 10
331 10 Mult, by 165 35 its momentum = 54842 4^-
Area of rudder and poll 9 6
9 6 Mult, by 3 5 its momentum = 32 5^

Area of the ftem and knee 5 10
5 10 Mult, by 179 6 its momentum = 1047 i

J119 9i Whole areas. Sum of momenta 503831 9^

Now J03S31 ft. 9i in. divided by 5119 ft. 9^ in. gives
98 ft. 4j in., the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
whole fidlion of the fecond horizontal water-line from the
aft-fide of the rudder.

.iX

Operalien

SHIP-BUILDING.

Operatian for the Plane of the Firjl or Lower Horizontal Water-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 37, its firft ordinate.

Half of 37 ordinate is

Whole of 36 - -

35 - -

34 - -

33 - -

s* - -

31 - -

30 - -

29 - -

28 - -

Ft. In.

o 8

Diftant
from 37.

Produas.
Ft. In.

Half of

27
26

7
10

2J

8'

5

I
10
II

o

2

O

Mult, by I = I

I
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
II

3

6

10

17

H

/
8

7i
8
I
6

= 33 10

= 47

= 63

= 81

= SS

4
o
8
o

Sum
Multiply by

Area

47 4^ Sum 344 iiJ

2 9 dift. between ord. 2 9

130 3i

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 47 4^ ) 948 7 1

Centre of gravity .....

Diftance of the ordinate 37 from the aft-fide 7

of the rudder - - - - . J

20 O;

6 9

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 26 9^

Diftance of the centre of grravity of the "J
feftion of the rudder and Ttern-poft from >
the aft .fide of the rudder is - - -J

3 5

To find the centre of gravity of the plane between 26
and O, from 26, its firft ordinate.

Diftant Produfls.

Ft.

In.

from 26. Ft. In.

Half of 26 ordinate 1

» 5

0

Whole of 22

-

20

2

Mult.

by I = 20 2

18

-

26

8

2 = 53 4

14

-

30

4

3 = 91 0

10

-

32

0

4 — 128 0

6

-

33

4

5 = 166 8

2

-

33

8

6 = 202 0

(I)

-

33

8

7 = 235 8

B

-

32

10

8 = 262 8

F

-

3*

0

9 = 288 0

K
Half of 0

- -

26
8

6
6

10 = 265 0

11 = 93 6

Sum

314

8

Sum 1806 0

Multipl

yby

II

0

dift.bt

;tween ord. 1 1 0

Area

3461

4

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 3148)19866 o

Centre of gravity - - . . .

Diftance of the ordinate 26 from the aft-fide ")

of the rudder - - . . . f

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

63
37

100

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before O,
from O, its firft ordinate.

Diftant Produflt.
Ft. In. from O. Ft. iu.

8 6

14 8 Mult, by I = 14 8

12 3 2 = 24 6

98 3 = 29 o

70 4 = 28 o

4 4 5 = 21 8

on 6=56

Half of O ordinate is

Whole of P - -

Q - -

R - -

S - -

T . -

Half of U - -

Sum
Multiply by

Area

57 4 Sum 123 4

2 9 dift. between ord. 2 9

157 8

Divide by the fum of the ordinates

57 4)339 2

Centre of gravity .....

Diftance of the ordinate O from the aft-fide \

of the rudder - - - - . J

5 II
158 o

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 163 11

Centre of gravity of the Item and knee \
before U- - - - --J

Diftance of the centre of gravity of the"j
fetlion of the ftem and knee from the >
aft-fide of the rudder ... -J

2 7
176 1

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Ft. In. Ft. In.

Area of the after.plane 1 30 3f
130 3^ Mult, by 26 9^ its momentum = 3487 8f
Area of midftiip-plane 3461 4
3461 4 Mult, by 100 1 5 its momentum ^ 346566 o
Area of the fore.plane 1578
IJ7 8 Mult, by 163 II its momentum = 25844 2|
Area of rudder and poft 9 o
9 o Mult, by 3 5 its momentum = 3° 9

Area of ftem and knee 6 5^
6 5-1 Mult, by 176 I its momentum = 1 137 2|

3764 8 J Whole areas. Sum of momenta 377065 lof

Now 377065 ft. lol in. divided by 3764 ft. 8| in. gives
TOO ft. if in., the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
whole feftion of the firft or lower horizontal water-hae
from the aft-fide of the rudder.

Operation |

SHIP-BUILDING.

operation for the Plane of the Keel, ^c.
To find the centre of gravity for the plane of the
keel, &c.

The length on the upper fide or plane of the \

keel, from the aft-fide of the rudder, is - J

Multiplied by its thicknefs ...

']

Ft.

lu.

177

2

I

6

26J

9

Area of the plane

Diftance of its centre of gravity from the'

aft-fide of the rudder, being equal to half

its length

Now 265 feet 9 inches, multiplied by 88 feet 7 inches,
is equal to the momentum 23540 feet if inch.

The centres of gravity of the fix planes having been
found, the'dillance of the centre of gravity of the whole
bottom of the ihip, from the aft-fide of the rudder, is ob-
tained as follows :

From the principles already explained, the diftance of
the centre of gravity of the bottom, from the aft-fide of the
rudder, is equal to tlie fum of the momenta of an infinite
number of horizontal planes, divided by the fum of thefe
planes ; or, which is the fame, by the folidity of the bot-
tom. As, however, we have no more than fix planes, we
muft conceive their momenta as the ordinates of a curve,
whofe diftanccs may be the fame as that of the horizontal
planes.

Now the fum of thefe ordinates, or planes, except the
firft and laft, of which take but half, being multiplied by
their diftance, gives the furfacc of the curve ; of which any
ordinate whatever reprefents the momentum of the hori-
zontal plane at the fame height as thefe ordinates ; and the
whole iurface will reprefent the fum of the momenta of all
the horizontal planes.

Area of the Planes.

Momenta.

Ft.

In.

Ft.

In.

Half of the upper

3860

1 1

37'559

3i

All the fourth

7052

is

684659

9i

third

6183

604650

bk

fecond

5119

9^

503^3"

9h

firft

3764

n

377065

lOf

Half the keel

132

loi

11770

°i

Sum . . -

26114

o|

2S53S37

4l

Now 2553537 feet 45 inches, divided by 261 14 feet
5 of an inch, gives 97 feet 9^ inches, the diftance of the
centre of gravity of the bottom of the ftiip from the aft-fide
of the rudder.

The height of the centre of gravity of the bottom may
be thus found.

To half of the plane of the keel and half of the upper
horizontal plane, add all the intermediate planes, and mul-
tiply them progreflively as before, taking the upper fide of
the keel for the axis of the momenta ; then that fum being
multiplied by the diftance between the planes, and divided
by the fum of the planes, taking half of the firft and laft,
gives the height of the centre of gravity of the bottom
above the keel.

Area of the Planes. Diftant

Ft. In.

1 Keel.

Produfls.
Ft. In.

Half of the keel
All the lower
fecond
third
fourth
Half the fifth

132 loi
3764 %i X

5"9 9k
6183 5h
7052 3i
3860 II

•

26114 OJ

by

2 =

3 =

4 =

5 =

3764
10239
18550
28209
19304

8i

li

2
7

Sum

80068

5I

Now 80068 feet 5 1 inches, divided by 261 14 feet
J of an inch, gives 3 feet |- of an inch ; which, multiplied by
3.6 feet, the diftance between the horizontal feitions, gives
II feet 5 of an inch, the height of the centre of gravity
of the bottom of the ihip above the under fide of the keel.

The height of the centre of gravity of the bottom of the
(hip, and its diftance from the aft-fide of the rudder, being
found, the fhip being fuppofed in an upright pofition, the
centre of gravity will ueceftarily be in the perpendicular longi-
tudinal feftion, fuppofed to divide the (hip in two equal and
fimilar parts at 97 feet 9 J inches, the diftance of the centre
of gravity of the bottom of the (hip before the aft-fide of the
rudder, which comes between the frame 6 and 2 in the after-
body. It may now be afcertained whether the ftiip will be
in her natural pofition when floating at the upper hori-
zontal line, or conftrufted to fail on an even keel. Thus,
feparate the difplacemcnt of that part of the bottom before
the centre of gravity or fupport, and fee how it agrees with
that part of the bottom abaft it, as we may then exambc
the difference, if any, as in the following examples.

3 X 2

Find

SHIP-BUILDING.

Find the Difplacement or Solidity of the Bottom before the Centre of Gravity or Support, which is 5 ft. 3I In,

abaft Frame 2.

Ui>per.

4th.

Water-lines.

A —

3ii. I 2d.

Fc. In.! Ft. In.

Half of 2 is 24 4I 23 4

Whole of (I) 48 8 46 8

B 48 8' 46 8

F
K

Half of O

48 8|

48 o;
23 «i

46 8

45 'o
21 6

Ft. In. I Fi. In

21 9 i 19 9

43 8

43 8

43 6
41 8
18 8

241 5J 230 8 j 212 II

H O II 01 II o

39 6
39 4
38 10
36 o
14 4

187 9
II o

^^S5 1{^S11 4 '2342 I ;2o65 3

870 lo; 729 io|! 545 2\ 331 10

Areas before O 30' 4o| 12! 5io

1 1

Areas - 3529 ^'3271 2jj2888 55I2402 11

Lower.

Ft. In.

16 10

33 8

32 10

32 o

26 6

8 6

150 4

II o

1653 8

157 8

6 S\

1817 9I

Water-lines
and Keel.

Ft. In.

24 4

46 8

43 8

39 6

33 8

o 9

i«s 7
5 3i

Feft.

Upper water-line half the area 1764.7080

Fourth do. whole area 3271. 2291

Third do. - - 28SS.4374

Second do. - - 2402.9166

Lower do. - - 1817.7916

Keel - half the area 56.

999.474

Area between 2 and the centre
of gravity

12200.0927
[ 999-474

X by diftance between water-
lines

13200.5667
} 3-6

47522.0401
Solidity of keel before centre 238.5

Solid feet difplaced before the centre of fupport
Solid feet difplaced abaft the centre of fupport

The after part lefs than fore part

47760.5401
46777.2177

983.3224

Find alfo the Difplacement or SoHdity of the Bottom abaft the Centre of Gravity or Support, which is 5 ft. %\ in.

afore Frame 6.

Water-lines.

U

pper.

4th.

Ft.
Half of 6 is 24
Whole of 10 48

14
18
22
26

Half of

In.

4
8

4

7

45 "
21 10

48

47

Areas abaft 1
26 - I

Areas

236 8

II o

2603 4

1043 75

Ft. In.

23 4

46 8

45 95

44 8i

43 3

20 2

223 u

II o

2463

794 6i

10 li

3657 I 3267 8|

3d.

Ft. In.
21 10
43 2

42
41

39
17

■2d.

204 6

2249 6
554 U

10 li

Ft.
19

39
37
36
32
12

In.

9
2

10
o
2
5

Water-lines
and Keel.

Ft. In.

16 8

32 o

30 4

26 8

20 2

5 o

177
II

1950
322

130 10

II o

1439
130

2813 9 12282 4ii578 51

Ft. In.

24 4

46 8

43 8

39 6

33 4

o 9

188
5

Feet.

Upper water-line half the area 1828. 5416
Fourth do. whole area 3267.7291

Third do. - - 2815.75

Second do. - - 2282.375

Lower do. - - 1578.427

Keel - half the area 69.

11839.8227
Area between 6 and the centre 7 ^

of gravity . f 1072.460

I

12912.2827
X by diftance between water- 1 ^

lines

1072.460

ISolidity of keel abaft centre

Solid feet difplaced abaft the centre of fupport
Solid feet difplaced before the centre of fupport

Solid feet difplaced by the whole bottom

46484.2177
293-

46777.2177
47760.5401

94537-7578

By

SHIP-BUILDING.

By the refult of the above calculation it appears, that the
after-part of the bottom has a minus of 983.3224 feet, its
contents being 983.3224 lefs than the fore-part ; and was
the (hip to be conltrufted to fail on an even keel, it would
be necelTary to fill the after-part half the difference, or
491.6612 feet, and reduce tlie fore-part until it had lolt the
fame quantity ; but to alter the after-part of the fliip from
its prefent conflruftion, or to make it fuller, would retard
her velocity, and prevent the water coUapfing at the rudder ;
for the run of a (hip fhould be neither too fine nor too full,
but fo conftrufted that the column of water (hould exaftly
meet upon the ftern-poll, then the rudder will have its full
power. The quarter above the load-water-line rtiould be
very full, to fupport the (hip when rifing forward to a fea,
and alfo to enable her to feud.

In regard to the failing trim of a vefTel, it is the decided
opinion of moll fcientific men, that (hips or veffels of the
larger clalTes (hould always be fo conftrufted as to fail on,
or nearly on an even keel, that is, fo that the (hip, when
trimmed for failing, (hould have her keel parallel to the fur-
face of the water ; therefore, by as much as the effort of the
wind on the fails and mads in forcing the (hip through the
water has a conftant tendency to deprefs the bow, fo much
fhould the (hip be trimmed by the ftern, as that will be found
moft advantageous both to their failing and fleering.

Many think it inconfiftent to conltruft a fhip to fail on
an even keel, and yet to place the mid(hip-bend or greatell
breadth very forward. A fhip fo intended to fail, ought, as
they conceive, when launched, to have an equal bearing fore
and aft, in order that, before the ballad is (towed, (he may
be on an even keel ; and they think that the ballaft, if not
placed equally fore and aft, muft inevitably drain the (beer of
the (hip. Neverthelefs, experience convinces us it is not ma-
terially detrimental ; for many (hips, when launched, will fwim
four feet by the dern, more or lefs, and yet when trimmed
for failing, they are faund to go fader on an even keel, and
receive little or no damage if carefully dowed.

Some (hips are too clean abaft, and require to fail by the
dern ; becaufe they have no bearing for fifteen or twenty
feet from aft, till the buttock is brought well into the
water ; and even then, for want of being fuller lower down,
when the fea leaves the buttock, the over-hanging of the
ftern will drain the (hip, and occafion her to tremble, till
tTie next fea, with redoubled force, ftrike the buttock as
the (tern is falhng, and fo fhake the (hip ; in which cafe it
will be well, if fome part of the mads be not carried away
by the (hock : however, this kind of motion muft retard the
velocity. This accident, though rare, is dangerous, and
'/hould be prevented in the conftruftion of the fhip.

With rcfpedt to (hips that ought to fail fome feet by the
ftern, on account of their infuihciency abaft, it is the opi-
nion of many, that if a line were drawn to be well with the
lower fide of the keel, in the middle of the fliip's length,
and half the difference fet up at the aft-part of the ftern-
poft from the lower fide of the keel, and that part of the
keel and dead-wood were taken oft, and placed under the
fore-part of the keel, with the after-end that was before
to be forward, fo as to make the lower part of the keel
ftraight, as before, the (hip would then fail fomewhat fader,
and be the better : for wiien a fliip is brought fo much
down by the dern, the keel, not being parallel to the fur-
face of the water, (to wliicli the fhip generally fails pa-
rallel,) mud occafion a preffure at tlie under fide of the
keel, equal to the weight of water difplaced by the breadth
of the keel, and to the angle which the keel makes with
the furface of the water in its own length. This may
(hew why fo many lliips, differently condrudled, are found
to fail bed on an even keel, alUiough many of them were

defigned by the conftruftor to fail by the ftern. Fnding the
refult rather in favour of an even keel, the 74, Plate I.,
was fo conftrufted, as moft likely to anfwer every purpofe.
By that means the water-Hnes were drawn parallel to the keel,
and were thereby more ufefiil as well as more properly placed
to form the body ; for when the fquare timbers, and the
water-hnes, being fquare to the timber, properly agree with
each other, and are fair curves, the ribband-lines, or any other
feftion, will likewife be fair, or as fair as they ftiould be,
allowing the preference to the water-lines and fquare timbers.
When water-hnes are not defigned to be parallel to the
keel, the draught is generally formed by ribband-lines, be-
caufe the water-lines differing in height at every timber,
require the fquare timbers to be formed before their height
can be fet off; and when the water-lines are run, if not ap-
proved of, much of the work mud be done over again, the
water-hnes being more regarded than the ribband-lines ; for
many (hips are condrufted by ribband-lines only, which feem
to produce fair curves, yet forward, and aft efpecially, they
make a very unfair body, which is detrimental to velocity.

Small veffels, as cutters, &c. draw much more water aft
than forward, and their bows are more full in proportion to
the after-part ; nor would it anfwer fo well were their line
of floatation nearly parallel with the keel, but fpreading as it
does aloft, efpecially towards their bow, the bow meets the
fluid in a more flmting direftion, and experiences far lefs
refidance ; and the deprelfion of the ftern, with the impulfe of
the aftermoft fails, caufes a proper counter-balance, and pro-
pels the veflel through the water with greater velocity than
if otherwife condrufted ; for the after-part of thofe veffels
is generally very clean or tapering, which neceffarily con-
tributes to make the veffel weatherly, and caufes it, under
judicious management, to turn as it were on a pivot.

A fhipmay bebuilt to a precife draught of water, by which
the conftruftion will be founded upon true principles ; but
when a fhip is not built to one precife draught more than
another, it will be a very difficult, and one of the moft com-
plex quedions in (hip-building to determine this point. It
may be imagined that no more is ncceffary than to make the
(hip fwim in the water, fo as to be capable of carrying the
greated fail ; but when a fhip is very deep in the water, it will
greatly incrcafe the refidance, and confequently retard her
failing ; hence a long flup will draw lefs water than a fhort
one, which is a good property, and the refidance at the ftern
being lefs, (lie will therefore fail fader. The refiflance, how-
ever, mud be calculated, not abfolutely, but relatively, and in
proportion to the fail (he fpreads.

In fhips of war, the load-water-line muft be governed by
the height of the lower ports above the water in midfliips ;
and this we find in line-of-battle fhips fhould invariably be
from five to fix feet, in frigates from fix to feven feet, and in
(loops, cutters, &c. from four to five feet.

Sliips for commerce are generally condrufted to carry a
certain cargo, and their principal dimenfions are determined
according to the trade for which they arc particularJy de-
figned ; therefore the line of floatation, or load-water-line, it
not confined in them (o exaftly to a certain height.

Ships of the line, from long praftice, have been found to
fail bed when inclined one foot, cr rather more, by the
dern. Thus, the 74-gun (hip in Piute I. load- water-line,
when fitted for fea, was 20 feet forward and 2 1 feet abaft ;
therefore it only remains to be afcertaincd, whether the
whole difplacement of the bottom under the lo.id-water-line
agrees with tlie edimated weight of the fhip, &c. when fit for
fea, by multiplying the mean area of the load and upper
horizontal water-lines by fix inches, the mean depth, and add-
ing it to the difplacement already found : as in the follow-
ing operation.

Area

Half tliP ttem

Whole of ordinate

SHIP-BUILDING.

Area of the Load-Water-Line.
Half of ordinate

Ft. In.
- is o 10
Y 10 8

19 6

26 6

32 of

3*5 45 Whole of ordinal

39 2

X

W

u

<! T
S
R
O
P
O

Half of ordinate
Area of the knee
X by diftance between the 1

42 3

43 8
45 6
23 3

ordinate!

319

3

9

0

322
2

9
9

887

6f

Half of ordinate

Ft. In.

O is 23 3

K 48 3

F 49 2

B 49 4

(0 49 4

2 49 4

6 49 4

10 49 4

14 49 o

18 48 9

22 46 6

26 22 I

ordinates

i

Area of the load-water-line is
Area of the upper horizontal line is

Mean area .-.---

Multiplied by mean depth - . - - -

Gives folid feet -.---•
Which multiplied by pounds in a cubic foot of falt-water

Gives

Half of ordinate

Whole of ordinate

Half of ordinate 37

533 ^
X by diftance between the ") ^ ^ ^

5870 4

1 1 15 45

887 6|

7873 3i

7721 ID

■5)15595 'i

Number of pounds difplaced below upper horizontal line
Divide by pounds in a ton ...

7797 6|
o 6

3898.776
64-375

250983.725
6086151.678

2240)6337135.403

Ft. In.

26 is 22 I.

27 43 3

28 42 6

29 41 10

30 40 5
^31 39 6

i 32 38 2|

33 3<5 3l

34 34 3

35 30 oi
L3<5 23 4§

3 6

395 3
Area of poft and rudder 10 4

X by didance between
the ordinates -

Area

405 7
I 2 9

'I '5 42

Total difplacement of the (hip under the load-water-line - 2829 tons i75lbs.

We now find that the 74-gun (hip, Plate I., load-water-
line, is not only properly placed with regard to her bell fail-
ing trim, but the difplacement alfo agrees with the eftimated
weight of the whole (hip when fit for fea, which was 28 10 tons
745 lbs., or exceeds it by 18 tons 430 lbs., which is better ;
as the bias (liould rather lead to increafe than dimini(h in
capacity, and favours any little inaccuracies in the admeafure-
ments ; though furely there is little room for error in either
extreme, if proper attention be paid to the fubjeft. In like
manner may, therefore, the weight of any other (hip be
found ; and, by reducing the difplacement of the bottom into
cubic feet, we may always afcertain if the load-water-line
m the draught be properly placed.

Stability, or Stifnefs.

The ft.ibility or ftiffnefs of a fhip comes next under con-
fideration, being a quality no Icfs efTential to the fafety of navi-
gation thai capacity ; and without which a (hip is totally
difqualified for the purpofes of war, being unable to ufe her
guns with effeft, or carry a prefs of fail in cafe of emergency.

Before we proceed further, the following particulars, as
they relate to vel'els at reft, or in motion, (hould be defined.

The centre of cavity, or difplacement, already mentioned,
is the centre of gravity of the volume of water difplaced
by the immerfed part of the (hip's bottom ; and is alfo the

4

centre of all the vertical force that the water exerts to fup-
port the vedel ; for as heavy bodies by their gravity endea-
vour to approach the centre of the earth in a vertical line,
patting through their centre of gravity, tending direftly to-
wards the centre of the earth ; fo the prefTure of fluids endea-
vours to carry bodies in a vei'tical line tending from the centre
of the earth towards their furface, and paffing through the
centre of gravity of the immerfed part, which forces them
towards the furface ; fo alfo in any immerfed body at reft thefe
two oppofite forces coincide in the fame vertical line, afting ia
a quite contrary direftion to one another. Thus, every float-
ing body is necelTarily fupported, or prelTed upwards, by the
fluid with a force equal to its weight, or pre(rure downwards,
otherwife no body could remain at reft on a fluid, but would
afcend or defcend as the prevailing force determined : and the
moments of all the forces with which a floating body pre(res
on a fluid, and the moments of the forces of the fluid Which
fupports the floating body, are equal and contrary, and are
refolved into the fame right line, perpendicular to the plane
of the fluid. But as this centre depends upon the (hape of
the body immerfed, it of courfe varies with every inclination
of a (hip ; and whillt the centre of cavity goes falter, and fur-
ther over to the (hip's fide in her motions, fo as to keep with-
out the perpendicular of the centre of gravity, the (hip will
be fupported ; and the water will aft upon the centre of

cavity

SHIP-:BUILDING.

c«vity in the immerled body with more or lefs power, in pro-
portion to its didance without the centre of gravity, to bring
the fliip upright, where the afting force or power ceafes
which occafioiied tlie veflel to heel.

The line of fupport is the vertical or perpendicular line
fiippofed to pafs through the centre of gravity, and inter-
feding a line perpendicular to the keel of the velfel through
the point, called the meta-centre. For if a floating body is
inclined by any power which does not change the pofition of
its centre of gravity, the line of fupport mult neceflarily pafs
between that power and the centre of gravity ; and the force
or moment of that power is equal to the weight of the float-
ing body, multiphed into the diltance of its centre of gravity
from the line of fupport. As the line of fupport muft pafs
between the centre of gravity and the power applied to heel
the veflel, the moment of that power, or its force, multiplied
into its diftance above the meta-centre, is equal to the mo-
ment of its gravity, or the weight of the floating body mul-
tiplied into the diftance of the centre of gravity below the
meta-centre.

Suppofe the veifel inclined, or heeling by the power of the
wind on the fails, if the line of fupport pafles on the wind-
ward-fide the veflel would upfet, as the power and gravity
are at the fame lide operating to incline it ; but if it pafles
to the lee-fide of that power, the veflel will be redrefled, as
the power and weight operate to that effeft ; and if the
moments of the power and gravity be not equal, the body
will not remain at refl:, but will incline more or lefs, as the
power or the weight prevail.

Hence it is plain, that the diftance from the centre of

gravity to the line of fupport, multiplied into the weight of

j the veflel, is the meafure of the ftabihty of the veflel, or its

1 effort to redrefs itfelf when inclined, and that its ftability is

as that diftance.

The meta-centre ufually fignifies a point to which, if the
centre of gravity of a floating body be raifed, the fmalleft
lateral effort will make it incline. It is plain, that in an ho-
mogeneous cylinder, or fpliere, the meta-centre, and centre of
gravity, being always in the fame point or centre of the
fphere, however thefe bodies are inclined, have no ftability.
The centre of gravity muft, by no means, be placed above
the meta-centre, becaufc if it were the velTel would overfet.
This centre, which has likewife been called the Jhif ting centre,
\ depends upon the fituation of the centre of cavity, for it is
that point where a vertical line drawn from the centre of
cavity interfe£ls a line palling through the centre of gravity,
and being perpendicular to the keel.

The centre of gravity of a fliip, is that point by which
it may be fufpended, and the parts remain in perfeft equili-
brium. It is alfo the centre of all the forces, or momenta,
which prefs it vertically, or direftly downwards towards the
centre of the earth.

The lower the centre of gravity is placed, the farther is it
from the line of fupport, and coirfequently the greater ftability.

In fliips of war, the centre of gravity can never be far
removed from the load-water-line ; for if the centre of gra-
vity could be placed nearer the keel, it is not to be defired,
as the farther it is removed from the load-water-line, the
rolling of the fliip becomes more uneafy.

The centre of motion is that point upon which a vefTcl
ofcillates or rolls when put in motion. This centre is always
in a line with the water's edge, when the centre of gravity is
even with, or below the furface of the water ; but whenever
the centre of gravity is above the water's furface, the centre
of gravity is then the centre of motion.

The longitudinal axis of a fhip is an imaginary line, which
pafles horixontally from head to ftern through the centre of
gravity.

The tranfverfe axis is an imaginary horizontal line, palling
athwartfhips through the centre of gravity.

The "vertical axis is an imagintry perpendicular line,
drawn though the centre of gravity when the veffel is ill
equilibrium.

It is about thefe axes that every fhip or veflel in motion
may be fuppofed to turn. In rolling, fhe may be fuppofed
to ofcillate on the longitudinal axis ; in pitchiiig, on the
tranfverfe axis ; and in working, &c. to turn on her ver-
tical axis.

From conftantly obferving that the performance of fhip*
at fea depends materially on their ftability, both naval archi-
tefts and navigators muft, at all times, be defirous of dif-
covering in what particular ciicumftances of conftruftion
this property confifts, and according to what laws the fta-
bility is affefted by any varieties that may be given to their
forms, dimenfions, and difpofition of contents ; which are
determined, partly according to the fkill and judgment of
the conftructor, and partly, in fome veflels, as we fliall fhew,
by adjuftments after the veffel is afloat.

The form of the immerfed body, and the weight of the
fhip, are the chief terms in the compofition of liability, and
they are only to be attained, in the requifite degree, by full
dimenfions near the load-water-line, with fufficient capacity.

At firft fight, it is certain that all the weight above the
load-water-line helps to make the fliip crank, and, of confe-
quencc, the lighter the upper works the ftiffer the fhip.

Conftruftors may vary the form of a fliip chiefly m three
dimenfions, that is, in the length, breadth, or depth : let us
examine how far enlarging of fhips, in any of thefe particu-
lars, will contribute toward making them carry fail, or, in
other words, gain ftability ; for although the wind may, in
one fenfe, be faid to conilitute the power by which fhips are
moved forward in the fea, yet if it a£ts on a veflel deficient
of ftability, the effeft will be to heel the ftiip rather than to
propel it forward ; ftability is, therefore, not lefs necelFary,
than the impulfes of the wind are to the progrelTive motion
of veffels.

If the length only, without altering the other dimenfions,
be enlarged, the centre of gravity and the meta-centre will
continue the fame height, and her ftability in refpcdl of incli-
nation to one fide will increafe in proportion to the weight of
the fhip ; and as the weight generally iucreafes ordiminifhei
in proportion to the length, we may fay that in ftiips that
differ only in length, their ftability will be in proportion to
their length.

Yet although an increafe of length would enable a fliip to
carry the molt fail, confequently fail faiter, it muft not be
carried to an extreme ; becaufe if to conitrudted, a fhip
would neither tack nor veer fo quickly ; neither would fhe lift
or rife in a fea like one fliorter ; flie vould ftrain more, and be
very liable to have the fea break over her. The influence of
the rudder may be weakened, and may even be totally loft.
The greatell judgment is therefore required in proportioning
the length, which may be proportionally greater in thofe
fliips that generally navigate in the fmoothcr feas, or are not
intended to be deeply laden.

By altering the breadth, the ftability is materially afledted ;
for by enlarging it we gain, and by diminifliing the breadth
we lofe a great deal of the ftability. M. Bouguer has proved,
that the ftability increafes in proportion to the cubes of the
breadths : for, fuppofing the bottom homogeneous, then,
ift, the increafe of weight, and of confequeiicc ftability, will
be double the increafe of the breadth t and 2dly, the addi-
tional weight will a£t with fo much the greater force, as the
length of the lever is increafed, or as the meta-centre i»
railed, and the height of that poinr is augmented in pro-
portion to tlic fquare of the breadth : hence the liability

will

SHIP-BUILDING.

will be increafed in proportion to the cube of the breadth ;
for example, without altering the other dimenfions, let the
breadths be doubled, we thereby double the weight, which,
by aaing upon the arm of a lever, double the length will be
quadruple, lo the (hip will acquire eight times the liability.

Thus we fee an increafe of breadth will produce an iu-
creafe of ftability ; for a fhip that is broad and fhallow has
much more itiffnefs than one that is narrow and deep ; but
the failing of the (hip may be much retarded, as (he certainly
would be leewardly under little fail, which ought to be par-
ticularly guarded againll, efpecially in conftrufting large fhips
of war. The expence in the building would alfo be ma-
terially increafed, according to the ufnal mode of computing
the tonnage, as may be readily feen in the next fettion.

If the depth only is increafed, without enlarging either the
length or breadth, all the ftability that can be gained will be
in the ftowage. To increafe the depth or draught of water
would lower the centre of gravity, and increafe the weight ;
this would operate againlt velocity, becaufe the refiftiJice is
as the quantity of water to be removed ; or nearly as the
area of the thwartfhip feftion of the immerfed part of the
body at the midfhip-bend. It would at the fame time render
the immerfed body of a figure lefs proper to feparate the
line of fupport from the centre of gravity, fo that the effect
on one fide would be in fomemeafure deftroyed on the other;
and, by lowering the centre of gravity too much, the fhip
would labour exceflively, and endanger the mails, too large
a draught of water being both dangerous and inexpedient.

Ships having a fufBciert degree of ftability arifing from
their conftruftion, will certainly fail fatter than others, which,
in order to carry the fame quantity of fail, require to be
ballafted with a much greater weight ; for the latter, fo bal-
lafled, will be much more liable to roll than the former.

The following circumftance will prove, that inftability in
the conftruftion cannot be reftified to any confiderable de-
gree by the ftowage, although, on the contrary, that the
ftability of many fhips, however perfeft in conftruftion, may
be materially injured by improper trim, or an injudicious
mode of ftowage.

And, firft, as there is nothing of more importance to the
well-being of a fhip than its ftability, it will not be improper
to mention an opinion which prevails with feamen in general,
that the ftability depends chiefly on the ftowage of the hold ;
and at the fame time, in order to (hew that a very great change
in that refpeft will produce a very trifling difference in the
ftability, we fhall quote a profefTional author of great merit,
M. de Romme, in his book L'Art de la Marine, page 105.
" As to the pofition of the centre of gravity, no doubt it
may vary, but the hmits to which it is confined are very
ftraight, efpecially in (hips of war. An example in the Scipio,
of 74 guns, armed for the firft time in 1779, was hardly in
the road before (he was fufpefted of inftability. It was im-
portant in time of war to clear up thofe doubts, and to make
the neceffary experiments to prove this dangerous defeft, if
it exifted. Firft, the lower-deck guns were run out on one
fide, while houfed on the other, which heeled the fhip thir-
teen indies ; the fliip's company were then ordered to their
quarters at the fide the guns were out, which increafed the
inchnation to twenty-four inches. After thefe cfiays the
fails were fet, and in fine weather the (hip was found fo crank,
as to render the ufe of the lower-deck guns difficult and
dangerous : thus, her inftability being proved, fhe was or-
dered to port to be remedied.

" Opinions were divided as to the caufe of the defeft ;
fome imagining it to proceed from the form of the hull ;
otiiers from the ill arrangement of the charge. The firft
engineer was ordered to attend at Rochfort, and direft the
choice of meafures to give the Scipio, as well as two other
6

fhips, the Pluto and Hercules, built from the fame plan, th*
ftability they wanted. He judged that new ftowage would
remedy the defeft, and his opinion was adopted by the ma-
rine council. The Scipio was unloaded, and charged anew,
under the direftion of the chief engineer. In the firft charge
(he had 84 tons of iron, and 100 tons of ftone ballaft, and
was re-loaded with 198 tons of iron, and 122 tons of ftone
ballaft ; and as her draught of water, or difplacement, could
not be altered, it was neceflaryto dimini(h 130 tons of water
to prelerve the fame line of floatation ; by this means 135
tons were placed, in the fecond loading, eight feet lower
than in the firft ; yet when the (hip was completed with the
new ditlribution of her charge, fhe was found pi-ecifely as
deficient as before, inclining twenty-four inches, with the
men at quarters, and the guns out. She was afterwards
doubled with hght wood, a foot thick at the extreme
breadth, and ten feet under water, decreafing to four inchet
length and depthways."

M. de Romme very judicioufly obferves, that the defeft
of inftability was not fo much owing to a want of extreme
breadth, as feveral other 74-gun fhips had had the fame, or
even lefs, but in diminifhing the breadth at the plane of float-
ation too quickly forward and aft, which at once leflened
the capacity and pofition of the line of fupport.

A French 36-pounder weighs, with carriage, &c. 4^
French tons, and their increafed length caufes their centres
of gravity, when run out, to be removed 45 feet ; fo that
the moment produced by running out the lower-deck gun*
of a French 74, the oppofite fide houfed, is more than
double the moment for an Englifh 74, in the fame cir-
cumftance.

It is certain this change of place in the centre of gravity,
which lowered it nearly five inches, muft have contributed
to increafe the ftability, and have occafioned nearly a dif-
ference of three inches in the greateft inchnation ; but as the
experiment where the men are ftationed at quarters is liable to
fuch irregularity, an error of this magnitude is to be ac-
counted for from the men running to the fide, to mark more
ftrongly the defeft of a bad (hip.

Secondly, the ftability of many (hips, however perfeft in
the conftruftion, may be materially injured by an improper
trim, or an injudicious mode of ftowage ; for was the
centre of gravity raifed toe high by the weightieft part of
the cargo being placed uppermoft, the fhip would not only
be rendered incapable of carrying a fufficient quantity of
fail, but in danger of being overfet ; and was the cargo lead,
or any other fuch weighty body, and placed too low in the
hold, the centre of gravity would confequently be fo lowered
as to endanger the (hip's rolling away her mafts. When a
fhip is fo loaded, as that her centre of gravity is carried too far
forward, the fhip will pitch and labour heavily ; and when
too far off, fhe will occafionally be expofed to the dangerous
circumftances of a pooping fea, &c.

As it is of the utmoll importance to the well-being of a
fliip to afcertain its ftability, the greateft attention muft be
given, in the conftruftion, to the finding of the exaft dif-
tance, between the meta-centre and centre of gravity, that
every fhip requires, according to her form ; the maximum
of which is, that the fliip fliall not, by the length of lever,
either become too ftiff, or be fubjeft to fudden motion or
rolling ; nor, on the contrary, from the lever's being too
fhort, the ved'el is unable to carry fail. Therefore, in the
conftruftion, to afcertain the height of the meta-centre
above the centre of gravity of the immerfed part of the bot-
tom, the half feftion of the load-water-line muil be taken
as was divided to find the difplacement. Then the fum of
the cubes of the half feftions, or ordinate is to be multi»
plied by the diftance between them, and ' rds of the

produft

SHIP.BUILDING.

produA are to be divided by the immerfed part of the bottom
of the fliip.

it is hence evident, that while the feftion at the water-line

is the fame, and the volume of the immerfed
torn remains alfo the lame, the altitude of the
remain the fame, whatever may be the form

part of the bot-
meta-centre will
of the bottom.

Operation.

Names and Lengths of

Names and Lengtlis of

< N^mes and Lengths of

tubes of the

tile Ordinatea at tlie

Cuhes of tlie

the Urdinates at the i Cubes of ilie

1 the Ordinates at the

Load-water-Line, liiFeei

Ordinates.

LoaJ-nater-Line, in Feetj Ordinates.

iLuad-water-Lnie,in Feet

Ordinates.

and Decimal Pans.

and Decimal I'arts.

and Decimal Parts.

27 21.62

100*4.09

j 0 23.25 12568.02

P 22.75

11774.49

28 21.25

9595.70

i I^ 24.12

14032.29

Q 21.83

10403.06

29 20.91

tj 1 42.44

F 24.58

14850.66

R 21.12

9420.57

30 20.20

8242.40

1 B 24.66

14996.

S 19.58

7506.38

3' '9-75

770.1-73

! (0 24-<56

14996.

: T 18.18

6008.67

32 19.09

6956.93

1 2 24.66

14996.

1 U 16.02

4111-37

33 18-14

5968.96

1 6 24.66

14996.

i w .3-25

2326.17

34 17-12

^017.70

1 10 24.66

14996.

X 9.75

926.83

35 15-03

3395-27

1 14 24.5

14706.12

1 Y 5.33

151.42

36 11.68

1593-38

18 24.37

14473-09

1 Stem 0.83

•57

37 1-75

■ 5-35

■ 22 23.25

12568.02

j Knee 0.79

•49

Poft 0.91

o-7i3

1 26 22.08

10764.44

Rudder 0.89

0.704

67707.407

168942.64

52630.02

X by diltarce beti

'''"I 2.75
186195.35

X by diftance between '
the ordinates . J "'^

1858369.04

•44732.55

X by diftance between

} 2.75

the ordinates -
Sum

the ordinates
Sum

144732.55

^

186195.35

Sum of the produ

as

2189296.94

2

3)4378593.88

Cubic feet of falt-

water difplaced by

the bottom 98436.07) 145953 1.29(
81426.31

14 ft. 9i in,

12

977115.72

91191.09
8

72952S.72

The above operation give,^ 14 feet 9^ inches, the hciplit
of tlip meta-centre above the centre of gravity of the im-
merfed part of the bottom of the 74-gun Ihip, }'/ale 11.

Now let us fee how the above calctilations in determining
the height of the meta-centre above tlie centre of gravity
agrC'^s with aftiial experiment ; for theory (particularly in the
coiillrtitJliiig ot fliip") that agrees with experiment is only

to be regarded. We are in this particular indebted to the
late admiral Levefon Gower, who direded feveral experi-
ments to be made to try the relative liability of the follow-
ing Ihips of war, by heeling them with their lower-deck
guns out on one fide, and houfed on the other ; and after-
wards with their men at tjuarters, the guns remaining ai
above.

Formidable,

Barfleur,

DrDnfxirk,

BcilforH,

]tonil>aT

CdllU-',
7-1 ^mis.

9S s""'-

i}H guns.

74 gun«.

74 Runs.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Draught of) afore .......

22 0

23 10

20 7

21 3

21 O3

water j" abaft

23 3

23 «I

21 4

22 4

22 9

(^.un-deck port ill midfliips above the water

5 6

4 6

5 4

5 2I

5 'i

Heeled by the guns only ... . .

0 3^

0 3

Not m'"

lioncd.

0 3

Ditto by thu men at quarters -...--

I 2

I 0

0 II

0 ni

0 8

Vol. xy''*-i.

- 71

3V

SHIP.BUILDING.

As the inclinations of the Brunfwick and Bedford are
omitted in the firft experiment, we fhall only compare the
relative itability of the other three (hips, which are quite
fufficient to explain everything necellary to be remarked on
the fubjeft. It is to be regretted that the firll inclination of
the Brunfwick was omitted, as it comes the neareil to
Plate I.

Tons.

The eftimated weight f Formidable
or difplacement of-} Barfleur*
the - - - (. Bombay Cadle

* The difference of the draught of water of the Formidable
and Barfleur, \\\ inches, gi>es at leaft Jiotans difference
in the weight. Both fliips have iimilar dimcnfions nearly,
and are fupported on an even keel.

Thefe three (hips have the fame number and weight of guns
on the lower gun-deck ; therefore the moment of the guns,
whether quite exact or not, does not fignify, as any error
will not have a partial mfluence. We fuppofe each gun and
carriage together to weigh three tons, and allow three feet
removal when the gun is run out ; and as there are 14 guns
run out in each fhip, the equal moments for them is 3 x
3 X 14, or 126 tons at three feet : the weight on one fide
the balance is 42 tons, at three feet diltance from the fup-
port ; and on the other, in the Formidable, 3150 tons, at
48 hundredths of an inch (lefs than half an inch), which
will be found to balance 42 tons at three feet : — for the
Barfleur 3360 tons, at 45 hundredths of an inch, which will
balance 42 tons at three feet ; for the Bombay Caftle 2700
tons, at 56 hundredths of an inch, which will balance 42
tons at three feet.

Having found the diftance each centre of gravity is fe-
parated from the line of fupport, which is in thefe fmall
inclinations the fame as the fine of the angle ; the cofine,
or diftance of the centre of gravity from the meta-centre, is
eafily known, and will be found to be, for the

Ft. In.

^ ^Vlbelow the

' "V f meta-centre.
4 StvJ

Formidablc's centre of gravity

Barfleur's ...

Bombay Caltle's

When the Formidable and Barfleur were farther inclined
by the men at quarters, the Barfleur continued to have one-
feventh more liability than the Formidable ; which proves
that the Formidable's centre ot gravity was above the fine
of floatation ; for otherwife, as herimmerfed body was bet-
ter calculated to feparate the line of fupport from the centre
of gravity than the Barfleur's, (he would have inclined lefs
proportionably, if the centre of gravity had not aiSed
againll her ftability : 100 tons of iron ballall at the keelfon
would have only increaled her draught of water fix inches,
and have given her more (lability than the Barfleur,
leaving her the advantage of fix inches more height for her
ports, and nearly 34 feet fqiiare lefs refiftance at her mid-
fhip-bend. Thus it is demonftrable, that thofe (hips fliould
have no more (liingle ballall than is necelTary for the ground
tier, and fhould have above 200 tons of iron ; nor would
there be any danger of their being labourfome, as their
centre of gravity would be but at the line of floatation or
load-watcr-linc. The fame .egulation fhoidd prevail with
the firft-rates.

The Bombay Caftle is certainly ftiff enough, yet no doubt
her lower deck might have been placed fix inches higher
without any detriment whatever to the fhip, and her ports
would of confequence have been at a reafonable height from
the water.

In Piatt I. we find, by the preceding calculations, that the

centre of gravity of the immerfed part of the bottom was
above the under fide of

Ft. Jn.
The keel - - - - - - 1 1 0^

The meta-centre above the faid centre of gravity 14 9J

And the centre of gravity is four inches above '
the load-water-line at the centre
which makes it - -

25 loi

iches above "J
of cavity, \ 20

Centre of gravity below the meta-centre

Which we find exceeds the Bombay Caftle's ; and the ports
in Plate I. are five feet eight inches above the water.

By the above experiment we obferve, that the guns being
run out on one fide and houfed on the other, inclined the
fhip to a certain point, and at the fame time there was an
exaft equilibrium between the momenttim of the guns, and
the whole weight of the fhip on each fide the line of fup-
port in the direftion of the vertical effort of the water. The
centre of gravity of the fhip is in the fame vertical line with
the meta-centre when the fhip is in an horizontal pofition ;
and the more the fhip inclines, the more will the centre of
gravity of the fhip be removed from the vertical line of the
meta-centre, or line of fupport. Hence it is plam, that
the diftance of the centre of gravity from the line of fup-
port is always in proportion to the fine of the inclina-
tion ; at lead when the inclination is but fmall, as before
obferved. Now, if that dillance, and likevvife the whole
weight of the (hip, be known, we have alio its momentum,
or the relative force with which that weight afts in endea-
vouring to right the (hip, and bring her again into an hori-
zontal pofition, and which is the meafure of her flability ;
but fince both the fituation, and likewife the weight that
produces the inclination, are known, we may thence know
if the momentum of one be equal to that of the other, and
thereby eafily difcover if the centre of gravity be in that very
point we propofe.

The fuccefs of the above experiment (which might be
rendered very ufeful if more frequently tried) depends on
the nicety to be obferved in taking the exaft quantity of the
angle of inclination : to attain this, a level line for the fen-
fible horizon of the fea may be ufed, or, what is much better,
a plumb-line fattened to the head of the matt, taking its dif-
tance from the heel of the maft, both when the fliip is up-
right, and likewife when fhe heels. The plumb-line feems to
be the moil convenient, becaufe we have thereby immediately
the proportion in which the centre of gravity recedes from
the vertical line of the meta-centre, which will always be in
proportion to the diftance of th» plumb-line from the heel
of the malt. During the wliole time of the operation, it is
neceffary to be very careful to render all the circumllances
abfolutely the fame, fo as to be well aCfured the inclination
is produced only by the momentum of the guns, &c.

We may in this manner prove the centre of gravity of the
74-gun (hip, Plate I., knowing the heiglit of the meta-
centre ; for, having the quantity of the weight producing
the inclination, (which is the fame as the above,) and ex-
amining the dillance of the centre of gravity from the line
of fupport in wliich the effort of the water exerts itfclf, we
have alfo its momentum, or its relative force, vWiich is
equal to the whole fhip, fince thefe two exaftly balance one
another ; fo that it is only dividing this momentum by the
whole weight of the (hip, and the quotient will give us the
dillance of the centre of gravity of the (hip from the line
of fupport, or vertical line of the meta-centre.

For the Bombay Caftle of 74 guns and 2700 tons, in

eftiraating

SHIP.BUILDING.

eflimating the weight or difplacement, it was found, that 56
liundredths of an inch balanced 42 tons at three feet ; and
it will be found by the following operation, that 53.445
hundredths of an inch in Plate I. will balance 42 tons at
three feet, Plate I., difplacement 2829 tons I75lb3. =
3829.078 X 53.445 = 151200.0-r 1200= 126.

We now find that the dillance of the centre of gravity is
removed from the line of fupport 53.445 hundredths of an
inch. After this, it will be eafy to diicover how far the
centre of gravity is below the meta-centre, fince there will
be the fame proportion betwixt the diftance of the plumb-
line from the heel of the maft, and the height of the maft,
that there is betwixt the diftance of the centre of gravity
from the line of fupport. Thus, the length of the maft is
i 12 feet, which multiplied by. 53.445 = 5985.8 -;- 1200 =
4 ft. n|in., the diitance of the centre of gravity below the
meta-centre nearly agrees with the calculation above given.

Tonnage or Burthen.

By the tonnage of a (hip, is meant to convey the idea of
tlie weight of the cargo flie is intended to carry from her light
to her load water-line, or feat in the water, when bcft
equipped for fea. It may alfo be called the fliip's real bur-
then. Therefore, to afcertain the true burthen or tonnage
by calculation, is a queftion of equal importance and diffi-
culty, as preceding difplacement, &c.

It is of importance, becaufe it is by this that the mer-
chant or freighter judges of the fitnefs of the fliip for his
purpofe ; and although cuftomary rules are given for com-
puting the tonnages of fhips, the bare infpeftion of them
will prove how futile they are. It would be very difficult
to fix upon any general rule which fhall be very exaft, be-
caufe it depends not only on the cubical dimenfions of the
fliip's bottom, but alfo on the fcantling of her whole frame ;
and, in fliort, on the weight of every article to complete the
faid (liip ready to receive on board her cargo. The weight
of timber is variable ; the fcantling of the frame being no
lefs fo.

The following rules for computing the tonnage of a fhip are
commonly adopted and made ufe of between the eontraftor
and tiie builder, at a certain rate per ton for the building,
and will be found to be quite unconne&ed with the above
definition of a (hip's tonnage ; for as the depth is out of
the queftion, the contraftor finds a faving in Icfs breadth
and great depth, which make againft ftability, and confe-
quently injure the velocity : on the contmry, great breadth
and lefs depth will be found more advantageous to the
builder : thus are the intcrcfts of the two parties oppofitely
concerned in the refult, and both, when carried to the ex-
treme, are exceedingly injurious to the conftruftion of
vefi'els.

The general Rules ohfer-ueJ for meafuring the Tonnage of Ships
in the Royal Navy and the AJerchants' Service.

Let fall a perpendicular from the fore-fide of the ftem,
at the height of the upper deck, or middle deck, in three-
deck (hips, and another perpendicular from the aft-fide of
the main-poft, at the height of the wing-tranfom. In mer-
chant-(hipB, the forcmolipcrpendicular is let fall from the
fore-fide of the item, at the height of the wing-tranfom.
From the length between thefe perpendiculars, deduft three,
fifths of the extreme breadth, (that is the thicknefs of the
bottom plank on each fide added to the moulded-breadth,)
and hkewife as nianv 2^ inches as the wing-tranfom is above
the upper edge of the keel, and the reniainder is reckoned
the lengtli of the keel for tonnage.

Then multiply the length of the keel for tonnage by
the extreme breadth, and that product by half the extreme
breadth ; then dividing by 94, the quotient will be the
burthen, in what may be denominated builder's tonnage.

Calculation of the burthen in tons of the 74-gtin (hip,
Plate I., according to the common rule.

Length from the fore-fide of the ftem, at")
the height of the upper deck, to the I
aft-fide of the main-poft, at the height f
of the upper fide of the wing-tranfom J

F(. In.
182 9i

Three-fifths of the extreme 1
breadth is - - - J

The height of the wring- ^
tranfom is 26 ft. 10 in., {
which produces for every C

Ft. In.

29

5 6J

2^ inches

34 9i

Length of the keel for tonnage
Multiplied by the extreme breadth

Multiplied by half the extreme breadth
Divided by 94

:om-1

Burthen in tons, according to the com-
mon rule - . - -

3+

9i

148
48

0
8

7203
24

8

4

175248

0

1864U

Eftimate, fhewing the real burthen of the
Plate I.

The weight of the (hip at the launching 1
draught of water - - - - J

The weight of the furniture, including 7
the flieathing - - - - - 3

The weight of the fhip at her light 1
water-mark - - - - -j

The weight of the fhip at the load water- 1
mark - - - - - -J

From which deduft the weight at the J
light water-mark - - - - J

Real burthen .....

Burthen in tons, according to the com.
mon rule - - . .

Difference ....

:om.7

74-gun fhip,

Tons. lbs.

1377 2198

204 1040

1582 998

2829 175

1582 998

1246 I417

1864 763

617 1585

By the above it may be readily fcen, that the 74-gun
fhip (Plate I.) will not carry the number of tons Ihe is
rated for, by 617 tons 1585 lbs. j and lience the impro-
priety of fuch a rule being made general, as it will always
be found greatly to increale the tonnage of fharp-built
veffels ; while thofe that are full-built, as (hips in the Fall
India Company's fervice, will carry a great deal more.
We fhall, therefore, calculate the tonnage of the Eaft India
(liip {Plate XII.) both ways as above, in order to prove the
great inaccuracy of the rules with rcfpctt to tliofe »eflcl»j
as well as to fhips of war.

3 Y 2 Calculation

SHIP-BUILDING.

Calculation of the burthen in tons of the Eaft India (hip,
{Plate XII.) according to the common rule.

Length from the fore-fide of the ftem, at")
the height of the upper fide of the |
wing-tranfom, to the aft-fide of the }>
main-poft, at the faid height of wing- |
tranfom, is - -

Feet.

159

Three-fifths of the extreme |
breadth is - - - j

The height of the wing-
tranfom is 24 feet, which |
produces for every ai |
inches . - -

- -J

Feet.
22.6998

27.6998

Length of the keel for tonnage
Multiplied by the extreme breadth

Multiplied by half the extreme breadth -

Divided by 94 -

Burthen in tons, according to the com- 1
mon rule j

27.6998

>3i-3
37-«333

4967.5122
18.9166

93968.

999tt

Eftimate, (hewing the real burthen of the Eaft India
fhip, Plate XII.

The weight of the (hip at the launching 1
draught of water - - - - J

The weight of the furniture, including J
the (heathing - - - - - j

The weight of the (hip at her light

water-mark ...

■•}

The weight of the (hip at her load water- 1
mark - - - - - - J

From which deduft her weight at the 1
light water-mark - • - - j

Real burthen ......

Burthen in tons, according to the com-")
mon rule, as above - - - - j

Difference -.--..

Tons. lbs.
748 1 07 1

62 1782

811 613

2029 597
811 613

I217 2224

999 1477
21B 747

We now find that the Eaft India fhip will carry 218 tons
747 lbs. more than ftie is rated for by the common rule ;
which, it plainly appears, is in confequence of her body
being formed fo full ; and the greater the contrail between
full and (harp bodies, the greater will be the error in the
tonnage eaft by this rule ; which (hews the impropriety
of the erroneous method praftifed for cafting a (hip's
tonnage.

Hence it is obvious, that no dependence can be placed
en the common rules for afcertaining the true ton-
nage of veffels. Indeed we neither have, nor expeft to
have, any rule that (haU be quite exaft ; becaufe the ton-
nage depends not only upon the cubical dimenfions of the
fliij's bottom, but alfo on the weight and Icantling of her

whole frame. For inftance, a (hip built at Archangel of
fir, will carry confiderably more than another of the fame
plan in every refpeft, built at the Havannah of live oak ;
nor is there a greater difference in fome (hips, when the
weight of every thing which properly makes a part of the
(hip, as to the faftening, &c. &c. is confidered. We muft,
therefore, be contented with a rule that approximates nearer
to the truth ; and fuch is the following, propofed by the
late Mr. Parkyns, of Chatham-yard.

Rule I . For jbarp Jh'tps, particularly thofe of the royal
navy.

ift. Take the length on the gun-deck, from the rabbet
of the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poft, or between the
perpendiculars. Then take ,5 ^ths of this length, and call
it the keel for tonnage.

2dly. To the extreme breadth add the length of the gun-
deck, or length between the perpendiculars. Then take
^ijd of this fum, and call it the depth for tonnage.

3dly. Set up this depth from the limber-ftrake ; and, at that
height, take a breadth alfo from out to outfide of the plank
at dead-flat, and another breadth between that and the
limber-ftrake : add together the extreme breadth and thefe
two breadths. Take one-third of the fum, and call it the
breadth for tennage.

Laftly. Multiply the length for tonnage by the depth for
tonnage, and the producl by the breadth for tonnage, and
divide by 49. The quotient will be the burthen in tons
nearly.

The following trials have been made, to prove the aecu.
racy of this rule.

Ships* Natnes.

Guns.

Tonnage
by the

King's or

Tonnage
by Mr.
Parky ns's

Tonnage

afluafly
rtceivec!

Ruk-.

Rule.

on board.

Viaory

100

2162

1839

1840

London

90

1845

1575

1677

Arrogant

74

1614

1308

'314

Diadem

64

1369

1 141

965

Adamant

50

1044

870

886

Dolphin

44

879

737

758

Amphion

32

667

554

549

Daphne

20

429

329

374

Rule 2. For Jhipi of burthen, or commercial fh'tps in
general.

I ft. Take the length of the lower deck, from the rabbet
of the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poft. Then take =, jds
of this length, and call it the keel for tonnage.

2dly. To the extreme breadth add the length of the
lower deck. Then take .^s-ths of the turn, and call it the
depth for tinnage.

3dly. Set up this depth from the limber-ftrake ; and, at
that height, take a breadth alfo from out to outfide of the
plank at dead-flat ; take another at two-thirds of this height,
and another at one-third of the height : add the extreme
breadth and thefe three breadths together, and take one-
fourth of the fum for the breadth for tonnage.

Laftly. Multiply the length for tonnage by the depth
for tonnage, and the produft by the breadth for tonnage,
and divide by 36.6666 or 36I ; and the quotient will be the
burthen in tons.

The following trials, among njany others, (hew that this
rule does not deviate much from the truth.

Granby>

SHIP-BUILDING.

Tonnage

by tlie

King's or

Tonnage-

Tonnage

by Mr.

at^uaily

Purkyns's

received

common

Rule.

on board.

Rule.

Granby, Eall India 1

fliip - - -i

786

II79

1 179

Northington, do.

676

1053

1064

Union, a collier

•93

266

289

Friends Goodwill, do.

182

254

277

The p;eneral rule for calcillating the loading of colliers
IS as follows :

From the length of the keel fubtraft 6 or 7 feet for the
dead ftowage fore and aft ; multiply the remainder by the
breadth at the midfhip-frame, and that produA by the
depth of water the fliip draws when loaded ; divide this
by 96, and you will huve the number of London chaldrons
the (hip will carry.

yi method of canjlrut/irig a fcale of folidity, by tvh'ich may
he afcevtahud the quantity of -water difplaced at any given
draught, and the weight required to bring the Jhip doivn to
any draught of -water propofed.

In order to conllruft this fcale for any (hip, it is requifite,
in tlie firlt inllance, to calculate the quantity of water dif-
placed by the bottom, behiw each water-line, and by the
keel, in the fame manner that we have already done for the
74-gini fliip ( Plate I. ) ; for which fliip, as the areas of the
leveral water-lines are already calculated, a fcale of folidity
may be readily conftrudted as follows :

Conftrudl a fcale of equal parts, to reprefent tons, as the
fcalc fo marked in plate%lV . ; and another to reprefent feet
and inches, as that below it. The larger thefe fcales, the
more exaft will be tlie performance.

Draw the line A B, rcprefenting the lower fide of the
keel ; and at A fquare up a perpendicular. Then fet up
from A B, the deptli of the keel and falfc keel from the
flieer-draught, Plate I. ; likewife all the water-lines, D, £,
F, G, H, as fhewn in Plate HiW. Jtg. i, parallel from the
line A B.

The following table ia formed by the preceding cal-
culations.

Thus, the firil column is obtained merely by firft inferting
the depth of the keel and falfe keel, and adding, fuccef-
fively, the dillance each water-line is apart.

The fecond column is obtained by firll taking, from the
foregoing calculations, the cubical contents of the keel and
falfe keel, which is 53 1.5 feet, as {hewn in the table at C.

Then find the cubical contents between the upper fide of
the keel and lower water-line, by finding the mean area, and
multiplying it by the dillance of the water-line above the
keel, which is 3.6 feet, and we have 7254.881, the dif-
placemcnt between the lower water-line and the keel : add
this number to the former, and the whole will be 7786.381,
the difplacement at the lower water-line, or D.

Again, find the mean area of the firft and fecond water-
lines 4442.2655, and multiply it by the dillance between
the water-lines (3.6 feet), and add the produft to the
former. The fum will be 23778^.537, the difplacement at
the fecond water-line, or E.

In like manner, find the mean area of the fecond and third
water-lines, and multiply it by the diftance between. Add
the produft to the former, and it will produce 44124.387,
the difplacement at the third water-line, or F. Thus pro-
ceed with the relt.

The third column is to be filled up by multiplying each
line of the fecond column by the weight of a cubical foot
of fea-watcr (645 lbs.), and dividing the produft by 2240,
the number of pounds in a ton ; which will, of courle, give
the weight in tons and pounds, as in the table.

Water-Lines, &c.

Height.

Water di

""placed in

Kect.

Cubic Ft'ct.

T0115.

I.bs.

Keel and falfe keel ...

- . . -

2.0 = c

S3i'5

ly

6IS

Between the keel and firft water-line

- - . •

3-6

7254.881

208

1II3

Sum

5.6 = D

7786.3S1

223

1728

Between the firft and fecond water-lines

.

3-6

15992.156

459

1335

Sum

9.2 = E

23778.537

6S3

823

Between the fecond and third water-lines

-

3-6

20345.850

584

1604

Sum

12. S = F

44124.387

1268

187

Between the third and fourth water-lines

.

3-6

23824.350

684

1532

Sum

16.4 = G

67948.737

1952

I7I9

Between the fourth and fifth water-lines

.

3-6

26593.425

764

592

Sum

20.0 = H

94542.162

2717

71

Now fet off the tonjiages from the above table upon the
correfponding water-lines, &c. in Plate X.IV. Jig. 1, thus:
upon C, rcpreicnting the upper fide of the keel, fet oft,
from the perpendicular A H, 15 tons 615 lbs., taken from
the fcale of tons, equal to C c. Upon the line D, or lower
water-line, fet off 223 tons, 1728 lbs. equal to D d. Upon
the line E, or fecond water-line, fet off 683 tons 823 lbs.
equal to E e. In like manner, fet off the other tonnages
upon their correfponding water-lines : then thro\igh the
points Cr, D^, Ef, F/, G^, H h, draw the curve A S,
which will reprefejit the folidity of difplacement at any
given height.

I

For example, the 74 {Plate I.) draught of water, when
launched, was 1 3 feet forward and 1 7 feet abaft ; which
gives 14 feet 3 inches at dead-flat, or midfhips, the (hip's
chief fupport in this light (late. Take, therefore, 14 feet
3 inches from the fcale of feet, and fet it up parallel from
the line A B, or lower fide of the keel, to intcrfeft the
curve of difplacement, as at I /. Take the nearell dillance
from the interfeftion of the curve to the perpendicular A H,
and apply it on the fcale of tons, and it gives 1550 tong
1 120 lbs. But by the cllimatc, the weight of the Ihip, at
her huinching draught of water, was 1377 tons 2198 lbs.,
which exceeds the above by 172 tons 1162 lbs. ; but that

may

SHIP-BUILDING.

may he cnCily accounted for, by the weight of anchors,
cables, men, ballalt, &c. as additional weight in the fhip
at that time. Take 1377 tons 2198 lbs., the weight of the
hull cxclufively, from the fcale of tons, and fet it off from
the perpendicular line A H, along the line A B, or bafe ;
whence fquaro up the perpendicular K i, to interfeft the
curve of difplacement. That depth we find by the fcale of
feet to be 13 feet 4 inches, a difference of 1 1 inches, ac-
counted for as above.

Now to prove the real burthen of the fhip by this fcale of
difplacement, we have found, by the ellimate, that the
(hip, with her furniture, &c. difplaces 1582 tons 998 lbs.
at her light water-mark. Take 1582 tons 998 lbs. from
the fcale of tons, fet it off as before, and raife the perpendi-
cular L / to intcrfecl the curve of difplacement ; and ano-
ther perpendicular at 2829 tons 175 lbs., taken from the
fcale of tons, which is the weight of the (hip at her load
water-hne, as L /. Then take the dittauce between the
two perpendiculars laft drawn, and apply it on the tonnage
fcale, and we have 1247 tons nearly, the real burthen, as
before (hewn by calculation.

Again, take the height where the perpendicular L /
interfefts the curve of difplacement, and apply it on the
fcale of feet, and we have 20 feet 6 inches, the medium
height of the load draught of water, which was 20 feet for-
ward, and 21 feet abaft.

Now the perpendicular L being the utmoft limit of the
quantity of water, expreffed in tons, difplaced by the bot-
tom of the (hip, when (lie is brought down to her load
water-line, it is evident, from what has been already faid,
that if the number of cubic feet of water which the (hip dif-
places, when light, or, which is the fame, the number of
cubic feet below the light water-line, be fubtrafted from the
number of cubic feet contained in the bottom, below the
load water-line, the quotient will be the real burthen or
tonnage.

Any other cafe to which this fcale may be apphed is
obvious, particularly to merchant-ihips. Let it be re-
quired to find the number of cubic feet difplaced, when the
draught of water is 17 feet 7 inches, and the additional
number of tons required to bring the (hip down to her load
water-line.

Take 17 feet 7 inches from the fcale of feet, and fet it
up upon the perpendiculars A N and L /, above the bafe
line A B, and draw an horizontal line through thofe fpots,
interfefting the curve of difplacement at 0 ; from thence
drop the perpendicular O 0. Take the diftance 0, in the
horizontal line, to the perpendicular A N, and apply it on
the tonnage fcale, it will meafure 2205 tons 1706 lbs., the
difplacement anfwerable to that draught of water ; and the
meafurement from o, taken to the perpendicular L /, applied
on the tonnage fcale, will give 623 tons 708 lbs., the addi-
tional weight neceffary to bring the fhip down to tlie load
■water-line. Again, 623 tons 708 lbs. added to 1582 tons
998 lbs., give Z2o; tons 1706 lbs., as above, and thus it is
proved that the perpendicular O 0 is equally diftant from
the perpendiculars M m and L /.

The meafurement of the tonnage might be facilitated, by
drawing the tonnage fcale reverfed on the bafe line A B,
and at the load water-line, as in the plate.

Now if the draught of water be required, correfponding
to any weight intended to be put on board, it may be
readily known as follows.

Find the given number of tons, fuppofe 928, in the fcale
on the line ml, through which drop a perpendicular to
interfect the curve of difplacement, as at Pp ; and at *
draw an horizontal line. Now the perpendicular diftance

between the bafe line A B, and interfeftion of ^, being ap.
plied on the fcale of feet, will give 19 feet, the draught of
water required.

Many ufeful difcoveries may be made by blocks or
models of (hips, and with as great certainty as by the niceft ';
calculations ; for it muft be allowed, as before obferved, ;
that in calculating from a draught drawn from a quarter I!
of an inch fcale, it will be liable to fome inaccuracies, which ^
cannot be obviated in praftice, by reafon of various little f
alterations which may be made in laying off the fhip in the |i
mould-loft ; confequently the draught and the (hip will, in »
thofe points, difagree. And likewife, upon Itridl exa-
mination, we fhall be enabled to find, that there are not
many fhips that have both their fides exadly equal in every
refpeft.

Let the block, or model, be conftrufted to a fcale of
one-quarter of an inch to a foot of the correfponding parts
on the (hip ; and care (hould be taken to provide the wood
as light and dry as podible.

The model being accurately conftrufted, it may be alfo
proved by fufpending it by a line, faftened to a hook in any
part of a ftraight line, drawn from the middle line of the
ftem to that of the (tern-poft. This hook may be moved
forward and aft to different places in the middle line, and a
weight may be fufpended from the upper part of the middle .
line, on the poft. If the two fides be exaftly of equal di- |
menfions, and homogene, they will then be of equal weight.
A plane palling through thefe three lines, whatever part of
the middle line the hook be in, will likewife pafs through
the middle line of the keel, ftem, and poft: therefore, if
the model (lands this proof, it will be as true to work fronj
as the niceft calculations.

The model, having ftood this teft, may be fufpended by
the fame line, or filk, in different pofitions, until it points
out the centre of gravity ; which will be found, when the
block hangs in a ilate of equilibrium. Thjs praftice is,
doubtlefs, very fimple ; but it will be found very convenient.
Further, the model being fufpended by tVie hook, the line?
hanging at the ftem and poft correfponding to their middle
lines, and to that which fufpends the block, we may hold a
batten out of winding with the liue that fufpends it, ani,
with a pencil, draw a line upon it. A plane paffing
through this pencil line, at right angles to the keel, and
pafTing likewife through the line that fufpends the block,
will likewife pafs through the centre of gravity, which,
therefore, muft be fomewhcre in this plane. Again, move
the hook to fome other part of the middle line, and let the
block be fufpended from that point ; draw alfo another
pencil line, out of winding with this laft line of fufpenfiouj
and the interfeftion of the two lines will crive thehefifht of the
centre of gravity above the keel, and likewife its diftance
from the poft and ftem ; and if the hoek be mfjved to any
other part of the middle line, and a pencil line be drawn as
before, it will likewife interfeft in the fame p oint ; or, let
there be ever fo many points affumed in the mi ddle line, and
the block fufpended by each, and pencil liwis drawn, they
will all interfeft in the fame point ; and a-s the centre of
gravity will always be in that plane whia'a palTes through
the middle line of the keel, ftem, and poft, it may with
certainty be marked on the draught.

This will certainly require the greatel't nicety ; but, if
well executed, it will agree with that fou.nd by calculation,
provided the dimenfions be taken very ejj aftly, and likewife
from a true fcale of equal parts.

By the fame model may be found the true tonnage of a
(hip, thus : Let tiie light and load wat er-lines be marked on
it ; then put the model in water, anv'i load it until the fur-

SHIP-BUILDING.

»e of the water is exaftly at the light water-line ; and let
11 be fufpended until the water drains off, and then weig^hed.
Now, fince the weights of fimilar bodies are in a triplicate
ratio, or as the cubes of their homologous dimenfions, the
weight of the fhip, when light, is, therefore, equal to the
produft of the cube of the number of times the fhip ex-
ceeds its model by the weight of the model, which is to be
reduced to tons. Hence, if the model is conftrufted to a
quarter of an inch fcale, multiply the weight of the model
by the cube of 48, (one-fourth of an inch being equal to
^ih of a foot,) or 11059Z, which will give the weight of
the (hip. If the multiplier be ounces, the produA will be
ounces ; if pounds, it will be pounds : and it is to be re-
duced to tons accordingly.

E.vami>!e. — Suppofe the weight of a model of the 74
{Plate I.) to be 32 lbs. 13 drachms, when brought down
to the light water-line.

The cube of 48
Multiplied by -

Produces

1 10592

32 lbs. 13 drachms

3544560 lbs. — 1582 tons 880 lbs.

The weight of the (hip at her light water-mark, within
118 lbs.

Again, let the model be loaded, until the furface of the
Water is cxaftly at the load water-line. Now the model
being weighed, the weight of the (liip is to be found by the
preceding rule ; then the difference between the weights of
the (hip, when light and loaded, is the tonnage required.

Upon the Efforts of the Water to lend the Veffel.

Here we can do no better than quote Watfon's tranfla-
tion of Euler upon the Theorie, &c. des Vaiffeaux ; to
which book we refer our readers for a further illuftration of
the foregoing particulars, and to Atwood on the Stability
of Vefftls.

" When we fay, that the preffure of the water upon the
immerfed part of a veffel counterbalances its weight, we
fuppofe that the different parts of a veffel are fo clofely
connefted together, that the forces which aft upon its fur-
face are not capable of producing any change ; for we cafily
conceive, if the connedlion of the parts was not fufficicntly
ftrong, the veffel would run the rill< either of being broken
in pieces, or of fuffering fome alteration in its figure.

" The veffel is in a fituation iimilar to that of a rod
AB { Plate XIV. Jig. 2.), whicii, being afted upon by
the forces A a, C c, D </, B i, may be maintained in equi-
librium, provided it has a fulHcient degree of (tiffiiefs ; but
as foon as it begins to give way, we fee that it muit bend
in a convex manner, fince its middle would obey the forces
C c and D d, whillt its extiemities would be aftually drawn
downwards by the forces A a and B b.

" The vcli'el is generally found in inch a fituation ; and
fince fimilar efforts continually aft, whilll the vellcl is im-
merfed in the water, it happens but too often that the keel
experiences the bad effeft of a ftrain. It is, therefore, very
important to inquire into the true caufe of the accident.

" For this purpofe, let us conceive the veffel divided into
two parts, by a tranfvcrfe feftion through the vertical axis
of the ve.Tcl, in which both the centre of gravity, G, of the
whole vcllel, and that of the immerfed part O, arc fituated ;
fo that one of them will reprcfent the head part, and the otiier
that of the (lern ; each of wiiich we fliall confider fcpar.iuly.
Let g be, therefore, the centre of gravity of the entire
weight of the firft, and 0 that of the immerfed part cor-
refponding. In the fame manner, let y be the centre of

3

gravity of the whole ffcrn part, and v) that of its immediate
portion.

«' Now it is plain that the head will be afted upon by the
two forces _f m and 0 n, of which the firil will prels it down,
and the latter pufh it up. In the fame manner, the (lern
will be preffed down by the force j> u, and pulhed up. by the
force iu X : but thefe four forces will maintain themfelvcs in
equilibrium, as well as the total forces reunited in the points
G and O, which are equivalent to them ; but whilft neither
the forces before nor thofe abaft fall in the fame dircftion,
the veffel will evidently fultain efforts tending to bci.d the
keel upwards" (called hogging) " if the two points 0, iu, are
nearer the middle than the two other forces g m zv.d y u. A
contrary effeft would haopen if the points eand tu were more
diilant from the middle than from the points g and_y ;" called

" But the firft of thefe two cafes ufually takes place in al-
moft all veffels ; fince their hollow has a greater breadth to-
wards the middle,and becomes more and more narrow toward*
the extremities ; whilft the weight of the veffel is, in propor-
tion, much more confiderable towards the extremities than
at the middle. From whence we fee, that the greater this
difference becomes, the more alfo will the veflel be fubjeft
to the forces which tend to bend its keel upwards : it is,
therefore, from thence that we muft judge how much ftrength
it is neceffary to give to this part of the veffel, in order to
avoid fuch a confequence.

" If other circumftances would permit, either to load the
veffel more in the middle, or to give to the part immerfed a
greater hollow towards the head and ftcrn, fuch an effeft
would no longer be feared : but the deftination of moft
veffels is entirely oppofite to fuch an arrangement ; by which
means we are obliged to ftrengthen the keel as much as may
be neceffary, in order to avoid fuch a difafter."

Having now inveftigated the centre of gravity of the
difplacement, meta-centre, and centre of gravity of the
whole (hip, with other particulars, and laid down all that
is requifite to be attended to, in that refpeft, for the con-
ftruftion of a (hip's body under water, we (hall, in the
next feftion, proceed to complete the remainder of the (heer-
draught.

To complete the Con/IruSion of the Sheer-draught. Plate I.

Having found that the difplacement of the (hip at the load-
water-line gives the (hip fufiicient liability to keep the lower
ports 5 feet 10 inches above the water, we may proceed to
draw all the decks in the (heer-plan, beginning with the
lower, or gun-deck. The height of the lower fills of the
gun-deck ports (liouldbe 2 feet 4 inches above the gun-deck
plank, which is four inches thick ; confequently the upper
fide of the beam along the fide muft be 2 feet 8 inches below
the fills ; add fix inches to that for the round-up of the
beam ; and the under fide of the n-un-deck at tlic middle lint
in midftiips will be 22 feet 2 inches above the upper edge
of the keel ; at the foremoft-perpendicular fet up 24 feet, and
at the after-perpendicular 24 feet 8 inches ; then a fegmcnt
of a circle drawn through thefe three heights will rcprefent
the under fide of tlie gun-deck at the middle line. (Thefe
kinds of fwccps are drawn by thin veneers of pear-tree wood,
called fwcep-moulds, llriick from a long radius on purpofe, or
by a drawing-bow. ) Now fet up four inches, the thicknefs of
the gun-deck plank, above the line laft drawn, and let another
line be drawn parallel thereto, and the gun-deck will be de-
fcribcd at the middle line in the flieer-plan.

Next proceed to draw the upper deck ; fet up 7 feet
2 inches, being the height from the uppjr fide of the gun-
deck plank to the under fide of tiic upper deck plaok, alsng

the

SHIP-BUILDING.

the middle line, through which heights draw a curve parallel
to the gun-deck, and another curve three inches parallel
above it, and the upper deck will be reprefented at the
middle line of the (heer-plan.

Theftern-timberslhould be next drawn, to (hew the bound-
aries of the (heer-plan above the wing-tranfom. Set up
above an horizontal line drawn at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line four feet, upon a perpendicular
6 feet lo inches abaft the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom,
which will be the height and knuckle of the lower counter at
the middle line; from thence draw a curve, about fix inches
hollow, to the upper fide of the wing-tranfom, where the
fore part of the rabbet of the Itern-poil interfeds it ; and
that curve will reprefent the lower counter at the middle
line.

In the fame manner, fet up the height of the upper
counter 7 feet 5 inches, upon a perpendicular nine feet abaft
the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, which will be the lieight
and knuckle of the upper counter at the middle Une ; then
drawing a curve about one inch hollow from thence to the
knuckle of the lower counter, the upper counter will hke-
wife be defcribed at the middle line.

Having the upper and lower counters drawn at the middle
line, the upper part of the llern-timber is ilraight above
the upper counter, and muft be drawn as follows :

Setup 23 feet 8 inches, upon a perpendicular 14 feet abaft
the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, as before, and then drawing
a ftraight line from the knuckle of the upper counter, to
pafs through the faid fpot, the upper part of the itern-
timber will be (hewn at the middle line, by which the rake
of the ftern will be defcribed.

As the ftern rounds two ways, both up and aft, (or for-
ward from the timber already drawn,) the ilern-timber at the
fide muft alter fo much from that at the middle hne, and
therefore remains to be reprefented. Set down from the
knuckle of the upper counter on its perpendicular 9 inches,
and draw an horizontal line before it at that place, and fet
off thereon 15 inches from the faid perpendicular, which
will be the knuckle of the upper counter at the fide the
9 inches is the round-up, and the 16 inches the round-aft at
the upper counter. Then proceed in like manner for the lower
counter, by fetting down 9 inches, and forward 15 inches,
and the knuckle for the lower counter at the fide will be pro-
duced ; then, by drawing a curve from the knuckles at the
fide (fimilar to the curve or hollow at the middle line), ob-
ferving the lower counter at the fide is drawn to interfeft the
touch of the wing-tranfom at the fide, the fide ftern-timber
only wants the upper part to complete it. But as the
Itraight line, which remains to be drawn for the upper part
of the fide-timber, (hould not be parallel to that at the mid-
dle line, the following method will determine the exaft rake
thereof.

Draw a ftraight line at pleafure, as the ticked line under
the body -plan, on which fet off the breadth of the ftern at
the upper counter, or 13 feet 4 inches, equally on each fide
of the middle hne ; and there fquare up a perpendicular on
each fide : fet up from the ftraight line i6 inches, the
round-aft of the upper counter on each perpendicular, and
draw a fegment of a circle that dial] interieft thofe fpots
and the ftraight line at the middle, and the round-aft of the
ilern will be defcribed at any part of the breadth above the
upper counter : thus, take the breadth of the ftem at the top
timber-line, which is 24 feet 8 inches above the wing-tran-
fom, which is 24 feet, and fet it off equally on each fide the
middle, to where it (hall interfcft the round-aft under the
"body-plan ; thence draw a line parallel to that firft drawn,
and the diltance between the two lines, 1 3^ inches, is the

diftance that the fide-timber will be from the middle-timber
on an horizontal line, at the height of the top timber-line,
draw a ftraight line through the laft (pot fet off to interfeft
the knuckle of the upper counter at the fide, and that will be
the rake of the fide counter-timber, as (hewn by the ticked'
lines in the (heer-plan, Plate I.

The rake of the ftern-timbers being determined, proceed
to finifli the decks. Set up from the upper fide of the upper
deck 6 feet 10 inches at the middle ftern-timber, and 6 feet
8 inches fore part at frame 8, and above that 3 inches,
drawing curves as before, and the quarter-deck at the mid-
dle line will be reprefented.

Proceed in the fame manner with the round-houfe abaft.
Set up from the upper fide of the quarter-deck 6 feet 8 inche»
at the middle ftern-timber, and 6 feet 6 inches at fore part
or frame 24, and above that z\ inches. The forecaftle
forward is reprefented in the fame way, by drawing curves,
one parallel to the upper fide of the upper deck 6 feet 7
inches above it, and another at 3 inches from the beak-head
to frame D.

All the decks having been drawn, reprefenting their
heights at the middle line, their heights at the fides differ
from the former, agreeable to the round of the beam ia
the breadth of the (hip : to do which correftly, take the
round-up of the beam of its refpeftive deck, fay the
gun-deck, 6 inches, and fet it up in the middle of any
Ilraight line, fo that the half-breadth in midfhips at the
height of the gun-deck may be fet off on each fide on the
line. Then raife the fegment of a circle that (hall interfeft
the round-up at the middle, with the fpots at the breadth,
and the round-up of the deck will be defcribed at any part of
its breadth. Thus, take the half-breadth at the height of
the deck at any timber in the body-plan, and fet it off
equally from the middle of the round-up till it interfefts the
curve ; whence draw a line parallel to that firft drawn, and
the diftance between the laft line to the round-up in the
middle is what the beam rounds at that place : tkus may the
round-up be taken at as many timbers as may be found ne-
ceflary, and fet below the under fide of the deck, at its re-
fpeftive timber in the (heer-plan ; then a curved line paffing
through thofe fpots, will reprefent the deck at the fide : but
obferve, that the decks are to have a fufficient round abaft,
to correfpond with the round-up of the ftern above the
lights, and that the additional round wanted to be fet down
at the fide line.

The (heer or top timber-line may be next drawn, by fet-
ting up its height in the (heer-plan afore in midfliips, and
abaft : thus, at timber X forwards, 37 feet 8 inches ; at i^
in mid(hips, 35 feet 4 inches ; and at the fide (tern-timber
abaft, 41 feet 6 inches : then, by drawing a curve through
thefe fpots, as in Plate I. the (hccr of the (hip, or top-timber
line, will be reprefented.

The ports may now be drawn in the (heer-plan, thus :
draw two curves in pencil parallel to the deck at the fide,
fore and aft, adding the thickncfs of the deck to that already
drawn, as that reprcfents the under fide of the deck, or
upper fide of the beam. The gun-deck ports are to be
2 feEt4 inches from the upper fide of the gun-deck plank to
the upper fide of the lower fills, 2 feet 8 inches deep,
and 3 feet 5 inches fore and aft, or from the fore to the after
fides, which may now be fquaied up between the lines laft
drawn ; placing the fore-fide of the forcmoft port I foot
5 inches abaft timber X, and 3 feet i inch only on athwart-
(hip line ; the afc-fide of the after-port to be 14 inches
afore timber 32, and the fore-fide 3 feet 5 inches afore
it, or in the clear ; and the remaining 1 3 to be 7 feet 7 inches
afunder. In the fame manner draw in the upper deck ports,

which

SHIP-BUILDING.

wKich are from the plank to the port-fiU I foot 1 1 inches, 2
feet 8 inches deep, and fore and aft 3 feet ; and are to be placed
equally between and over the gun-deck ports, as circumitances
will admit, as (hewn in the iheer-plan, Plate I. The ports
on the quarter-deck, round-houfe, and forecaftle, muft be
placed hereafter where there is a vacancy between the dead-
eyes to admit of them, obferving to place them as nearly as
poflible at equal dillances.

To know the heights, round-up, &c. &c. of the other
decks, take them with compaffes, in like manner as the gun-
deck was fet off from the given dimenfions ; and by apply-
ing them to the fcaleof feet, much repetition will be avoided.

The round-houfe deck being drawn, draw a line parallel
to the top timber-line, and another line three inches above
it, which is of the thicknefs of the plank-fiieer, correfpond-
ing with the fore part of the round-houfe, fo as to make both
plank-flieer and water-way ; fo will the extreme height of the
top-lide be defcribed abaft : the plank-lheer, which com-
pletes the height of the lide to the fore part of the quarter-
deck, is four feet four inches to the under fide above the
top timber-line, and parallel thereto. The fore part abreaft
the main-maft hances down eleven inches for feven feet abaft
the gangway or fore part of the quarter-deck.

The drift-rail may now be drawn, the under fide of which
is two feet ten inches above the top timber-line, and parallel
thereto from the hance of the plank-flieer at the main-mall
to the quarter-gallery. The drift-rail is four and a half
inches deep, and drawn parallel to the under fide laft drawn,
and hances as the plank-fiieer abreall the main-maft, and
Hops with a fcroU upon the flieer-rail at the gangway. The
ftieer-rail may next be drawn : it is fix inches deep, and
parallel to the top timber-line from the cat-head to the
quarter-gallery. The plank-fheer and (heer-rail at the fore
part of the (hip delineate the height of the top-fide there :
the under fide of the plank-llieer is two feet nine inches
above the top timber-line, and the under fide of the drift-
rail one foot eight inches, and turns off with fcroUs at the
after part of the forecaftle, but in other rclpetls the fame as
thofe at the quarter-deck.

It is the practice in the navy of late years, to have fquare
drifts inilead of Icrolls or hances of any kind.

The upper part of the Ihip bemg thus far complete, we
have at one view the utmoft extent of the ftieer, as feen on
a plane.

It now remains to be drawn in the finiftiing parts, as the
wales, item, head, rails, &c.

Proceed to reprefent the main wales by fetting up their
lower edge, at the rabbet of the item or fore part, above the
upper edge of the keel 22 feet 6 inches, m midftiip or dead-
flat 18 feet 8 inches, and at timber 34, 23 feet, and draw
the curve as in fhecr-plan, Plate I. Above that, and parallel
thereto, draw another curve at 4 feet 4 inches, the breadtli
of the main wales.

Next draw in the channel wales, fet up as before, at the
rabbet ot the Iti-m 30 feet 2 inches, in midlhips 27 feet
3 inches, and at timber 34, 3 1 feet 6 inches. Set up their
breadth 3 feet, and draw curves as in {heer-plan, Plate I.

The waift-rail may be next drawn : its dlilanee below the
top timber-line is one loot ten inches, the iipprr fide and its
depth fix inches, and it is drawn parnllel to the top-timber
line all fore and aft.

Now, before the channels and dead-eyes can be drawn, the
centres and raking of the mails mull be determined ; their
centres on th'- gun-deck being fixed \ipon in proportion to
the length of the gun-deck, thus,; the centre of the fore-
maft is 21 f -et 4 inclies abaft the aft-fide of the Hem, or
half its diameter before the one-ninth of the length on tlic

Vol. XXXII.

gun-deck : the centre of the main-maft loi feet 4 inchej
abaft the aft-fide of the ftem, or half its diameter abaft the
five-ninths of the length of the gun-deck : and the centre of
the mizcn-maft 27 feet before the rabbet of the ftern-poft,
or half its diameter before the one-feventh of the length of
the gun-deck. The centre being fixed, the fore-mall rakes
aft (or inclines from a perpendicular with the keel) one-
eighth of an inch in every yard of its length ; the main-maft.
rakes aft one inch in every yard in the length ; and the mizen-
mail one inch and a half in every yard of its length, as drawn
in the ftiecr-plan, Plate I.

Now draw the channels, placing their upper edges next
the fide in a line with the upper edge of the (lieer-rail ;
or, which is much better, fince the rails on the fide are dif-
continued, rather lower down, clear of the feam. The
fore channel to be 36 feet long, and fo placed as to take
the anchor-lining and bill-board for flowing the anchor at its
fore end, thus : get the length of the anchor to the bill, or
extent of the arm, and allow for the cat -block ; then with
that diftance fweep upwards from the channel-wale to the
channel, from the outer end of the cat-head nearly, and the
curve that the bill of the anchor is fuppofed to inake, wHU
give the middle of the lining : the aft-fide from the channel
may be perpendicular, and the fore part follow the curve
made by the anchor. The bill-board may then be carried
upwards from the upper fide of the channel to the top of
the fide. The anchor-lining commences at the upper fide
of the bolfter, which refts on the channel-wale, and is long
enough at the fore part for a man to Hand upon.

The main channel is 29 feet 6 inches long, placed in the
fame range as the fore channel, and its fore-end before the
centre of the maft about fix inches.

The mizen channel is 16 feet 4 inches long, placed like
the former, but is more convenient when placed, as it now
is, above the quarter-deck ports.

The dead-eyes may now be drawn, obferving to place
them in fuch a manner that the chains may be fufliciently clear
of the ports. All the preventer-plates muft be fo placed
on the channel-wales, and of fuch a length, that the centre
of the chain-bolt may come about fix inches below the upper
edge, and the preventer-bolt about four inches above the
lower edge of the channel-wales. The dead-eyes in the main
and fore channels are fixtcen inches in diameter, and eleven
in number in the fore and twelve in the main, though lately
another is added in each. In the mi/.en are feven, of eleven
inches diatncter ; the centre of the foremoll dead-eye is
placed at or jiill abaft the centre of the mall, and the centres
of the others are fpaced fo as to clear each other about
three inches, which will admit of four dead-eyes between
each port. It mull alfo be obferved to give each of the
chain and preventer-plates a projier rake ; that is, to let them
range in the diredtion of the ftirouds ; which may be done
in the following manner : draw a pencil line upwards at the
centre of each maft, upon which fet oft its length to the
lower part of the head ; then, by drawing llraight lines from
that heigiit, through the centre of each de;i(i-eye, the direc-
tion of each chain will be obtained by the dii'e(;tion of its
correfp inding lijie. The dead-eyes for the backllays arc fn
fimilar lo tlie former, that it need only be obterved, that
hn- the raking of them, the height of the top-inall to its
111' id mull be added to the lower mall, and that they are fixed
at tl\e after-end of the channel, or on llools, it need be,
above the channels, as in fheer-plan, Plate I.

The quarter-deck and forecaftle ports can now be detcr-

nuned, as they muft be plac-d cl'ar of the flirouds, and

cqu.illy afunder, or ncirly fo, as circumitances will admit :

ihii3, there arc tliree on each fid.: on the forecaftle, made

3 Z by

SHIP-BUILDING.

by the timber-heads there (hewn, having alfo a timber-head
between. But the praftice now is to have a rail upon the
heads of the timbers, and the fides birthed up on each fide
to the under fide of the rail between the ports, and only
three or four timber-heads run up, one in particular before
the bill-board for the fhank-painter. On the quarter-deck
are feven ports of a fide, and four on the round-houfe,
placed as clear as poffible of the (hrouds, as fhewn in ftieer-
plan, FIdle I.

The chelt-tree for hauling home the main-tack muft be
placed near the after-end of the fore channel, or half the
length of the main-yard before the centre of the main-
maft, and drawn from the top of the fide down to the
upper edge of the channel-wale.

The fteps on the fide may next be drawn : they muft be
placed at the fore part of the main drift or gangway, about
three feet in length, fix inches afunder in the clear, and five
inches deep : the upper ftcp to be eleven inches from the
top of the fide, continuing the others to the upper edge of
the wale.

To complete the flieer-plan, the head and ftern only remain
to be drawn, which are as ufeful as ornamental. Therefore
we will proceed with the head, thus : draw the beak-head
or its boundary aft, by raifing a perpendicular fix feet
abaft the aft-fide of the Hem, at one foot eleven inches
above the deck at the fide, or draw an horizontal line at
the fame height as the tipper deck port-fills : the horizontal
is the flat of the beak-head, and the perpendicular continued
up to the rail above the forecaftle, reprefents the fore part of
the beak-head, and will likewife determine the foremoft
end of the forecaftle. Since Plate 1. has been engraved,
the beak-head in the navy feems to be done away, and the
bow continued to the top of the fide, as in the Eaft India
ftiip, Plate XII. It may be ftronger thus, but the beak-
head was very ufeful. Let 15 feet 6 inches, the length of
the head, be fet off from the fore part of the ftern, and
there draw a perpendicular which will determine the fore
part of the block or figure ; draw another perpendicular
at 3 feet 10 inches abaft the former, which is the moulded
breadth of the figure, and boundary of the hair-bracket at
the upper part. Before the height of the figure can be
afcertained, the bowfprit muft be drawn, thus : fet up
4 feet 6 inches at the aft-fide of the ftem, above the upper
deck, for its middle line, and ftive or raife that hne 5 inches
or ^\ inches above an horizontal in every foot forward; then
fet off 1 foot 5^ inches above and below this middle line, and
draw fines parallel thereto, and the bowfprit will be repre-
fented in the ftieer-plan, Plate I. Now the upper part of
the block for the figure can be determined, as tliat Ihould be
at leaft fix inches clear of the under fide of the bowfprit,
which ftiould pafs the under fide of the foremoft upper deck,
beam, and ftep in the partners on the gun-deck a convenient
Height for th"- after part of the manger, as in the inboard
works, Plate IV. of Ship-building.

The cheeks are next to be drawn : fet up the height of the
lower clicek at the ftem, which is 25 feet at its under fide,
above the rabbet of the keel, and draw the after-end to the
ftieer, and the fore part with a handfome flight, fo as to
break in with the perpendicuhr at the forepart of the figure;
then fet up from tlie under fide of the lower cheek, 3 feet
5 inches at the ftem for the under fide of the upper cheek ;
draw the after-end rather more tlian the ftieer, and the fore
part with more flight than the lower cheek, fo as to make a
handfome curve line with the fore part of the hair-bracket.
From the under fide of the lower cheek, fet up at the fore
part of the ftem 7 feet 1 1 inches, which is the upper fide
of the upper rail, and draw the bag of it, or the part

immediately before the ftem, nearly horizontal, or to the
ftieer of the flat of the beak-head, it agreeing to that
height. The fore-end ftiould curve upwards, fo as to appear
parallel with the upper cheek, or nearly fo; and to form the
after-end, draw a curve from the bag to break in fair with
the beak-head line.

Now the moulding of the upper rail and fiding of the
cheeks may be drawn, and as they taper all their length re-
gularly, fet off I foot above the lower fide at the after-end
of the cheeks, which is 5 feet abaft the fore-fide of the ftem
on the ftieer, and 7 inches at the fore-end, or about 8 feet
6 inchee before the ftem. Then the moulding of the upper
head-rail, which is i foot, muft be fet off abaft the beak-
head line, or fore-fide of the rail, and drawn parallel thereto
from about 5 feet below its head, (which muft range with the
under fide of the rail above the forecaftle, or fix inches
higher than the range of the other timber-heads,) and from
thence to taper to fix inches at tli? tore-end, which comes
to the hair-bracket, which is a continuation of the upper
cheek, and runs in a handfome ferpenline line up the back of
the figure, as liigh as where the fiioulder of the figure is
fuppofed to come ; at which place it terminates with a
fcroll. The upper part of the figure or block is formed,
by continuing the line from the breaft or fore part of the
figure to the top of the hair-bracket, obferving to keep
the upper part fix inches clear of tlie under fide of th&
bowfprit, as before obferved.

The head-timbers may now be drawn, placing the ftem-
timber its thicknefs, which is 7 inches, before the ftem, and
to ftaiid perpendicular from the upper fide of the lower
cheek to the under fide of the upper rail. The foremoft
timber to be 8 feet before the ftem, and to ftand parallel to
the ftem-timber, or rake half its thicknefs at leaft, which is
2i inches, which will produce a lighter appearance in the
head : the middle timber is placed equally between the two
former, and is fix inches thick. Another timber is fome-
times placed abaft the ftem-timber, at the fame diftance as
the one before it, the heel of it ftepping on the upper edge
of the lower rail. The length of the block for the figure
fometimes terminates by a perpendicular line at the heel of
the foremoft head-timber ; the lower cheek ends there, or
is continued higher up the figure, and finifties with a
fcroll. The hair-bracket alfo continues down to the heel of
the figure.

The head-timbers being drawn, the middle and lower rails
may be drawn by dividing the fpace between the upper fide
of the upper cheek and under fide of the upper rail equally
at every head-timber ; then drawing curves to pafs through
the moulding depth of each rail, equally fet off from the
above fpaces, which moulding depth is C\ inches at the
ftem, and 4^ inches at the hair-bracket. The after-end of
the lower rail may terminate where it touches the fide. Be-
fore the rail above it can be finiftied, the cat-head muft be
drawn, letting it projeft from the aft-fide of the upper part
of the main or upper rail to rake forward, fo as to ftand
fquare with the bow, or nearly fo, and to ftive upwards 5^
inches in every foot of its length, which is 8 feet 6 inches
without the bow ; obferving that the under fide is to fay
on the plank of the forecaftle at the fide : the upper fide
may be drawn parallel to the under fide at I foot 4^ inches,
its depth: the knee or fupporter under the cat-head forms
a fair curve to the after-end of the upper middle rail, as in
ftieer-draught, Plate I. The knee or fupporter under the
cat-head lately hangs perpendicularly, or nearly fo, and the
rail ends againft the fide.

The knee of the head may next be drawn ; it is to pro-
jeft from the breaft of the figure about four inches ; thence

dravf

SHIP-BUILDING.

draw the fore part of the knee, with an agreeable ferpen-
■tine line to its breadth from the ftem, which fhould not ex-
ceed two feet on a fquare at the load-water-line ; then, by-
continuing the fame line downwards, narrowing more and
more till it approaches the gripe, and drawing it more dif-
tant from the ftem, to about four feet in the broadell place,
let the lower part break in fair with the under fide of
■the falfe keel, where it terminates with the fore foot or fore
part of the keel, which will be next defcribed. The gam-
moning-holes come between the head-timbers, and the bob-
ftay-holes at the fore part of the knee, and the havvfe-holes
between the cheeks are to be 2 feet 6 inches up from the
deck, and I foot 3 inches in diameter, as fhcwn in the
flieer-plan, Plate I. See Hawfe-holes, hereafter defcribed.
From the line reprefenting the upper edge of the keel,
fet down l foot 6 inches, its depth, and draw a line parallel
to its upper edge the whole length, which is i foot 2 inches
before timber S, to the aft-fide of the ftern-poll, and the
lower edge of the keel will be reprefented ; but to com-
plete the fore foot, which mult be of a fufficient depth to
receive the lower part of the item, called the boxing, fquare
up the fore end of the keel from the under fide to the fore-
fide of the ftem, and from thence fquare it to the aft-fide. of
the ftem from its curve. Tiie boxing, or lower part of the
ftem, may now be drawn : fet aft from the line laft fquared
6 feet 6 inches, and draw a perpendicular to half tlie depth
of the keel, and from thence continue a line forward, paral-
lel to the lower edge of the keel, one-third the length
of the fcarf, which will meet the fore-fide of the ftem and
complete it.

The falfe keel, wliich is fix inches deep, may be drawn by
a line parallel to the under edge of the main-keel ; the fore
end of it may continue about three inches before the main-
keel, or run through to the fore part of the gripe.

The flieer-draught being thus tar completed forward, the
Hern and quarters may be finifhed ; and iirll draw a line
which ftiiiU reprefcht the aft-fide of the quarter-piece, agree-
able to the round-forward of the rtern, which is 13 inches
before the fide (lern-tiraber, on a fquare, and nearly parallel
thereto, continuing this line from the plank-rtieer to the
lower gallery rim, the upper fide of which is, at the hne laft
drawn, 6 feet 5 inches above an horizontal line, at the upper
fide of the wing-traniom at the middle. (Obfcrve, all the
heights of the ftern will be fet up above this line, for the
manner of obtaining which, witii every particular relative
to the ftern, the reader is referred to the icftion Laying-
off the Stern, and Plate X.) At the height lail fet oft,
draw the upper fide of the rim forward parallel to the fheer
or top timber-line to 16 feet 6 inches, its length ; then draw
another line parallel under it at 105 inches, its depth. The
height of the upper fide of the rail at the middle ftool is 1 1 feet
9 inches at the quarter-piece, which muft alfo be drawn for-
ward parallel to the ftieer to 16 feet 8 inches, its length ; its
depth, which is 9^ inches, draw in as the middle rim. The
fore part of the quarter-piece may next be drawn, as the
heel of it fteps on the after end of the middle ftool, by
drawing a line parallel to the aft-fide at 14 inches, its fiding.
Draw the middle rim-rail, as before dircAed, at ij feet
3 inches, the height of the upper fide at the fore-fide of the
quarter-piece, to 12 feet 2 inches, its length. In the fame
manner draw the upper ftool-rail, its upper fide being 19 feet
5 inches up at the quarter-piece, and its length forward
12 feet 8 inches. Above this rail is the upper fmidiing, the
upper rail ot which ranges with the height of the plaiik-
Iheer, with another rail below it at 9 inches in the clear: the
upper rail may be about 3i inches, and the other 4 inches.
The upper rail of the finiftiing is 2 feet 8 inches ftiort of

the upper ftool-rail, and Cnifhes at the fore part, as in the
fticer-draught, Plate 1 . The boundary, or fore part of the
upper gallery, is 1 1 feet 7 inches on the run of the middle
rim ; from thence a line is drawn upwards, parallel to the
quarter-piece. Between the middle ftool-rail and the rim
above it, the fore part is completed by a curve. The length
or boundary of the lower gallery is 15 feet 6 inches on the
lower rim ; from thence a line is drawn upwards, parallel to
the rake of the fide ftern-timber. Now the lights and
munions, which are three in each gallery, may be equally
fpaced ; the lights in the lower gallery to be 2 feet 9 inches
in the clear on a fquare, and the munions about 11 inches
each ; the lights in the upper gallery 2 feet 4 inches in the
clear on a fquare, and the munions about 9^ inches each ;
obferving to keep their lower fides up from the rail, about

5 inches the lower ones and 4 inches the upper ones for
the water-table, and their upper fides about 4 inches clear
of the under fides of the ilool-rails above. Draw the
lower ftool-rail along the quarter, which is a continuation
of the lower counter-rail, as the middle rim is of the upper
counter-rail, at the outfide of the quarter-piece, from whence
they are to be continued their length parallel to the flieer,
and that will be the height of thofe rails, as viewed on a
level. The height of the lower counter-rail, at the fide
abaft, is 3 feet 4 inches, and from thence continued parallel
to the rim-rail above: to its length, which is 13 feet, fet
down loi inches, its depth, and draw it parallel to the
upper fide.

The lower finifiiing is 2 feet 3 inches deep below the
lower ftool, and its boundary formed by curves, fo as to
have a light airy appearance, with a ftool nearly in the mid-
dle of if; depth.

The foot-fpace rail may be 91 inches deep, and rabbets
on the ends of the flat of the quarter-deck. The brealt-
lail is 95 inches deep, and its upper fide is 3 feet 2 inches
above and parallel to the other, both projefting 2 feet

6 inches on a fquare to the aft-fide at the middle line from
the midfliip ftern-timbcr. But to complete the balcony,
quarter-piece, and taffrail, as fliewn in the flieer-plan, the
reader is again referred to laying-off^ the ftern, and Plate X.

The birthing of the lower counter may be reprefented by
drawing a curve 4 inches parallel abaft the aft-fide of the
counter-timbers, from the knuckle to the tuck-rail, which
covers the margin on the wing-tranfom, and projefts iti
thicknefs 9^ inches. Draw likcwife the birthing of the
upper counter, which is 2g inches thick, and parallel to the
ftcrn-timbers. Above the upper counter-rail draw in the
thicknefs of the middle munioii, which is 3 inches, and pa-
rallel to the middle ftern-timber, and continued upwards to
the arch-board over the lights, which is about 4^ inches
deep.

The rudder may now be reprefented in the Iheer-plan, ob-
ferving, that the head is continued above the upper deck,
high enough to receive a tiller about four inches above the
deck ; then allow for two hoops above the hole, making
the upper part of the head 2 feet 6 inches above the deck.
Continue upwards the aft-fide of the ftern-poli, which reprc.
fents the fore-fide of the rudder, from whence its breadlli or
aft-fide is fet o(F; and as this fhould not be more nor Icfs
than fufRcient to direft the courfe of the vcllel, the com-
mon practice is to make the breadth at the heel, or lower
end, one-eighth of the main breadth, which will be fix feet
fur fliips having a clean run abatt ; but for merchant-fhips,
or thofe conftrudted chiefly tor burthen, it may be one-
feventh. The height of the lower hance may be fixed at
the load-wcter-liiie, or about fix inches above it, and iti
breadth there ftiould be five-foventlis of the breadth at the
3 Z 2 heel.

SHIP-BUILDING.

heel, back included ; fet forward from thence lo inclies, or
reduce the breadth to 3 feet 5 inches. The upper hance may
be at one-third t!ic heipht of the lower hance, and the breadth
of the rudder there ihould be five-fevenths of the breadth
at the lower hance, or 3 feet i inch; there reduce the breadth
5 inches, which makes it 2 feet 8 inches, from whence a
itraight line may be continued to the head, which is 2 feet
4 inches fore and aft, or larger, if the piece will admit of it :
each hance fliould be reduced with mouldings, as in fliecr-
draught, Plate I., and 3^ inches drawn parallel to the att-
fide, to reprefent the thickncfs of the back. The heel of
the ruddtr, at the fore part, ihould be 9 inches fliort of tlie
under fide of the falle keel, and 1 1 inches at the aft-part,
the fole included, which is 6 inches deep.

The pintles and braces may be now reprefented, placing
the upper brace about four inches above the wing-tranfom,
that the Itraps may clalp round the ftandard on the gun-
deck. The lecond brace (hould be fo placed as to fallen
on the middle of the gun-deck tranfom. The lower brace
may be placed 15 inches above the upper fide of the keel,
and the intermediate ones, four in number, to be equally
placed between the two latter, making feven in all. The
length of the brnces may be governed by a ftraight hue
drawn from the third brace, which (hould be 4 feet 6 inches
afore the rabbet of the poll to the lower one, which is to
be i'lx feet.

The length of all the ilraps of the pintles, which come
upon the rudder immediately above the braces (except the
thicknefs of tiie bur or laucers), may extend within four
inches of the aft-fide : the pintles are 3! inches in diameter,
and all 14 inches long, except the lower one, which is 2
inches longer. The ilraps of the braces and pintles are
five inche.- broad.

The length and breadth of the rudder being reprefented
in the (heer-plan, Plate I., it is evident the breaks or
hances are merely to reduce the breadth as it rifes towards
the head, the greatell breadth being only required below
the water, where it feels the motion of the fhip.

The fluid, in paffing to the rudder, exatlly follows the
outlines of the bottom ; and fuppofing the rudder to make
an angle of 45 degrees with the keel, it may be readily feen,
by the water-lines abaft in the half-breadth plan, that the
immediate fliock it receives from the water increafes as it
approaches to the load-water-line, where they become nearly
at right angles with the fide of the rudder in tliat pofition,
and this holds good, whatever angle the rudder makes with the
keel ; hence fome are of opinion, that the rudder fhould be
made broader near the line of floatation, and narrower towards
the keel ; but the prefent method of making the rudder
with increafing breadth downwards, is only in proportion
to the obliquity of impulfe the water afts againil it near the
keel. It mull be obferved, that the above force llrikes the
rudder obliquely, and only ilrikcs it with that part of its
motion which, according to the fine of incidence, forces it in a
contrary direftion, with a momentum which not only depends
on the velocity of the fliip's courfe, by which this current
of water is produced, but alfo upon the extent of the fine
of incidence. This force is by confequence compofed of
the fquare of the velocity with which the (hip advances,
and the fquare of the line of incidence, which will iiecef-
farily be greater or fnialler aceordii:g to circumftances ; fo
that if the vertel increafes her velocity three or four times
falter, the abfolute (hock of the water upon the rudder will
be nine or fixteen times ilronger, under the fame incidence ;
and if the incidence is increafed, it will yet be augmented in
.T greater proportion, becaufe the fquare of the fijic of inci-
4ence is more enlarged.

Amongft the feveral angles that the rudder makes with
the keel, there is always one pofition more favourable than
any of the others, as it more readily produces the defired
effeft of turning the fliip, in order to change her courfe.

If the angle of the rudder with the keel is greater than
45 degrees, the aftion of the water upon the rudder will in-
creafe, and at the fame time oppofe the courfe of the fliip
in a greater degree ; becaufe the angle cf incidence will be
more open, fo as to prefe:it a greater furface to the (hock
of the water, by oppofing its pafifage more perpendicularly.
If, on the contrary, the angle is leilened to 30 degree?,
the rudder will receive the impreffion of the water too ob-
liquely, for the angle of incidence will be more acute, fo
that it will only prefent a fmall portion of its breadth to the
(hock of the water, and by confequence will onlv receive a
feeble effort. Thus it appears, that between the effecls which
refult from the water's abfolute effort, there is one which
always oppofes the (hip's courfe, and contributes lefs to her
motion of turning, whilft the other produces only this move-
ment of rotation, without operating to retard her velocity. [j_
Hence we may cor.clude, that when the water either ftrikes
the rudder too diredllv, or too obliquely, it lofes a great
deal of the effeft it ought to produce. Between the two
extremes there is, therefore, a mean pofition, which is the
moil favourable to its operation, tis. the angle 45, or
between that and 42 degrees. See Watfon's Euler, p. 130.
See alfo Rudder.

It is evident, that the fore part of the rudder, as high up
as the head of the poll, mull be trimmed on each fide, to
the middle of its thicknefs, (which is the fame thicknefs as
the aft-fide of the llern-po(l, or rather lefs, as it need not
projeft the pod when tlie helm is bird over,) to the greatell
angle the rudder is propofed to make with the keel : how-
ever, the common method is to fet off two-fifths the thick-
nefs of the rudder from the fore part on each fide, and
from thence trim it llraight through to the middle of its
thicknefs, or, what is better, to leave the middle to the con-
vexity of the pintles, rather than a Iharp edge. By this
method the rudder may be put over to the angle of 50 de-
grees, which is more than is neceffary, and it is very leldom
that the tiller, owing to its length, can be put over fo far
to the fide as to allow of the rudder making an angle of
more than 45 degrees, which angle is quite fufficient.

When the above angle, or what is technically called the
hearJiri^, is wholly taken from the fore part of the rudder,
the main piece is very much wounded by letting on the upper
pintle ; but this of late years has been greatly remedied, by
taking half the bearding fro.-n the aft-fide of the ilern-poil
at the head, and from one to two inches on the heel ; of
courfe the rudder is bearded fo much the lefs. This, alfo,
will greatly affifl the converfion of the ilern-poll.

The bearding on the rudder is reprefented by the (hading
on the fore part of the rudder, and the bearding on the poU
by the ticked line in (heer-plan, Plate I.

The rudder, which is reprefented in the fheer-draught,
Plate I., and is as at prefent ufed in the navy, having its
axis of rotation in the centre of its pintles, which are paral-
lel to the aft-fide of the Ilern-poll, caufes a fpace, confider-
ably greater than its tranfverfe feftion, to be cut in the coun-
ter for the rudder to revolve in, which would be impervious
to the waves, were it not defended by a coating of tarred
canvas, nailed in fuch a manner to the rudder and counter, as
to cover the whole fpace required. But the ill effefts of
having fo large a fpace fo ill guarded, have proved very dan-
gerous.

It was to remedy this defeft that rourul-heaJrd rudders
of late years have been adopted in many merchant-fhips,

particularly

SHIP-BUILDING.

particularlv thofc in the fervice of the Eall India Com-
pany.

Tiie round-headed rudder is reprefented in the fheer-plan of
the Eaft India (hij), Plate XII., wliich confifts in making the
upper part of the rudder above, and fome inches below the
hoV- in ttiecnunicr, cylindrical, and giving that part, at the
fime time, a call forward above the upper brace, fo that the
axis of rotation nay by th^t means be the line palling, as
ufual, from the heel of the rudder to tlie upper brace, or that
next below ih; counter, and from thence upwards through the
axi>of the cyhndrical part. or head, in orderthat the tranfverfe
feftion at the counter may be a circle revolving upon its cen-
tre : in which ca(e the fpace of half an inch is more than
fufUcient between the rudder and the counter, and confe-
quently the neceflity of a rudder-coat entirely done away.
Ikit as it was forefeen, that if the rudder was by any acci-
dent unlhipped, this alteration might endanger the tearing
away of ihe counter, the hole is made from two to four
inches larger all round, according to the fize of the fhip,
than the tranfverfe ieftion of the cylindric part of the rudder,
but that fpace is eafily covered over with a wooden rim, about
two inches thick, and of fufficient breadth to nail to the
counter clear of the hole : this rim is fitted nearly clofe to
the rudder, and is capable of refilling the fhock of the fea,
but eafily carried away with the rudder, leaving the coun-
ter, under luch circumftances, in as fafe a itate as it would
be, agreeable to the prefent form of making rudders in the
navy.

It is eafy to conceive that the braces cannot be carried up
fo high on the llern-poft with a round-headed rudder, as in
Plate I. But then the head is better Iteadied, as it has a
large bolt driven down through the centre, that traverfes in a
thick brafs plate confined in a ftrong oaken frame, fixed
over tlie head.

It may alfo be readily feen, that to bring the axis of ro-
tation through the centre of the rudder-head, it mull call
fo much forward, as was before ohiervcd, which requires a
fudden hance between the upper brace and the counter ;
but to avoid this hance cutting away the main poll too much
at the head, a falfe poft, fufficientlv thick, is tabled or
coaked to the aft-fide of the main poll, as in Plate XII.

The body and half-breadth plans may now be completed,
as it remains to add the fupernatant part, or top-fide.

Transfer the heights of the top timber-line from the
fheer-plan, Plate I. to the body-plan, and draw an liori-
zontal line, at each height, acrois each refpcftive body.
Now the breadth of the Ihip at this height determines
the tumbling-homc of the top-fide, which Ihonld not be
too much, as formerly, as it creates an unnecefiary con-
fumption of crooked or compafs-tinibcr, or an extra-
vagant wafle of large timber, which muft be much weak-
ened by being cut acrofs the grain. Ag.iin, great ad-
vantages would be derived from having little or no tumbling-
home to the fides, as it gives more room upon deck, a greater
fpread to the Ihrouds, additional fecurity to the mails,
makes the fiiip llitfer, a much better fea-boat, and in every
refpcfl fafer, itroiiger, and better. On the contrary, it
may be argued, that by the top-fide tumbling-home, par-
ticularly in (hips of war, all the weight of guns, &c,
lying above the load-water-line, may thereby be brought
nearer to the middle line, when of courle the fliip will be
lefs ilrained by tlie working of her guns alfo ; but others
have endeavoured to prove, that by the weights being equal
on both fides, they counterpoife each other, and do not
llrainthe (flip, whatever diilance they may be removed from
the middle line. Again, the top-fide narrowing or tumbling-
liome, as it approaches the top of the fide, particularly in

2

(hips having two or three gun-decks, the fmokenf the lort-cf
guns in aftion lefs annoys thofe on the decks above.

In Plate I. the top-tmiber breadth in midlhip is four feet
lefs than the main breadth, confequently the top-fide tumbles
home two feet on each fide, y.nd may be fo continued in the
half-breadth plan parallel to the mam breadth, from frame
2 2 abaft to H forward ; tlien from the middle line at K fet
up 2 I feet 1 1 inches ; at M, 2 I feet 8 inches ; at O, 2 I feet
6 inches ; at O, 2 1 feet ; at S, 20 feet 4 inches ; at U, 19
feet ; and at the beak-head, 17 feet : at 24, in the after body,
20 feet 7 inches ; at 26, 20 feet ; at 28, 19 feet 6 inche? ;
at 50, 18 feet 9 inches; at 32, iS feet; at ^4, 17 feet 2
inches ; at 36, 16 feet ; then to end it abaft, fquare down to
the half-breadth plan the interfefhion of the top timber-line
at the fide counter-timber in the flieer-plnn, and fet up, as
before, 12 feet. Then a fair curve-line drawn throuo-li
thefe fpots, reprefents the top-timber half-breadth.

Transfer the top-timber half-breadths from the half-
breadth plan to their correfponding horizontal lines at the
top timber-line from the middle line in the body-plan. Now
the timbers may be formed above the lower height of
breadth in the body-plan, thus ; transfer the upper height of
breadth-line from the (heer-plan to the bocy-plan, drawing
thereat horizontal lines ; then fquare up the timbers already
drawn to interfeft the upper height of breadth refpeclively ;
open the compades to 15 feet, the length of the upper-
breadth fweeps, and fix one foot on each line lalt drawn ;
then from the lines, as fquared up, defcribe an arc of a
circle upwards at each timber; then draw at rf4 a curve to
the hollow of the top-fide, touching the back of the upper-
breadth fweep, and the breadth at the top timber-line, thus ;
the timber at the top-fide is formed in midlhip*, to which
let a mould be made from the upper height of breadth up-
wards, continuing the fame hollow of top-fide fonie feet
above the top timber-line at -f j by which mould all the tim-
bers of the top-fide, except two or three quite aft and for-
ward, may be drawn, and both bodies completed to the top
of the fide, by moving the mould at each timber gradually
upwards, fo as to make a fair line with the upper breadth
fweep, touching the breadth at the top timber-line.

The foremoll frames, as X, U, and S, towards the top
of the fide, curve outwards, or the contrary way to thofe
abaft them ; becaufe the breadth at the toj) timber-line pro-
jcfts the main breadth below, by which the anchor is hove
up clear of the bow. From their breadth at the top timber-
line, fquare up a perpendicular line to the top of the fide,
which produces , a ludden angle or knuckle at the top
timber-line, from nhence they are called Lnucklc-limlers.

From tlie fheer-plan transfer the heights of the top-fide to
their refpeclive timbers in the body-plan, and draw a curve
line through thofe heights, and the top of the fide will be
reprelcnted in the body-plan. Then, to prove that the heads
of the timbers make a fair longitudinal curve, transfer tlieir
half-breadths at the height of the top-fide in the body-plan
to their refpeftive timbers in the half-breadth plan ; that is,
from frame D forward, and from 10 abaft ; if they produce
iair curves, the top of tlie fide is correct.

Now the fide fierii-timber may be drawn in the body-plan,
thus: transfer the height of the wing-tranfom, lower coun-
ter, upper counter-knuckles, top timber-line, and top-fide,
from the fide ilern-timber in the (heer-plan to the after
body-plan, and draw an horizontal line at each height ; draw
likewife two horizontal lines, equally fpaced, between the
wing-tranfom and lower counter-knuckle, and one equally
between the upper counter-knuckle and the top tnnbir-liiie.
Transfer the half-breadths of the (\ti. after-frames, where
they are interfcfted by the above horizontal lines, to their

corrc-

SHIP-BUILDING.

eorrefponding timbers in the half-breadth plan, and draw
curvea through the above half-breadths, fome diftance abaft
the after-frame ; then fquare down where the feveral heights
interfeft the fide l\ern-timber in the fiieer-plan, to the
half-breadth plan on their eorrefponding lines, and from
thence transfer the feveral half-breadths to their eorrefpond-
ing heights on the body-plan ; then, by drawing curves
through thofe half-breadths, the fide llern-timber will be re-
prefented.

The main half-breadth and top-timber half-breadth lines
may now be ended abaft in the half-breadth plan : thus,
fquare down from the (heer-plan, where they interfeCl the fide
ftern-timber, to their eorrefponding lines in the half-breadth
plan ; alfo, where they interfeft the middle ftern-timber in the
fheer-plan, fquare them down to the middle line in the
half-breadth plan ; then, with a radius in the faid middle
line, fweep an arc of a circle to interfefl the fpots lall
fquarcd down, which will reprefent the round-aft of the
ftern at the main half-breadth and top timber-lines in that
direftion.

In a fimilar manner may be drawn the round-up of the
flern at the knuckles of the lower and upper counter in the
body-plan, by transferring the heights of tlie lower and upper
knuckles, at the middle llern-timber in the flicer-plan, to the
middle line in the body-plan ; their height at the fide being
fet up before ; then, with a radius from the middle line in
the body-plan, fweep a fegment of a circle to pafs through
each height, and the round-up of the ftern, at each counter,
will be reprefented as in the body-plan, Plate I.

Apron, or Inner Stem, Sec.

The apron may now be drawn in the fheer-plan, by conti-
nuing a Hne parallel to the aft-fide of the ilem, at twelve
inches, its moulding from the head of the ftem, to about
feven feet abaft the boxing, by which it will give (liift to the
fcarfs of the ftem, as reprefented by the ticked hne in the
flieer-plan, P/ate I.

The cutting-down, or height of the upper fide of the
floors in the middle fore and aft, is reprefented by the ticked
line at the following heights ; -viz. at rt , and from frame D
to 8, I foot 10 inches; at F, l foot io| inches; at H,
2 feet i an inch ; at K, 2 feet 2 inches ; at M, 2 feet 5^
inches ; at O, 2 feet i li inches j at S, 4 feet 6 inches ; at
U, 6 feet 6 inches ; at 10, I foot 105: inches ; at 12, 1 foot
II inches ; at 14, 2 feet ; at 16, 2 feet i| inch ; at 18, 2
feet z inches ; at 20, 2 feet 6 inches ; at 22, 2 feet 10
inches; at 24, 3 feet 2 inches; at 26, 3 feet loi inches;
at 28, 4 feet yi inches; at 30, 4 feet 11 inche's; at 32,
7 feet 7 inches ; at 34, 10 feet i:^ mch, above the upper
fide of the keel; then a curve Hne drawn through thofe
heights, will (hew the cutting-down.

_ The deptli of the he/fon is alfo reprefented by a line
eighteen inciies above, and parallel to the cutting-down, into
which forward is fcarfed the fern/on, which is continued
upwards to the under fide of the gun-deck hook, and nearly
parallel to the apron, it being ten inches moulded at the
head. The after-end of the keelfon is completed by the
fternfon-knee, which fcarfs into the keelfon, and runs
up the fore fide of the tranfom to the under fide of the carl-
ing under the gun-deck beams, as (liewn in the Iheer-plan,
Plate I. Sometimes a knee is introduced in the dead-wood,
as (hewn in tlie (heer-plan, which fays againit the inner poll,
which IS fifteen inches moulded at the heel, and one foot at
the head at the under fide of the gun-deck tranfom.

Nature and Ufe of the Timbers, ivhen canted.
Hitherto we have confidered the timbers as having their

5

planes athwartfhips, or at right angles, fquare to the keel,
and have confequently called them fquare-timbers. But the
cant-timbers have their planes inclined forward from the keel
in the fore-body, and the contrary way, or aft, in the after-
body, or canted, as fhipwrights term it.

That the reader may clearly underftand the nature of the
cant-timbers, obferve in the half-breadth plan, Plate I.,
where the joint of cant-timber U interfecls the middle line ;
at which place fuppofe it hung on a hinge, moving fore and
aft ; and alfo imagine the line drawn for the cant-timbers
on the half-breadth plan to reprefent the upper edge of a
furface, of a fuflicient breadth to form the Ihape of the faid
cant-timber from the middle line in the body-plan ; fup-
pofing the horizontal view of that furface to be reprefented
by that one line. It immediately follows, that the furface
muft ftand perpendicular to the upper edge of the keel, fimi-
lar to a door iwinging on its hinges ; and, if we draw the
moulding fhape of the cant-timber, according to what is
laid oft" in Plate V 11. Ji^'. ^. upon this furface, from the
keel to the top of the lide (not moving its pofition), and
then cut it out, we fliall have the true pofition of the cant-
timber, as in its place on the fhip, which will ftand in a per-
pendicular dire&ion ; we may alio, fuppofing it to be hung,
fvving it or cant it either forward or aft, and it will ftill main-
tain its perpendicularity with refpeft to the keel.

The canting of the timbers is of great utihty, as it
affills the converfion of the timber, and likewife greatly
contributes to the ftrength of the ftiip in the fore and after
parts. For in the firft place, were all the timbers of the
bow and buttock to be continued fquare, as thofe of the
fquare body, though the fcantlings of the fquare timbers on
a fquare fhould be equal to the fcantlings of the timbers, if
canted, yet the bevellings of the bow and buttock-timbers
would be lo great, that the confnmption, in fome places, in
order to get the timbers clear of fap, would be greater by ore
half than that in the timbers when canted. And, fecondly,
by canting the timbers gradually from athwartdiip line, we
thereby bring each timber nearer to a fquare with the plankg
of the bottom, which 13 not only the belt pofition to receive
the faftenings of the planks, &c. but the timbers are alfo
better able to bear thofe failenings.

We may now proceed to cant the timbers of the fore-
body, fo that they may ftand as fquare to the curvature of the
bow as poftible ; which will not only greatly leiTen the be-
velling, but will very much ftraighten the moulding ftiape of
the timbers ; by which means they will be much ftronger,
not fo hable to be grain-cut, and having lefs compafs, the
converfion will be greatly aflifted.

Therefore determine on the cant of the foremoft timber,
which is^', by fetting forward two feet one inch on the run
of the main half-breadth line before the perpendicular of X,
and its heel nine inches abaft the perpendicular of U, ©n
the ftepping-line, which is three inches nearer the middle line
than the bearding, or half-thicknefs of the dead-wood, and
draw the ticked line marked c y in the half-breadth plan,
Plate I. The after cant-timber of the fore-body may be
before the foremoft fquare timber O two feet nine inches
on the main half-breadth line, and the heel on the ftepping-
line two feet five inches before O, on the ticked line marked
e p, drawn as before; then may the Intermediate cant-
timbcrs c q, c r, c s, c t, c iu, c s, be drawn, with their joints
to interfedt their refpedfive perpendiculars as far as U, at the
main-breadth-line : then civ and c x equally between cu and
c y : draw the ticked lines reprefenting each cant-timber
from thence to their heels, which are all equally fpaced on
the ftepping-line, between c p and c y.

The Hawfe-pieces can now be determined on and drawn in

the

SHIP-BUILDING.

the half-breadth plan, the fides of which may (land parallel
with the middle line, or canted fquare with tlie bow, which
will leffen their heels and bevellings, and affill tlieir con-
verfion, as before obferved, by the cant-timbers ; their num-
ber may be four, befides the knight-head, which comes next
the Hem, unlefs the apron is fided more than the ftem, which
cannot be the cafe when the rabbet is in the middle : as that
has now become general, a filling about fix inches fided is
fayed next the Hem, which makes it unneced'ary to call the
knight-head above the ftem to receive the bowfprit. In
the half-breadth plan, Plate I. the knight-head is drawn
next the ftem, therefore fet off from the item one foot four
inches, its fiding at the top-timber line or head ; before
cant V is introduced a (hort timber, which fiiortens the heel
of tlie knight-head and hawfe-picces, not that the heels are
expetfed to be gotten fo low down as to fay againft it, for
if the knight-head runs down low enough to take a bolt
througli the gun-deck hook, it is reckoned iufiicient, the
remainder being made good with a chock. From the Hem, at
the timber or timbers before cant y, fet up the fiding of the
heel, which is thirteen inches. In the fame manner fet off the
fiding of the hawfe-pieces, four in number, from each other,
as they fay clofe together, iu wake of the hawfe-holcs ; that is,
1 8 inches at the head for the firll hawfe-piece, 17 inches for
the head of the fecond and third, and 18 inches for the fourth ;
and the fiding at the heels to be all alike 13 inches, as in the
half-breadth plan, Plate I.

The batufe-holes may now be drawn, which fiiould be fo
ftationed as to wound the hawfe-pieces as little as poffible ;
they may therefore be placed fo that the middle or centre of
the mid(hip-hole may come in the joint of tlie firil and fe-
cond hawfe-pieces, and that of the outer hole in the joint of
tlie third and fourth hawfe-pieces. The holes to be in dia-
meter, after the pipes are let out, 17 inches, and in dillance
from each other on a fquare 18 inches, to which lines may
be drawn in the half-breadth plan to extend from the thick-
nefs of the outfide to the infide plank, and in a fore and aft
direftion, fo as to crofs the middle line of the gun-deck at
the main-mall. Sometimes, to avoid wounding the hawfe-
pieces too much, middle pieces are introduced in wake of
the holes fided, about fix inches lefs than the diameter of
the holes ; then, by cutting three inches on the fides of llie
hawfe-pieces between tlic lioles, thofe hawfe-pieces become
confequcntly more fided, and are wounded proportionally,
but little.

The hawfe-holes may now be reprefented in the fhecr-plan,
thus ; fet up their height above the gun-deck, which is two
feet eight inches, to their under fides, then their diameter
above that, which will be clear of the clamps above ; then,
with a proper Hive outwards, we Ihall find them about fix
inches ;ibove the upper fide of the lower check, which will
leave a fufhcient fubHancc of boljler under the hole for the
wear of tlie cable. Square up, from the half-breadth plan,
where the holes interiedl the infide and outfide plank at the
main half-breadth line, that being very near their height ;
then by drawing lines to their Hive parallel to their depth,
they will be reprefented as the dotted lines in the fheer-plaii,
Plate 1. ; but to continue them to the outfide of the bolHcr,
as the Hiaded holes in the fiicer-plan are, fquare up from
Ihe half-breadth plan, where they interfeft the fore part of
the cheek.

The cant-timbers in the after-body may now be drawn,
and every part depending on them ; in order to which we
muft firll determine on the cant of the fadiion-piece ; there-
fore, having the round-aft of the wing-tranfom reprelented
in the half-breadth plan, and likcwifc an horizontal line at
the height of the wing-tranfom, fet off fixteen inches, its

moulded breadth, at the fide on the horizontal line, which is
the Hation of the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece ; then, to de-
termine on the cant of it, the (hape of the body muH be con-
fidered, for the more it is canted the Hraighter will be the
timber, and fquare with the plank of the buttock, confe-
qucntly Hronger and much cafier obtained.

Therefore, let the heel of the faihion-piece at the aft-fide
be nine inches on the ftepping-line in the half-breadth plan
before perpendicular 34, and drawing a llraight fine from
thence to the fore-fide ot the wing-tranfom, a-: above, the cant
of the falhion-piece will be dclcribed, and will be found
fituated in the belt manner pofiible to anfwer the before-
mentioned purpofcs.

The cant of the falhion-piece being reprefented, the cant
of the timbers before it may be eafily determined ; let 29 be
the foremoH cant-timber in the atter-body, which, on the
main half-breadth line, may be equally fpaced between the
after fquare-timber 28, and the perpendicular 30, and its
heel on the Hepping-line be one foot nme inches abaft 28,
drawing a flraight line, as bcf.ire ; the other caut-timbers
between 29 and the falhion piece, which are c 30, c 31,
c 32, c 33, c 34, c 35, and c 36, may be equally Ipaced on
the Hepping-line at the heels, likewife on the main half-
breadth line, drawing ftraight lines as before, which will in-
terfeifl their perpendiculars as far aft as 34 on the m-iin half-
breadth line ; thus the cant-timbers in the after-body will be
reprefented as in tlie half-breadth plan, Plate I.

The line drawn for the cant of the fadiion-piece repre-
fents the aft-fide of it, as before obferved, which lets on to
the ends of the tranfoms ; but, in order to affift the converfion
with regard to the lower tranfoms, there may be two more
falhion-pieces abaft the former ; therefore the foremolt
faihiiui-piece, or tliat which is already drawn in the half-
breadth plan, only takes the ends of the three upper tranfoms,
which are the wing, fiUing, and deck-tranfoms ; the middle
fadiion-piece takes the three next, and the after fadiion-piece
the three lower ones ; therefore fet off in the half-breadth
the fiding of the middle and after fadiion-pieces, which is
12 inches each ; then draw lines parallel to the foremolt
fadiion-piece at the fidings, and the middle and after fafliion-
pieces will be reprefented in the half-breadth plan.

The fadiion-pieces and tranfoms may now be reprefented
in the fheer-plan, as the thwart diip appearance of the
fadiion-pieces limits the length of the tranfoms as they ap-
pear therein : fquare up from the half-breadth plan, where
the fadiion-pieces there interfeft the Hepping, the horizontal
or water-Hiies to their relpeftive water or horizontal hnes,
and Hepping-line, in the Hieer-plan ; but as the foremoft
fadiion-piece runs up three or more feet, if to be gotten above
the wing-tranfom, an horizontal line at the head, and three
more between that and the load-water-line, diould be drawrn
from the body to the half-breadth plan, in pencil, as they may
be rubbed out afterwards, and the interfeilion of the fadiion-
pieces fquared up as before ; then curves drawn through the
ipots as fquared up will rcprefcnt the thwartdiip appear-
ance of the fadiion-pieces in the dieer-plan, as in Plate I.

The height and fiding of all the tranfoms may now be
drawn in the diecr-plan, thus ; fet down 13 inches below the
horizontal line reprefentiiig the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom already drawn, and draw a line parallel thereto,
which will diew the fiding or under fide of the wing-tranfom
as far forward as the fadiion-picce.

The (illing-tranfom is the next, which nearly fills up the
vacancy between the under fide of the wing-traufom and
upper iide of the gun-deck plank, and may be reprefented
by drawing two parallel lines uiukr the wing-tranfom to its
fiding, which may be ten inches, if it will allow two inches

between

SHIP-BUILDING.

between its upper fide and the lower fide of the wing-tranfom,
and four inches from its lower fide and tlie gun-deck plank.
The dock-tranfom muft be governed by the gun-deck, let-
ting the under fide of the gun-deck plank reprefent the up-
per fide of it ; draw another line at fourteen inches, its fiding
parallel to the upper fide, which will complete the gun- deck
tranfoni. The traufoms below the gun-deck, which are fix in
number, are all eleven inches fided, and are reprefented by
drawing horizontal lines from the fore-fide of the rabbet of
the Itern-polt ; the three upper ones to the middle falhion-
piece, and the lower three to the after fafiiion-piece, keeping
each of them about three inches afunder for a free circulation
of air. Every means (hould be taken to prcferve them, as
they are more difficult to (liift than any timbers in the fiiip.

The ilern-polt may now be completed, by drawing the
fore-fide thus ; fet forward upon the upper fide of the keel
three feet from the line, reprefenting its alt-fide, and likewife
twenty inclies at the head, which may be three feet above
the wijig-tranfom, which will admit of the tiller to be three
inches clear of the helm-port tranfom, and two inches from
the under fide of the beams above ; then a ftraight line drawn
from, the heel to the head to the dimenfions fet off, will
reprefent the fore-fide, obferving not to draw the fore-fide
of the poit through the tranfoms.

The ;««tT poj] may be drawn by fctting off before the
main poll fixteen inches, its fize at the upper edge of the
keel, and thirteen inches at the head, which comes no higher
than the under fide of the gun-deck tranfom ; then, by draw-
ing a line, as before, for the fore-fide of the main pod, the
inner poll will be reprefented as in the fheer-plan, Plate I.

To Dejign the Perpendicular Vieiu of the Stem.

In defigning the perpendicular view of the Item, there will
be an opportunity of feeing wliether the knuckles of the
counters are fo difpofed, that the lower and fecond counters
are in proportion to the rell of the ftern : at the fame time,
whether the heiglits of the decks, which, in the prefent
draught, Plate I. are fprung abaft fufficiently to give depth
to the lights, as well as for other conveniencies to make a
well-proportioned Hern.

Draw an horizontal line at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line, in the fiieer-plan, body-plan, and
likewife for the ftern underneath the body-plan, as the balis
of the ftern, from which all the heights will be fet up or
transferred. Continue down thereon the middle line of the
ftern from the body-plan, and drop perpendiculars from the
knuckles of the fide counter-timber in the body-plan, to the
bafe line in the plan of the ftern, and then draw the fide
counter-timber on each fide the middle line, the fame as in the
body-plan above, and the round-up of the upper and lower
counter at the knuckles of each timber. Having the form
of the fide counter-timbers in the plan of the ftern, fet
within them the fcantling of the timber, and draw their
infides.

The lower and upper counter-rails being drawn in fheer-
plan, try if the under fides at the midftiip-timber projeft
enough to bury their refpeftive CDunter-planks, thus ; fquare
aft a line from each counter at the knuckle, and on thofe
lines fet aft from the knuckle the tlucknefs of the counter-
plank, fay three inches at the lower counter, and one quarter
more, tne,t the moulding may not come to a ftiarp edge.
The lower counter-plank may be increafed to four inches,
its gcntr.l thicknefs. Proceed in the fame manner with the
upper counter, its birthing being two and half inches thick.
This will fhew how much the fight-part of the rails will be
on a level view bciuw the knuckles of the timber,^. Then
transfer their height to tlie plan of the ftern at the middle,

and keep them parallel to the knuckles to the outfide, fufii-
cient for the projection of the quarter-galleries, as in pla:i
of the ftern, Plate I.

Take the height of the under fide of the quarter-deck at
the aft part of the middle ftern-timber in the ftieer-plan, and
fet it up in the plan of the flerii at the middle line ; then
round the quarter-deck in the ftern, agreeable to the upper
counter-rail, in the following manner : take the height from
the upper counter-rail, in the plan of the ftern, to tlie quar-
ter-deck at the middle line, and fet it off in the diredlion of
the fide-timber at the infide. This makes the quarter-deck
round more than the upper counter-rail, and adds life to the
ftern ; for the upper part of the lights in the ftern fhould be
parallel to the tranfom. As, if they were to round by the
fame mould as the upper counter-rail, the bars in the fafhes
next the fide would be longer than thofe in the middle line,
and would appear as if the top of the lights rounded lefs
than the upper counter-rail. Draw in the upper part of the
lights about an inch and half below the under fide of the
quarter-deck tranfom, and their lower part about fix inches
above, and parallel to the upper counter-rail, which wilj
allow fufficient depth for the water-table. Set off within-
fide the ftern-timbers, in the plan of the ftern, the thicknefs
of the clamps, and the projection of the cornice in the cabin,
and let that be the fide of the lights.

Then determine on the breadth of the munions, allowing
fufficient for the weights and pulley-pieces, and divide the
fafties, fix in number, equally.

Now, as well-proportioned lights are great ornaments i»
fterns, having the breadth of the lower part of the lights in
the clear, let their depth be at lealt one-third more than the
faid breadth ; fet off upon the rake of the ftern-timbers, ii»
the fheer-plan, and transfer that to the plan of the ftern,
which makes a good proportioned light. Set off likewife
the mock-light in the aft part of the quarter-gallery the
fame fize as the reft.

Then to rake the fafhes regularly from the middle to the-
fides, continue upwards the middle line and the outfide of the
fide ftern-timbers in the plan of the ftern, till they interfeftat
the faid middle line ; then from their fpaceings at the lower
part, the fides of the lights may be drawn to their heads, or
upper part, with a ftraight batten fixed at the interfeftion of
the middle line. In the fame manner may all the interme-
diate ftern-timbers be drawn to their fiding in the middle of
each munion from the wing-tranfom to the under fide of the
quarter-deck, likewife the fhorter ones that make the fide of
the counter-ports, and thofe under the middle of the lights
to the upper counter-rail. At about half the breadth of the
munions from the mock-light, place the infide of the quarter-
piece ; then fet off at the heel fixteen inches, itj moulded
breadth, and continue upwards the outfide of the quarter-
piece, as before, for the lights. In the middle of the quarter-
, piece, or nearly fo, place the outfide of the gallery, which
determines the projeftion of the gallery from the fide.
Draw in the plan of the ftern the foot-fpace rail, its under
fide to be about an inch and a half below the aft part of the
quarter-deck, and parallel thereto to the outfide of the
quarter-piece ; hkewife draw the breaft-rail, transferring its
height from the fheer-plan at the after-part, and fet it up at
the middle line as in the plan of the ftern, and rounding it, as
defcribed for the quarter-deck, to the infide tf the quarter-
piece. Then let the round-houfe deck be drawn in the plan
of the ftern as direfted for ihe quarter-deck, whicn will de-
termine the lower part of the taffra'l, as the necking-mouldmg
fhould be kept an inch and a quartei below the • ound-houle
tranfom. Then may the boundary, or ipper part of 'he
taffrail and quarter-pieces, be tiuiftied as in the plan of the

ftern.

SHIP-BUILDING.

ttern. In the (larboard quarter-piece is defigned the aft
part of the gallery, which is at the middle of the quarter-
piece in the fheer-plan ; therefore it will be proper to draw
the form of the middle of the quarter-piece, and the fore-
fide of the taffrail, upon the fheer-plan. Thus, take the
heights from the level hne at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom in the plan of the ftern, to the lower part of the
quarter-piece, or upper fide of the upper counter-rail, and
likewife in as many places as may be found nccefiary, to get
the exaft form, and fet them up in the flieer-plan, drawing
level lines. Square up the fpots on the quarter-piece and
taffrail to the round-aft of the ftern on a level ; then take
what the round gives at each fpot fquared up, and fet it off
from the midfliip ftern-tiinber on their correfponding level
lines in the fheer-plan. This produces the ticked line that
was drawn in pencil in the (heer-plan, (hewing the middle
of the quarter-piece and fore-fide of the taffrail. Take the
fiding of the taffrail, and draw the aft-fide of the taffrail and
quarter-piece parallel to the middle line of the quarter-piece,
and fore-fide of the taffrail, and draw likewife the fore.fide of
the quarter-piece parallel to the middle. By the fame me-
thod, prove the thwartfhip view in the fheer-plan of the
lower fide of the taffrail, and infide of the quarter-piece.

Take the height in the plan of the ftern of the upper
counter-rail at the outer part, and fet it up in the fheer-plan,
drawing a level hne. But to find how much the after-end
of the rail will be before the knuckle of the upper counter
at the fide-timber, the round-aft of the upper counter-rail
muit be laid down on a level, as in the half-breadth plan ;
transfer the outer end of the faid rail fquare from the middle
line in the plan of the ftern, on to the round-aft fquare from
the middle fine in the half-breadth plan ; then fquare it up to
the fheer-plan, on the level line laft drawn. Defign the lower
gallery rim, with the lights and munions, as in the half-
breadth plan, which is a continuation of the upper counter-
rail, and this will determine the length of the gallery in the
flieer-plan. Take the height in the plan of the ftern to the
foot-fpace rail, at the outfide of the quarter-piece, and tranf-
fer it to the aft-fide of the quarter-piece in the fheer-plan.
Take likewife the upper and lower part of the lights in the
plan of the ftern, at the birthing of the outfide of the gallery,
and fet them up in the fheer-plan, at the ticked line, for the
middle of the quarter-piece. Defign the lower finifhing as
in the plan of the flerii, and transfer tlie height and round-
forward of the lower counter-rail, as befure deicribcd, at its
outer end, and then draw all the rails and lights, as fet up
in the fheer-plan, from thence forward, agreeable to the fheer
of the fhip, to their boundary, or fore part of the quarter-
gallery.

Lallly, the upper finifhing being defigned in the (hcor-
plan, transfer their heights, and complete the quarter-gallery,
as drawn in the ftarboard quarter-piece in the plan of the
ilern, Plate I. : the aft-fide of the rudder, counter-ports, and
helm-port tranfom, may alfo be drawn.

To Dejign thi Plan of the Head.

Continue for>vard the middle line of the half-breadth plan.
Upon it Iquare down the fore-fide and aft-fide of the figure
from the fhecr-p!an, and upon thofe lines fet off the half-
fiding of the figure.

Then draw the main rail to its half-breadth appearance,
thus : fet off the fiding of the after-end of the main rail
from the outfide of the plank at the top-timber half-breadth,
to tlie fore-fide of the beak-head in the half-bicadth plan ;
and alfo the fiding of the fore-end from the outfide of the
figure, the fore-end being fquare down from the fore-part of

Vol. XXXII.

the hair-bracket in the (heer-plan ; obferviiig, h-vwever, ta
add to the fiding the thicknefs of the lining : then, by
drawing Itraight lines to thofe fpots, the lialf-breadth plan
of the main rail will be reprefentcd as in Plate 1.

Square down from the ftieer-plan the head-timbers, where
they interfetl the under fide of the main-rail, to the
middle line of the half-breadth plan : likewife fquare down
the fore and after-fides of the knight-head, and draw the
half-breadth line at the upper fide of the beak-head-flat, and
the thicknefs of the outfide plank.

Square up from the middle line in the half-breadth plan
the head-beam, fo as to let aft about two inches upon the
ilem ; and fquare up likewife the crofs-piece clofe to the
aft-fide of the foremoft head-timber, to which and the head-
beam the main rail is fecured by knees on the aft-fide.

Draw the moulding fize of the upper cheek as you fee
the ticked line in the half- breadth plan, then the half diame-
ter of the bowfprit parallel to the middle line ; and alfo the
fore and aft carhng as much without the bowfprit as the
gammoning may lead down clear of the bowfprit, and out-
fide of the upper cheek.

The feats of eafe, no lefs than two double ones, (hould
be placed the moft conveniently, as (hewn in the plan. The
remainmg fpace of the flat of the head may be compofed of
ledges : and, laftly, may be drawn the boomkins, which
fpread the fore-tack, thus ; fquare down from the centre of
the fore-maft from the (heer-plan to the middle line of the
half-breadth plan, and from that interfeftion draw a line
forward, to form an angle of thirty-fix degrees with the
faid middle line ; and upon it fet off half the length of the
fore-yard ; then draw in the boomkin parallel to the hne rc-
prefenting the fore-yard braced up (harp, and it will come
nearly over the middle head-timber on the main rail, it*
heel refting againft the knight-head ; the length may be
afcertained by a line drawn from the fore yard-arm at the
outer end.

The round-houfes, or feats of eafe for the officers, are
clearer fhewn in the plans of the upper deck and forecaftle ;
which plans and draught of the inboard works will be de-
figned hereafter, the fheer-draught plate being completed.

To Dejign the Difpofttion of the Frame. Plate II.

The utility of a plan of this defcription requires but little
explanation ; as it is evident, upon infpeftion, that it exhi-
bits the difpofition and fhift of every timber, and confe-
quently affords the means of difpofing of every piece to the
grcatcll advantage, both with refpedl to the tlrength of the
fhip, and to the converfion of the timber ; and, moreover,
of preparing every piece for its proper fituation, before the
fhip comes on the flocks, with the greatefl facility.

The frame timbers are formed into bends, as before
oblervcd, by the union of firfl futtocks, fecond or middle
futtocks, third and fourtli futtocks, with top-timbers,
which arc feverally fcarfed together and bolted. Some-
times the frames are fayed clofe together, or feparatcd, for
air ; tliofe that are feparated have dry pieces of oak fayed
between them in wake of the bolts ; thcfe fliould all be
fplit out before the planking is brought on, that a free paf-
fage may be given for the circulation of air.

By tlie difpofition of the frames in their fcveral ftations,
they ftand refpeilively one on each fide of every gun-deck
port, by wiiich the fides of every middle and upper deck
port are likewife provided for. Thus, one fourth futtock
and one long top-timber will form the fide of every gun-deck
port in tvvo-dcckid (liips, and tlie fide of every upper deck
port in three-decked fliips. A lung top-timber and a

4 A fourth

SHIP-BUILDING.

fourth futtock will, in like manner, make the fides of the
middle deck ports in three-decked (hips, and the fides of
upper deck ports in thofe of two decks.

With refpeft to the frame-timbers, it is, in the firft in-
ftance, of the greateft confequence to the Itrength of a
fhip, that they (hould be cut as little as polFible by the ports
on each deck, fcuttles, fcuppers, &c.; and, fecondly, that
all the timbers defigned to make the tides of ports, are, or
fhould be, continued, if poffible, without fcarfing, up to
the top of the fide. Thofe timbers, however, in the fudden
turn of the body, having fo much compafs in their length,
and others which run up to receive the rough-tree rail having
too great a length to be otherwife obtained, mull be admitted
to fcarf, as Ihewn in the difpofition, Plate II.

Thofe timbers that run up to make the fides of quarter-
deck ports, forecalUe ports, or to the rough-tree rail,
fhould, if poffible, be made of timbers Handing up on the
upper deck fills, over the upper deck ports. The fide
along the waift, between the ports, may be filled in with
fir timber, laid fore and aft, and dove-tailed into the
frames.

All timbers in the range of the fore and main channels
fhould run up to the top of the fide; and the filling-timbers
between each frame are all to be equally fpaced between the
frames ; and all the openings between the range of the chain
and preventer-bolts are to be filled in folidly with dry oak-
fillings, as are alfo thofe over every gun-deck and middle
deck port, that there may be folid boring in wake of the
port-rope-pipes, and muzzle-lafhing eye-bolts ; alfo behind
iron knees and ftandards. But as fiUings of tliis kind inter-
rupt the free paflage of the air, let a hole, one inch and up-
wards, be bored throughout their length. All fillings
fhould be charred, or burnt.

All (hips (hould be as light as poffible in their upper
works, confidently with the fervices for which they are in-
tended ; and, as the frame (hould not be incumbered with
more (hort timbers than are abfolutely nccellary, two
timbers over each point are fufficient. The frame will be
adequately full, and every purpofe anfwered, when timbers
are provided to form the gallery doors, and to fill in the
quarters from the after-frame to the fide ftern-timbers ;
and forward, from the foremoft frame to the hawfe-
pieces.

Having confidered the feveral fubjefts above-mentioned,
transfer from the fheer-draught, Plate I., the keel, likewife
the ftcm and ftern-poft, with the tranfoms, and llepping-
Lne for the heels of the cant-timbers, the under fide of the
decks at the fide, alfo the ports, the plank-fheers, rough-
tree rails, and beak-head ; then the fide llern-timber.

Square up from the half-breadth plan, Plate I., the
joints and fidings of the cant-timbers, where they inter-
feft the water-lines, main and top-breadths, and plank-
fheer, to their refpeftive lines in tha flieer-plan, as Plate I.
at c, u, in the fore-body, and at c, 32 in the after-body.
Thus may their thwartlhip appearance be transferred to
the difpofition, Plate II. In the fame manner may be
fquared up the thwartihip appearance of the knight-
head and haivfe-pieces, which may likewife be transferred
as tiie reft, and alfo the hawfe -holes.

The height of the heads of all the timbers may now be
taken above the bafe line in the body-plan, Plate I., and
transferred to their refpeftive timbers above the upper edge
of the keel, in Plate II. Curves being drawn through
thofe heights, will (hew the head of each timber on a per-
pendicular view in the difpofition.

Now fquare up in the difpofition the fidings of all the

timbers between the cant-bodies ; and as the upper deck
ports are lefs fore and aft than thofe of the gun-deck, the
upper part of the frame-timbers muft be opened fo much
from the joint. The frame-timbers may now be marked
with their refpeftive names, likewife the fingle timber dead-
flat, where the body turns to (hift the floors, as they are
always under-bevelled.

The fore-fide, or moulding of the fide ftern-timbers, may
be drawn, and the gallery doors from the (heer-plan,
Plate I. Then the fills, and all the timbers necefi'ary to
frame the quarters abaft frame 36.

The ports being drawn, their fills may all be reprefented ;
making the upper fills in wake of the chain-bolts much
deeper. Then the blocks through the fide fhould be drawn,
that the long timbers may not be provided, and afterwards
cut afunder by thofe blocks ; namely, the main tack-block
between D and B, the fore (heet -block between 4 and 6,
and the main fheet-block between 24 and 26.

The fourth futtocks being the longell timbers in the (hip,
and, from their ihapc, very difficult to be gotten of the
whole length, efpecially for (hips which have much tumble-
home, or even long enough to run up fo as to make the
fide of the upper deck ports, particularly forward and aft, the
fides of fuch ports fliould have their fourth futtocks fcarfed
together with a hook and butt, as at fourth futtock 26 in
the difpofition, Plate II., giving Ihift to the port and each
other : or, if preferred, the fcarf fideways, as reprefented
at fourth futtock O.

The third futtocks that come under the gun-deck ports,
are to be continued upwards to the under fide of the fill,
as at D. But when the third futtocks, owing to their
great compafs, cannot be gotten fo leng, they may be
fcarfed, as at 4, obferving always to get them longer than
the regular ihift.

The defign of Plate II. is to have at one view every
timber on one fide the (hip, that the utmoft care may be taken
to reduce every timber to the fhortcll length admiffible ; as,
in a difpofition of this kind there is every opportunity of ft>
doing ; and likewife of pointing out and converting to the
beft advantage the moft fcarce and valuable timber.

The Defign of Expanding the Bottom and Top fide. Plate III.

The defign of expanding the bottom and top-fide, is to
have the lengths and breadths of all the planks at one view,
that the planking may be fhifted agreeable to the lengths to
be obtained, fo as to run no hazard of beginning with a ftiift
of planking that could not afterwards be continued. For
the planking of a (hip is a branch fo very material, that, un-
lefs it be judicioufly performed, it will unavoidably be very
injurious to, or fubverfive of, thofe good qualities that might
be expefted from the fuperior contlruftion of the fhip.
The planking ought, therefore, to be particularly well
performed : as, in the proper (hifting, fattening, and caulk-
ing, the goodnefs of every part of the materials for that pur-
pofe (hould, confequently, be very carefully infpefted.

The length of plank is a very great objeft to be confi-
dered ; and, in the (hifting, it is principally to be obferved.
For Englilh plank it is allowed, and hath generally been
found to anfwer, that if three whole planks be wrought
between every two butts on the fame timber, and all the butts
to have a fix-feet (hift, or be in diftance from each other
fix feet, the planks will only be twenty-four feet long : this
fhift is generally followed, excepting for the wales, &c. for
(hips of every clals in the royal navy. But as Engliih oak-
plank, having fufficient breadth at the tops in that length,
has become exceedingly fcarce, merchant-fhips have the

planks

SHIP.BUILDING.

planks fliifted of various lengths, according to their thick-
refs ; as two and ahalf and three-inch plank to have a fix-feet
ftift, and two planks between ; and four-inch plank and
upwards, to have a five-feet (hift, and three planks between
every two butts on the fame timber. It is poffible, how-
ever, to have a very bad fhift, and yet have three ftrakes be-
tween every two butts on the fame timber : that is, when
the butts rife one above another in a regular manner, like
fteps ; for, as the upper butts, or thole in the top-fide, are
the moft likely to give way, all below would be inclined to
follow ; as, if the (hip begins to break her fheer amidlhips,
it is moft probable that the butts afore and abaft would yield
proportionably ; therefore, let one of the butts between
have a double fhift, or extend twelve feet ; then will the
ftepping of the butts before mentioned be prevented, and
the planks be twenty-four feet long.

The ivales muft be wrought of f uch length, and the butts
fhifted, fo as to give the Itrongeft fhift to the ports and each
other. To do this, fome of the planks in midfhips fhould
have a three-port fhift ; that is, fhould over-launch three
ports ; being careful, in large fhips, to make one butt an-
fwer for the pump-dale fcupper. To affilt the converfion,
the planks may be wrought top and butt. When the wales
confiif of four ilrakes, they have a fair feam in the middle ;
but if wrought in three ftrakes, let the two lower ftrakes
be worked top and butt, and the upper ftrake of a parallel
breadth.

The thlck-jlujf, or diminifhing ftrakes, from the lower edge
of the wale to the thicknefs of the bottom plank, being of
Englifh oak, is wrought top and butt, and fhould be fhifted
from the butts of the wales to the regular lengths of the
bottom plank as foon as poffible.

The plank of the bottom is Englifh oak-plank ; as low as
the light water-mark, and below that, may be Eaft country
plank of the belt quality. The Englifh plank is worked
top and butt, to twenty-four-feet lengths at leaft. Now, to
break the fhift, fo as to work Eaft country plank to advan-
tage, requires care ; for, as juft obferved, the general fhift
of Enghfh plank is twenty-four feet, whereas Eaft country
plank is from thirty to fifty feet ; confequently, the beft
way is to work a double fhift at firft, or one of forty-eight
feet in length. It rarely happens that the fhift is broken
from Englifh plank to Eaft country plank, without intro-
ducing two planks between two butts on the fame timber in
fome places ; and, it may be admitted, owing to the
fuperior length. Be careful, in fhifting the Eaft country
plank, to keep the fhift as nearly equal as poffible, not being
confined to butt on one timber, but to make an ad-
vantage of drawing the butts having no lefs than a fix-feet
(liift.

Eaft country plank is wrought of a parallel breadth from
ten to eleven inches, excepting forward and aft ; for the
fore and after-hoods that come into the rabbet fliould be
Englifh oak-plank. Four or fix ftrakes nearcil the keel may
be of elm or beech, obferving to fhift the butts clear of the
fcarfs of the keel ; and, likcwife, that no butt is placed
under the pumps, and to work them very broad at the port.
The edges and butts of the fix or eight flrakes next the
keel in Eaft India (hips, are rabbetted clofc ; and fine flannel,
dipt in tar, is put between, and thick kerfcy, alio dipt in
tar, is fprcad between thofe planks and the timbers.

In planking the fore part of the bottom, the breadth of
the ftrakes muft be confidered, and alfo the (hapc of the
bow, that every ftrake of plank may be brought into the
rabbet ; and every plank fhould be kept from fnying as
much as poffible. But, in full-bowed fliips, it would be
jmpolfible to bring every ftr*ke to the ftem without too

much fny. It is, therefore, cullomary to work in the
bow of fuch fhips a drop-ftrake next under the wale, or
more, if necefl'ary, and a fleeler at about four ftrakes
under it ; by which means all the ftrakes that come in the
rabbet will be of fufficient breadth. In order to take out
the fny, bring the fteeler well forward. In moft fhips, a
drop-ftrake abaft, clofe up under the wale, affifts the planks
very much ; and to produce a fair edge, be careful not to
work too broad on the fafhion-piece.

The plank of the top-Jtde is generally wrought in parallel
breadths, therefore it had better not be more than nine
inches broad. The top-fide, being cut by the ports, drifts,
&c. requires the greateft ftrength to be given to it in ftiifting
the plank ; as no butt fhould be placed immediately over or
under a port, unlets there are two planks between. The
planks in wake of the main-matt fhould have a three-port
(hift : the others, afore and abaft, may have a two-port
fhift. As it is ftronger to butt between the ports, it may
be allowed fufficient to have a fliift of 5 feet 6 inches, where
a plank comes between ; or five feet, where two come be-
tween. But there ftiould not be lefs than a fix-feet fiiift where
no plank comes between. The channel and fiieer-wales, in
large ftiips, fhould work down to the flops of the ports in
midfhips ; and, where the fheer lifts forward and aft, fhoiHd
work down to as many ports as may leave fufficient flop,
and afford wood to receive the port-hooks, letting the wood
fo worked down be continued fix inches each way beyond the
flops of the ports ; thence to hance one foot to the regular
breadth : but, by all means, let planks run through, if they
hold but five inches after the ftops are cut, fo as that the
port-hooks will clear the feam ; for planks, however broad,
working down to the ports, make that part no ftronger than
any other.

Forward in wake of the hawfe-holes, the planks fhould
be fo wrought as to have the feam to cut the plank as
little as poffible by the holes ; and care muft be taken that
no feams come behind the cheeks.

The fiieer-ftrakes, as they are the greateft ftrengthener* of
the upper part of the top.lide, fhould have their butts dif-
pofed with the utmoft care, in order to produce the greateft
ftrength between the drifts, and give the (Irongeft (Ivift to
each other. They are wrought of parallel breadths, with
hook and butt fcarfs about four feet long between the
drifts. The butts afore and abaft may be fquare, cfpecially
behind the channels, which fhould be of Enghfh oak. The
others, owing to their great lengths, muft be of Eaft coun-
try plank.

Obferve ; if the channel or (heer-wales are in three ftrakes,
two of them may be wrought top and butt, to alfift the
converfion.

In planking the in/iJe, attention muft be paid that tJie butts
of the clamps, fpirkittings, and ftrings in the waift, fhould
give fhift to the butts outfide.

Clamps, when wrought of a fingle ftrake, fhould have
hook and butt fcarfs about four feet long.

Gun-deck clamps and fpirkitting fiiould have a three-port
fhift in midfhips, as fhould likcwife thofe of the middle and
upper deck. Clamps and fpirkittings, when wrought in
two ftrakes, may work top and butt, and one butt of the
latter is to come in wake of the pump-dale fcupper.

The clamps of the lower deck cannot be wrought toward*
the after part of the fhip, agreeably to the hang of the
deck, fo as to admit of the after-beam's coming home to
the timbers, as it would wound them too much, or produce
too great a fny ; therefore the clamps may lift aft to pro-
duce an eafy edge, and fome of the after-beams, of courfe,
muft face on tlie clamps.

4 A 3 However

SHIf-BUILDING.

However defirable a three-port (hift may be with regard
to ftrength, planks of that length are hard to be gotten ;
therefore, to add fecurity to a two-port fliift, let the plank
below or above the butt be douelled into each timber next
the butt, and likewife edgeways, keeping the douls clear of
each other.

To defign on a plan the body of the (liip, (hewing the
lengths and breadths of all the planks as near as is required
for°praftice, will be found by experience to be neceffary ;
for when the (hip is planking, without a plan of this fort to
affitt, it is requifite to girt the body in feveral places, to
know the number of ftrakes the bottom will require, in
order to work the planks of each quality of an equal
breadth, and likewife to know the dirainifhing of the
breadths of the planks forward and aft. To do this fatis-
faftorily, without a plan, is attended with much incon-
venience and trouble. It alfo affords an opportunity of not
only (hifting the work before it be immediately wanted ; but
by having the whole fliift of the bottom and top-fide before
you at one view, you have a better opportunity of feeing
whether the butts arc fufficiently clear of each other, which
is better than feeing them on the (hip's fide. And when
the (hip is planking, if there (hould bafany lengths which
may prove difficult, you may, by referring to the plan, fee
if the butt can conveniently be altered, without prejudicing
the (hift that is not wrought ; fome part of which it is likely
may be altered to conform thereto.

The bottom may be expanded by the horizontal or water-
lines, alfo by the ribband-lines ; therefore, from the fheer-
plan, Plate I., may be taken the itation of all the timbers,
and the lower edge of the rabbet of the keel, from the aft-
fide of the rabbet of the ftern-poft, to as far forward as the
rabbet of the keel continues ilraiglit, that is to timber M ;
likewife the fcarfs of the keel ; all of which are to be fet
off on the plan of expanfion, as in Plate III. Then to ex-
pand the fquare body, transfer the heights of the upper and
lower edge of the main-wale, channel-wale, (heer-ilrakes,
upper and lower fides of all the ports, the height of the
decks at the fide, and under fide of the plank-(heer, from
the (heer-plan, Plate I., to the body-plan. Transfer from
the body-plan the half breadth of the timbers at the upper
and lower edge of the main-wale, channel-wale, flieer-flrake,
and under fide of plank-{heer, to the half-breadth plan, and
draw in the lines to their half breadth ; which being done,
apply to thofe lines, and alfo to the horizontal or water-lines,
narrow flips of paper, confining them thereto by needles or
fmall pins, from dead-flat forward to fquare timber O, and
from thence abaft to 28 ; marking upon each flip of paper
the flation of every timber, and its refpective water-line, &c.
as girted.

In the fame manner, girt the timber dead-flat in the body-
plan, Plate I., from the infide of the rabbet of the keel to
the under fide of the plan-flieer or gun-wale ; then mark
upon it the heads of the timbers, water-lines, upper and
lower edges of the wales, and ports ; likewife the decks at
the fide and under fide of the plank-fheer. Then fquare
up the (tation of dead-flat, as fliewn on Plate 111. ; and
upon that line fet up the middle of the rabbet, to which
fpot fix, with a needle, the fpot correfponding thereto on
the flip of paper that girted dead-flat ; then upon the line
mark off' from the faid flip the water-lines, heads of the
timbers, upper and lower edges of the wales, ports, &c. In
the fame manner proceed to girt every fquare timber in the
body-plan, Plate I., marking thereon the name of its re-
fpeftive timber. Then fix the fpot marked for the middle
«f the rabbet of each girt, to the niiddle of the rabbet of
its rcfpeftive timber in Plate III.

Now fix the girt of each water-line, &c. as taken from
the half-breadth plan, to its correfponding height, as marked
on dead-flat, PlatelW.; then (tretch each girt, obferving
it does not pucker, in fuch a manner that the ftations of the
timbers, as marked on the girts of the water-lines, &c. and
their correfponding heights, as marked on the girt of each tim-
ber, may interfeft each other ; then with needles confine thenj
iu that fituation, and make dots at every interfeftion, which
will reprcfent the expanded heights and lengths of all the
water-lines, main-wales, &c. in the fquare bodies. Fair
curves may then be drawn through all thefe dots, which
will (hew the fquare bodies expanded from 28 aft to O
forward.

Then, to expand the cant -bodies afore and abaft, proceed
to draw in pencil the joints of the cant-timbers in the body,
plan, Plate I. ; thus, lay a flip of paper in the direiflion of
each cant-timber in the half-breadth plan, and mark on it
their interfeftion at each water-line, main-wale, channel,
wale, ports, (heer-llrake, and plank-(heer ; alfo the middle
of the rabbet of the keel and item, and middle line. Then LA
transfer each timber fo marked to the body-plan, Plate I.; ff
and mark on each correfponding line their half-breadths
from the middle hne ; then curves drawn through thofe fpots ,_
will reprefent the joint of each cant-timber from the keel ■
to the top of the fide. In the fam.e manner draw the ^
fides of the (hort timber before cant y.

The thwartfhip view of the joints of all the cant-timbers
being reprefented in the (heer-plan, Plate I., fquare up from
the half-breadth plan the fore-fide of cant y and the tim-
ber before it, and likewife the fides of the hawfe-picces,
where they interfeft the water-lines, main-wale, &c. to their
correfponding lines in the (heer-plan. Then drawing lines
in pencil through the fpots fo fquared up, the thwart fliip
view of the hawfe-pieces, and the cant-timber before _y, will
be alfo reprefented in the (heer-plan.

Now draw in pencil the fore and aft view of the hawfe-
pieces in the budy-plan, Plate 1., by fetting off their fiding
at the heads and heels from the fide of the ftem, and draw
ilraight lines to interfeft the forcrfide of cant y and the tim.
ber before it ; then transfer the height of the heels from the
fheer-plan, where they cut off againll the foremoit timbers,
to the fame timbers in the body-plan, as in Plate VIII. Lay-
ing-off B,/^s. I and 2.

Transfer the heights of the main-wale, &c. where they
interfeft the joint of the cant-timbers in the (heer-plan,
Plate I., to their correfponding timbers in the body-plan.
Then with flips of paper girt the cant-timbers, as before,
for the fquare ones, marking all the heights fet off, and
the heels where they cut the ftem forward and thofe abaft
on the keel.

Likewife girt each water-line, main-wale, &c. from fquare
timber O, in the half-breadth plan, round to the ftem, mark-
ing thereon the joints of all the cant-timbers, the fides of
the hawfe-pieces, and ftem ; then girt the ftem in the fheer-
plan from M, marking O, the heels of all the cant-timbers,
and the heights of the water-lines, wales. Sec.

Then place the girt of the ftem on Plate III., confining
it at M ; and likewife fix all the girts of the cant-timbers
in the fore -body, confining their heels refpeftively to their
ftations on the ftem ; alfo the girts of each water-line,
wales, &c. confining them refpeftively at fquare timber O;
then move the whole till they all agree, that is, the ends of
the water-lines, &c. are to agree with their refpeftive heights
on the girt of the ftem, confining them with pins till the
whole of the fore cant-body agree, and as much as poflible
let them lie fmooth, wthout puckering. Then may be
marked on the plan the proper edges of the flips of paper,

which

SHIP-BUILDING.

which will reprefent the moulding edges of the cant-timbers,
the water-lines, wales, &c. Likewife mark the heads of
the timbers, as taken from the body-plan, as the flips now
lie, which heads may be drawn when the flips of paper
are taken up.

The fidings of all the timbers may then be drawn from
their moulding edges, and the openings fhewn where re-
quired for air, or to make the fides of ports, obferving to
taper the heels of the cant-timbers on the ilepping-line.

The operation of expanding the after cant-body is fo
fimilar to the above as not to need repetition ; therefore, fup-
pofing the after cant-body to be expanded as far aft as the
falhion-pieces and ftein-timber, there only remains to be ex-
plained the expanding of the tranfoms.

Ttie buttock-lines being drawn in the feveral plans of
Plate I., proceed to draw in pencil the moulding edges of
the tranfoms in the half-breadth plan, thus : lay a (lip of
paper in the direftion of the upper edge of each Iranfom in
the flieer-plan, and mark thereon where they cut each but-
tock-hne fore-fide of the rabbet of the ilern-poft, and the
after perpendicular.

Square down the after perpendicular to the half-breadth
plan, and therefrom fct off each tranfom on its correfpond-
ing buttock-hne, and the rabbet on the half-thicknefs of
the pod. Then draw curves through thofe fpots, till they
interfeft the aft -fide of the fafliion-pieces, and the moulding
edges of the tranfoms will be reprefcnted in the half-breadth
plan.

Now draw in pencil the tranfoms and buttock-lines, where
they crofs the aft-fides of the fafhion-pieces in the body-plan,
by transferring their heights from the Iheer-plan, where they
interfeft the thwart (liip view of the fafhion-pieces on the
aft- fide.

Provide narrow flips of paper, as before, and extend one
round the aft fide of each faihion-piece in the body-plan,
Pkti I. ; and mark thereon where the upper fides of the
tranfoms and buttock-lines crofs them. Then place other
flips round the moulding edges of the tranfoms, below the
wing-tranfom in the half-breadth plan, marking the aft-fides
of the fafliion-picces againit which the tranfoms cut off, and
the feveral buttock-lines, as alfo the fide of the ilern-pott,
or infide of the rabbet, which is the extreme length of the
planks when worked. Then extend other flips of paper
round the feveral buttock-hnes in the fheer-plan, Plate I.
and mark on them the aft-fides of the falhion-pieces, and the
moulding or upper edges of all the tranfoms below the
wing, and likewife the margin-line of the wing-tranfom,
wiiich is the end of the buttock-hnes and planks alfo.
Then place the flips of paper as on Plate III., thofe for the
heights of the tranfoms and buttock-hnct to the aft-fides of
the fafhion-pieces, refpeftively marking their heights, to
which fix thofe for the buttock-lines and moulding edges of
the tranfoms to correfpond ; then move both the latter, till
their corrcfponding fpots agree together, and fo confine them
with pins : then mark the proper edges of the flips of paper,
which will give the expanded form of the moulding edges of
the tranfoms, and likewile the buttock-lines as they properly
interfcft the tranfoms. Tiie fartheil fpots on the papers of
the tranfoms give the boundary of the (tern-frame at the
infide of the rabbet, and the fartheft fpots on the papers of
the buttock-lines and the m.argin, of tiie wing-tranfom.

In the fame manner may be taken off the lower edges of
all the tranfoms, and draw the upper part of the wing-
tranfom, which makes the ftern-frame complete.

Take a flip of paper, and place it \ip the rabbet of the
ftern-poft, in the (heer-plan, Plate I., and mark on the
paper the lower edge of the rabbet of the keel, the three

lower water-lines, and the lower edge of the lower tranfom ;
then place the flip of paper as in Plate III., keeping the
fpot for the lower edge of the rabbet well with its cor-
refponding fpot on the keel; ar.d move the flip of paper,
till the marks for the water-lines and lower edge of the
tranfom agree with their extremities ; then, by marking
the edge, the poll will be defcribed, and the boundary of
the planks below the tranfom.

The operation may be performed by the ribband-lines, as
well as by the water-lines, as before obfcrved ; but in that
cafe, the cant-timbers muft have been drawn in the body-
plan, Plate I., on the fquare as well as on the cant, to
level through their proper heights, which was omitted, to
prevent confufion : neverthelefs the lower ribband is repre-
fcnted in Plate III.

The whole fide being now expanded, the planks of the
bottom and wales may all be reprefcnted, agreeable to the
foregoing direftions. Likewife, on the top-fide we have
an opportunity of feeing the diftance of every feam from the
port-fills, whereby you may judge whether it is better to
cut down upon the ftrakes for the ports, or to work the
Itrakes fomewhat broader, to correfpond with the (lops of
the ports. This (hould be carefully examined, otherwife
you will be under the neceffity of making a bad (hift in the
top-fide ; or be forced to cut fo low down upon the lower
ftrake, that the bolts, which are driven through the lower
fills, will be of little ufe ; and alfo to cut up fo much for
the upper part of the ports, that there will not be left fuf-
ficient wood for the port-hooks to bear the weight of the
ports ; inconveniencies which ought to be well confidered,
before it be too late to alter them.

The ftrength of the fliip, with refpe£t to keeping her
from breaking her (heer, chiefly depends on the (hift of the
planks from the water to the gun-wale, of which the greateft
care ftiould be taken to make the bell poffible, agreeable to
the ufual lengths of the planks ; and hkewife that the infide
plank, efpecially the ftrake above and below the ports,
fliould be fliifted as clear as poffible of the outfide ftrakes.

The longer the planks in the top-fide are wrought, the
ftronger muft be the work ; but then it would be imprudent
to work longer than the ufual length of the planks, becaufe
when the (hip wanted repair, you would be forced to
cut plank on purpofc, and thereby work green plank in-
ftead of feafoned. The breadth of the planks fliould be
confulted, before you determine on the number of ftrakes
in the top-fide, as before obferved ; for if the planks are
rather narrow, the top-fide will look the neater, and be
equally as Itrong, if not bored too much.

To defign the Profile, or inboard ll^orh of the "J^-Gun Ship,
■with Ohfervatiom on the inloard IVorit of Ships in general.
Plate IV.

Sometimes the inboard works are drawn in the flieer-plan
of Plate I. ; but when fo drawn, they appear (b confufed,
tliat the beit and rtadieft method is to appropriate a draught
for that purpofe, as Plate IV., in which every particular
will be more clear and conipicuous.

To conltruft this drauglit, it will be neceffary to take
from the ftieer-plan of Plate I. the fcale, keel and fcarfs,
ftem, ftern-poft, rudder, counter-timbers, fafliion-picccs,
tranfoms, cutting-down line, keelfon, apron, ftcmfon, all
the decks, and centres of the mails ; alfo the drifts, plank-
flieer all fore and aft, the joints of the frame-timbers, and
the ports.

Tiie ftations of the beams are next to be coiifidorcd, and
(hould be fo difpofed as to come one under, and one be-
tween, each port, or as nearly fo as poffible, to anfwer the

other

SHIP-BUILDING.

other works of the (hip, as the hatchways, ladder-ways,
maft-rooms, &c. ; but where a beam cannot pofiibly be
placed under a port, or too wide apart, then a beam-arm,
or half-beam, (hould be introduced to make good the de-
ficiency.

To difpofe of the beams, as in the profile, Plate IV.,
draw a fine pencil hne under the deck-hne at the fide, and
parallel thereto, to the moulding of the beams, which is for
the gun-deck, 1 6 inches; upper-deck, 1 2 inches; quarter-
deck and forecaftle, 8i inches ; and round-houfe, 6 inches.
Then place the firft beam of the gun-deck under the middle
of the firft port, or nearly fo ; the fecond between that and the
third, which t^kes the heels of the bowfprit-ftep ; the aft-
fide of the latter to be 3 feet 10 inches before the centre of
the fore-maft ; the fore-fide of the fourth to be 2 feet 6 inches
abaft it ; the aft-fide of the fifth to be 10 feet 9 inches abaft
the centre of the fore-mait, againft which are the fore riding-
bitts ; the aft-fide of the feventh to be 21 feet 10 inches
abaft the faid centre, which takes the after riding-bitts ;
the fixth comes equally between ; the aft-fide of the tenth
beam plumbs the after-part of the forecaftle, or nearly fo,
and makes the fore-fide of the fore-hatchway, which is
4 feet 10 inches fore and aft, and is made by the eleventh
beam ; the ladder-way between the ninth and tenth beam is
3 feet 2 inches in the clear ; the aft-fide of the twelfth beam
is 5 feet 8 inches abaft the fore-hatchway ; and the fore -fide
of the thirteenth 1 1 feet : between thefe two beams are let
down the fore-jeer capftan-ftep. The fore-fide of the
feventeenth beam is 5 feet 8 inches before the centre of the
main-maft, and makes the aft-fide of the main-hatchway,
which is 8 feet fore and aft, and is made by the fixteenth
beam ; the eighteenth beam is 9 feet 9 inches in the clear
abaft the feventeenth; and the nineteenth 4 feet 10 inches
in the clear, which makes the after-hatch ; the aft-fide of
the twenty-firft beam is 1 2 feet abaft the after-hatch ; and
the twenty-fecond 5 feet 6 inches in the clear abaft it, which
takes the itep of the main-jeer-capftan ; from the twenty-
third to the thirtieth are about 4 feet in the clear afunder.
Between the twenty-third and twenty-fifth is the ladder-way
to the cock-pit, and hatch to fpirit-room ; and the twenty-
fixth beam (hould be placed exaftly under the centre of the
mizen-maft, all the beams having any thing attached to
them being particularized. The intermediate onei may be
equally fpaced between them ; and their fidings, which are
16 inches, may now be fet o(F, and each beam be drawn.
But as beams are feldom made of lefs than two pieces, the
lips, which are four inches, had better be added to the fiding.

On the upper deck the firft beam is placed under the beak-
head, to receive the tenons of the beak-head ftantions ;
the fecond beam muft be fo fixed, as not to be too much
wounded by the bowfprit ; the third and fourth about 2 feet
6 inches in the clear on each fide the centre of the fore-
maft ; the others, particularly thofe that have pillars under
them, (hould be itationcd over thofe of the gun-deck ; from
the fifth beam to the tenth is let up in the middle 2 inches of
the fore-hearth carling, which is 12 inches fquare ; between
the tenth and the eleventh beam is the fore-hatch over the
gun-deck, abaft which is a ladder-way, and next abaft it
the capftan ; the feventeenth beam takes the topfail-ftieet-
bitts on the aft-fide ; and the next beam before makes the
fore-fide of the main-hatchway, before which is a ladder-
way about 4 feet 6 inches in the clear. The eighteenth
beam on the fore-fide takes the main jeer-bitts, and the next
abaft makes the after-hatchway ; between the tiventy-firft
aud twenty-fecond is the capftan-room, which ftiould be at
leaft 5 feet 8 inches in the clear, to admit the capftan. From
the twenty-fecond to the twenty-fifth are gratings, and a

10

tec. The tranfom abaft

ladder-way to the gun-room,
fcores in to the ftem-timbers.

The quarter-deck beams having no framing of carlings and
ledges as the others below, require nearly twice the num-
ber in the fame length, and a greater round-up, otherwife
they would be apt to bend with their own weight.

The length of the quarter-deck is determined by having
the aft-fide of the foremoft beam about four feet before the
centre of the main-maft, and in general receives the tenon
at the heads of the main-topfail(hcet-bitts ; the fecond beam
is about 4 feet 6 inches abaft the centre of the main-maft,
and receives the tenon at the heads of the main-jeer-bitts ; of
late thefe bitts are clear of the beams above the riding bitts ;
the other beams, in general as far aft as the mizen-maft, are
kept about 2 feet 8 inches in the clear afunder. Between
the third and fourth beams is a fcuttle on each fide for the
top-tackle ; from the feventh to the eleventh are gratings ;
and between the eleventh and twelfth a ladder-way for the
officers. Fourteen and fifteen are placed about i foot
10 inches on each fide the centre of the mizen-maft ; and the
thirteenth 3 feet 6 inches before fourteen, fo as to receive
the tenons of the fteering-wheel ftantions in the middle;
the twenty-fourth beam is fo placed as to receive the tenons
of the munion of the fcreen-bulk-head, and fometimes
rounds aft for the bulk-head to follow the round-aft of the
(tern, or nearly fo. Againft the fore-fide of the ftern-
timbers, and fcored aft into them, is a tranfom like the
deck below, but having a balcony ; the deals run aft to
form the fame.

The forecaftle beams (hould be four more in number than
there are in the upper deck, in the length of the forecaftle ;
and where a wide opening occurs, fuch as the maft-room, a
half-beam (hould be introduced, to make good the deficiency.
The cat-beam is fo placed that the itantions of the beak-
head-bulk-head may face on the fore-fide li inch ; and when
the cat's-tail comes in upon the forecaftle, and is fecured
thereon, it muft be three-feet fided, as it requires a rabbet of
five inches on the aft-fide to receive the ends of the deals ; but
of late years the cat's-tail comes in under the beams, which
greatly alfifts the convcrfion of the cat-heads, and makes
more room on the forecaftle, and confequently the beam
need be no larger than the others, whereby a great weight
is taken oflF this part of the (hip. Between the firft and fe-
cond beam is a ladder-way about three feet in the clear. The
third beam is two feet before the centre of the fore-maft ; the
fore-topfail-(heet-bitts come on the fore- fide, and the heeU
upon the upper deck. The fore-fide of the fourth beam is
three feet abaft the centre of the fore-maft, which allows for
the fore-jeer bitts to come on the fore-fide of the beam ; and
their heels (hould caft outwards fufficient to lead the fore-
tack aft clear of the galley. From the fixth to the eighth
beams are the gratings over the galley ; on the fore-fide of
the ninth beam is the fcuttle for the fire-hearth funnel ; be-
tween that and the tenth, the fteam-grating over the boiler ;
and on the after-beams was a cupola, or belfry for the bell,
but that of late has been removed to the fore-part of the
quarter-deck, between the main-topfail-(heet-bitts, in the
royal navy.

The round-houfe beams are fmaller than thofe of the quar-
ter-deck ; therefore, let the number of beams on the round-
houfe be two, or more, in number than in the fame length
of the quarter-deck. The round-houfe ftiould always have
a great round-up, both for ftrength and convenience.

With regard to placing the round-houfe beams, we have
only to attend to the foremoft (tantion of the fteering-wheel,
fo as to receive the tenon at the head : the mizen-maft
muft alfo have a beam about 20 inches on each fide the

centre.

I

SHIP-BUILDING.

centre. Before the maft is a fmall pair of bitts for the
mizen-topfail-fheets ; and over the middle of the captain's
lobby is a companion with glafs-fathes ; but lately illumi-
nators of glafs are let into the deck, which are found more
convenient. The intermediate beams may be placed equally
diftant afunder, letting the beam over the fcreen-bulk-head
have a proper roundaft, agreeably to the quarter-deck
beam underneath.

The beams of the feveral decks, as taken from the flieer-
plan, Plate I., being defcribed, thofe of the orlop only
remain : therefore, fet down from the upper fide of the gun-
deck beams 7 feet i inch, for the upper fide of the orlop
beams ; but as the platforms forward and abaft are laid
with three-inch deal or plank, they may be kept fo much be-
low the range of the other beams, that is, from forward to
beam number fix, and from the twentieth to the after-beam,
which is immediately under the twenty-feventh beam of the
gun-deck.

The beams of the orlop round-up 2\ or 3 inches in
midfhips, and (hould be placed direftly under thofe of the
gun-deck, except the fecond beam from forward, which
may be equally fpaced between the firll and third. Be-
tween the tenth and the eleventh beams is (hewn the capltan-
itep, &c. for lowering the fore-jeer capitan down on the
orlop occafionally ; but this has been left off in the navy
fome years. The fifteenth and fixteenth beams take the
well-bulk-heads ; and till of late years the well was inclofed
by a loover-board bulk-head from the orlop to the gun-deck,
but is now only laid over with gratings. Between the
twentieth and twenty-firil is a hatch to the fpirit-room ; and
between the twenty-fecond and twenty-third, a hatch to the

j coalhole.

Below the orlop are the works in the hold : fuch are the
breaft-hooks from number one to fix ; the ftep of the fore-
malt being made by the fifth and fixth hooks, and framed by
carlings. Thefe hooks (land fquare with the body, but

! the hooks under the gun-deck and upper deck lay with the
Iheer of the deck ; there is likewife a hook under the hawfe-
holes. The magazine and light-room extend from the aft-
fide of the firft beam of the orlop to the aft- fide of the fixth,
which takes the heels of the after-riding-bitts. Next abaft
the magazine-bulk-head are ftore-rooms to theaft-fideof the
eighth beam ; and under thofe a fiiot-locker. Clofe abaft

j the main-hatchway is the pump-well, inclofed with a bulk-

I head of three-inch plank, about ten feet fore and aft, and eight
feet athwartlhips in the clear. In the well is the ftep for the
main-maft, and the pumps on each fide ; and adjoining the
well, on the fore and after-fidos, arc (liot-lockcrs about
two feet in the clear. On the fore-fide of the twentieth beam
is the bulk-head of the fpirit-room, which extends to the aft-
fide of the twenty-fecond beam ; and on the fore-fide of the
twenty-third beam is the after-bulk-head of the coal-hole,
and fore-part of the powder-room, which extends to the
after-fide of the twenty-fourth or after-beam. The orlop
cannot extend further aft, or fufficient fpace would not be
left for the bread-room. On the fore-fide of the after-beam
of the gun-deck is a bulk-head, which terminates the bread-
room ; and the fpace abaft it to the tranloms is called
lady's-hole. Clofe before the powder-room-bulk head is a
crutch ; and two more crutches are fpaced abaft the
powder-room.

In the profile, Plate IV.. is reprefented the method of
conntdling the fides and beams together by knees and riders,
as ufed when that plate was engraved ; but owing to the
great fcarclty of knee-timber fiiice that time, other methods
of connecting the fides and beams together have been
adopted, which will be more noticed hereafter, under the

head of improvements and projeSed improvements in the building
ofjhips. See Substitute.

Hanging and lodging-knees of wood of a kindly growth
is certainly the beft mode of connefting the fides and beams
together. The addition of breadth and top-riders, parti-
cularly in wake of the mafts, and three or four in the waift,
where they rake much, and fo crofs feveral of the timbers,
mull certainly llifFen the fide ; but this may be more necef-
fary in repairs than in new fhips, if the hanging-knees are
of a good growth, as before obferved : but by no means
to difpenfe with a hanging-knee to introduce a rider, but
only when they can clear each other, as the gun-deck beam
fifteen and upper deck beam fourteen, then it may be al-
lowed to be very itrong. Obferve, whenever a rider comes
in the throat of a lodging-knee, it can only be made of
iron.

In the hold it is cuftomary to place four floor-riders, one
under the beam at the aft-fide of the fore-hatchway, and
the after one under the beam abaft the main-maft ; the next
under the beam before the main-maft, and the other midway
between that and the fore-hatchway. The floor-riders ex-
tend about twelve feet on each fide beyond the keelfon, and
about one foot four inches fquare.

Loiuer futtock-riders are from five to fix in number, one
on the fide of each floor-rider, and one or two abaft the
after floor-rider. Their length is from the fide of the keel-
fon, to give about eight-feet ftiift to the

Second futtock-riders, which extend from the floor-rider
head up to the under fide of the orlop-beam, and are about
one foot two inches fquare.

Third futtock-riders are in length from the head of the
lower futtock-rider to the under fide of the gun-deck beam,
and fcore on to the fide of the orlop-beam li inch with
a dove-tail, and are in fize the fame as the fecond futtock-
riders. Obferve, in fliifting the riders, that they come clear
of the pumps and of egch other, otherwife they muft call
fideways, as at the nineteenth beam of the orlop.

A long carling 14 inches deep and 12 inches broad, is
fcorcd up two inches on the under fide of the fix after gun-
deck beams, or to the beam before the mizen-maft, and
connefted to the fternfon-knee by an iron plate on each
fide at the after-end, the bolts being driven through and
clenched on each plate alternately.

The inboard works being defcribed in profile on the fe-
veral decks, it is necefi'ary alfo to reprefent them on the
plan of each deck.

Inflrufiions for defigning the Plans of the Decks. Plates V.
and VI.

Transfer from the (heer-plan, Plate I., the heights of
each deck at the fide, at every timber, to its correfponding
timber in the body-plan ; then upon each plan draw a middle
line, and therefrom fquare up the ftations of all the timbers,
as taken from the flieer-plan. Next transfer from the body-
plan the half-breadth of each timber at the height of the
deck intended to be drawn, and fet them off^ on each fide
the middle line, at its correfponding timber and plan ; but
in Plates VI. and VI*. half the deck only is reprefented ;
then transfer from the ftieer-plan, where the deck inter-
fcfts the aft-fide of the ftem and ftcrn-poft at the rabbet,
as in PliiteVl., and on thofe lines fet ofl^ half the thick-
iiefsof the ftem and Itern-poft. A curve drawn throu;^h the
half-breadths as fet off, ending in the rabbet atore and
abaft, will reprefent the outfide of the timbers ; tlien with-
in that line fet oft the moulding of the timbers, and draw-
ing another curve thereto, gives the boundary of the deck
at the fide, and determines tnc length of the beams.

Upon

SHIP-BUILDING.

Upon each plan fquare down the fides of the ports and
beams, and centres of the mafts and capftans, from the profile,
Plate IV.

Thus far the plans of the decks are general; but as each
deck is very differently fitted, it is neceffary to hare a half-
plan of all atr lead, and what little difference there may be
on the oppofite fide, let the explanation fuffice.

In the plan of ^un-deck, Plate V ., is fhewn not only the
upper fides of all the beams, and the method of tabiing
them together in two or more pieces, as then cuftomary, but
now douelled inilead of tabled ; thofe in mid/hips, being the
longeft, are made of three pieces ; and thofe where they ..re
ftiorter, as at the twenty-fixth beam, are in two pieces :
thofe in three pieces have the middle piece fcarfed to each
arm. The method of conncAing the fides with hanging and
lodTing-knees is likewife fhewn in this plan, with the iron
lodging-knee behind the rider, (engraved hanging by mif-
take,) as at the fifteenth and fixteenth beams. The beam-
arms at the main-hatchway and mad-rooms are reprefented
as tabled into their adjoining beams, the feventeenth and
eighteenth. The framing of the deck to receive the flat
having three tier of carlings, nearly all fore and aft, with a
fufficicnt number of ledges let into them parallel with the
fides of the beams, is alfo reprefented here. The framings in
the middle are the maft-partners ; thofe for the fore-mafls to
be formed by the ftandard againft the fore-fide of the fore
riding-bitts, the infide of which muft be kept half the dia-
meter of the mall, and five inches more for the wedging, and
to extend from the bitts to the ftep of the bowfprit: the crofs-
chocks, which frame the maft-hole athwartfhips, are to be
eight inches thick, and kept at the fame diltance on each fide
the centre of the maft, and rabbet into the partners : the maft-
hole is made eight fquare, but now circular, by corner-pieces
rabbetted to half their thicknefs mto the partners and crofs-
chocks : on the fore-fide of the fifth beam is a cap-fcuttle
about two feet fquare, and another abaft the fixth beam for
handing up cartridges, &c. from the magazine. The fore
riding-bitts are i foot 8 inches fquare, and placed four feet afun-
der, or two feet on each fide the middle line: the after riding-
bitts are of the fame fize, and placed 4 feet 6 inches afunder,
and the ftandard againll their fore-fides extends to the fore
riding-bitls : the crofs-pieces abaft the riding-bitts are i foot
6 inches fore and aft, and two inches lefs deep, and the face-
pieces on their aft-fides are of elm fix inches thick. The
framing of the fore-hatchway and ladder-way confifts of
coamings i foot 6 inches above the beam, that is, the lower
piece to be 9 inches deep and lo inches thick, and the upper
piece 9 inches deep and 7 inches thick, douelled together,
and fpread in the clear 4 feet 8 inches ; and the head-ledges
to be 7 inches thick, fcored and tailed into the coamings,
and to round-up above the latter, after the rate of 2\ inches
in fix feet of length. The cspftan-partners are here framed
as on the upper" deck ; but as this method of lowering the
fore-jeer capftan is difcontinued, let it be framed as the main-
jeer capllan. The main-maft partners are framed fimilar to
the fore partners, the carling being 1 foot 5 inches broad,
and I foot 6 inches deep. The chain-pumps are reprefented
on the plan as fitting the pump-cafes through the maft-part-
ners, and the back-cafes without ; the fprocket-wheel and
fpindle-work in brafs rhodings or gudgeons, let into the
top-fail-ftieet andjeer-bitt», and the winches alfo in the pump,
pillars. The main-hatchway is 6 feet 4 inches athwartfhips,
and fitted with coamings and head-ledges as the fore-hatch-
way. The after-hatchway is the fame as the fore-hatchway.
The ftep for the main-jeer capftan is i foot 10 inches broad,
and I foot 6 inches deep, to be fcored down between beams
21 and 22, and lap thereon 8 inches above the beam, with

broad carlings on each fide to receive the bolts of the pall,
rim : in the middle of the ftep is an iron cap to receive the
fpindle. The hatch to the fpirit-room, and ladder-way to
the cock-pit, are framed as the fore-hatchway. The mizen
ftep to be I foot 8 inches broad, and i foot 4 inches deep,
and (cored down between beams 25, 26, and 27, two inches.
Th;; bread-room fcuttle, which is 2 feet 4 inches fquare,
is on the larboard-fide, and is framed with coamings and
head-ledges, with a cap or top as high above the deck as at
the hatchways : on the ftarboard-fide abaft is a fcuttle
about two feet fquare over lady's-hole, and another 14 inches
fquare over the fcuttle to the magazme. On the gun-deck,
in the middle of the three or four after-beams, is a ftandard,
fidsd 1 2 inches, the upper end to fay againft the tranfoms,
as high as the helm-port tranfom.

A itrake without the coamings at the main-hatch is re-
prefented, the binding-ftrakes all fore and aft, which are
to ftrengthen the decks, as they are weakened by the hatch,
ways, therefore the butts fhould be fhifted clear of them: in
the inner itrake are driven the itopper-bolts. Forward is
fliewn the moulded fize of the deck-hook and caking,
alfo the plan of the hawfe-holes and manger, with the
ftantions.

On the fame plate is drawn the plan of the orlop, with its
feveral conveniencies. On the fore-platform, which extends
from the fore-peek to the fore-hatchway, is the boatfwain's
cabin on the larboard-fide, with fuch another for the car-
penter direftly oppofite ; and before each is a ftore-room, to
hold their refpeftive ftores ; before the boatf.vain's ftore-room
is a fail-room : between the fore riding-bitts are two doors,
one leading to the light-room paffage on the larboard-fide,
and that on the ftarboard-fide to the magazine and gunner's
ftore-room. Clofe before the heel of the larboard fore-
moft riding-bitts is a cap-fcuttle, inclofed, to hand up filled
cartridges ; and on the oppofite fide a flat fcuttle to the
magazine, likewife inclofed : at the end of the light-room
paffage is a fcuttle to the fight-room: abaft the riding-bitts
are fcuttles to the boatfwain's, gunner's, and carpenter's
ftore-rooms under the orlop. The fore-hatchway is of the
fame fize, and immediately under that on the gun-deck, but
has only a flat framing round it, to take the hatches that
cover it. The beams of the orlop are rabbetted on each edge
to receive tiie flat, which is only oak boards li inch thick as
far as the after-platform. The midfhip fail-room now ex-
tends from the main-hatchway to the fore-hatchway, and is
framed round with pillars upon a carling ten inches deep ; and
as the capltan-room is not ufed, the gininer's cabin is made at
the fore-part. The main-hatchway is of the fame fize as
that over it, and is framed round as the fore-hatchway. The
well is not inclofed, as fhewn on the plan, but at prefent is
laid over with gratings. The after-hatchway is of the fame
fize as the hatch over it, and framed like the others. Be-
tween the beams 21 and 22 is a double hatch to the fpirit-
room, and one next abaft it to the coal-hole. On the fore-
fide of beam 23 is the bulk-head of t!ie cock-pit, and abaft
It inclofed are two fcuttles, one to the powder-room the
other to the light-room.

On the larboard-fide abaft is the fteward's room, abaft which
is the bread-room ; and the interval between the fteward's
room and light-room bulk-head is the fteward's bed-place and
racks for flowing cheefe : next before the fteward's room is
the purfer's cabin, before that the flop-room, and next to
that a compartment for the marines' clothing. From the
fteward's room, to nearly forward on each fide, are the wings,
or an open fpace about 4 feet 6 inches from the fide, fufficient
to fwing a mall, if neceffary, to plug up ftiot-holes in the time
of aAion. From the fteward's room to the marines' clothing

is

SHIP. BUILDING.

is birthed up with a bulk-head of l:^inch deal, and the fame
from the boatfwain's cabin forward, and between thofe
•with ftantions and whole deal battens or lattice-work. On
the ftarboard-fide, oppofite to the fteward's room, &c. is the
captain's ftore-room, doftor's cabin, and firlt lieutenant's
ftore-room ; and between the captain's ilore-room and paH'age
to powder-room, is fitted a difpenfary for the dodlor.

On this plan it is cultomary with a different coloured ink
to draw the plan of the works in the hold ; and to diftin-
guifli them on the plate, they are reprefented by fine ticked
lines.

Under beam i is a bulk-head for'the boundary of the light-
room, together with its plan, and alfo the magazine-lights,
jambs, and fpla-boards, (to throw the rays ot light more
into the magazine). The magazine is furrounded by a ftrong
bulk-head of three-inch plank, the edges rabbetted together,
the infide of which is doubly lined with flit deal, fo as to
cover each joint, and on the outfide with flit deal, and a thick
coat of mortar under it. The flat of the magazine is firfl
laid with three-inch plank, caulked on beams underneath,
upon which are faflened, with copper dumps, the pallating
beams, framed together at right angles, about three feet
"ifunder : the upper edges are rabbetted to receive the flat,
which is li-inch deal, lined on the underfide. The bulk head
at the fide, which forms the wing, is conftrufted with pannels,
and rabbetted ftantions to receive the pannels : in the fore
part of the magazine in midfhips is the filling-room, which
is lower than the fnrface of the flat about twelve inches :
this is lined with lead, as it is the place where the cartridges
ri'-e filled, (hence its name,) for greater fecurity : as it isclofe
abaft the lights, glafs faflies extend acrofs, guarded with a
copper- wire net- work : in the fides of the filling-room are
racks for filled cartridges, and a compartment behind them
for ftaves of empty barrels. The powder barrels are itowed
upon dunnage battens, over the pallating flat, which is
parted off from the filling by an open bulk-head of ftantions
and battens. Magazines arc now only fitted up to receive
barrels with cartridges already filled.

Abaft the magazine are a ftore-room for the boatfwain ; on
the larboard-fide, in midfliips, a ftore-room for the gunner,
and under that a fhot-locker ; and on the ftarboard-fidc a
ftore-room for the carpenter.

Next abaft the main-hatchway is the plan of the well,
and fhot-locker afore and abaft it. Under the fore-fide of
the 2oth beam is the bulk-head of the fpirit-room, and under
the aft-fide of the 2 id beam the bulk-head of the coal-hole :
its after bulk-head is under the fore-fide of the 23d beam,
which alfo makes the fore bulk-bead of the powder-room,
which is inclofed round with a bulk-head fimilar to that of
the magazine forward ; likewife the light-room, and palfage
to the powder-room, which is fitted up with racks for
flowing filled cartridges, as reprefented in the plan : all
abaft the powder-room bulk-head is occupied for the bread-
room, to the bulk-head for lady's-hole.

On Plate VI. is reprefented the half-plan of the quarter-
deck, waift, and forecaftle, likewife the half-plan of the
upper deck.

On the plan of the upper deck is fliewn the beak-head ftan-
tions, whofe fides are rabbetted to receive the bulk-head : the
midfhip ftantions to be about 2 feet 6 inches on each fide
the middle line, and 1 2 inches fquare as high as the flat of
the beak-head ; they tenon at the heel into the foremofl
beam of the upper deck, and receive into their outfides the
tenon of the coUar-carling, which is of the fame fize as the
ftantions, having its upper fide well with the flat of the
beak-head, which is of the fame height as the lower fills of the
ports. The jnidfhip ftantions to be 65 inches fquare above the

Vot. XXXII.

collar-carling : the other ftantions, which are four m nutnber
on each fide, are all 6i inches fquare, and face aft f ths of an
inch into the cat-beam : the two outer ftantions are placed
afunder to the fpread of the round-houfes, and (huuld be
kept far enough out that the funnel may come clear of thf
fide : the third ftantion from the middle line muft be fpaced
fo as to make the bow-chafe port : the next ftantion within
makes the headdoor : on the midftiip-fide of the head-door
is a fcuttle, with a flap hung over it to lead in the fore-tack.
The heels of all thefe ftantions tenon into the collar-carling
witli a double-flop.

The framing of the fore-maft partners are fhewn, as before
direfted, for the main partners on the gun-deck, on the out-
fide of which are the heels of the fore-fheet and jeer-bitts ;
the heel of the former to fpread fufliciently from the middle
line to lead the fore-tack clear of the galley, having a flieeve
fitted into it for that purpofe. Abaft the fore-maft partner*
are the cants for the galley, which is inclofed abaft by two
doors.

The fore-hatch and ladder-way to be framed, as direfted
on the gun-deck, with coamings ten inches broad, and nine
inches above the deck, and head-ledges fix inches thick ;
next abaft are the fore -jeer capftan partners, to be fevea
inciies thick, their ends let down into a framing fimilar to the
hatchway (or to have their ends fquare, and fhut in with the
deck), and bolted through the beams and carlings, and their
edges to be rabbetted to ftop the caulking. The ladder-way,
main hatchway, main-maft partners, after-hatch, main-jeer
capftan partners, gratings, and ladder-ways, are all framed
as before defcribed.

On this plan the flat of the deck is reprefented, and the
feveral butts fhifted : clofe to the fide are the water-ways,
five inches thick, and the firtt ftrake of oak, which is cut
off between the riders ; the next four ftrakes are alfo Enghfh
oak in the wear of the guns, fhifted in fliort lengths, and
anchor-ftock, or top and butt, to alTift the converfion. The
reft of the deck is three-inch Pruffia deal, except the binding,
ftrakes, which are the fecond and third, without the main
hatch-coamings, and under the forecaftle : the deals muft
be fo fhifted as to work their whole lengths, or great wafte
will occur, that is, 30, 36, and 40-feet lengths. The mizen
partners are framed with a carling ou each fide, and comer-
pieces as high as the beams, and the flat round them is oak,
five inches thick.

Clofe up under the beams is reprefented the tiller, as fitted
with the horn-hoop over the end, for keeping up the tiller-
rope in the fweep, and a hoop abaft it, with eyes in it,
through which the rope is reeved, to be fet up taught by
tackles hooked to the eye-bolts ; further aft, at the after-
end, are iron rods, which are hove taught by a fcrew-nut, to
keep the tiller aft. At the fore-end, on the upper fide, ic
an iron goofeneck, which traverles on the fweep, and keep?
up the fore-end ; the rope traverfes round the fweep in a
groove, and is led up to the wheel on the deck above by
Ihceves fitted at the end of the fweep, and the blocks afor-
the maft reprefented by the ticked line.

Sometimes abaft, where the fide is to round to hive
riders, iron Itandards are fitted, as on beams 26 and 27.

On the beam, before the mizcn-maft, is the bulk-head of
the ward-room, fitted with double doors on each fide.

The knee under the cat-beam prevents the hanging of a
door at the aft-fide of the round-houfcn forward : they arc
therefore inclofed with a bulk-head, and a door on the aft-
fide.

On the plan of the forecaftle is (hewn (as was the prac-
tice when the plate was engraved), the conflruftion ot the
fife-rail, as let over the heads of the beak-head-ftaotioni,
4 B with

SHIP-BUILDING.

with the chafe-port and upper part of the round-houfes
alfo the plan of the cat-head, cafs-tail, and the knee abaft
the cat-head. Between the cat's-tail and the fore-mait is
framed in midfhips a ladder-way, and round the fore-mall
are the fore-top-fail-lTieet and jeer-bitts, ^Tlth their crofs-
pieces ; on the fides of the bitts the cheek-blocks, or
ihev mnft be provided very large, to receive all the fheeves
neceflary for fheets, braces, &c. Abaft the fore-mait on
each fide, is a fcuttle for the top-tackles to lead through to
hook to an eye-bolt on the upper deck. Over the galley,
in midfliips, are framed the fteam-gratings ; and between
them coamings for the chimney-funnel. At the aft-part
of the forecaftle are reprefented the belfry bitts, with the
knees to fupport them ; and over the breaft-beam are fhewn
the foot-rail and llantions, as then ufed, but now difcon-

tinued. „ , <• i j

Along the waill into the fide, inltead of gang-boards, as
formerly, the deck is continued from forward to aft feven
feet three inches from the fide ; likewife the flat is continued
along the midOiips, five feet three inches on each lide the
middle line, except an opening over the main-hatchway.

Upon the plan of the quarter-deck is (hewn the plan of
the bread and foot-rail over the breaft-beam, with their
ttantions, now rendered unnecellary by continuing lo much
of the deck along. On each fide of the main-matt is a
flat fcuttle for the pumps to be paffed through ; and on the
aft-fide of the beam abaft the mall are the brace-bitts. Abaft
the brace-bitts, on each fide, is a fiat fcuttle, for leading
through the main top-tackles to an eye-bolt driven in the
upper deck. From the feventh beam to the twelfth the fpace
is framed for gratings, and a ladder-way, as before direfted,
five feet four inches in the clcir. Between the fourteenth and
fifteenth beams are fixed the llcering-wheel and its ttantions ;
in the next opening is the mizen-maft : the partners are
formed with thick-ttuft", as at the upper deck. On the
beam abaft the matt is the bulk-head of the lobby and bed-
place ; and on the twtnty-firft beam the bulk-head of the
captain's cabin : between thefe bulk-heads arc a fore and
aft bulk-head that part the lobby and bed-place ; and on
the twenty-fourth beam is the fcreen-bulk-head. The
latter is unneceflary when there is no walk or balcony
abaft.

A plan of the round-houfe is not wanted, as, befidef its
beams and ports, there are only the mizen-top-lail-flieet -bitts
on the fore-fide of the beam before the matt, and taffrail-
knees abaft : when an open ttern, illuminators inttead of a
companion are let into the deck.

Erfiluneiticn of ike Methoils of Lay'mg-off all the Parts of a
Ship on the ]\Jould-loft Floor, preparatory to the adtial Bu'ild-
tng of the Ship.

The (hcer draught, Plate I., being completely drawn
upon paper, mollly to a fcale of a quarter of an inch
to a foot, as before obferved, or forty-eight times lefs
than the real fize of the fliip, it remains to expand it to
that fize on the mnuld-loft-floor ; but the latter is feldom
long enough to admit the laying-ofF of any large veil'el in
one length ; in imall mould-lofts they mutt of courfe lay-
off in three or four lengths. Indeed, to lay-off in one
length would caufe unncceffary watte of time ; for many of
the joints of the timbers, or perpendiculars of the fore-body,
anfwcr alike for the after-body.

Lfiying-off. Plate VII.

Plate A may be faid to reprefcnt the mould-loft-floor in
miniature, by the fame fcale as Plate I. ; but here, to pre-
vent coiifufion, the different plans are (hewn feparate, but

on the floor in the grofs : the fevtral plans are laid off one
over the other, which, to the praftitioner, is perfeflly clear.

The mould-loft-floor being cleared, begin by ftriking a
ttraight line from one end to the other, as A A in the above
plate, in dittance from the fide of the loft as much as the
keel is deep. This hne will reprefent the upper edge of
the rabbet of the keel in the fheer-plan,_^^. i, above which
all the heiglits are to be fet up, and it v/ill reprefent alfj
the middle line of the half- breadth plan, fig. 2.

Proceed now to lay-off the fore-body, by transferring
from the (heer-plan, Plate I., and erefting from the line A A,
to the right-hand, the leveral perpendiculars or joints of
the frames ®, B, D, F, H, K, M, O, Q, S, U, X ; and
the foremott-perpendicular, and likewife frames 2 and 4
abaft 0. This muft be accurately done, fo as not to exceed
the room and fpace.

Now defcribe the ttern, as in Plate Vll.fg. 1, fuppofing
it of the full fize, by fetting up from the line A A the height
of the centres from Plate I., and the nearett dittance thereon
from the adjoining perpendicular, as at Q, Q ; by which
radius the fore and after fides are fwept, likewile the rabbet
in the middle, from the keel upwards to S. Then fet up
the height of the head, or upper part, and its dittance forwjrd
from the nearett perpendicular ; then, by pinning a batten
to the fpots lalt fet off, and to the curves already fwept, the
ilem will be formed likewife.

Transfer from the fheer-plan, Plate I., the heights of the
lower and upper height of breadth-lines from the line A A,
as in Plate VII., from the perpendicular 4 to the ilem;
then, by pinning a batten to tliofe heights, produce the fair
curves E and F.

Let the outlines of the fore body-plan, Plate VII. Jig. 3,
be reprefented, that is to fay, the middle line by the line
A A ; the bafe line, or upper edge of the keel, by one of the
perpendiculars ; then will the outfide line, RL, be parallel
to the line A A : at the moulded breadth at dead-flat (as few
mould-lofts arc broad enough to admit the height of the
timbers as in the plate,) ft.rike in the half-fiding of the
ttem S from the middle line.

The main half-breadth line may now be laid off, by trans-
ferring it from the half-breadth plan, Plate I., to its cor-
refponding timbers on the floor, from the line A A ; and to
end this line at the (lem, take the height in the (keer-plan,
fig. I, where the lower height of breadth-line interfefts the
att fide of the rabbet of the ttem, and transfer it to the
middle line of the body-plan, _/rf. 3 ; and from thence take
the half-thicknefs of the ttem, and fet it up from the middle
line of the half-breadtli plan upon a line fquared down from
the aft-fide of the rabbet of the ftem, at the lower hiig'it of
breadth in the ttieer-plan. Then, by pinning a batten to
the feveral half-breadths fet off, and to its ending at the
ilem, we form the fair curve D, as in Plate VII. ^^. 2, or
main half-breadth line.

Obferve, when the batten is pinned, to look along it
rtritfly, and fee that its edge produces a fair line : this mutt
be always underttood, and therefore need not be repeated.

Transfer from the flieer-plan, Plate I., the heights of the
centres for the radius of the floor-fweeps of the fore-body
on to the floor, and by pinning a batten thereto, produce the
line B, in^_o^. i.

Transfer from the half-breadth plan, Plate I., the rifing
half-breadth, or narrowing of the floor-fweeps of the fore-
body, and by pinning a batten thereto, produce the line B,
wfg. 2.

Transfer from the (heer-plan, Plate I., the heights of the
top timber-line to the floor ; and fliould the floor not be
broad enough to admit the whole heights, fet them up

their

SHIP-BUILDING.

Iheir refpeftive timbeis from fome itraight line, as A A,
allowing the addition of twenty feet ; then, by pinning a
batten to thofe heights fet up, produce the curve I,
PlateVll.Jg. I.

Transfer from the half-brfadth plan, Pljlc I., the top-
timber half-breadth on to the floor, and by pinning a batten
to the feveral half-breadths fet off, the curve C, in PLiteVW.
Jig. 2, wilt alfo be reprefented.

Then, having marked the feveral lines laid off with their
refpedtive names, proceed to lay-off the fore-body, fixing on
fome convenient part of the floor, making the line A A,
Plate Vll. fg. I, ferve for the middle line M, PhileVU.
Jig. 3, and one of the perpendiculars for the bafe line, or
upper edge of the keel, as before obferved. The diagonal
lines in the body-plan are not only ufed in laying-off the iaody
on the floor, and taking the bevellings of the feveral timbers,
but arc of very principal ufe in the adtual building ; for at
their ftations the ribbands and harpins, which keep the
whole frame of the fhip together until the planking is
brought on, their fituation with regard to the heads of the
timbers muft be determined ; it confequently follows, that
1 particular explanation of them is necellary.

The floor-head diagonal marked C in Plate Vl\. Jigs. 3
and J, terminates the length of the floors, hence its name.
The placing of this diagonal is of the utmoil confequence
to the llrength of the fliip, it being fo near the bildge, or
that part which takes the ground, that it confequently is
always liable to the greatelt Itraiu. It fhould, therefore,
be placed as much above the bearing of the body in mid-
ihips as can be conveniently allowed by converfion of the
timber ; but, afore and abaft, it is not of fo much con-
fequence. Bevellings are taken at this diagonal to as far
forward and aft as the floor extends.

The diagonal marked B in Plate VW.fgs, 3 and 5, is
placed in midfhips from eighteen inches to two feet, ac-
cording to the fize of the fliip, below the floor-head C ; it
is the Ihition where the floor-ribband is placed in midfhips,
and likewife tlie floor-harpin forward. Bevellings are alfo
taken at this diagonal, all fore and aft, from which it is
termed the Jloor-ribband.

The lower diagonal, marked A in Plate VII. Jigs. 3
and J, is fituated generally in the middle between the keel
and floor-ribband ; at which place the lowed bevellings of
the timbers are taken.

The diagonal marked D in Plate VII. Jigs. 3 and 5, is
lituated in the middle, between the floor-head and firft fut-
tock-head, at which place a ribband and harpin are necef-
fary for the fecurity of the firll or lower futtocks, and
hence called the JirJl futtock-ribband. There are alfo bevel-
lings taken at tliis diagonal, all fore and aft ; which, being
the part of the body where the timbers moll vary, occalioi;
them to be the greatelt bevellings in the whole body.

The diagonal marked E in Plate VII. Jigs. 3 and 5,
terminates the heads of the firll futtocks, and is therefore
called \.\ic JirJl fiittock-head : it Ihould be fpaced about feven
feet above the floor-head, in order to give fufFlcient icarf
or fhift to the lower part of the fecond futtocks. Bevellings
are likewife taken at this diagonal, all fore and aft.

The diagonal marked F in Plate VII. figs. 3 and j, is
fituated iu the middle, between the firft. futtock-head and
the fecond futtock-head, at which place a ribband and
harpin are necellary for the fecurity of the fecond futtocks,
and hence called the fecond j'utioch-ribhand. Bevellings are
alfo taken at this diagonal, all fore and aft.

The diagonal marked G in Plate W\. Jigs. 3 and 5,
terminates the heads of the i'econd futtocks, alfo the heads

of the double futtocks afore and abaft the floors, and is
iherefore called the fecond futtoch-head ; it fliould be
fpaced about feven feet above the iiril or lower futtock-head,
in order to give fufficient fcarf or Ihift to the lower part of
the third futtocks. Bevellings arc alfo taken at this dia-
gonal, all fore and aft.

Tlie diagonal marked H in Plate VII. Jigs. 3 and 5, is
fituated in midlhips in the middle, between the fecond
futtock-head and the third futtock-head, at which place a
ribband and harpin are necellary for the fecurity of the
third futtocks, and hence called the third futtocL-ribband.
Obferve, the harpin is placed low enough at the Hem that
the wales may be worked before it is taken down, or it may
fly up like the others, and not come home to the Hem.
Bevellings are aUo taken at this diagonal, all fore and aft.

The diagoaal marked I in Plate VII. Jigs. 3 and 5,
terminates the heads of the third futtocks, and is therefore
called the third futtock-head, and fliould be fpaced about
(even feet above the fecond futtock-head, fo as to give the
fame fhift to the fourth futtocks as the other futtocks have.
Obferve, luch thud tuttocks as come under the gun-deck
ports, mult be continued upwards to the under part of the
ports, if poflible to be gotten. Bevellings are alfo taken
at this diagonal, fore and aft.

It mull be obferved, that the diagonals for the ribbands,
as above defcnbed, mult all be drawn in pencil on the body-
plan, Plate I.

A ribband and harpin .ire alfo placed all fore and aft below
the gun. deck and upper deck ports, and one likewife at the
top timber-line, as at M, N, and O, Plate Wl.Jigs. 3 and 5,
which, with the ribbands and harpins before mentioned,
keep the whole framing of the (hip together to its true
model.

Having defcribed the diagonals, and ftruck them acrof*
the fore-body on the floor, as in Plate VW. Jig. 3, the fe-
veral timbers may be completed, by firll transferring the
lower height of breadth-line E from the (heer-plan, PlateWl.
Jig. I, from Hp to X, to the fore body-plan, ^^. 3, and
llrikiiig horizontal lines at each of thofe heights acrols the
body-plan, as at K ; then transfer the main half-breadth of
each timber from the half-breadth plan,^^"-. 2, upon their cor-
refponding heights from the middle line of the body-plan,
Jig. 3. Then by taking the radius or length of the lower
breadth fweep from the fore body-plan, Plate I., of timber
dead-flat, fet it off upon its lower height of breadth line,
and it will fweep it downwards nearly as low as the fecond
futtock-head : in the fame manner ( proceed with all the
timbers to Y.

Take off the half-breadths of each timber in the fore
body-plan, Plate I., from the middle line on the diagonal
floor-ribband, as far forward as X, and fet them up from
the middle line of the half-breadth plan,^'. 2, upon their re-
fpedtive timbers ; then, to end it at the Item, transfer the height
where it interfcfts the half-thicknefs of the Item in the body-
plan, ^_j. 3, to the fore part of the rabbet of the Item in the
nieer-plan,_y5i'. 1 ; from tlience fquare it down to the middle
line of the half-breadth plau. Jig. 2. Take the half-thicknefs
of the Hem in the body-plan, /f^. 3, on the diagonal, and
fet it up from the middle line of thelialf-brcadlh ^\a.n,fig. 2,
upon the line lail fquared down ; and from thence fweep an
arc the thicknefs of the bottom plank taken on the diago-
nal, the after part of which arc is the ending of the fore
part of the floor-ribbands. Then, by pinning a batten to
the feveral half-breadths, and to the back of the arc or
ending, tlie floor-ribband will be laid off.

In the fame manner proceed with the ribbands or diagonals
4 B 2 t>, F,

SHIP-BUILDING.

D, F, and H, fg, 3, as you find ticked from (^ to the ftem
in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 2, to their refpeftive diagonals
in the body-plan, fg. 3.

Set up 1 1 feet from the bafe line in the body-plan,_^^j. 3
and 5, and llrike a line parallel thereto, which is the height
of the centre of the floor-fweep at dead-flat. Then take the
heights in the fhecr-plan, ^^. i, for the centre of the floor-
fvveeps B, from B to K, and fet them up in the body-plan,
fig. 3, above the centre at dead-flat, and at each height itrike
level lines. Then take the half-breadths in the half-breadth
plan, ^^. 2, of the centres of the floor-fweeps B, and fet
them off on their correfponding heights from the middle
line in the fore body-plan, fg. 3. Then, with a radius at
the centre in the body-plai), to its correfponding half-breadth
on the diagonal floor-ribband, fweep the curves of the feve-
ral timbers at the floor-head, from ® to K.

Having fwept in the various curves below the lower
height of breadth, and at the floor-heads, pin a batten to
the half-breadth?, as fet off on the diagonals for dead-flat,
and the back of the above fweeps ; continue it with a fmall
curve or hollow from the fweep at the floor-head to tlie
rabbet of the keel, which completes that timber from the
lower height of breadtli to the keei. The fame procefs
will complete all the timbers. With regard to the heeling
of the timbers exaftly, fet off the half-thicknefs af the
keel from the middle line in the body-plan, j^. 3, on the
bafe line, and parallel thereto to its deptli ; then with
compafles, opened to the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
fweep two arcs, fo as to form the triangle at the outfide on
the upper edge, and it will be readily feen that the timbers
along the midfhips will end at the outfide of the rabbet ; but
as they approach forward, they will end on the infide of the
rabbet ; and as the keel tapers at the fore-end, they mufl be
heeled lufiiciently within the keel to admit the thicknefs of
the plank : then to heel the timbers that rife on the flem,
transfer their heights where they cut the outfide of the
rabbet of the Item in the flieer-pian,^^. i, to the half-thick-
nefs of the Item in the body-plan, _yf^. 5 ; from thence,, with
compaffes opened to tlie thicknefs of the bottom plank,
fweep an arc inwards, the back of which is the ending of
the timber, and a line fquared from the timber to the height
fet off on the outfide of the Item reprefents the rabbet in
that direftion.

The fore-body being completed belov/ the lower height
of breadth, the upper part, or top-fide, may be laid off by
transferring- the upper height of breadth line F from the
fheer-plan,_^_f. i, at each timber from dead-flat to X, to the
body-plan, _^^. 3, and ftrikmg level lines acrofs at eacli
height. Continue upwards each timber parallel to the
middle line, from the lower to the upper height of breadth.
Then, with the radius of the upper-breadth fweep taken
from the body-plan, Plate I., fweep upwards every timber
from its refpeftive upper-breadth line, from dead-flat to O.

Transfer the height of the top timber-line I, from the
flieer-plan, 7?^. i, at every timber, to the fore body-plan,
fg. 3, and ilrike in kvel lines at every height ; then take
the top-timber half-breadth from the half-breadth plan.
Jig. 2, at every timber, from dead-flat to X, and fet them
off from the middle line of the body-plan, fg. 3, upon their
refpeftive heights. Then, by a mould made to the hollow
or tumbling-home of the top-fide, and upper-breadth fweep
at dead-flat, and a few feet above the top-timbcr-Hne, every
timber from dead-flat to O may be formed on the floor by
lowering or raifing the mould fo as to agree witii the upper-
breadth fweep, and the half-breadth, as fet off on the top
timber-line. But the timbers before O rauil gradually par-

take of the hollow of top-timber X, which falls outwards
confiderably from a perpendicular at its main-breadth, though
parallel to the middle line above the height of the top
timber-line to the top of the fide, which mult be transferred
from the fheer-plan, j^i'. i, to each timber refpeftively in
the body-plan, Plate Vll.fg. 3. Pin a batten to thofe fe-
veral heights, which will form the curves O and F, as in
fig. 3. Take fquare from the middle line in the body-plan,
fg. 3, the half-breadths of all the timbers at the top of the
fide, and fet them up on their correfponding timbers from
the middle line in the half-bn-adth plan, ^j. 2 ; feeing that
it makes a fair curve. The fore-body may now be laid to
be laid ofi above the main-breadth, which completes the
whole of the fquare fore-body, yfi,'. 3.

The correct height of the knuckles of the timbers at the
beak-head requires forae attention ; for if they were carried
too high, the flieer of the fliip muft be lifted ; or, if kept
too low for the fheer, the tin.bers mull be reduced to raife
the knuckles : therefore determine what part of the flieer-
ilrakes fhall come well with tlie knuckles ; for if the knuckle
was to come in the middle of either ihccr-ftrake, the fore-
fhift of it mufl then be wrought, taking a large piece
of timber and much labour. In Plate VII. the upper edge
of the fheer-flrake is well with the knuckle. Another
confideration to be taken into this account is the lifting the
fheer forward, that it may have the fame appearance ou the
fhip as is defigned on the draught ; for if not lifted gra-
dually fome inches higher towards the ilem, the curvature of
the bow will make it appear to drop below a fair curve.

To know how much t'e fheer of the fhip requires to be
lifted forward has fometimes been relolved in this manner.
Prolong the fheer of the wale before the ftem in the fheer-
plan,_/^. I, at pleafure ; then pin a batten to the round of the
bow at the main half-breadth, in the half-breadth-plan,
fg. 2, and mark on the batten the ilations of the fquare
timbers and the fi Je of the ilem ; then pin the batten to the
fheer of the wale in^. i, keeping the Ilations of the tim-
bers, as marked on the batten, well with thofe near dead- flat,
where they will not alter ; then mark the other timbers, and
the Ilem on the fheer of the wale line prolonged, and level
them aft, to interiedl their correfponding timbers and the
flem ; then a batten pinned to thofe interfeClions will give
the curve for lifting the flieer of the fhips round the bow.
But as the forms of the bows of fhips are io very different,
it cannot be recommended as an undeviating rule, and there-
fore mull be referred to pradice ; however, it is requifite to
make an allowance for it in the laying-off of all ihips, as the
decks, fheer-flrakes, and confeqnently the knuckles of the
timbers, all partake of this neceflary additional height.

The fquare body afore dead-flat being now laid-off, pro-
ceed to lay-off the afterbody abaft dead-fiat : but it is only
neceflary to point out fuch differences as occur at the ex-
tremes of the fhip, the midfliip part being fimilar in both
bodies.

On the mould- loft-floor it is cullomary to fet off as many
of the perpendiculars abaft the fore-body already laid oft, as
to have fufficient room for the llern-polt, ufing as many of
thofe in the fore-body as will anfwer to the regular room and
fpace of the timbers, which will be as far as B, which will
extend in the after-body as far as 14, confequently from 14
flrike up from the line A A all the remaining perpendiculars
to 36.

Strike in the aft-fide of the ftern-polt on the floor from
the flieer-plan, Plate I., and the aft-fide of the rabbet ; and
ftrike a line parallel thereto, on the fore-fide, to the thicknefe
of the bottom plank.

Transfer

SHIP-BUILDING.

Transfer from the (hcer-plan, Plate I., the heights of the
ventres of the floor-fweeps, lower and upper heights of
breadth, top timber-hne, and top of the fide, as before.

Transfer from the half-breadth plan, Plate 1., the half-
Lreadths of the floor-fweeps, main half-breadth, and top-
timber half-breadths. But to end the main-breadth, and
likewife the top-timber half-breadth in the half-brcadtli plan.
Jig. 2, the fide-counter-timbers mull be laid off in the fiiecr-
plan and body-plan, and where they intcrfeCf the fide-
counter-tiraber in the flieer-plan, mull be fquared down to
the half-breadth plan.

In the plan of the after-body on the mould-loft-floor, its
middle line is made by the fide-line of the fore-body, confe-
quently the bodies at the lower part crofs each oiher. This
would have appeared very confufed in the plate, but it
is always a maxim in laying-ofl on the floor to ufe as few
lines as pollible.

The lower height of breadth and fweeps, and the centres
of the floor-fweeps in the after-body, _/?^. 5, may all be ob-
tained exattly in the fame manner as diredled for the fore-
body. The diagonals Ibuck in, and the feveral half-breadths
of the timbers fet ofl thereon, form the after body-plan,
Plate I. Thofe timbers which come near the after-end ot
the keel, mufl: be ended by fetting off the half-thicknefs
of the keel, as far as it tapers from the Itern-poft in the half-
breadth plan, Jig. 2 ; and within the half-thicknefs of the
keel, fet off^ thethicknefs of the bottom plank. Then take
off the half-breadth of each timber to the infide of the
rabbet, and fet it off^ on the bafe line from the middle line of
the body-plan, Jig. 5, which is the true ending of every
timber at the upper edge of the keel.

The top-fide of the after-body. Jig. 5, is laid off in the
fame manner as diretied for the fore-body at dead-flat, even
to the after-timber.

When the bodies are thus far laid ofl on the floor, it is
ufual to make the moulds, and take the bevellings of all the
timbers in the fquare body ; that is, from O forward to 28
abaft.

Moulds Jor the Timbers in the Square Bady.

The moulds for the midfliip floors are generally made firft
in the following manner : take fir-board, about three-
quarters of an inch thick, and fay the outer edge to the
floor-timber dead-flat, in the body-plan,^. 3, from the
keel to the floor-head, and make it of a parallel width, about
four inches. Provide another board, and fay it to the
foremoft. fquare floor O, from the head to the iides of the
keel, and make it of the fame width. Then tack them both
down ill tlieir places, and nail a piece of board made pa-
rallel to the half-breadth of tiie keel, its midlhip edge well
with the middle line, and lower end cut iquarc, and be well
with the bafe line, cr upper edge of the keel : the upper
end is to extend a few inches above the cutting-down of O.
Now nail a ftraight batten, about four inches wide, at the
floor-head, from dead-flat to O ; the upper edge well with
the direftion of the floor-head C. Let battens of the fame
width be nailed acrols, with their upper edges kept well
witli the floor-ribband B, and one at the lower diagonal A,
and as many between as may be thought neceffary. Let
thefe battens be one inch narrower than the others, which
will diltinguilh them, as the former fliew the proper (lations
of the diagonals, and likewife the direction of the floor-
heads. Then, upon the crofs- battens mull be marked the
intermediate floors from dead-flat to O. There muft be
outfidc pieces and battens put together, exaft ly in the fame
manner, for the other fide ; and the lines for the moulding
edges of the floors corredly transferred to the other fide.

Thefe two moulds may then be united together at the
middle line by hinges, fo as to fliut together, and be more
handy for ufe.

The cutting-down line being transferred from the flieer-
plan,^^. I, to the floor, as at M, Plate VIL Jig. I, take
its height above the upper edge of the keel at every floor
from dead-flat to O, and fet thum up the middle line of the
mould from its lower edge, and fquare them acrofs, marking
each floor's name refpecfively. Fix one or two battens ho-
rizontally acrofs, from the cutting-down board in the middle
to the foremolt floor, as braces, to preferve the mould from
racking. The mould is now finiflied for moulding the floors
of the fore-body thus far.

Now lay the blank fide of the mould upwards in the after-
body. Jig. 5, and mark thereon, as before, the moulding
edges uf as many of the after-floors from dead-flat as the
mould will contain, and the heights of their cutting-down,
which will be found to extend to 21.

Then to the floors from 22 to the after-fquare floor 28,
another fimilar mould mud be made.

The lower futtock-moulds are beft made of feafoned board
of the above thicknefs, the outer edge being fayed to the
frame-fiittoc.k, and the infide edge to the adjoining fiUing,
from a few inches within the fide of the keel to the firll
futtock-head. Then when the mould is in its place, mark
thereon the fide of the keel, lower diagonal A, floor-
ribband B, firit futtock-ribband D, and firlt futtock-head E ;
or a fliorter way, the diagonals numerically, ift: diag. zddiag.
&c.

But if faving of ftuff and time be confidered as an objedl,
make the edges of the mould fay to the two adjoining frames,
and fet down fpilings to the correfponding fillings at every
diagonal, and alio at the head and heel.

The fecond futtock-moulds may be next made fimilar to
the above, from the floor-head to the fecond futtock-head,
marking thereon the heel C, firft futtock-ribband D, firlt
futtock-head E, fecond futtock-ribband F, and fecond
futtock-head G.

The third futtock-moulds may be next made in the fame
manner from the firll futtock-head to the fecond futtock-
head, marking thereon the heel E, fecond futtock-ribband
F, fecond futtock-head G, third futtock-ribband H, and
third futtock-head I.

Tile fourth futtock-moulds differing in their fhape, and
being much longer than the others, the beft and rcadieft
method is to fay this mould to dead-flat, from the fecond
futtock-head to the top of the fide, and two or three feel
longer, as the iieads run higher afore and abaft dead-flat.
The infide of the mould towards the upper part may be made
to the icantling line, but at the heel, and a few feet above it,
fliould be made as broad as pollible; fothat by this one mould
may be moulded nearly all the fourth futtocks in the fore-
body. Lay the mould in its place at dead-flat, and r.ark
thereon the heel G, third futtock-ribband H, third futtock-
head I, lower and upper heights of breadths K and L, gun-
deck poit-fiU M, ujiper deck port-fiU N, top timber-line O,
and top-fide P.

Next place the upper part of this mould to the foremoft
fourth fultock, O, of the Iquarc body, and it will be found
to fay from the inaiu-breadth upwards (as it will likewife
fay to all the timbers between O and dead-flat, m confe-
qucBce of the radii of the upper-breadth Iweeps being all
of one length) ; then, while the mould is in this pofition, if
it covers that part of the timber from the mam-breadth
downwards to the fourth futtock-heel, the fourth fntlock
of this timber may be moulded by this mould, as it may then
be conlequently marked on it ; but if not, then the mould

mu 11

SHIP-BUILDING.

muft be moved to the next timbers aft, placing it after the
fame manner, until the timber is found to whicli it will
mould, as defcribed above : while the mould lies well to the
timber above the breadth, take its correfponding third fut-
tock-mould, keeping the heel of the third futtock-mould well
with the heel of its timber, then rafe or mark its moulding
edge on the fourth futtock-mould. In the fame manner place
it to the other timbers, marking thereon its correlpondmg
third futtock, at the fame time marking all the refpeftive
heights of the ribbands, &c. as at dead-flat. Obferve, (hould
the mould not fay towards the head of fome of the foremolt
timbers, (as the tumble-home is lefs forward abaft thin in
midfhips,) meafure the diftance from the mould to the line of
the timber on a fquare, and mark it on the mould ; this being
done to all the intermediate timbers, tliey may be faid to be
complete on that fide ; and when fo done, it will he necefl'ary
to have a fmall hole bored fquare through the mould at every
firmark, or height, upon every timber, by which means the
true (hape of the timbers, and places of the iirmarks, may
be transferred to the other fide of the mould, and likewife
upon the timbers when moulding.

In the fame manner mult be formed another mould to
dead-flat for the timbers in the after-body, marking thereon
all the timbers it will take. Thofe timbers of the fquare
body afore or abaft the timbers already marked on the mould
made to dead-flat, on account of there being more compafs
at the heel, may be marked upon one mould to each body,
proceeding as before, only making the lower end of the
mould fufficiently broad to take the moll compafs timbers
thereon. But ihould the heels differ fo much as to caufc
the lower end of the mould to be cumberfome ; in that cafe,
make moulds to each timber, as defcribed above.

The top-timber moulds may be made in the fame manner
as thofe for the fourth futtocks, from the top of the fide to
the heel I, or third futtock-head.

Method gf taking the Bevellings of the Timbers in the Square
Body.

The moulds for the timbers of the fquare body being made,
it is neceflary to ftiew in what manner their beveUings may
be taken ; for, until then, the timbers which have bevellings
cannot be cut out.

Provide a bevelling-board for the floors, in breadth as mucli
as the floors are fided ; and, in length, fuf&cient to take all
the floor-bevellings thereon, as PlateVW.Jig. 8. The tirit
bevelling to be taken is from the cutting^own line for trim-
ming the throat of the floors ; but from dead-flat to floor E,
they will be found to be fquare, or as far forward and aft as
the cutting-down is parallel with the keel. They will be
all reprefented by a fquare line on the board. Then, for the
throating of floor F, apply the ftock of the bevel to the
perpendicular, or joint below the cutting-down line, and the
tongue well with the cutting-down hne M, as at N , Plate VII.
Jig. I , and that will give the bevelling for the throat of floor F.
Proceed in the fame manner with every floor, till all thofe
bevellings be taken and marked on the board, as a, Jig. 8,
diltinguilhing them by writing their refpeftive names, as 4^
to E, F, G, H, &c. to O. Thefe wiU be all Handing bevel-
lings, both in the fore and after-bodies. In the next place,
the bevellings for the outfides of the floors muft be taken,
which arc always under-bevellings in both bodies, in confe-
quence of the floors being always placed on that fide of the
joint from which the body declines ; thefe bevellings are taken
at the lower diagonal byjig. 8, the fecond diagonal, or floor-
ribband, c. Jig. 8, and floor-head d. Jig. 8. To take thefe
bevellings, fet off the fiding of each floor from its joint, or
perpendicular, on each diagonal in the half-breadth plan,

PlateVll. Jig. 2, (obferving, as before, that the floors in
the fore-body are before the joint, and thofe in the after-
body abaft it,) the diagonal formed by the heads of the
timbers being laid off in the half-breadth plan, as far as the
fquare bodies, for that purpofe, as at M, Jig. 2 ; then take
the diftance of each diagonal on the fiding line fquare from
the middle line of the half-breadth plan, and fet them down
on their correfponding diagonals from the middle line in the
body-plan, making fpots in Plate VW. Jig. 3. Then fix
one leg of a pair of compaffes on thofe fpots of the lower
diagonal, beginning with the firft floor before dead-flat
that has any beveUing, which is A, and, with the otlier leg,
fweep the neareft diftance to the hne of its correfponding
timber. That will determine when it is within a fquare in
the breadth of the bevelling-board ; and fo proceed with
every floor alternately to O, as at b,Jig. 8 ; thus the bevel-
lings may be taken for every floor at each diagonal, and be
thence marked on the board, as Plate VW.Jig. 8.

In the next place provide bevelling-boards, one for each
futtock, and one for the top-timbers, obferving that the
breadth of each board correfponds with the fiding of its
refpeftive futtock and top-timber ; then, to take the be-
vellings for each, we muft aft as before explained for the
floors ; only obferving which futtocks are ftanding bevel-
lings, and which are under : for futtocks that have ftanding
bevcUings, the fiding of the timber muft be fet off upon eacli
diagonal, abaft the joint of its refpeftive timber in the fore-
body half-breadth plan, and before the joint in the after,
body, and fo contrarywife for thofe which are under-be-
vellings.

Therefore obferve, that floors have under-bevellingv, lower
or firft futtocks ftanding bevelhngs, fecond futtocks under,
third futtocks ftanding, fourth futtocks under, and top-
timbers ftanding bevelling?. The bevellings of each may
now be taken at every diagonal for every timber, and marked
on their refpeftive boards, the fore -body on one fide, and the
after-body on the other.

The bevellings to be taken for each futtock and top-
timber are as follow : for the loiuer or Jirjl futtocks, lower
diagonal a, fecond diagonal or floor-ribband b, third dia-
gonal or firft futtock-ribband c, and firft futtock-head d,
Plate VII. Jig. 7. Y ox fecond futtocks, floor-head, which is
fecond futtock-heel, third diagonal or firft futtock-ribband,
firft futtock-head, fourth diagonal or fecond futtock-rib-
band, and fecond futtock-head. For the third futtocks, firft
futtock-head, which is the third futtock-heel, fourth dia-
gonal or fecond futtock-ribband, fecond futtock-head, fifth
diagonal or third futtock-ribband, and third futtock-head.
For ihe fourth futtocks, fecond futtock-head, which is fourth
futtock-heel, fifth diagonal or third futtock-ribband, third
futtock-head, main-breadth, port-fill-line, top-timber-line,
and top-fide. For the top-timbers, third futtock-head, which
is the top-timber-heel, main-breadth, port-fill-line, top-
timber-line, and top-fide. The bevellings for the main-
breadth, and all above, may be taken from the half-breadth
plan, by fixing the flock of the bevel to the joint of the
timber, and moving the tongue to the refpeftive half-
breadth lines.

It is neceflary, in the praftical application of the moulds,
to have the fize of the timbers the moulding-way ; this muft
be either fet off on the bevelliflg-boards, or on the moulds.
As the latter may be reckoned the beft way, firft fet off the
fcantling of the timbers the moulding-way at every head,
&c. at dead-flat ; thus, at the top of the fides, 6 inches,
Plate VW.^g. 3 ; at the upper deck ports, N, 10^ inches ; at
the gun-deck ports, M, 11^ inches; at the third futtock-heads,
I, iii ; at the fecond futtock-heads, G, iz-^ inches ; at the
7 firft

SHIP-BUILDING.

it fiiltock-lieaJs, E, 13 inches ; and at the floor-heads, C,
; 3y. Then pinninjT a batten to all thofe fpots, making it
fair to the cutting-down of dead-flat at the middle line, will
give the fcantling-line, or inner edge of timber dead-flat ; then
take the fi/.e or moulding at the head or heel of every tim-
ber, and fet off on their refpeftive moulds.

Tlien to mould thejloors, the mould is laid on the timber,
and the moulding:; edge of the intended floor is brought to-
wards the outiide of the piece ; then fee if there is cutting-
down in the piece fufficient for bevelling, and fubftancc below
jt for feating, which (hould be no lefs than fixteen inches,
increafing forward and aft, as the itrength may require.
When that is done, if there remains fufficient wood to mould
the floor agreeably to its line on the mould, which is readily
feen by marking fpots on the piece correfponding with the
lines on the battens, and thence obferving whether there is
wood fufficient to mould the inlide agreeably to the fcant-
lings marked on the mould. The above-mentioned fpots
may be made confpicuoiis on the piece, and the cutting-down
alfo marked from the mould ; tlien its correfponding firft
futtockmould will finifh its moulding edge, or a pliable
batten may be pinned to the fpots, and the moulding edge
formed as low as the piece will admit (fo that it is not
within the given fubftance below the cutting-down), the
batten being fair rafed by its edge ; then rafe up the fir-
marks for the diagonals to apply the bevellings. Set off on
a fquare from the outfide the given fcantlings, and pin the
batten thereto, as alfo to the cutting-down, and rafe by the
edge ; the rnfide of the floor will then be completed, and
the deficiency, if any, below the leating is made good by
ckocks.

To mould all the futtocks except the fourth, the mould
need only be laid ofl to the outer edge of the piece ; and if
the piece comes near enough to the mould to allow for
the fcantlings and bevellings outfide and infide, rafe by
the edge of the mould likewife tlie firmarks, head, and heel ;
llien from the moulding edge let ofl the fcantlings fquare
from their rcfpeftive places, and try if the edge of the
mould will not form the infide by moving up or down ; if
not, it mull be finilhed by a pliable batten, as before di-
refted. Obfervc, fliould any of the timbers be a few inches
(hort in the length, let them be made good by the next
timber upon it, as through chocks are not to be ad-
mitted.

The fourth fultock-moulds are laid upon the piece, and
(hould be in an horizontal pofition (as indeed all moulds
fliould to try the bevellings) ; tlien fee that the piece forms
agreeably to the lino on the mould of the timber intended to
be moulded, by making a hole with a gimblet thri)ugh the
holes at the various firmarks belonging to the main-breadth ;
obferving, at the fame time, that the piece is Itridtly con-
formable to the head of the mould above. When both are
found to agree, and there i^ wood in the piece fufficient for
the bevellings, rale by the fide of the mould infide and out as
low as the main-breadth : below that it may be completed by
the upper part of the correfponding third futtock-mould,
keeping it well to the holes made by the gimblet at the heel
and third futtock-ribband, which firmarks mull be alio rafed
upon the piece, likewife the heights of breadth, port- fill lines,
top-timber line, and top-fide. The infide towards the heel
is finiflied by the fcantlings given, and a batten as before
defcribed. But when fourth futtock-moulds have fpi-
lings at their licads, owing to the difference in the tumbling-
ii )me of the fide, then, as the mould lies upon the piece,
and the heel is found to anfwer, it mull be feen that the
upper part of the piece anfwers to the fpiling marked upon
•he mould ; then, towards the liecl may be finifhcd as be-

fore ; but the upper part above the upper-breadth fweep
mull be completed by a mould made to the top-timber
hollow. The top-timber line marked thereon mud be placed
to that given by the fourth futtock-mould, with its edge
there fixed to the fpiling, and its heel to the back of the
upper-breadth fweep ; its edge may be then rafed by, and
the fourth futtock will be formed up to the head or top of
the fide from the moulding-edge ; then fet off the fcantling
at the different firmarks, and the top-timber hollow placed
to thofe fpots will form the inner edge of the faid fourth
futtock, and fo will the timber be completed.

Toplimbin are moulded fo much like the fourth futtocksi
as to render a further dcfcription unneceffary.

The moulds for the fquare body being finiflied, proceed
to make moulds for the Hem, llern-poft, &c. The mould far
theflem is made to the lines reprefenting the fore and after
fides, or moulded breadth, from the head to the heel ; but
in pieces, according to the number the ftcm is to be com-
pofed of. The rabbet is defcribed on the mould, or reprc-
fented by the batten that forms the aft-fide being made pa-
rallel to the thicknefs of the bottom plank ; but if the rab-
bet comes in the middle, a batten of this dcfcription mull
be nailed on the mould, agreeably to the rabbet in /"/<;/(■ VII.
Upon this mould mull be marked the heights of all the
decks, likewife of the harpins and cheeks, by an horizontal
line at each height acrofs tlie mould. Some mark every two
feet above the upper edge of the rabbet of the keel upon
this mould. There Ihould be a perpendicular line, or, in
other words, a fquai-e line to fet the llem by, which may be
the perpendicular of the gun-deck.

The_/?frn-^o^ mould is made to the lines reprefenting the
fore and after fides of the flern-poll, from the head to the
heel, and a batten to the rabbet ; then, acrofs the mould
may be marked the height of the upper fide of the wing,
filling, and deck-tranfoms at the middle line, alfo the
heights of the harpins. Another mould is alfo made for
the bearding-liiie on the poll, the aft-fide of which mull be
fayed to the bearding-line from the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom down to where the bearding-line interfefts the fore-
fide of the inner poll, and llie fore-fide of the mould to the
fore-fide of the inner poll ; then upon the mould mull be
marked the llations of the upper lides of all tlie tranfiims,
markini.r their relpedlive names thereon. By many, the ufe
of this mould is fuperfeded by marking the whole of the
heights, iScc. upon the Hern-poll mould.

Another mould may be made to the thwartfliip bearding
of the flernpoll, thnii : fquare down the interfeftion of each
water-line, with the fore fide of the inner poll in tlie flieer-
plan, to its rorrefpoiuling water-line in the h.dl-breadth plan ;
then take the feveral half-breadths from the middle line in
the lialf-hreadth plan, and let them ofl' from a llraight line at
their correfponding heights in the Iheer-plan ; and a curve
made to pals through thofe fpots will be the thwartlhip
bearding of the poll, at the fore-fide of the inner poll,
from the middle line, to which the mould is to be made ;
the fame may be done, and a mould made to the fore-fide of
the Hern-poll.

A mould Ihould be made to the diutdwood abaft, whicli is
limited on the upper part by tlie cutting-down line, on the
lower part by the upper edge of the keel, the after end by
the fore-fide of the inner poll, and tlie forcmolt end by the
aft-fide of the after-floor. The monhl lor the dead-wood inee
is reprefented on it ; and fo hkewile are the feveral pieces
that compofe the whole, as they can he gotten lo as to give
Ihift to each other. Upon this mould are fallened battens,
with one edge llraight to the middle line : they corrclpond
with the llations of the fqu.ue timbers ; and the other edge

is

SHIP-BUILDING.

is hollowed to the moulding of the timbers, which gives the
half-thicknefs of the dead-wood below the ftepping or
bearding-line, as marked on the mould, as all above that line
the dead-wood is trimmed perpendicular to the fiding of the
keelfon. To make this mould more conveniently, it may be
made m two parts, feparating lengthways at about half its
depth.

To Layoff the Cant-timbers, Plate VII. Laylng-off, Plate A.
The neceflity and utility of canting the timbers forward
and aft, have been already explained in conllrufting of the
flieer-draught, Plalel. But that the reader may have as
clear an idea as poflible of the defign of the cant-timbers,
and their difpofition when canted, obferve then in the half-
breadth plan, Plate V II. fig. 4, where the lines reprefenting
the joints of the cant-timbers, as transferred from the (heer-
draught, Plate I., interfeft the middle line, there may be fup-
pofed the hinge of a door ; and the lines for the cant-timbers
may be fuppofed to reprefent the door, which may be
fwang forward at pleafure ; fo that if the fliip was on an even
keel, the fides of the cant-timbers (though trimmed to their
proper form) would become perpendicular, limilar to the
door ; or fuppofing the form of the cant-timber was drawn
on the door and fawcd out, it would be perpendicular as
before. The diagonal ribbands are fimilar to the cant-
timbers in this refpeft : and as the cant-timbers at the
middle line become perpendicular, making one ftraight fec-
tion in the dircftion of the cant-timbers ; fo the cant-rib-
bands at their interfeftion of the middle line in the body-
plan. Jig. 3, become horizontal, that is, parallel to the keel
at the middle line all fore and aft, provided that the ribbands
for the fore and after bodies meet at the middle line, as the
floor-ribbands do in^^ 3. Or otherwife, as the cant-timbers
are reprefented by a door that is hung perpendicular, fo may
the cant-ribbands be reprefented by any plain furface, like
the flap of a table, that may be hung horizontal to the fide
of a room ; then will the fide of the room become the middle
line of the Ihip, equal to the middle line in the half-breadth
plan, _y^. 2, and the flap of the table may be canted down
to the direftion of the diagonal lines in the body-plan,_/"_f. 3.
To underftand it clearly, fuppofe the edge of the flap of the
table to be cut in the form of one of the diagonal ribbands
kid off in the half-breadth plan. Jig. 2 ; let it be the floor-
ribband : then within the floor-cant-ribband in the half-
breadth plan, fig. 4, is the fquare or horizontal ribband B,
which is the form or diflance from the middle line which
the flap of the table makes when canted dovi-n, as in^^. 3.
The cant-ribband in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 4, is the
fame as the flap of the table, if lifted up till its level, fliew-
ing the extreme half-breadth of the fhip, were it cut in the
direftion of the cant-line in the body-plan, Jig. 3. The
cant-ribband in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 4, is the proper
line to make the mould to for the harpin. But the inter-
feftion of the cant-timbers injig. 4, with the cant-ribband,
is not the proper itation of the timbers ; becaufe the cant-
ribband is now raifed from its proper place, and the timbers
remain as before. Therefore, where the cant-timbers crofs
the fquare r'bbands, fquare them up to their corrcfponding
cant-ribbands, as may be readily feen in Jig. 4, which are
the proper Itations of the cant-timbers on the harpin-
moulds. For if the flap of the table, which is the cant-
ribband-li .e, and hinged at the middle line, was to fall down
in its proper place-, it would then be exadly underneath the
long ticked line B, which is the fquare ribband. The fta-
tions of the fquare timbers on the harpin-mould will make
no alteration, becaufe the mould falls in the direftion of the
fquare timbers. Strike a ilraight line from the interfeftion

of the cant-timber with the middle Ime, to their correfpond-
ing fl:ations on the harpin-mould ; as at cant-timber S,

ffg. 4. This will give the direction as the cant-timbers ftand
on the harpin-mould.

Before we proceeed any further in laying-off the cant-
timbers, the fore cant-body, that hffgs. 3 and 4, ftiould be
proved by the fquare timbers and water-lines, as far aft as
timber M at leaft ; for it is poflible that the ribband-line?
may have a fair appearance on the floor, and yet not produce
a fair body in the fliip ; but if the water-lines and ribband-
lines agree, there need be no fear of producing a fair bow,
as the lines cannot be altered after the cant-tinibers are
laid off.

Therefore, transfer the water-lines from the body-plan,
Plat^ I., to the body-plan on the floor, and then they may
be all run from timber M, and ended forward, as direfted
in the conftrufting the ftieer-draught, Plate I. Thefe line^"
laying with a more acute angle with the timbers, any un-
fairnefs in the body is more readily feen ; but when
the ribband-lines and water-lines produce fair curves in

ffg. 4, and likewife fair timbers in Jig. 3, we may pro-
ceed to lay-off the fquare ribband-lmes, which may be dont
in the following manner : mark on the edge of a batten
the dillances taken fquare from the middle line of the
fore body-plan, jff. 3, to where the floor-ribband interfeAs
each of the fquare timbers O, Q, S, U, X and Y. Then
fet them off^ from the middle line on their corrcfponding
timbers in the half-breadth plan, ffg. 4. The ending of it
may be performed as the ending of its correfponding dia-
gonal or cant-hne, with only this difference, that, inltead
of taking the half-breadth of the ftem in the direftion of
the diagonal line, it mud be taken fquare from the middle
line in the body -plan, _/^. 3, to where the floor-ribband in-
terfefts the half-breadth of the Item. Then, by pinning a
batten to the fpots on the timbers and to the ending, is
produced the curve B, or fquare ribband No. 2, marked on
the floor S 2, and its correfponding ribband C 2, meaning
fquare 2 and cant 2, which fave a multiplicity of words ; and
it may be underitood more clearly as we proceed, than by
expreffing the ribbands by their proper names, as floor-
ribband, &c. Then, by proceeding in the fame way with
the relt of the diagonal or cant and fquare ribband-lines,
they may be all defcribed on the floor, as at A I, B 2, C 3,
D 4, and E 5, Plate VII., Jg. 4.

Now proceed to the operation, where the cant-timbers in

Jig. 4. interfeft the fquare ribbands A, B, C, D, and E, or
I, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Take the neareft diflance or fquare from
the middle line, and fet them off fquare from the middle
line to intei*fe£l their correfponding ribbands in the body-
plan, jf^r. 3, and from thence level out lines at pleafure, as
may be feen in Jig. 3. Then take the diflance from the
middle line in_^^. 4, ui the direction of the cant-timbers, to
the interfeftions of the fquare ribband with the cant-timbers,
and carry them to their correfponding timbers in the body-
plan,^. 3, fetting them off^ fquare from the middle Hne
on the lines before levelled out. This will give the fpots for
the timbers, and likewife the proper ftations of the harpins
to be crofled on the timbers.

Square up from the half-breadth plan, ffg. 4, where the
cant-timbers crofs the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood H,
to the bearding-line R in the fneer-plan. Likewife from

Jig. 4, where the cant-timbers crofs the main half-breadth
hne, port-fill line, top-timber half-breadth, and half-breadth
at top-fide, let them be fquared to their correfponding lines
in the flieer-plan.

Take the heights in the flieer-plan, where the cant-timbers
crefs the bearding-line, likewife the lower and upper main-
breadths.

SHIP-BUILDING.

breadths, the port-fill line, the top timber-Une, and top of
the fide, and fet them in up the body -plan, Jig. 3, ilriking
lines thereto parallel to the bafe hne ; then take the diftance
from the middle line in the half -breadth plan, Jig. 4, in the
direction of the cant-timbers, to the line for the half-breadth
of the dead-wood at each timber, and fet them off from the
middle line in the body-plan, _/?_f. 3, on the heights iet up for
the bearding. This will give the ending of the cant-timbers
on the bearding-line.

Take the diltance from the middle line in the half-breadth
plan, Jg. 4, in the direftion of the cant-timbers, to the main
half-breadth, port-fill half-breadth, top-breadth, and top-
fide, and fet them off in the body-plan, _yff. 3, fquare from
the middle line, on their correfponding heights. This will
give the fpots through which the curves of the timbers are
to pafs by pinning a batten, and likewife the proper heights
of the harpins on the timbers.

To Lay off" the BeveUlngs oj the Cant-Timbers.
Let the bevelling of cant-timber u be required, and this
will fuffice for all, as the procefs is alike. Strike a line
afore and hkewife abaft the joint of cant u, in the half-
breadth plan, Jg. 4, to the fcantling of the timber, which
fhould be the breadth of the bevelling-board. Square a
line from the interfeftion of the joint with the middle hne,
to crofs the edges or fiding of the timber u in the half-
breadth plan, as at L„Jg. 4 ; then take the nearefl diftance
or fquare to the middle line, from where the ticked line
afore a erodes the fquare ribbands A, B, C, &c. and fet it
off fquare from the middle line in the body-plan, Jg. 3, on
each correfponding ribband, in the fame manner as was done
for the joint of the timber, and level them out on each fide
of the diagonal ribbands, becaufe the diftance taken off^ in
the direftion of the beveUing edge in Jg. 4, will fometimes
be without and fometimes within the diagonal. Then take
the diftance from the fquare line, which crofTes the middle
line at the joint injg 4, to the fquare ribbands A, B, C, &c.
in the direftion of the ticked line, before the joint or fore
edge of u, and fet them off fquare from the middle line in
the body-plan, Jg. 3, on their correfponding fpots before
levelled out. Where the fame ticked line, in^^. 4, inter-
fefts the half-breadth of the dead-wood, fquare it up to the
bearding-line in the (heer-plan, and transfer that height to
the body-plan, Jg. 3. Then take the diltance in Jg. 4.
from the fquared hne, as before, to the hne for the half-
breadth of the dead-wood, in the direftion of the ticked
line ; and fet it off fquare from the middle line in the body-
plan, Jg. 3, on the height of the bearding-hne, which gives
a fpot to tinifh the lower end. Where the fame ticked line,
in Jg. 4, interfcfts the main half-breadth line, fquare it up
to the lower height of breadth line in the fiieer-plan, and
transfer that height to the body -plan, Jg. 3. Then take
the diftance in_/ff. 4, from tlie fquare line, as before, to the
main half-breadth, in the direftion of the ticked line, and
Jet it off fquare from the middle line in the body-plan, _^_f. 3,
on the height laft fet up. Then, by pinning a batten
through thofe fpots, the fore edge is produced in the body-
plan from the heel to the lower height of breadth.

Proceed exaftly the fame with the edge abaft the joint of
u, and the two edges will be run in the body-i)lan, _/ff. 3,
as the ticked lines there reprefent, the nearcft diftance of
which, taken with compaffes, to the joint at every ribband,
(hews how much bevulhng the timber requires at each place
in the breadth of tlie bevelling-board; that is, if the ticked
Hne, which is the bevelling edge of the timber, come williin
the joint of the timber (or nearer the middle line), then the
bevelling of the timber would be fo much within (or under

Vox.. XXXII.

from) a fquare, confequently the ticked line without the
joint will be fo much without (or ftanding from) a fquare.

Figs. 5 and 6, exhibit the form of the fafhion-piece and
cant-timbers of the afterbody, which being laid off and
bevelled in the fame manner as cant-timber u in the fore-
body, it is ulelefs to explain them ; neverthelefs, cant-tim-
ber 35 is completely laid off, that it may be referred to at
leifure. It may be neceffary to add, that the greateft pains
are required to prove the correftnefs of the after-body, not
only by the water-lines, but by the vertical feftions or but-
tock-lines, and by introducing one or more fquare timbers
abaft 36, to prove the buttock quite aft, and hence called
proof-timbers. When thefe arc all found to agree, it will
not only produce a fair cant-body, but likewife a fair ftem-
frame. See Plate IX. Laying-ojf C.

Obferve, the diagonal H, Jg. 5, or third futtock-
ribband, ends upon the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, which
requires the following method to end it Transfer the
height from the line A A, or upper edge of the keel,
where the diagonal H interfefts the margin-hne of the
tranfom in tlie body-plan, ^^. 5, to crofs the margin-line in
the fheer-plan ; and where it croffes, fquare it down to the
margin-line in the half- breadth-plan, ^^. 6; then take the
diftance from the middle line in the body-plan,_/%^. 5, in the
direftion of the diagonal H, to where it interfefts the
margin-line of the wing-tranfom, and (et it off from the
middle line in the half-breadth-plan, Jg. 6, on the hne
fquared down from tlie margin-line, which ends the diagonal
H, or third futtock-ribband. To end it as a fquare rib-
band, take the nearelt diftance, or fquare, from the middle
line in the body-plan, jff. j, to where the diagonal H inter-
fefts the margin-line, and fet it off fquare from the middle
line, Jg. 6, to interfeft the margin-line there ; and if truly
fquared down for ending the cant-ribband, the ending of
the fquare ribband will alfo interfeft the margin-line at the
fame place injg. 6.

Moulds are generally made to each timber, or futtock, va
the cant-bodie:i ; and in croffing or marking them, it muft
be obferved, that the ftations of the heads and ribbands are
where the lines levelled out interfeft the lines of the cant-
timbers. On the heels of the double futtock and half-
timber moulds, nail on a batten to the ftepping and fide of
the dead-wood, by which the heel is to be cut off. To
perform this, fet off on the half-breadth plan, Jg. 6, the
thicknefs of the ftepping, or dead-wood, above the ftepping.
line, which may be the half-thicknefs of the keelfon, from
and parallel to the middle line, as there ticked ; then from
the middle line in the half-breadth plan, Jg. 6, take the
diltance in the direftion of the cant-line to the ticked line,
and fet it off in the middle line in the body-plan upon the
hne levelled out for the heel of the fame cant-timber ; and
from that fpot fquare up a line to the upper fide of the
cutting-down, which will give the height of the infidc of
the timber, and will reprefent the fide of the dead-wood to
which the batten is to be nailed. A lirmark, crofied on this
batten at any certain height above the keel, and carefully
croffed on the fide of the timber, when trimmed to corre-
fpond to a line gotten upon the dead-wood at that fame
height above the keel, will be the furoft and beft method
of Iceeping the cant-timbers to their exadt height on the
ftiip.

Bevellings. — To take the bcvellings, provide a board as
broad as the fcantling of the timber, and long enough to
lake all the bevellings of the fore-fide of the joint, and like-
wife abaft it, as Plate V \\. Jg. 9. Begin with the fore-
fide of cant-timber u, Jg. 4 : the heel-bevelling is the firit
to be taken, which gives the direftion to trim the heel of
4C the

SHIP-BUILDING.

the futtock the fore and aft-way, or faying to the dead-
wood ; therefore, the outfide of the dead-wood being parallel
to the middle line, apply the ftock of a bevel in the direc-
tion of the joint of cant-timber u in the half-breadth
plan, and place the tongue well with the middle line, or
at the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood, as at F, Jig. 4,
letting the tongue teach forward, which will be an under-
bevelling, and may be thence marked on the board. The
bevelling of the heel, to trim it to the ftcpping or bearding-
line, is next taken. Thus, where the joint of cant-timber u
interfefts the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood, in Jig. 4,
fquare it up to crofs the bearding-Hne in the fheer-plaii ;
and, at that place, let the tongue of the bevel be placed to
the bearding-hne, teaching forward, and move the ilock
till it is perpendicular, as at O in the fheer-plan, which
will give the above bevelling, which may be the next marked
on the board.

The outfide bevelling of the heel is bed obtained by
trimming the heel parallel to the iniide, where it fays to the
fide of the dead-wood, to the thicknefs of the ftepping.
Then, to take the bevelhng at the lower diagonal, fix one
leg of a pair of compaflts in the line of the cant-timber a,
in the body-plan, ^_f. 3, where the level line interfefts, and
extend the other leg to the ticked line, reprefenting the fore
edge of the timber u, fvveeping it till you get the neareft
diltance, and that will fhew how much the bevelhng is
within or without a fquare in the breadth of the bevelling-
board ; if the former, the ticked line muft be towards the
middle line of the joint, and of courfe the latter without it ;
then do the fame with the diagonal lines, and the bevcUings
of each, fo taken, may be marked on the board.

To take the bevellings at the main and top-breadths, and
at the port-fill line between them, apply the ftock of the
bevel to the joint of the cant-timber u, in the half-breadth
■phn. Jig. 4, as at G, and place the tongue in the direction
of the refpeftive half-breadth lines, as at top-breadth, ob-
ferving to let the tongue teach forward : thefe bevellings
are fet off on the board, as taken, and the whole kept at
a regular dift.ance of about three-quarters of an inch on the
left-hand fide of the board ; and, to complete them, mark
their refpeftive names and fore-fide of cant u, as a,^g. 9.

The bevellings may now be taken for the aft-fide of
cant u ; but the operation is performed like the former, only
obferving that the fquare line at the heel comes withinfide
of the middle line of the half-breadth plan, and likewife
when the bevel is applied to take the bevellings at main-
breadth and above, the tongue of it muft teach aft ;
thefe bevellings may then be marked on the fame fide of the
board below the others, and the board for cant-timber u
will be complete, as b, Plate VII. J!g. 9.

In hke manner may the bevellings be taken for cant-
timber 35 at the aft-fide, and marked on another board,
z&a,Jig. 10; likewife for the fore-fide, as b, fg. 10; and
fo on for all the other cant-timbers, both on the fore and
after cant-bodies, and alfo for the faftiion-pieces, and marked
■on their refpeftive beards.

Making the Moulds, and tahing the Bcudlings ij the Harpins,
Plate VII. Laying-oJJ, Plate A.

The ribbands to which, the harpins are connefted reach
-along the ftiip fore and aft ; but in the wake of the cant-
bodies, or at the fore and aft parts of the (hip, they are
termed harpins, and are trimmed to the fiiape of the Ihip's
body by moulds and bevelfings from the mould-loft. The
reader, in the foregoing feftion, being made acquainted
with the nature of canting the ribbands, it may only be
necellary to obferve, that the ribbands at the port-fill line

J

would be placed better about eight mches below the upper
fide of the lower fill, fo that they may be let out above the
ribband ; and likewife tiie ribband at the top timber-line
ftould be fo placed, that one of the (heer-ftrakes ftiould be
wrought before it is dillurbed. This is commonly a larger
ribband, hke that at the floor-head, to keep the top-fide
fair.

The harpin-moulds are made of fir-board, to the dia-
gonal or cant-ribband lines in the cant-bodies,^/. 4 and fi ;
from the fteni or ftern-poft, to the adjoining Iquare timber,
as O and 28, to be about feven inches broad ; and as they
he in their places on the floor, mark the ftations of the
cant-timbers upon them thus. Where the cant-timbers
interfeft the fquare ribbands, fquare them np to their cor-
refponding cant-ribbands ; then ftriking a ilraight hne from
the interfeftion of each cant-timber, at the middle line of
the half-breadth plan, to the correfponding ftations laft
fquaied up, will give the direftion of the cant-timbers as
they ftand with the harpin-mould, as at cant-timber s,Jig. 4.
The method of taking the bevellings is at every fquare
timber, which muft be likewife marked on the harpin-mould
before it is difplaced. The ftations of the fquare timbers
make no alterations, becaufe the harpin is lowered to its
cant in a perpendicular direftion. Fix the ftock of a bevel
in the diredlion of the diagonal, lay the upper one, or third
futtock-ribband H, in the body-plan, _/?^. 3, and the tongue
againft the outfide of the fquare timber O ; then mark it
on a board (the board to be as broad as the harpin is deep
or fidcd), and fo on with the other fquare timbers before
O, marking each of them, and its refpeftive timber, as
before ; then fix the itock of the bevel upon the fame
harpin-line in the body-plan. Jig. 3, and the tongue againft
the fide of the ftcm, and mark that likewife upon the board ;
and by that bevelling the foremoft end of the harpin muft
be trimmed, to fay againft the ftem. The fore and aft
part of the harpin againft the ftem is obtained by the foot,
or fwell on the fore -end of the harpin-mould, which is cut
off well with the half-thicknefs of the ftem, taken dia-
gonally, and parallel to the middle line, in the half-breadth
plan. Jig. 4. Another bevelhng is taken and applied over
the end, after it is cut off to the fore and aft-line, and be-
velled againft the ftem, thus ; fix the ftock of a bevel upon
the horizo!ital line of the harpin upon the item, and teach
the tongue down the aft-fide of the rabbet ; then mark it
on the board, and the bevellings are completed. To com-
plete the harpin-mould, fquare down from the (lieer-plan,
where the fore-fide of the rabbet of the ftem crofles the
upper fide of the harpin, to the mould on the half-breadth
plan, and make a firmark, which being kept to the fore-
fide of the rabbet of the ftem on the (hip, is the guide to
fix the harpin to.

To Lay-off the Hatufe- Pieces, Plate VIII. Laying-ojff Y, .

This plate reprefents the lines on the floor, as before
obfers'ed, but made feparate here for clearnels. The hawfe-
pieces, in_^j. 1 and 2, are fuppofed to ftand perpendicular
when in their places, and their fides to look fore and aft.
They may be called fquare timbers, only they look fore
and aft, inftead of athwartlhips. This being the firft
method of laying-off the hawfe-pieces, will be eafieft under-
ftood.

Strike in ftraight lines as much afunder, and parallel to
the middle line in the half-breadth plan. Jig. 3, as the
knight-head and hawfe-pieces are to be fided, marking them
K, H, I, 2, 3, and 4.

Where the edges of the foremoft cant-timbers, marked
E F in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 3, crofs the water-lines,

main-

SHIP-BUILDING.

main-breadth, and level line, at their heads A, fquare them
up parallel to any of the fquare timbers, to their correfpond-
ing lines in the flver-plan, Jig. I, and likewife do the fame
with the bearding-line, which will give the ending of the
timbers on the bearding-line ; then, by pinning a batten to
all thofe fpots, this (liews the thwartfhip view of thofe cant-
timbers when in their places, as F G.

Where the lines for the knight-head and hawfe-pieces,
in the half-breadth plan,^^. 3, crofs the water-lines, main-
breadth, and heads, let them be likewife fquared up to
their correfponding lines in the fheer-plan,_/?j. i ; a batten
pinned to thofe ipots, making a fair line, and the edge
rafed or chalked by, gives the form of the knight-head
and hawle-pieces, and (hews them in their proper places ;
and where the lints for the knight-head, and i, 2, and 3
hawfe-pieces, meet tlie fore-fide of the fhort cant-timber,
before cant J', in the hall-breadth plan ^t Jig. 3, let them
be fquared up to the fore -edge, G, of the fame timber,
in the (heer-plan, Jg. i ; likewife the heel of hawfe-
piece 4 crofling the tore-edge of cant y, which gives the
heeling of the knight -head and hawfe-pieces.

The raidfhip fide of the knight-head connefting well
with the fide of the ftem, the rabbet being in the middle of
it, makes the aft-fide of the rabbet the fore-fide of the
knight-head. But when the rabbet is not in the middle of
the (lem, it connefts well with the fide of the apron and
dead-wood, confequently the bearding-line reprcfents the
fore-fide.

Before the moulds for the knight-head and hawfe-pieces
can be crofied, if made, the hanging of the harpins mull be
defcribed in the flieer-plan,_^^. i. Thus, take their heights
perpendicularly from the bale line, where they interfeft the
iquare timbers, and at the fide of the Hem, in the body-plan.
Jig. 2, and transfer them refpeftively to the fheer-plan.
Jig. 1 ; then, by pinning a batten to thofe heights, we have
the lines A, B, C, D, and E, or hanging of the harpins
in the fheer-plan, _yfj. i.

The heels of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, where
they interfedl the cant-timber in the (heer-plan,_^_j. i, are
lined up perpendicular, in which direftion they mull be
cut off, to fay againil the fide of the cant-timbers F and G.

The moulds may now be made of inch-board to the lines
marked K, or knight-head, and I, 2, 3, and 4 hawfe-pieces
in the (heer-plan,^^'. i, from the heads to the heels, and the
moulds at the heels to be cut off in the dn-eftion of the
perpendicular line thereat, and while in their places mark
a firmark on the moulds, wherever the harpins mterleft the
moulding edge of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, alfo
the m;iin-breadth and heail, and as many between as it
may be thought neceifary to apply bevelhng?, as may be
leen at the hawfe-piece 4. The lirmarks at the harpins
alfo Ihew the height to keep the iiarpins to on the fliip.

The bevelliiigs may be next taken, and marked on a board,
whicii fhould be as broad as the fidiiig of the hawfe-piece,
having aboard to the knight-head, and each hawle-picce, or
all on one board, it not thought unhandy, as Jg. 4. The
firit bevelling taken from tlie kniglit-liead or hawle-pieces to
the fide of the cant-timber in the half breadth plan, fig. 3,
as G for the knight-head, and H for the hawfe-piece 4, is
the under bevelling. To cut off the heels to fay againd the
cant-timber athwartfhips, the bevel fhould be applied fquare
from the heel, as cut off, to the perpendicular lines at the
heels ill the fheer-plan, fig. I. But to get the bevelling at
the heel to conuter-mouM them, when the heel is cut off and
trimmed to the above bcvelbng, the foremolt edge of cant ji
mull be l.tid ofl" on tiie fquare, as i, and on the cant, as h,
ii thi; body-plan, fig. 2, a3 the joint of any of the cant-

timbers were in Plate VII.; and fo muft likewife the forf
edge of the eant-fiUing before y, the latter being introduced
only to (horten the heel of the knight-head and foremoft
hawfe-pieces. Then flrikc in the body-plan, ^/ff. 2, the
fiding of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces parallel to the
middle line; and where the moulding edge at the heel inter-
fefts the fquare edge, or fore and aft view of the cant-
timber, as i in the body-plan, ^^. 2, level it out to interfeft
the cant edge h. To do this with lefs trouble, take the height
in the fheer-plan, _^^. i, of the heels of the knight-head and
hawfe-pieces at their interfeftion of the thwartfhip view of
the fore edge of the cant-timbers, as F and G, and fet them
up in the body-plan, on their refpeftive cant edges, marking
them up perpendicular ; then place the flock of the levd
againil the perpendicular lines, and the tongtie to the cant
edge of the timber, as G for the knight-head, and F for
hawfe-piece 4, which will give the exaft bevelling to be
applied on the heel when cut off for the counter-moulding of
the knight-head or hawfe-pieces.

The fide of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces being pa-
rallel to each other, they will ferve, in the fheer-plan, ^^. i,
for the bevellings of each other, fimihr to parallel lines laid
down for the cant-timbers ; for, as much as the moulding
edge of the hawfe-piece, i, is within or abaft the moulding
edge of the knight-head, from the head to the heel, fo much is
the bevelling of the knight-head within or under from a
fquare, in the diflance between the knight-head and the
hawfe-piece, i, in the half-breadth plan, jff. 3 ; therefore
with compaffes fweep the nearefl diflance at each harpin,
&c. from the moulding edge to the after edge of the knight-
head and each hawfe-piece, as may be feen at hawfe-piece 4,
in the fheer-plan, _/?f. i, and fet it within a fquare upon the
board, as at e. Jig. 4 ; and fo on for the others.

The bevellings of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, if
taken from the water-lines, main-breadth, &.c. in the half-
breadth plan, ji^. 3, would be found to alter but little ; yet
they are not to true in their application as when taken on a
fquare.

But was the counter-moulding bevelling at the heel cor-
redlly fet off, and another at the head for the knight-head,
then the mould tor hawfe-piece i, being kept well at the head
and heel, and to its proper height, mull confequently counter,
mould the knight-head exaftly, if the knight-head could be
gotten long enough to reach to the heel, or if the chock
was fayed before it was moulded, and the knight-head pro-
perly tided.

In the fame manner, the mould that is made to the mould-
ing edge of the hawfe-piece 2, would counter-mould the
hawfe-piece i, and fo on of the rett.

There is no neccfhty to run the water-lines in the half,
breadth plan,_/(f. 3, on purpofe to lay off the hawfe-pieces,
becaufe there is a fufHcient number of fquare harpins already
run ; for in the half-breadth plan,^. 3, where the knight--
liend and hawfe-pieces crols the fquare harpini, let them be
fquared up to their correfponding harpins in the fheer-plan.
Jig. I, which will give the exadt form of the knight-hcad
and hawfe-pieces ; and, if tiie work is correft, will agree
with the former by the water-lines.

To Lay (JJlhe Hatufc-Pieces., 'where the Sides are required to loot
j'ore andajl, and likewife to be Jided lefs at the Heels.

Every timber in the (hip which is fided flraight, mufl
appear, either in plan or elevation, as one ftraight line ;
tliereforc it is necefiary, before any operation can be per-
formed, to have a clear idea of the difpofition of the timber
when in its place. The luwfc-pieces are intended to look
fore and af;, that is, at any particular height the fides of
4 C 2 them

SHIP-BUILDING.

them ate to be parallel to the middle line ; but as the heels of
them are to be fided lefs than the heads, they will confe-
quently be nearer the middle line ; therefore they will not
appear in a ftraight line in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 7, as
they did in fig. 3, and cannot be viewed in a ftraight line,
Hnlefs by fuppofing them really in their places in the body-
plan, Jig. 6.

Proceed to difpofe of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces
as in the body-plan, ^^. 6, where they will appear ftraight
lines. The mouldmg edges are the tliin lines, except the
outfide of hawfe-piece 4, which is intended to be laid off,
in order to get the beveliings of No. 4 hawfe-piece.

The thwartfiiip view of the foremoil edge of cant-timber
V, and the cant-filling before it in the half-breadth plan,
Jg. 7, which the knight-head and hawfe-pieces end againft,
mull be fquartd up and reprefented in the Iheer-plan, Jg. 5,
as in the preceding operation.

The fore and aft view of the forcmolt edge of cant-
timber _y, and the cant-filling before it, both on the fqnare
and cant, muft be laid oil as h, i, in the body-plan, Jg. 6, as
before explained.

Now proceed to lay off the hawfe-pieces, or to (hew the
form in which they will appear in the half-breadth plan,
fy. 7. The knight-head is already laid off, becaufe it is the
fame as the half-thicknefs of the ftem in the half-breadth
plan, /!g. 7. Therefore take the diftance fquare from the
middle line to the heels of the hawfe-pieces, where they
interfeft the fore and aft view of the cant-timbers i and G
in the body-plan, _/f^^. 6, and fet them off fquare from the
middle hne in the half-breadth plan, Jg. 7, on the edges
of the cant-timbers F and E ; which gives the heels of the
hawfe-pieces in ^/Tf. 7. Take the diftance fquare from the
middle line in the body-plan, j?^. 6, to where the hawfe-pieces
crofs the harpins, A, B, C, D, and E ; and fet them off
fquare from the middle line, on their correfponding fquare
harpins in the half-breadth plan, Jg. 7. Likewife, in the
fame manner take the half-breadths in the body-plan, Jg. 6,
for the main breadth and the harpin at the head ; and fet
them off in the fame manner as before in the half-breadth
plan,^^. 7. Then pin a batten to thofe fpots, and mark
the curves in the half-breadth plan, Jg. 7, which Ihews the
form they will appear in, were you right over them, and
looking down upon tliem ; occafioned by the different curves
of the body when cut by thefe feftions.

The next operation will (hew the form of the body, fup-
pofing it to be cut by the different fedions of the hawfe-
pieces, to which form the moulds are to be made to trim the
hawfe-pieces. Proceed in the following manner :

Where the hawfe-pieces i, 2, 3, and 4, in the half-
breadth plan, /^. 7, crofs the fquare harpins c, d, e, f, and
g; and hkewife the main-breadth B, and harpin above
A ; let them be fquared up to their correfponding harpins
in the fheer-plan, Jg. 5, where they end againft the edge of
the cant-timbers F and E in the half-breadth plan, Jg. 7 :
they may be likewife fquared up to interfeft the thwartfhip
view F and G of thofe cant-timbers in the flicer.plan,/_f. 5,
to give the heels of the hawfe-pieces. But this is not fo
true, as to take the heights of the heels where they intcrfeft
the fore and aft view of the cant-timbers i and G, in the
body-plan,/^. 6, and transfer them to the fheer-plan,/^. 5,
on the thwartfhip view of the faid timbers F and G ; this is
the proper height of the heels ; yet if both wavs agree, it
fhews the truth of the work. Then pin a batten to thofe
fpots fquared up, and mark the curves i, 2, 3, and4; this
gives the moulding edges of the hawfe-pieces, and (hews
them as they appear wiien in their places. This method is
ufually praftifed when required to be laid off in this manner.

and will fufBce for praftice ; but by explaining the fituatioir
of thofe at prefent laid off, it will fufSciently (liew they are
not exaft, therefore we fliall point out a method the moft
accurate.

Confider the hawfe-pieces as they are now laid off, and
as they appear in the (heer-plan, Jg. 5 ; you there fee the
exaft form of them, fuppofing them to be in tlieir places,
and that you are looking level at them. You may therefore
obferve the exaft form of the harpins, when you are looking
level at them, where they appear at their proper heights :
confequently, then, you have the exaft length and form
of the hawfc-piecea only as they appear in a level view.
And becaufe they do not ft and perpendicular, you cannot
have the exaft length nor form properly to mould them.

In order to (hew the proper method that may be depended
on, lay-off the moulding edge of hawfe-piece 4, or the
outfide of No. 3, which will make the mofl difference, be-
caufe it flands moft from a perpendicular.

There muft be luppofed one given point to work from ;
therefore, it being the moft proper, let it be the heel.
Strike the level line from the heel in the body-plan, fig. 6, to
the heel in the (heer-plan, Jg. 5, as /. If the hawfe-
piece 4 was not laid off in the fheer-plan, Jg. 5, the
moulding edge mull be gotten up, as before, from tlie
half-breadth plan, Jg. 7. Therefore, as it is, ftrike lines
upwards, perpendicular from the feparate harpin;- in the
fheer-plan, Jg. 5, where the moulding edge of hawfe-
piece 4 interfefts them. Then take the diftance from
the heel of No. 4 hawfe-piece, in the body-plan, Jg. 6,
to each harpin, main-breadth, &c. taken in the direc-
tion of the moulding edge of hawfe-piece 4 ; and fet
them up perpendicular from the heel of hawfe-piece 4,
in the (heer-plan, Jg. 5, on the lines before fquared up, at
their correfponding harpins : then pinning a batten to thofe
fpoti, mark the curve in Jg. 5, which will give the exaft
moulding of the hawfe-piece, and the heights for the
ftations of the harpins to be croffed on the hawfe-piece
moulds.

Though the exaft and proper method to lay-off the
hawfe-pieces is defcribed by laying off No. 4, the explanation
muft fuffice for this, being too minute to be drawn on the
plate. Yet the firft method is not entirely to be condemned,
as they are (hewn in the (liecr-plan, Jg. 5, becaufe it makes
fo little difference in the moulding, that the error is not to be
regarded in the prafticc. The greatcft difference it makes is
in the length, which, in No. 4, does not make it two inches
longer. But the certainty of tlie latter method being the
moll correft, muft be proved by working at extremes ; that-
is, fnppofe the head of hawfe-piece 4 to (land where it is in
the body-plan, fig. 6, and the heel to be fixed at the middle
line, then, if laid off by both methods, the difference would
be readily fcen, which method is bell to be depended on.

The moulds for the knight-head and hawfe-pieces are made
to the lines in the (lieer-plan,_/ff. 5, as before direfted.

The be-eellings, fuppofing the hawfe-pieces to be properly
laid off in the (heer-plan,^. 5, are taken in the fame manner
as was (hewn injg. 1 ; for though they do not appear in the
fame manner in the half-breadth plan, Jg. 7, yet in tlie
(heer-plan,/_n^. 5, (their fides looking fore and aft,) you there
fee the form of them fquare from the plans of their fepa-
rate fides ; therefore the diftance, as they appear from each
other in the fheer-plan, Jg. 5, at each harpin, is the proper
bevelling of them, agreeable to their diftance from each
other taken at their correfponding harpins in the body-plan,
fs- 6-

Where the heels of the hawfe-pieces ftep on the thwart-
fhip view of the cant -timbers in the (heer-plan, ^. ^, line

them

SHIP.BUILDING.

them up perpendicular ; which gives the difpofition of
the heels of the hawfe-pieces to fay againlt the fore-fide of
each cant-timber.

The bevelling of the heelsof the hawfe-pieces muft likewife
be done the fame as \'ajig- 3 ; for though in the half-breadth
plan, Jig. 7, the form of the moulding edges of the hawfe-
pieces appear in tliis view, yet the fides of them, at level
heights, are cxaftly fore and aft ; therefore the bevellings to
trim the heels to fay againft the fide of the cant-timber, is
the fame for all the hawfe-pieces, and muft be taken with the
ftock of the bevel looking fore and aft, or parallel to the
middle line, as is exprefled by the bevel G, which is applied
in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 7, to take the bevelling of
No. 4 hawfe-piece.

To take the bevelling of the heel, to be applied when the
heel is trimmed by the lall bevelhng, m order to counter-
mould the hawfe-pieces, transfer the heels of the hawfe-
pieces from the (heer-plan. Jig. 5, to the cant-timber in the
body-plan, ^f. 6, as for taking the bevelling of the hawfe-
piece 4, and ftrike up a perpendicular line, to which apply
the ftock of the bevel, and the tongue to the fore cant-edge,
as at c,ftg. 6. This gives the bevelling of the Tieel, in order
to counter-mould the hawfe-pieces.

As the moft accurate method of moulding the hawfe-
pieces has been treated of, it is requifite it fhould be fo re-
fpefting the difpofition of the heels, and the bevelling of the
heels. As the bevelling of the heel is fhewn for No. 4
hawfe-piece, the following will explain the difference that
may be expefted, if the hawfe-pieces were required to be
laid off on extremes, or if a fedlion of the body were re-
quired in fuch diredlion.

Set up any particular height on the hawfe-piece 4, in the
body-plan. Jig. 6, and fuppofe it to be the height where the
harpin C intcifefts it ; then take that height from the
heel of the hawfe-piece No. 4, in the dircftion of the line of
the hawfe-piece, and fet it up perpendicular from the heel of
No. 4 hawfe-piece, in the {hecr-plan,^_f . 5. Take the diltance
Iquare from the middle line at the propofed height in the
body-plan. Jig. 6, and fct it off fquare from the middle
line in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 7, on the cant edge E ;
there make a fpot, and carry it fquare up to the ticked
level line in the flieer-plan. Jig. 5, and ftrike the line from
thence to the heel of No. 4 hawfe-piece, which gives the
exacl form of the hetl to fay againft the fore-fide of cant-
timber y.

From the fpot before mentioned in ttic half-breadth plan,
fig. 7, take the diftancc to the middle line in the direction of
the cant-timber, as E, and fet it off from the middle line in
the body-plan^^^. 6, on the ticked level line, and draw it
down to the heel of the timber ; which is the proper line to
which the ftock of the bevel {hould be applied to take the
bevelling of the heel, in order to counter-mould the hawfe-
pieces. The explanation of the above muft fuffice, as it
would not only interfere with the method laid off, but alfo
be too minute to be defcribcd on the plate.

Where the hawfe-pieces in the half-breadth plan,_yff. 7,
crofs the fquare harpins c, d, e,f, and g, fquare them up to
their correfponding cant-harpins, as at /;, which gives the
proper ilations of the hawfe-pieces on the cant-harpins ;
but the direftion of the hawfe-pieces to be marked on the
harpin-moulds will be fore and aft, as well on the cant-
harpins as on tliofe which lie level : fuch are the iiarpins at
the port-fill and head ; for where the hawfe-pieces crofs tliofe
harpins \u the half-breadth plan,^^. 7, is the proper llation
of the iiawfe-pieces on the aforefaid harpins ; or otherwile
it is the proper diftance from the middle hue which the
hawfe-pieces will be on each harpin, when the harpins are

in their places ; becaufe thofe harpins are fhewn in the half-
breadth plan, fg. 7, as they really appear wlien they are in
their places.

To Lay-off the Hawfe- Pieces tvhen canted.

The method of laying off and difpofing of the hawfe-
pieces when canted, is the moft complete of any, as it is the
beft for the ftrength of the ftiip, and will likewife aflift the
converfion of the timber ; for by canting them, they will not
only be diminiftied at the heels, whereby a lefs piece of
timber will make them, as in the foregoing method, but the
beveUings will be lefs acute ; and as the canting and diminilh-
ing of them at the heels are performed by one operation, they
confequently muft appear as ftraight lines when viewed in the
half-breadth plan ; and, as before obferved, that all timbers,
when canted nearer to a fquare with the body, add more to
the fecurity of the plank, and the timbers are not wounded
fo much by that fecurity. The canting of the hawfe-pieces
is alfo fome advantage to the hawfe-holes ; for although the
hawfe-holes are generally cut nearly parallel to the middle
line, yet canting of them leaves moft wood at the outfide of
the hawfe-hole, which is the fartheft from the middle line,
as it is the wearing fide of the hawfe-liole.

Difpofe of the hawfe-pieces in the half-breadth plan as in

Jig. II, on which plan they will be ftraight lines, fimilar to

the cant-timbers. Strike in hkewife the fore-fide of the

cant-timbers marked E, F, as before, againft which the heels

of the hawfe-pieces are to be cut off.

Lay off the thwartftiip view of the hawfe-pieces and fore-
fide of the above cant-timbers E, F, in the fheer-plan,^^. 9,
in the following manner. Where the fore-fide of the cant-
timbers E and F in the half-breadth ■^\zn. Jig. 11, croffes
the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood C, fquare them up to
the bearding-line in the flieer-plan,_/ff. 9, and in the fame
manner proceed at everywater-linc, i , 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 ; like-
wife with the main-breadth and harpin at the beak-head :
then pin a batten to thofe fpots, and mark the curves, as
F, G, which gives the thwartfhip view of the fore-iide of
the cant-timbers the hawfe-pieces heel againft.

In the fame manner proceed with the hawfe-pieces : where,
in the half-breadth plan, ^_f. ii, they intcrfcft the water-
lines, main-breadth, and harpin above, fquare them up
to their correfponding lines in the ftieer-plan. Jig. 9 ; and
where they intcrfeiit the fore-edges of cant-timbers E and F
in the half-breadth plan,^_f. 11, fquare them up to interfeft
the thwartftiip view of the faid cant-timbers, as F and G in
the fiieer-plan. Jig. 9. This ftiews the exaft height of the
heels of the iiawfe-pieces, where they ftep againft the cant-
timber, when they are in their places. Then by pinning
batten to all the fpots fquared up, mark the curves 1, 2, 3,
and 4, wliicli will give the exaft thwartdiip view of the
hawle-piecea, fuppofing they were in their places ; but as
the fides do not look fore and aft, thefe are not the proper
lines to make the moulds to ; but will be ferviceable here-
after, to get the proper height of the harpins to be crofted
upon the hawfe-piece moulds. The moulding edge of the
kniglit-head is the aft-fide of the rabbet of the ftem.

Where the knight-head and hawfe-pieces interfett the fore-
fide of the cant-timber, marked E in the half -breadth plan,
Jig. II, fit a batten in the diredion of the fine of the knight-
head, or hawfe-pieces ; mark thereon the points where they
are iiiterfeded by the water-lines ; and fct them oil from the
middle line in the body-plan,^^. 10, on their correlpoiidmg
water-lines. Tlieii take the heights, where the heels of the
knight-head and hawfe-pieces interfeft the thwartftiip view
»f cunt-timber F in the flieer-plaii, _/_if. 9, and transfer them
to the middle line in the body-plan, _/f^. 10.

Having

SHIP-BUILDING.

Having the lower height of breadth and harpin at the
beak-head laid off in the ftieer-plan,/^. 9, take the heights
where they interfeft the thwartfhip view of the knight-
head and hawfe-pieces, and transfer them to the body-plan,
fig. 10. Then take the diltances in the half-breadth plan,
fig. II, from the interfeftion of the knight-head and hawle-
pieces, with the cant-timber marked E, to the main-breadth
and harpin at the beak-head, taken in the direftion of the
line, and fet them off from the middle line in the body-
plan, ^_of. 10, on their correfponding hnes, marking fpots.
Then by pinning a batten to thofe fpots, mark the curves
K, H, I, 2, 3, and 4, which are the proper moulding edges
of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, and confequently thofe
to which the moulds are to be made. Now to give the direc-
tion for cutting off the heels to fay againft the fide of the
cant-timber, the mould of No. 4 hawfe-piece mull be cut
off well with the middle hnc in the body-plan, fg. 10 ;
but as the knight -head and the other hawfe-pieces cut off
againft the timber, before that which No. 4 heels againit, take
the height in the fheer-plan, fig. 9, where the heels of the
knight-head, and 1,2,3 hawfe-pieces interfeft the thwartfhip
view of the foremoft cant-timber at G, and transfer them to
the body-plan, fig. 10 ; and where they interleft their re-
fpeftive hawfe-pieces, there ftrike up a perpendicular line, as
at No. 3 hawfe-piece, which will alfo give the direftion to
cut off their heels againft the faid cant-timber.

But now, fmce they are laid off by the water-lines, the
proper ftations of the harpins below the main-breadth can-
not be marked on the moulds. Therefore the level thwart-
fhip view of the harpins muft be laid-off in the flieer-plan,
fig. 9, as before, which is the exaft height of them when they
are in their places ; confequently, then, the points where they
interfeft the thwartfhip view of the knight-head and hawfe-
pieces, fhew the exaft height to be transferred from the fheer-
plan,_/f^. 9, to their correfponding lines in the body-plan,
fig. 10, which gives the exaft ftations of the harpins to be
crofl'ed on the knight-head and hawfe-piece moulds.

The bevellings are to be taken thus : ftrike a line in the
half-breadth plan, fig. 1 1, to the fiding of the knight-head
and hawfe-pieces, as was done for bevelling the cant-timbers,
as the ticked line at No. 4 hawfe-piece, it being the cleareil
to be underftood. Then fquare a line at the heel, where
the moulding edge of No. 4 hawfe-piece croffes the cant-
timber marked E. Then take the dillance from the fquared
line in the direftion of the fiding or ticked line to the feparate
water-lines, where they interfeft the ticked line, and fet them
off from the middle hne in the body-plan, _/ff. 10, on their
correfponding water-lines. Where the ticked line in the half-
breadth plan,_;ff. u, interfefts the cant-line E, fquare it up
to interfeft the thwartfhip view F, in the fheer-plan, jff. 9,
as marked with a ftar, and from thence transfer it tothe body-
plan,/^. 10, as far as the middle line. Then take the diftance
trom the fquared hne at the heel in the half-breadth plan,
fig. 1 1, to the cant-line E, m the direftion of the ticked line,
and fet it off from the middle line in the body-plan, _/ff. 10,
at the height laft mentioned. Continue the ticked line or
fiding of the hawfe-piece to interfeft the water-lines i, 2,
and 3, in the half-breadth plan,/_f. 1 1 ; then take the dif-
tance from the fquared line at the heel to thofe water-lines
in the direftion of the fiding or ticked line, and fet them off"
from the middle hne in the body-plan,^^. 10, on their corre-
fponding water-lines to the left hand, which ferves to prove
the fpot at the heel by continuing the bevelling edge to the
loweft water-line. Where the ticked line or fiding of the
hawfe-piece 4, in the half-breadth plan,/^. 11, interfefts the
main half-breadth and beak-head harpin, fquare them up to
their correfponding lines in the fheer-plan,/^. 9, and trans-

fer them to the body-plan,//. lo, liriking level lines. Then
take the ditlance from the fquared line at the heel in the
half-breadth plan, _/fj-. 11, to the main half-breadth and
beak-head harpin in the direftion of the fiding or ticked
hne, and fet them off from the middle line in the body-
plan, fig. 10, on their correfponding heights, which gives
the fpots to which a batten muft be pinned, and thef cunre
marked out thereby will be the bevelling edge of the hawfe-
piece 4 ; and at whatever diftance the bevelling edge in the
body-plan, fig. 10, is from the moulding edge of the hawfe-
piece 4, fo much is tiie hawfe-piece under from a fquare m
the diftance from the fiding or licked line, to the joint of
the hawfe-piece in the half-breadth plan,_y?^. 1 1.

The bevel G, a? fhewn in the half-breadth plan, fig. 1 1,
gives t!ie direftion to cutoff the heel. When the heel is cut
off, in order to find the bevelling of the heel to counter-
mould the hawfe-pieces, the fore-fides of the cant-timbers, as
E andF, in the half-breadth plan,_/?^. 1 1, muft be laid off in
the body-plan, j?f. lo, which may be done by the water-hnes.
Then transfer the height of the heel of the hawfe-piece
No. 4, from the flieer-plan,_yff. 9, where it cuts the thwartfhip
view of the cant-timber marked F, to its correfponding
cant-timber in the bodv-plan, fig. 10, and ftrike a perpendi-
cular line ; to which apply the ftock of a bevel, and the
tongue, to the cant-timbers, as at M ; the fame likewife for
hawfe-piece No. i, as at L, and fo on for the others. This
gives the exaft bevelling to be applied when the heel is cut
off, in order to counter-mould tiie hawfe-pieces, if it fhould
be fo required. The bevellings of No. 4 hawfe-piece are all
taken at their heights, as may be feen in the body-plan,
fig. 10, and marked on the bevelling-board, as at a in fig. 12 :
the faid heights to be all croffed upon the hawfe-piece
mould.

To Lay-off thi Haiufe- Pieces by the Square Harpins when
canted.

The fquare and cant -harpins being of neceffity laid off in
the half-breadth -pXzw, fig. 11, it is necefiary to explain the
method of laying off the cant-hawfe-pieces by the fquare
harpins, which are marked c, d, e, f, g, in the half-breadth
plan,_/ff. 11. The point where the knight-head and hawfe-
pieces interfeft the fore-fide of the cant-timber marked E in
the half-breadth plan, /j. 11, is fuppofed to be in the
middle line in the body-plan,/jr. 10, which middle line will
ferve for laying off the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, as it
did for the foregoing operation by the water-hnes. By being
laid off in the fame body-plan, /V. 10, it will be a convincing
proof that both methods may be depended upon, becaufe
they will be found to agree, as near as can be expefted on
fo fmall a fcale as the plate.

To explain the laving off the knight-head and all the
hawfe-pieces would be too tedious ; (though they are all
laid off the fame in the body-plan) ; for by laying off and
bevelling the hawfe-piece No. 4, the ticked lines (which
are transferred from the fheer-plan,^. 9, to the body-plan,
fig. 10, in order to give the proper ftations of the harpins
on the hawfe-piece moulds, when laid off by the water-
lines) will now be proved to agree with the operation by
the harpins.

Now the knight-head and hawfe-pieces are intended ts
be laid off together by the harpin-lines. There is no ne-
ceffity to lay-off" the thwartffiip view of them in the fheer-
plan, fig. 9 ; but the thwartfhip view of the fore-fide of
the cant-timber they heel againft will be wanted, to find the
height of the heels. Having the level height of the har- .
pins laid off before in the flieer-plan, fig. 9, where the
fere-fides of the cant-tirabers, marked E, F, interfeft the

fquare

SHIP-BUILDING.

fquare harpins c,d,e,f,g, in the half-breadtli plan, _/Jf. ii,
tquare them up to their correfponding harpins in the (heer-
plan, Jig. 9. This gives the thwartfhip view of the cant-
timbers ; and if the work be true, it will anfwer the fame
as by the water-lines. The exaft height of the heels ihould
be found, in order to prove the reft of the work ; and as
the lines of the hawle-pieces in the half-breadth plan,^^. 1 1,
are continued abaft the fore-fide of the cant-timbers, as
£, F, to interfeft the fquare harpins c,d,e; then by hav-
ing fpots in the body-plan, _/fj. 10, beyond the middle line,
(when the batten is continued to the fpots beyond the middle
line on thofe harpins,) it would interletl the middle line at
the proper height of the heel ot the hawfe-piece.

To prove the hawfe-piece No. 4, as laid off by the
water-lines, let it be laid off by the level or fquare har-
pins : thus, where the moulding edge interfedls the fore-
edge of the cant-timber, marked E in the half-breadth
plan, ^^. II, fquare it up to interfecl the thwartfhip view
F, in the fheer-plan. Jig. 9 ; and transfer that height to the
middle line in the body -plan, ^^. 10. This gives the heel
of the hawfe-piece No. 4, exadlly fimilar to the method by
the water-lines.

Obfcrve in the half-breadth plan, fig. 1 1, where the hawfe-
piece No. 4 croffes the fquare harpins, and from tlienoe
take the neareft diflance to the middle line ; and let them off
on their refpeAive harpins fquare from the middle line in
the body-plan, ^^. 10, there finking a level line, in the
fame manner as was done for the cant-timbers. Tiien take
the diflances in the hal/-breadth plan,_yf5-. 1 1, from the in-
tcrfeftion of the hawfe-piece No. 4, with the cant-edge
marked E, to where it interfefts each of the fquare har-
pins, in the direftion of the line for the laid hawfe-piece ;
and fet them off fquare from the middle line in the body-
plan. Jig. 10, on their refpeftive level lines before men-
tioned ; obferving to fet off the diftance to the left hand of
thofe which were taken abaft the cant-line E. This gives
the fpots for the moulding edge of the hawfe-piece No. 4 ;
and is likewife the exadt flation of the harpins to be croficd
on the moulds.

Proceed in the fame manner to find the fpots for the
moulding edges of the other hawfe -pieces ; as thofe for the
main-breadth and beak-head harpin are found in the very
fame manner as by the water-lines.

The bevell'ing-tdge is laid off in the very fame way as the
moulding edge ; only tlie diftance taken in the direftion of
the ticked or fiding-line is taken from the fquared line at the
heel, inflcad of its interfedtion at the cant-edge E, in the
half-breadtli plan, ^. 11. The plate will fhew that the
difference of laying-off, between the water-lines and har-
pins, is in the performance only.

To find the proper ftations of the knight-head and hawfe-
picces on the harpin-moulds, we need only fquare up the in-
terfeftions of them with the fquare harpinf to the cant-liar-
pins, in the fame manner as was done for the cant-timbers.
And the points where the knight-head and hawie-pieces in
the half-brcadth-pUn, fig. 1 1, crofs the harpins at the port-
fills and beak-head, fhew the proper ftations of them, as they
appear when the harpins are in tlieir places, they lying
level in a thwartfhip direftion to the Iheer of the lliip, the
fore and aft-way. The main breadth is only ufcd as a bevel-
ling fpot ; for was it required to place a harpin to that
lieight, its great fheer would require a very diflercnt opera-
tion to form the line to make the mould to.

To Lay-off" the Tranfoms, Plate IX. Laying-ojf C.

The tranfoms and fafhion-pieces compofe the ftern-frarac.
The upper ones are the wing, filling, and deck-tranfoins ;

and there may be as many under the deck-tranfom as the
form of the body will admit, of kindly growth. The up-
permoll is called the wing-tranfom, which is the bafe of the
flern.

This may be admitted the ftrongefl and befl method of
uniting the after-part of the Ihip together : the ftrongell,
becaufe every tranfom crofTing the after-part of the (hip,
and bolting through the Itern-poft, they may be confidered
fimilar to the breaft-hooks ; fo that when the planks are
wrought on the buttock, and the wing-tranfom knees, and
fleepcrs or diagonal knees are bolted, it may be allowed to be
a? ftrong as the fore-part or bow is with the breaft-hooks, be-
caufe the fore-part of the fhip has no other affiltance to keep
tlie bows togetlier.

As there are feveral operations required to lay-off the
ftern-frame, Plate IX. Laying-oJfC, is made a feparate plate
for that purpofe ; though it leprcfents the lines on the floor,
as before obferved.

The fafhion-pieces being ftruck in the half-breadth plan
on the floor, and the water-lines run as in Plate I., fquare
up the interfedtion of the fafhion-pieces with the bearding-
line, water-lines, the end of the wing-tranfom, and main
half-breadth line in the half-breadth plan, to their corre-
fponding bearding-line, water-lines, wing-tranfom, and
height of breadth line in the fheer-plan ; then a batten
pinned to thofe fpots will reprefent the thwartfhip view of
the aft-fides of the fafhion-pieces T, F, P, Plate IX.

fg- I-

Where the aft-fides of the fafhion-pieces interfeft the be-
fore-mentioned lines in the half-breadth plan, take the dif-
tances fquare from thence to the middle line ; and fet them
off fquare from the middle line, on their correfponding lines
in the body-plan. A batten pinned to thefe fpots will give
the fore and aft view of the fafhion-pieces, generally called
the fquare fafhion-pieces, which are marked S, F, P,
Plate ly^-fg. 2.

Transfer from the fheer-plan of Plate I. the heights of all
the tranfoms to the fheer-plan on the floor ; likewife the
fiding or depth of each tranfom, as VV, F, D, I, 2, 3, 4,
5, and 6, Plate IX.. Jig. I.

In the body-plan, ^g. 2, defcribe the upper fide of the
wing-tranfom a, by a fegment of an arc to its round-up,
till it interfefts the aft-fidc of the foremoft fquare fafkion-
picce S ; and below that a parallel curve i, where the ends
of the planks of the buttock are intended to be cut off,
which is called the margin-line. Square down from the
fheer-plan the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom to the middle
line of the half-breadth plan ; and from thence defcribe the
aft-fide of the wing-tranfom at its upper fide, by a fegment
of an arc to its round-aft, wiiich fhew8 the line to which
the mould is to be made. Take the height of tlie margin-
line I), at the middle line in the body-plan. Jig. 2, and
transfer it to the fore-part of the rabbet of the ftern-poll, in
the flieer-plan, Jig. i ; and from thence fquare it down
to the middle line in the half-breadth plan, marking a
parallel arc to the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, which
is likewife called tlic margin-line. Continue to fhew the
level view of the moulding edges of all the tranfoms in
the body-plan, ^_i;. 2, in the following manner: the wing-
tranfom and tlic filling under it lying level, they form the
fegment of an arc to their round-up, as above. Tliis is
the proper curve to which the round-up mould is made for
fiding thofe tranfoms. The next is the deck-tranfoin,
which is generally laid ofl' to the round-up of the gun-deck
beam ; the other tranfoms below tlie deck lying flraighl
and level, are reprcfented by level lines only.

Transfer from Plate I. the bultock-lince 1,2,3,4,5,

and

SHIP-BUILDING.

and let them be ftruck on the floor in the body-plan and
half-breadth plan. Then proceed to run the buttock-lines
in the (heer-plan, /^ i, as direfted in the conftruftion of
the iheer-draught, Plate I. The buttock-hnes, the fquare
timbers, and likewife the water and ribband-lines, Ihould
be made to agree to the greateft exaftnefs.

The moulding edges of the other tranfoms may now be
laid off from the buttock-lines in the (heer-plan,/^. i ; but
if they are laid off in the half-breadth plan, then only half
or one fide can be reprelented. The beil method, there-
fore, will be to lay them off in fome convenient place on the
floor by themfelves, whereby both fides may be reprefented,
and there will not be then fuch confufion in the lines. This,
for dittinftion, may be tenned plan of the tranfoms, as

Plate IX. Jig.i. , ■ y A A

The moulding edge of the wmg-traniom is ab-eady de-
fcribed to which the mould is to be made ; the fiUing-
tranfom is next, which lies between the wing and deck ;
and as it lies horizentally, the defcription of it will fuflice
for all the other tranfoms that come under the deck, which
alfo lie horizontally.

As there is no more trouble in laying-ofF a tranfom which
IS fided Itraight,. and Ues level, than there is in laying-ofF a
water-line, Itrike on each fide of the middle line M, in the
plan of the tranfoms, Plate IX. fg. 3, the half-thicknefs of
the dead-wood or bearding-line, a a, taking it from the body-
plan, _/r^. 2, (and as low down as the deck-tranfom the
inner poll is fided the fame) ; likewife the buttock-hnes.
Take from the half-breadth plan the fquare timbers 32, 33,
34> 35> 3^' ^"^ ''^^ proof timbers i and 2, and ttrike them
in the plan of the tranfoms, ^/T^. 3, at right angles with the
middle line ; alfo ftrike in the cant of the fafhion-pieces
F, M, A. Then Itrike a perpendicular line, P, in the flieer-
plan, _/f^. I, at the interfeftion of the upper edge of the
wing-tranfom, at the fore-part of the rabbet ; likewife
another at right angles with the middle line, at the aft-fide
of the wing-tranfom, as P P, in the plan of the tranfoms,

fS- 3-

Now from the perpendicular P, above mentioned, called

perpendicular of the tranfoms, take the diltance in the flieer-
plan, _/?^. I, to where the upper fide of the filling-tranfom,
F, interfefts the fore-fide of the rabbet of the poll or beard-
ing-line B, and fet it off from the fame hne P P, in the plan
of the tranfoms, _/?f. 3, at the middle line, fquaring a line
acrofs to each bearding-line ; which line will be the after-
part of the filling-tranfom at the middle line, Obferve
where the bearding-Une, C, of the poll, in the fheer-plan,
fig. I, comes before the fore-fide of the rabbet, to take the
aforefaid diftance to the bearding-line of the poft, as that
terminates the after-part of all the tranfoms ; then take the
diftances in the fheer-plan, fig. i, from the perpendicular
line P, to where the line reprefenting the upper fide of the
filling-tranfom interfefts the different buttock-hnes i, 2,
3, 4, and 5, and fet them off from the fame line P P, in the
plan of the tranfoms, ^^. 3, on their correfponding but-
tock-hnes on each fide of the middle line. Then take the
diftances in the body-plan, fg. 2, from the middle hne, to
where the upper fide of the filling-tranfom, c, interfefts the
fquare timbers, and fet them off on both fides of the middle
line on their correfponding timbers, in the plan of the tran-
foms, fig. 3 ; then by pinning a batten through the fpots
on the buttock-lines and fquare timbers, to its after-part at
the fide of the bearding c c, the moulding edge or upper fide
of the filhng-tranfom will be defcribed on one fide the
middle line ; the mould may then be made to that fide, and
canted over, and the oppofite fide marked thereby, being
tire thus to have both fide» alike. This filling-tranfom

having been laid off horizontally, of courfe, when mould-
ing the fiUing-tranfom, the mould mull lie in an horizontal
pofition ; but having fo little room between the wing and
deck- tranfoms, it becomes neceffary to give the filhng-tran-
fom a round-up between both. Thofe who would be more
correft in laying-off tranfoms, that have a round upwards,
may fee the fubjeft farther explained in the following me- 1
thods.

To lay-off the deck-tranfom, ilrike a ftraight line in the
Iheer-plan, fig. i, at the under-fide of the deck, at the
middle line, to take that part of the hang of the deck only,
which is terminated between the rabbet of the itern-poft and
the fafhion-piecc, as H, fig. 1. Then take the round of
the deck R, at every buttock-hne, as under the body-plan,
fg. 2, and fet them off below and fquare to the itraight
line H, in the flieer-plan, fig. i, marking parallel lines
thereto, to interfeft their correfponding buttock-linei,
which gives the moulding edge of the tranfom. Proceed in
the fame manner with the lower edge, by ftriking a hne for
the lower fide of the tranfom at tlie middle line parallel to
the former ; and fet the round down, as before, upon any
buttock-line.

The upper and lower fides of the deck-tranfom being ob-
tained on the buttock-hnes, in the flieer-plan, /ig. i, transfer
their heights from the ftieer-plan, _/J^. i, to the body-plan,
fig. 2, refpeftively ; then by pinning a batten to thofe
heights, the upper and lower fides of the deck-tranfom, J J,
may be reprefented in the body-plan, fig. 2.

The lines above mentioned, in the fheer-plan,^. i, pa-
rallel to the fheer of the deck, at the interfeftion of the
buttock-lines and fafliion -piece, fliould be continued aft to
the perpendicular P ; then take the (Jiftances from that line,
in the direftion of the parallel Imes, to the buttock-lines and
fafhion-piece, and fet them off fquare from the faid line P P,
in the plan of the tranfoms, fig. 3, on their correfponding
buttock-lines and fafhien-piece. Next take the half-breadth
from the body-plan, ^g. 2, at the interfeftion of the deck,
at the fide, with the fquare timbers, and fet them off on their
correfponding timbers from the middle line, in the plan of the
tranfoms, fig. 3 ; then by pinning a batten to thofe fpots,
this forms the .moulding edge of the deck-tranfom D D.

The tranfoms under the deck, all lying horizontally, may
be laid off by taking the diftances of the buttock-lines and
bearding-line from the perpendicular P, in the fheer-plan.
Jig. I, on the upper edge of each tranfom, and fetting them
off on their correfponding buttock-lines from the fame per-
pendicular P P, in the plan of the tranfoms, _fig. 3 ; and
alfo at the timbers from the middle line in the body-plan,
_/%. 2 ; and fet them off from the middle line on their cor-
refponding timbers in the plan of the tranfoms, ^g. 3 : a
batten pinned to thofe fpots will reprefent the moulding
edges of all the tranfoms.

To prove the interfeftion of the tranfoms with the fide
of the fafhion-piece, which is the end of each tranfom, as
already laid off in the plan of the tranfoms, fig. 3. Thus,
where the upper fide of the wing-tranfom in the body-plan,
_^g. 2, interfefts the foremoft fquare fafhion-piece S, level it
out to interfeft the cant-fafhion-piece c. Then take the
nearell diftance from the cant-fafhion-piece at that place to
the middle line, and fet it off from the middle line in the plan
of the tranfoms, 7?^. 3, in the direftion of the line of the fore-
mofl fafhion-piece F. In the fame mannerprove the filling and
dcck-tranfoms. Take the diftances from the middle cant-
fafhion-piece to the middle line along the upper fide of Nos.
1,2, and 3 tranfoms in the body-plan,^. 2, and fet them off
on the middle cant-fafhion-piece M, from the middle line in
the plan »i the tranfoms, fg. 3, as before. Take likewife

the

SHIP-BUILDING.

the diftances from the aftermoft: cant-fadiion-piece to the
middle line for the tranfoms 4, 5, and 6, and fet them off, as
before, on the line for the aftermoft cant-fafliion-piece A, in
the plan of che tranfoms, _fig. 3 ; to which fpots the tran-
foms in^^-. 3. muft agree.

Cut oft the ends of the wing, fiUing, and deck-tranfoms,
at the joint or aft-iide of the foremofl fafhion-piece F, and
tranfoms Nos. i, 2, and 3, under the deck at the aft-fide of
the middle fadiion-piece M, and Nos. 4, 5, and 6, at the aft-
fide of the after-fafhion-piece A, as is clearly (hewn in the
plan of the tranfoms, ^^. 3, where the middle fafhion-piece
is reprefented as itopt at the under fide of the dcck-tranfom,
and the after-fafhion-piece at the under fide of the tranfom
No. 3.

To make the Moulds and bevel the Tranfoms.

The moulds are made of fir battens fayed to the lines
already laid oft in the plan of the tranfoms, Jig. 3, for their
aft-fides ; and another to their fare-fide, at their moulding
or breadth at the upper fide ; which are confined together by
battens at each buttock-line, and one at each end to the
direftion of the faftiion-piece, allowing what they are in-
*ended to be let into the faftiion-pieces ; and a broad piece
:: the middle, to the fize of its feating c c, with the middle
ime corredlly marked thereon.

The Lcvellings of the tranfoms are frequently taken from
the buttock-lines in the ftieer-plan, _/?f. i, in the following
manner. Apply the Itock of the bevel E to the upper
fide of the tranfoms, in the (heer-plan. Jig. I, and the
tongue to the buttock-line ; but let the tongue be off at the
upper and lower fides of the tranfom, as at the fiUing-tran-
lom in the ftieer-plan,^^. i, which gives the exaft bevellings
of the tranfoms at their correfponding buttock-lmes.

The bevellings for the wing-tranfom are taken from the
jmargin-line to the under fide of the wing-tranfom, as above.
The under fide of the wing-tranfom is transferred from the
body -plan, _^^. 2, to the flieer-plan,_^^. I, by the buttock-
lines.

The bevellings for the deck-tranfom may be taken by
applying the ftock of the bevel parallel to the hang of the
deck, at the middle line, and the tongue to each buttock-
line ; keeping the tongue well at the upper and lower fides
of the tranfom, as before obferved, and fo muft be applied
on the tranfom, by placing the bevel at each correfponding
buttock-line, and keeping the ftock out of winding with
the upper fide of tlie tranfom at the middle line.

The tranfoms under the deck may be bevelled by the but-
Jock-lines in the ftieer-plan, ^_f. i, and the bevellings may
be taken very cxaft ; but it requires to be very particular
in applying the bevtl on the tranfoms ; to do which, the
Aock of the bevel muft be kept in the diredlion of the but-
tock-lincs, at the upper fide of the tranfom, and the tongue
teaching to the buttock-1' le below, which ought to be
marked at the lower fide of the tranfom, and not trufting
to the bevel's canting promifcuoufly, for then the bevel may
not be ejfadfly fquare.

When this trouble is taken to bevel the tranfoms, then
they may, when trimmed, be depended upon.

This is a method not to be recommended to thofe who
would be particularly exaft, becaufe there can be no more
bevellings on the tranfoms than the number of buttock-lines
which interfcft the tranfoms ; as for inftance, there are only
two buttock-lines which crofs the lower-tranfom in Jig. 3,
jnd one of them is clofe to the end, which is not fumcient
to get the exaft form of the lower fide of the tranfom.
Therefore, the beft way to find the bevellings of thofe tran-
foms is to lay-off their lower fides, which ie very eafy to be

Vol., XXXJI,

eff"efted here, becaufe all the tranfoms lie level. Proceed
in the iheer-plan. Jig. 1, at the under fide of the lower
tranfom, to take the diltance from the perpendicular of the
tranfom P, to the interfeftion of eacli buttock-line, and
likewife the bearding-linc ; and fet them off from the line
P P, on their correfponding buttock-lines and beardmg-
line, in the plan of the tranfom^-, /!g. 3. Tiien from the
middle line of the body-plan, /?<;. 2, take the diftances at
the lower fide of the laid tranlom to the fquare timbers, in
the fame manner as the moulding edges were done, and fet
them off on their correfponding timbers, in the plan of the
tranfoms, /_§•. 3, whicli gives the fpots; to which a batten
pinned will give the form of the lower edge L L, which is
ticked, to diltinguifti it from the moulding edge. In the
fame manner may be laid oft' the lower or bevelling edges of
all the tranfoms.

The diftance from the upper or moulding fides of the
tranfoms, to the ticktd line for the lower fides, fficws how
much the tranfoms are under from a fquare ; only in the
diltance from the upper to the lower fides of the tranfoms,
in the iheer-phn, Jig. 1, muft be fuppofed the breadth of
the bevelling-board.

By having the lower fides of the tranfoms laid off, we
have an opportunity of taking as many bevellings as may be
thought fufficient, without any confinement ; therefore, on
the lower tranfom may be placed three bevelling fpots, which
(hould be divided equally between the breech and the faftiion-
piece ; then take the nearelt diftance from the fpots on the
moulding edge, (which muft be firmarked on the moulds,) to
the ticked line for the lower edge, by fwecping it with a.
pair of compaffes, which ftiews how much the tranfom is
under from a fquare at each bevelling fpot, as at a, i, c, in
the plan of the tranfoms, _/?». 3, agreeable to the depth of
the tranfom. In the fame manner may the bevellings of
all the tranfoms below the deck be taken.

The bevelling for the breech of the tranfom is taken from
the upper fide of the tranfom, and the tongue to the beard-
ing-line in the ftieer-plan, /[f. i ; for the tranfoms are all
fuppofed to be cut oft' in the direftion of the bearding-line
C. The ends of all the tranfoms, when moulded, are trim-
med fquare from the upper fide. But the fquare, when ap-
plied to the end of the wing, filling, and deck-tranfoms,
muft be lifted up as much as the tranfom rounds down,
and appears out of winding with a batten in the middle line.

To find the bevelling for the ends of the tranfoms, when
cut off, let the ftock of the bevel be placed to the lines of
the upper fides of the tranfoms in the body-plan. Jig. a, and
the tongue to the cant-fafliion-piece, which gives the proper
bevelling over the end of the tranfoms when cut off.

But to find the bevelling for the end of the wing-tranfom,
take the diftance fquare from the middle line to the inter-
feftion of the joint, or aft-fide of the foremoft faftiioR-picce,
with the end of the wing-tranfom, in the plan of the tran-
foms. Jig. 3, and fet it oft fquare from the middle line on
the upper fide of the tranfom in the body-plan, _^^. 2, and
level It out till it intcrfefts the cant-faftiion-piccc. Then
apply the ftock of the bevel on the line levelled out, and
the tongue to the cant-faftiion-piece, as at B. This gives the
bevelling for the end of the wing-tranfom, when cut off.
But the bevel muft be lifted up as much as the wing-tranfom
rounds down at the end, and appears out of winding with a
batten kept well with the middle of the wing-traniom.

The fame muft be alfo done for the bevelling at the cod of
the filling and deck-tranfoms.

The points where the tranfomsunder the dcck-tranfom in the

body-plan,^^. J, interfcft the canl-faftiion-pieccs, arc the pro.

per nations to be croffed on the faftiion-piece mould. And

4 D where

SHIP-BUILDING.

where the linei (before mentioned) levelled out interfeft
the cant-fafhion-piece, is the proper ftation of the whig,
filhng, and deck-tranfoms on the faihion-piece mould for the
moulding edge, but not for the diredtion in which thofe
tranfoms ftrike the fafhion-piece, becaufe of the round of
thofe tranfoms ; which will be more explained in the fol-
lowing method.

When the lower fides of the tranfoms are laid off, it is but
little trouble to make a flight mould to counter-mould the
under fides of all the tranfoms, by making it only to
one arm of the tranfoms, and then canting it over, to
mould the oppofite arm. Then, when the breech of the
tranfom is trimmed to the bcarding-linc, fet off the diftance
from the middle line each way, as far as the bearding-line
cc 13 from the middle line in the plan of the tranfoms,^^. 3,
to which the tranfom-mould is made. Then trim the end
of the tranfom fquare, and fet off the beveUing for the end
of the tranfom ; then cant the tranfom over, and applying the
mould made for the under fide to the breech and bevelling
at the end, you have the tranfom counter-mould, without
the affiitance of any other beveUing ; or they may be fet
off, to fee if they agree with the mould ; and if they do,
you may be then fure the work is correft.

To Lay-off the Tranfoms ijuhen canted.

The utility of canting the tranfoms is, that it greatly
affills the converfion of timber, is better for faftening the
plank of the bottom, and bolts fquare to the ffern-polt.
When the tranfoms have a very great bevelling, it is difficult
at the upper edge to get fnfficient faftening for the planks,
which fufficiently points out the utility of canting them :
proceed therefore to the operation, wliich will require the
reader's particular attention ; as thofe minute particulars
which cannot fo conveniently be difplayed on the plate, can
only be explained in words.

Difpofe of the tranfoms in the (heer-plan. Jig. 4 ; let the
wing and fiUing-tranfoms be placed level, and the upper
fide of the deck-tranfom to the proper hang of the deck ;
and the other tranfoms below at the fafhion-piece, as much
above a level as reprefented in the fheer-plan, Jig. 4 ; fo as
to make them nearly of an equal opening at the ftern-poft,
and likewife at the faftiion-piece. Thefe fiiew the difpo-
fition of the tranfoms at the middle line.

Now proceed to ftiew the level view of the- moulding
edges of all the tranfoms in the body-plan in the following
manner : the wing-tranfom a, and the filling c, lyino- level,
tliey form a fegment of a circle in the body-plan, _/^. 5, to
their given round-up. This is the proper curve to which
the round-up mould is made for fiding thefe tranfoms,
as before obferved. The next is the deck-tranfom d,
which being confined to the hang of the deck, and the
round of the beam, is the moft difficult of any, if executed
in a proper manner: it ought to undergo the following
operation. The ticked line H, in the fheer-plan, Jg. 4,
is the under fide of the deck at the middle line, and is in-
tended to be the upper fide of the deck-tranfom at the middle
line. Transfer the heights of the ticked line H, or upper
fide of the deck-tranfom, in the Iheer-plan, fg. 4, at every
fquare timber, to their correfponding timbers in the body-
plan, Jig. 5 ; and where the deck at the middle line in the
(heer-plan, /_f. 4, interfeds the buttock-lines, transfer them
to their correfponding buttock -lines in the body-plan, /^. 5 :
a batten pinned to thofe fpots {hews the interfeftion of the
deck at the fquare timbers, as H, in the body-plan, Jg. j,
fuppofing the deck had no round-down at the fide. Under
the line A A, for the upper fide of the keel, in the body-
plan,/jf. 5, mark the round-up of the gun-deck beam R ;

and where the ticked line H for the deck, at the middle
line, in the body-plan, _/?§'. 5, interfetls the iquare timbers,
fquare them down to the round of the deck R, under
the body-plan. The timbers and the buttock-lines are
there marked and numbered in the fame manner with thofe
from which they were fquared down. Take the diftance
at each place on the round of the deck, under the body-plan,
Jig. 5 ; fquare up to the line A A, or upper fide of the
keel (which is the round of the deck at each timber), and
fet them down below their correfponding timbers, in a
perpendicular direftion, from the interfeftion of the deck
at the middle hne with the fquare timbers H, in the body-
plan, jf^. 5 ; and from thofe fpots direft them towards the
middle line M, parallel to the round of the deck under the
body-plan, till they interfect the fquare timbers, which are
the proper ftations on the fquare timbers the curve I of the
deck will make, fuppofing it to be continued to the outfide
of the timbers ; which is required, in order to find the
exaft form of the moulding edge of the deck-tranfom.

Let the buttock-lincs in the body -plan, _/ff. 5, be con-
tinued down to the round of the deck R, under the body-
plan ; then take the round of the deck at each buttock-line,
and fet it down below the deck at the middle line H, in
the ftieer-plan, Jg. 4, on their correfponding buttock-lines,
and transfer theie fpots to the buttock-lines in the body-
plan, _^^. 5 ; then to thofe fpots on the buttock-hnes, and
thofe on the timbers, pin a batten, and it will ftiew the curve
the dcck-line at the fide will make, if continued to the
outfide of the timbers, as I, in the body-plan, _/^. 5.

To find the deck at the fide in the (heer-plan, fig. 4,
take the heights at every fquare timber in the body-plan,
fig. 5, where they interfeft the deck at the fide, and transfer
them to their correfponding timbers in the (heer-plan,^. 4 :
by pinning a batten to thefe fpots, with thofe made before
on the buttock-hnes, you have the deck at the fide, as I, in
the (heer-plan, _/^. 4, which is the level view of the moulding
edge of the deck-tranfom.

To find the lower fide of the deck-tranfom in the (heer-
plan, fig. 4, and hkewifein the body-plan, _^. 5 ; this (hould
be done in the fame manner as the upper fide. If it ii
intended to be very correct, run the ribband-lines, which
will be a proof t» the reft of the work, in laying-off the
tranfoms.

To find the level view of the tranfoms below the deck,
in the body-plan, _^. 5, obferve where the lower and upper
fides of the tranfoms in the Iheer-plan, fig. 4, interfeft the
buttock-lines, fquare timbers, and fa(hion-pieces ; transfer
thofe heights to the body-plan, _^. 5, on their correfponding
lines, which give the level view of the tranfoms in the
body-plan,^, j.

To lay-off the cant-tranfoms, proceed, as before, to make
a feparate plan, as fig. 6. The moulding edges of the
wing, filling, and deck-tranfoms, are laid off fo fimilar to
the former, as not to need repeating here. But (hould the
deck-tranfom have much (heer, and a great round, it would
be a further proof of correftnefs, to take the diftance from
the perpendicular line P, in the (heer-plan, fig. 4, to tim-
ber 32, in the direftion of the (heer of the deck I, and fet
it off fquare from the line P P, in the plan of the tranfoms,
fig. 6, which will be further forward than the faid timber, as
before laid off; then pin a batten to the round of the deck
under the body-plan, fig. 5, marking the middle line, and
the fpot that ivas fquared down from the deck at the fide,
at timber 32, to the round of the deck, and fet it off ott
the new timber 32, in the plan of the tranfoms,_/^. 6. Thi«
would give the exaft fpot on timber 32, if the deck wa«
required to hang and round to extremes, in the fame manner

as

SHIP-BUILDING.

as by pinning a batten to the round of the wing and fiUing-
tranfoms in the body-plan, fg. 5, and marking the fquare
timbers, buttock-lines, and Iquare fathion-pieces on the
batten ; then let the batten lie ftraight, and it will be the
exaft half-breadth at every fquare timber, buttock-line,
and fafliion-piece, and will give the exadl length of the
wing-tranfom.

To lay-off the tranfoms under the deck, take the diftance
from the line P, in the fheer-plan, jig. 4, to the buttock-
lines in the direftion of the tranfoms, and fet them off from
the line P P, in the plan of the tranfoms, ^^'. 6, on their
correfponding buttock-lines. Take the half-breadths in the
body-plan, _/?f. 5, fquare from the middle line to the inter-
feftion of the tranfoms Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, J, and 6, with the
fquare fafhion-piece, and fet them off fquare from the
middle line in the plan of the tranfoms, _/%-. 6, to interfeft
the falhion-piece, marking a line parallel to the middle line,
as a a, tranfom No. 6. Then take the dittances from the
line P, in the (heer-plan, jig. 4, in the direftion of the
tranfoms, to the fafhion-piece, and fet them of! fquare from
the line P P, in the plan of the tranfoms, ^^. 6, on the lines
a, a, at the interfettion of the fafhion-piece. Take the
half-breadths fquare from the middle line in the body-plan,
jig. 5, where the tranfoms interfeft fquare timber 36, and
fet them off fquare from the middle line, in the plan of the
tranfoms, jg. 6. Then take the diftances from the line P,
in the fheer-plan,^. 4, to fquare timber 36, in the direftion
of the lines of the tranfom, and fet them off fquare from
the line P P, in the plan of the tranfoms, ^^. 6, to interfeft
their feveral half-breadths, as at h, c, d, e. In the fame
manner proceed to find all the fpots for the fquare timbers,
in order to prove the buttock-lines. This will give the
exaft form of the moulding edge of all the tranfoms below
the deck, and the flation of the fafhion-piece on the
tranfom, with the length of the tranfom at the moulding
edge.

To find the direftion of the end of the tranfom, to lie
againft the fide of the fafhion-piece, obferve in the half-
breadth plan where the fafhion-pieces interfeft the middle
line, and fquare them up to the fheer-plan, as may be feen
ticked, and marked K, M, L, calling them the fafhion-pieces
at the middle line in the fheer-plan, jg. 4. Take the
diflance from the line P, in the fheer-plan, jig. 4, to the
middle line of the aftermoil fafhion-piece K, in the direc-
tion of the tranfoms No. 6, and fet it off from the line P P,
in the plan of the tranfom,^. 6, on the middle line, and
mark the ticked line gg, from the fpot on the middle line,
to the fpot on No. 6. tranfom. This will give the direftion
to cut off the end of the tranfom, in order to lie againll the
fide of the fafhion-piece.

To bevel the Tranfomt 'when canted.

Thofe tranfoms which arc not fided ftraight, as the wing,
filling, and the deck, are generally bevelled by the buttock-
lines, as before obfcrvcd ; but rather than triilt to the
bevellings only (it being rather difficult to apply them fo
truly as they (honld be), lay-off the under fides of all the
tranfoms, and make a flight mould to them. This will
correft the bevellings, and make greater difpatch in trim-
ming the tranfoms. Then there need only (except for
proof fake) be taken the bevelling at the bearding-line, and
the bevelling at the end ; for the mould will give the reft.
But obferve to be careful in the bevellings at the ends of
the tranfoms ; for inftance, the ends of the wing and filling-
tranfoms, when they lie level, are to be cut off fquare ;
but keep the fquare as much above the end of the wing
and filling-tranfoms, at they round in their length, and let

the fquare look out of winding with the middle of the
tranfom. Alfo the bevel (when applied on the end after
it is cut off, in order to bevel the end for counter-moulding)
muft be kept as much above the end of the tranfom, and
look out of winding with the middle of the tranfom.

As the bevelling for the end of the deck-tranfom is taken
againft the cant-fafhion-piece by a level line in the body-
plan, jg. 5, it muit be obferved how much the tranfom
at the middle line in the fheer-plan, jg. 4, is below a level
(fuppofe one foot). Then place a batten at the middle
line on the tranfom, and lift the foremofl end of the batten
up till it becomes level, as fuppofing the tranfom to be in
its place : then proceed with the fquare and the bevel for
the end of the tranfom, in the fame manner as for the wing
and filling, looking out of winding with the batten at the
middle line.

To bevel the tranfoms, which are canted in the fheer-plan,
jig. 4, proceed in the fame manner as in bevelling the
cant-timbers, by making a parallel line to the moulding
edge. Therefore lay-off the bevellings of the tranfoms,
by fquaring a line from the upper fide, where it interfefts
the line P, in the fheer-plan, jg. 4, to the under fide, as
the ticked line a at the lower tranfom. Take the diftances
from where the fquarcd line, a, erodes the lower edge in its
cant direftion, to the bearding-line c, and to all the buttock-
lines, and fet them off fquare from the line P P, on their
correfponding lines, in the plan of the tranfoms, jg. 6.
Where the bearding-line c, in the fheer-plan, _/f^. 4, proves
to be fquare from the direftion of the tranfom, as it is, or
very nearly fo, at the lower tranfom, then the bearding for
the moulding edge, and likewife for the bevellings, will
come as near together in the plan of the tranfoms, jg. 6.
This may fufficiently prove that the method of bevelhng is
correft.

Where the under fide of the lower tranfom interfefts the
fquare timbers and fquare falhion-piece in the body-plan,
jg. 5, take the nearelt diftances from thence to the middle
line, and fet them off fquare from the middle line, in the
plan of the tranfoms, ^5-. 6, ftriking lines parallel to the
middle line, as at it. Then take the diftances from the
fquared line a, in the fheer-plan, _/?§'. 4, in the direftion of
the under fide of the lower tranfom, to the fquare timbers
and fafhion-piece T, and fet tlicm oft" Iquare from the line
P P, on their correfponding lines laft ftruck, in the plan of
the tranfoms, jg. 6. To thefc fpots, and thofe on the
buttock-hnes, pin a batten, and it will reprefcnt the ticked
line, hh, within the lower tranfom, which will fhcw how
much the lower tranfom is under from a fquare, agreeable
to the depth of the tranfom. Take the diftance from the
fquarcd line a, in the fheer-plan, jg. 4, to the ticked per-
pendicular K, which i« the after-fafhion-piece at the middle
line ; and fet it off from the line P P, on tlie middle line, in
the plan of the tranfoms, yff. 6, and mark the ticked line, m,
from thence to the fpot on the fafhion-piece, which will be
a line parallel to the ticked line g, before marked to cut off
the end of the tranfom ; and tlic diftance between the two
ticked linos fhews how much the end of the tranfom is
under from a fquare, agreeable to the depth of the tranfom.

The ticked line h h, in the plan of the tranfoms, jfff. 6,
whicli is for the bevellings, is the line to make the tem-
porary mould to, in order to counter-mould the tranfom ;
and by cutting off one end of the mould to the tiiwartfhip-
line for the breech of the tranfom, and cutting oft" the
others to the ticked line m for the end of the tranfom,
when the mould is applied to the under fide of the tranfom,
it will be eafily perceived if the work be true.

To find the cxaft bevelling to be applied over the end
4D J of

SHIP-BUlLDINa

of the tranfom, after the end is cut off, in order to countcr-
moulcl the tranfom, proceed in the following manner.
Where the upper and lower fides cf the lower tranfom intcr-
feft the after-cant-fafhion-piece P, in the body-plan,
jig. 5, level them out to interfeft the after-cant-fafhion-
piece O. Where the upper fide of the lower tranfom
interfedfs the perpendicular ticked line K (which is the
after-fafhion-piece in the fheer-plan, _/^. 4), transfer that
height to the middle line, in the body-plan. Jig. 5 ; and
from thence draw a flraight line to the upper fide of
the lower tranfom, on the cant-fafhion-piece, as the ticked
line e ; to which line fix the Hock of a bevel, as at B,
and the tongue to the cant-fafhion-piece O, as low down
as the fpot for the lower fide of the tranfom. This is
the proper bevelling to be applied on the end of the
tranfom, after the end is cut off, in order to counter-mould
the tranfom. The ticked line e, to which the flock of the
bevel is placed, is the direClion of the tranfom to be crolied
on the fafhion-piece mould. The bevel B, which is repre-
fented in the body-plan, _/[j. 5, (hewing the bevelling of the
end of the lower tranfom, fufficiently proves the utility of
canting the tranfoms ; for, by having fo little bevelling,
it greatly alfifts the converfion of timber, as well as that it
mull certainly be better for the fecurity of the plank of the
buttock.

To Lay-off a Square-Tuck, Plate IX. Laymg-offQ..

We have already explained the utility of the tranfoms in
compofing the ftern-frame, by which method moft fhips are
inclofed abaft. But yachts and cutter-built vefiels are,
owing to their clearnefs of run abaft, inclofed by a fquare
tuck, by which room is gained ; and, when properly put
together, this mode of conllruftion is, perhaps, ftronger
than tranfoms would be in veflels of this defcription.

The tuck propofed to be laid off is that of the royal
yacht, Plate XIII. But that the reader may be led pro-
greffively on from the cafieft to the moft difficult part of
the operation, we (hall iirlt propofe a fquare tuck, the
fides of which are to be out of winding, or in the fame
diredion as the rabbet of the poft, in confequence of which
the wing-tranfom mull be (traight athwartfhips, and the
whole will be one flat furface ((imilar to the tranfoms of
boats), or a fedtion of the veffcl cut athwartfhips, but not
in a perpendicular direction, which is the only difference
between it and the fquare timbers ; and as the fe£lion is
agreeable to the rake of the llern-poft, it confequently
follows, that the laying it off rauft differ from the fquare
timbers in the operation.

The horizontal view of the tuck muff firft be reprefented
in the body-plan, yfj. S, wliich is done in the Ibllowing
manner: ftrike a horizontal line in the (lieer-plan, _/?^. 7",
at the height of the wing-tranfom at the fide, as at 5 ; and
likewife as many horizontal lines below that as may be
tliought fufficient ; and where they interfeft the aft-part of
the rabbet of the poll a a, fquare them down to the half-
breadth plan, Jig. 9 ; then transfer their heights to the
body-plan, fig. 8 ; and where they interfeft the fquare
timbers 21, 22, 2^, 24, 25, and P'l, in a horizontal di-
reftion, take thole diilances from the middle line, and fet
them off upon their correfponding timbers from the middle
^ line, in the half-breadth plan, fig. 9 ; then by pinning a
batten to thofe fpots, the horizontal lines 1,2, 3, 4, 5,
and 6, will be reprefented ; then take their diilances from
the middle line, in the half-breadth plan, fig. g, where they
interfeft the fines fquared down from the ftiecr-plas, and fet
them off from the middle line on their correfponding hori-
aontal lines, in the body-plan, fig. 8 ; then by pinning a

batten to thofe fpots, the horizontal view of the tuck, at
will be reprefented in the body-plan, fig. 8, as high as the
wing-tranfom at the iide. But was the head of the faihion-
piece required to run up, to take a bolt or two through the
heel of the fide counter-timber, proceed in the fame manner
to run a horizontal line or two above that at the fide of the
wing-tranfom ; fay, one at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line ; then run the main half-breadth
line in the half-breadth plan, fig. 9 ; then, where the laft
horizontal line artd main height of breadth line interfeft the
aft-fide of the rabbet a; in the (heer-plan, _/!r^. 7, fquare
them down to the half-breadth plan,^^. 9, and take their
diilances from the middle line ni the half-breadth plan,_/?f. 9,
to where they interfeft the horizontal line 6, and the main
hilf-breadth line, and let them oft from the middle line on
their correfponding horizontal lines, in the body-plan,
fig. 8 ; then by continuing the curve, a, upwards throiigh
thefe fpots, the horizontal view of the tuck will be con-
tinued up to the height of breadth.

Now, where the horizontal view of the tuck in the body-
plan a, fig. 8, interfefts the beardmg-lme b, take that height,
and transfer it to the llieer-plan, fig. 7, llriking th^rc the
horizontal line S, which reprefents the featingof the tuck;
then take the ditlance from the feating of the tuck, in the
(lieer-plan, ^T. 7, on the rake, (in the direftion of the rab-
bet of the poft (7, ) to the refpeftive horizontal lines and height
of breadth, and fet them up the middle line, from the hori-
zontal line S, at the feating of the tuck, in the body-plan,
fig. 8 ; ftriking a horizontal line to the rake, at every
height, as (hewn by the fine-ticked lines ; then, where the
horizontal view of the tuck, a, interfefts the horizontal
lines firft ilruck, carry it up parallel to the middle line, to
their correfponding horizontal lines on the rake ; which will
give the fpots through which the fine-licked curve is to
pafs, that will reprefent the proper (hape of the tuck,
agreeably to the rake, as c ; and the line to which the
fafliion-piece mould muft be made.

The bevellingi for the fafhion-piece may ne.xt be taken,
by proceeding as follows. The aft-fide of the rabbet of
the poft a, in the fheer-plafi, Z'^. 7, reprefents the aft-fide
of the fafhion-piece of the tuck ; therefore, take the fiding
of the fafhion-piece, and fet it off afore the rabbet, and
fquare thereto ; then, by flriking a parallel line to the aft-
fide a, the fore-fide of the luck b will alfo be reprefented ;
next, from the feating of the tuck S, on the aft-fide, fquare
the hne C from the rabbet to the fore-fide ; and from its in-
terfeftion at c, take the heights of the horizontal lines up
ttie fore-fide, and fet them up on the middle hne from the
horizontal hne S, at the feating of the tuck, in the body,
plan, _/^. 8 ; ftrike horizontal Imes for the fore-fide of the
fafhion-piece, as diftinguifhed by the long-ticked lines ;
tlien, where the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece b, in the fheer-
plan, fig. 7, interfefts the horizontal lines and height of
breadth, fquare it down to their correfponding horizontal
line and main half-breadth, in the half-breadth plan, _yff . 9 ;
at which interfeftions take the diftances fquare to the middle
line, and fet them off from the middle line on their corre-
fponding horizontal lines, for the fore-fide of the fafhion-
piece, in the body-plan, fig. 9. Continue the fore-fide of
the fafhion-piece down to the bearding-line d, as you fee
ticked in the (heer-plan,_/^. 7 ; then take the diftance from
the interfeftions of the fquared hne at the feating c, down
the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece to the horizontal line i,
and where it interfefts the bearding-line d, and fet it off in the
body-plan, ^^. 8. Below the horizontal line S, at the feating
of the tuck down the bearding-line, ftrike a horizontal line
for No. I , and proceed a$ before direfted to obtain the half-
breadth

SHIP-BUILDING.

breadth fpol on the half-breadth and body-plans, fgs. 9
and 8 ; then to al! thofe fpots pin a batten, and mark the curve
which (hall interfcft the bearding-Iine, and the fore-fide or
bevelllng-edge, d, of the fafhion-piece will be reprefented in
the body-plan, Jig. 8.

The aft-fide and fore-fide appear now in their proper
fhape, in the body-plan, Jig. 8, and of the fame form as the
fafliion-piece, when trimmed and laid flat with the aft-fide
upwards, as then both edges will be feen, in confequence
of its being a (landing bevelhng ; therefore, the dillance
from the line rcprefents the aft-fide to the line of the fore-
fide, taking the neareft dillance, as at e, which will (hew how
much the beveUings are itandmg, or without a fquare, in
the breadth of the bevelliiig-board, which fhould be equal
to the fidiiig of tlie fadiion-piece.

When the mould is made to the ticked line, c, of the aft-
fide, the heel of it mull be cut off well with the line for the
feating of the tuck, and likcwiie well with the middle line,
in order th-at it may dovetail and bolt into the ftern-poll.
Mark alfo on the mould the bearding-line, ©r fide of the
inner poll. The different firmarks for the ribbands mull be
marked on the moulds ; but, in order that the (lations of
the ribbands may be correftiy marked, obferve where the
diagonal lines interfeft the horizontal view of the tuck a> in
the body-plan, Jig. 8, and carry them up parallel to the
middle line, to the line for the aft-fide of the fa(hion-piece c,
to which the mould is made. This will be their proper (la-
tions or upper fides, and may thence be marked on the
mould.

The bevellings may be taken at the different firmarks or
ribbands, and fet off where taken, as the bevel at the fe-
venth ribband, which will (liew it more clearly. The ticked
line g, drawn parallel to the flock of the bevel, is the fame
oittance from the outfide of the bevel, as the fa(hion-piece is
lided. Then draw aline fquare from the (lock of the bevel
to the ticked line ^^r ; and where it interfefts the ticked line
-,', as at h, fet ofi from h to i the fame didance as the fore-
fide is from the aft-fide at that place, as before direfted,
ind open the tongue of the bevel to i. This will (hew the
ncvelling of the fafhion-piece at that place. The bevel is
to be applied fquare from the moulding edge.

Run in the half-breadth plan, fig. 9, the diagonal 7, al-
though the ending of it only differs from thofe explained
before, and need only be delcribed. Transfer the height
Irom the body-plan, j^j'. 8, where the diagonal 7 interfefts
tlie horizontal view of the fa(hion-piece a, and fet it up in
the (heer-plan, _y{V. 7, at the aft-fide of the fafliion-picce ;
and from its interfedtion there, iquare it down to the half-
breadth plan, ^_f. 9 ; then take its diftance in the body-
plan, fig. 8, from the middle line to the horizontal view of
the faihion-jiiece n, in its diagonal direftion, and (et it off
from the middle line, in the half-breadth plan, on the line
f()uared down, which gives its ending at the fafhion-piece.
In the fame manner transfer its height where it interfefts the
upper fide of the wing-tranfom, in the body-plan, _/[f. 8,
and fet it up in the (heer-plan, Jig. 7 ; and where it inter-
fcfts the aft-fide of the fafiiion-piece, fquare it down to the
half-breadth plan, ^^y. 9; then take the dillance from the
middle line, in the body-plan, Jg. 8, as before, to the upper
fide of the wing-tranfom, and fet it oft from the middle line,
in the half-breadth plan, fig. 9, on the line latl fqnared
down ; then mark a line tlirough thofe fpots, as the long-
ticked line a, in the half-breadth plan, f:g. 9, which will be
the true ending of the diagonal 7, or any diagonal crofhng
tlie wing-tranfom and fafhion-piece.

Square tucks of lighter* are like thofe above defcribed,

and the tranfoms of boats are laid off in a fimilar manner,
but compofed of only one piece athwattfhips, and their
upper fide is bounded by the upper fide of the flieer. But
the tucks of yachts (or frigates, if built of fir) partake of
the round-forward of the wing-tranfom, which caufes the
fafhion-pieces to take a part of it alfo the whole of their
length, which makes them rather more difficult to be laid
off. But, fuppofing the former to be clearly underilood,
we (hall give a defcription of a tuck, the outfide of which
is to round-forward, in its finifhed (late.

Suppofe a flat furface, of thin deal (in length from the
head of the fafhion-piece or height of breadth to the feating
of the tuck, and in breadth to the outfide of the tranfom)
was placed with one edge to the rabbet of the poil, and the
other edge bent round to a curve, as much as the outfide of
the tuck is intended to round-forward, in which pofition
fuppofe it to be confined ; then draw the fhape of the out-
fide of the tuck or fafliion -piece down to the poll, and cut
it out. The true fhape of tlie tuck or fafhion-piece is now
(hewn as it is to be trimmed, and as it will appear in its
finifhed (late. Then take it from its pofition, and lay it
flat, letting the round be unconfined ; and it will then ap-
pear as it is required to be laid ofi" in the body-plan, in order
to make the mould therefrom.

The fafhion-pieces for the fquaie tuck being already laid
off, the fame horizontal lines, &c. may be transferred to
the (lieer and body-plans, ^^j. 10 and 11 ; then proceed to
lay it ofi' upon the flat, agreeable to the rake of the rabbet
of the ftern-polt, as before diredted, witii this difference,
having no round-aft made, but one flraight line in the
thwartfliip view, in the fliecr-plan. Jig. 7, wiiich was the
aft-part of the rabbet of the flern-poft ; but, in the prefent
fquare tuck, where the head of the faftiion-piece is carried
forward, to conneft with the end of the wing-tranfom, the
moulding edge of the fafhion-piece forms a ferpentine line.

Therefore, where each horizontal line interfcifts the aft-
part of the rabbet of the pofl a, in the flieer-plan, fig. 10,
fquare down the didances to the middle line of the half-breadth
plan,^^. 12, making of fpots; then upon the horizontal line,
No. 5, at the height of the wing-tranfom, at the fide, fet
off from the aft-fide of the rabbet of the pofl a, the round-
forward of the wing-tranfom, in the fhecr-plan, ^^. 10, and
fquare it thence down to the half-breadth plan, //jr. 12;
upon which fet off the half-breadth of the wing-tranfom,
and thence fweep a curve, the centre of whofe radius being
in the middle line, (hall cut the (pot for the laid horizont5
line, in the middle line of the half-breadth plan, ^]y. 12,
which will reprefent the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom a, at
the height of the horizontal line at the fide- Now, from
the other fpots fquared down on the middle line of the half-
breadth plan, fweep curves with the fame radius, and they
will be parallel to the curve of the wing-tranfom a. Tlie
horizontal lines being transferred from the half-breadth
plan, ^^. 9. 10 Jig. 12, take the diflances fquare from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan, ^_f. 12, to where the
horizontal lines interfeft their rclpedlive curves for the aft-
fide of the tuck, and fet them off from the middle line on
their corrcfponding horizontal lines, in the body-plan,
Jig. 1 I ; a batten pinned to thofe fpots will fiiew the hori-
zontal view of the tuck <;, in the body-plan, fig. i i. Alfo,
where the horizontal lines in the half-freadth plan,yff . 1 2, iii-
tcrfeft their relpedtive curves, fquare I he diltaiices up to their
corrcfponding horizontal lines in the (heer-plan, /r^'. 10;
and by drawing a curve to pafs through tliolt Ipotn, the
thwarllhip view of the aft-fide of the falhioii-picce, b, will
be reprefented in the fhcer-plan, _/fj. 10; and what the

thwart-

SHIP-BUILDING.

tlnvartfhip view of the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece leaves
the rabbet of the ftern-poft, in order to be conformable to
the vving-tranfom at the fide, is eafily perceived by the
Ihaded lines.

Till this thwartfhip \ievf of the aft-fide of the fafhion-
piece, t, be (hewn in the flieer-plan, _/7f. lo, the ribband-
lines cannot be truly ended, although the operation is the
fame as before defcribed.

Though the aft-fide of the fartiion-piece i, in the ftieer-
Y>hn, Jig. 10, leaves the rabbet of the Ifern-poft at the head
conformable to the end of the vving-tranfom, yet a fquare
line at the feating muil be drawn as before, to lay-off the
tuck on the flat ; therefore, take the nearelt diftances from
the fquare line a, in the fheer-plan, _;?§^. lo, to where each
horizontal line crofles the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece i, and
fet them up from the horizontal line S, in the body-plan,
^g. II, ftriking horizontal lines, as dillinguifhcd by a fine
tick.

Then take the half-breadth of the wing-tranfom, in the
body-plan. Jig. 1 1 , fquare from the middle line, and fet it
off from the middle line, on the line A A. Next, fix one
leg of the compaflbs at the end of the wing-tranfom, in the
Iheer-plan, Jig. lo, and take the nearell diltance to the aft-
part of the rabbet of the itcrn-poft a, which is fquare from
the rabbet, as the hne e ; and fet it off fquare from the line
A A, at each end of the tranfom bi; and fweep the arc
cc, which gives the round-aft of the tuck at any height,
fquare from the rabbet of the ftern-poft. Square down the
fine-ticked fines, or horizontal lines, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7,
on the rake where they interfeft the horizontal view, a, of
the fafhion-piece in the body -plan, ^^. 11, to the round-aft
line, on a fquare under the body-plan. Then take their
diilances from the middle line, on the curve c c, or round-
aft, on a fquare, and fet them off from the middle line of the
body-plan, Jig. 1 J, on their correfponding horizontal fines ;
then pin a batten to thefe ipots, and to where the feating
interfefts the poft, and it will give the form of the aft-fide
of the fafhion-piece J, to which the mould is to be made,
that will agree with the other timbers, when in their
places.

To be correft with the length of the wing-tranfom on the
flat, take the half-breadth from the body-plan, ^^. 11, on
the round for the upper fide of the tranfom ; then continue
the end of the tranfom in the half-breadth plan, ^^. 12,
fquare out from the middle line, as at f ; on which (fquare
from the middle line) fet off the half-breadth taken on the
round from the body-plan, ^^. 11, and from that fpot fweep
an arc to break into the middle of the tranfom, at the
middle line, as reprefented by the dotted line a ; then from
the before mentioned fpot, or end of the wing-tranfom at i,
take the half-breadth round the dotted curve to the middle
line, and fet it off from the middle line in the boriy-plan,
Jig. II, round the curve, for the upper fide of the tranfom.
This will give the exadl length of the tranfom on the
round-aft of the tuck.

Previous to the laying-ofF of the fore-fide of the fafhion-
piece,- it will be proper to underftand in what manner the
fafhion-piece is to be moulded and trimmed, particularly on
the fore and after-fides.

Make a mould to the moulding, or outer edge of the
fafhion-piece laid oft on the flat, as the fine ticked line d in
the body-plan, ^o-. 11. The upper end may be made as
high as the height of breadth, or horizontal line 7, and the
lower end may reach to the feating on the poll. Let the
upper end of the mould be cut off well with the direftion
of the horizontal lioe 7, and let the heel be exactly perpen-

dicular at the fide of the inner poll. Make another mouM
to the round-aft, on a fquare cc, as fliewn under the bodyJ
plan. Jig. 1 1, and of a parallel breadth, like part of a beamJ
mould. Make it as broad as the fafhion-pieces are mtendecF
to be fided, and let the midfhip-end be well with the fide of
the inner pofl, and cut off parallel to the middle line. Let
the fide-end correfpond well with the moulding edge of the
fafhion-piece, and cut off agreeable to the round of the fide
when the mould lies in its proper place, underneath the
body-plan, 7?f. 11. Let the fafhion-piece be fided fuf-
ficiently for the wing-tranfom to dovetail into the aft-fide
of it, and let the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece, that runs
above the wing-tranfom, be of fufficient length to receive
the bolts of the fide ftern-timber, and long enough at the
heel to meet at the middle line.

When the fafhion-piece is roughly fided on the aft-fide, lo
as to lay the mould on the aft-fide, to mark tlie upper and
lower end nearly, then cut off the head by the mould for
the thwartfhip-way, and tlie fore and aft-way, fquare. Then
fallen the round-aft mould, that is made to the fiding, on
the head of the fafhion-piece, by which may be trimmed
the fore and after-fides of the fafhion-piece out of winding,
by lines parallel to the middle line. Thus will you have
the belt opportunity of feeing how to convert the piece, by
feeing both fides at once. Then will the fafhion-piece
be of a parallel thicknefs from one end to the other,
by all fines that are parallel, whether perpendicular or
horizontal.

To Lay-off the Foreftdi of the f'aJhion-Piece.

Having the fiding of the fafhion-piece on a fquare, fet it
off in the fheer-plan, ^. i, fquare from the rabbet of the
ttern-poft a ; then with compaffes take the fiding of the
fafhion-piece in the diretlion of the horizontal lines, and
fet it off fquare from all the aft-fides of the horizontal lines,
prolonged in the half-breadth plan,_^^. 12, on each horizon-
tal fine, and fquare them up on their correfponding lines in
the fheer-plan,^^. 10. Then pin a batten to thofe fpots,
and the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece c will be reprefented.
Take the heights above and below the fquared line d, in the
fheer-plan,_^». 10, to the interfeftion of each horizontalhne
with the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece c, in the fame manner
as the aft-fide was done ; and fet off above and below the
ticked line S, in the body-plan, _^^. 1 1, and flrike horizontal
lines, as there diftinguiflied by long-tick. Then take the
half-breadths in the half-breadth plan,_^_f . 1 2, to the fore-fide
of the fafhion-piece on the horizontal lines, fquare from the
middle line ; and fet them off fquare from the middle line
on to the line for the round-aft, on a fquare c c, under the
body -plan, ^^. 1 1. Then take them off again on the round-
aft line, and fet them off from the middle line, on their
correfponding horizontal lines in the body-plan, _/!^. 11.
Then pin a batten to thofe fpots, and the form of the fore-
fide of the fafhion-piece e will be agreeable to the fiding
propofed.

The aft-fide of the fafhion-piece not being flraight, will
render it more troublefome than ufefu!, to run lines in order
to trim the outfide of the fafhion-piece by bevellings; there-
fore it would be better to make a mould to the fore-fide e,
and trim a fpot to fay to the fide of the inner poll or dead-
wood ; and fet off a bevelling for the outfide at the main-
breadth, as at ^, Jig. 12.

Mark the fine at the feating S, in the body-plan, fig. i r,
on the mould for the aft-fide, and on the mould for the fore-
fide ; and when the aft-fide is moulded, and the fide trimmed
to fay to the inner poll, mark the fpot i fquare from the

aft-fide

SHIP-BUILDING.

aFt-fide to the fore-ficle, to which place the fpot b, oij the
mould for the fore-fide, muft properly correfpond ; and the
head of the mould muft be kept well with the fpot to
the bevelling at the main-breadth. The mould lies then
in its proper place to mould the fore-iide of the falhion-
piece.

It is cuftomary, in boats, for the planks of the bottom to
run through to the aft-fide of the tranfom, and fometimes
to the att-fide of the faftiion-piece of lighters ; but in
larger veflels it is better to rabbet the fafhiori-piece ; for
when the planks of the bottom are rabbctted into the fafhion-
piece, and the infide of the butts left longer than the out-
fide, the planks are apt to be prefled to the timbers on
caulking their ends ; while, on the contrary, when the
planks run through the falhion-piece, they are not able to
bear the force that is required to be made by caulking their
ends fufBciently. In veffels of this clafs, likewife, the
ends of the planks would be liable to be flarted off by
accident.

The fafhion-piece, as it is laid off, both fore and aft-fides,
is conformable to the timbers of the body, being for that
reafon eafier underflood ; but when the falhion-piece is
moulding, be careful to leave enough without the lines for
the thicknefs of the plank ; which may be found exaftly by
holding a batten at the outfide of the fafhion-piece, at
feveral places, parallel to the lines for the fore and aft-ildes
of the fafhion-piece, and fquare from the lines.

Then extend the compaffes to the thicknefs of the bottom
plank, or otherwife run as many fiftitious diagonal lines as
ftiall be neceflary, and fquare from the moulding edge of the
fafhion-piece. Then fet off the thicknefs of the plank of
the bottom, and lay off the extreme outfide of the fafhion-
piece, likewife the aft-fide, obferving the round in the di-
reftion of the diagonal line, whereby a mould may be made
to the aft-fide, at the extreme breadth ; and the outfide may
be trimmed by bevellings from the diagonal lines. But
;_;reat care muft be taken to place eacli diagonal line fquare
from the moulding edge of the fafhion-piece ; and then, as
the fafhion-piece at the aft-fide will wind or twift in the
direftion of the diagonal lines, the tongue of the bevel may
not cant at all the bevelling fpots, exaftly in the direftion
wherein the diagonal lines were laid off ; for the diagonal
lines at the middle line (fuppofe in the fhcer-plan) are pa-
rallel to the upper fide of the keel ; and arc canted down
hmilar to the flap of a table, as before obferved ; in which
direftion the tongue of the bevel ought to cant, when the
bevellings are taken from the diagonal lines.

The fafhion-pieces are rabbetted on their aft-fides, to re-
ceive the planks of the tuck ; but do not take the rabbet lb
low down as where it interfefts the poft, but leave it fquare
fome inches above it, that the midfhip piece mav be gotten
in its length as it rabbets into the polt, and it will alfo leave
a better butt for caulking, as fhewn in the body-plan.

The wing-traiifom mould muft be made to the fine ticked
curve d, in the half-breadth plan,^_f. 12. The bevelling of
the wing-tranfom will be the fame athwartfhip on the aft-
fidc, which bevelling is the rake of the rabbet of the poft a ;
and the wing-tranfom is rabbetted at the aft-fide at the
lower edge for the planks of the tuck, and at the upper
edge for the planks of the lower counter, (if thought
proper,) therefore the heels of the Item-timbers fhould be
placed as much before the aft-part of the wing-tranfom as
the thicknefs of the planks of the lower counter.

To prevent any error in the true height of the fafhion-
pieces, let the firmark e, in the body-plan, ^^. 1 1, be cor-
reftly marked on the mould and lide of the ftcrn-poft, fo

that when the heels of the fafhion-pieces are letting-on the
poft, thofe firmarks muft exaftly agree.

To Lay-off the feveral Parts of the Haid, Plate X. Laylng-
of-D.

The knee, cheeks, rails of the head, and block for the
figure, muft be laid off to their full fize on the floor from
Plate I., which is the horizontal and thwartfhip view, when
the cheeks, rails, &c. are fixed in their places.

To make the Mould to the Knee of the Head. — The lower
part of the knee at the fcarf, as at X, Plate X. Jig. 1,
Laying-offY), may be made of fir-board about an inch thick,
and up the fore-part of the knee and ftem, as high as the
cutting-down and feating of the figure ; but thefe need be
no broader than about five inches for lightnefs, as at 39, 39,
Jig. I . Then acrofs the mould are faftened battens, which
not only keep the mould together, but the manner of
fiding tiie knee is expreffed thereby. Thus, take any per-
pendicular, as at 24, fg. I , and level out the feveral heights
13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 ; and at 13 and 17 fet off the half-fiding
ot the ftem, ftrikintr a line thereto. Then let fall a perpen-
dicular from the fore-fide of the knee at the upper part, as
at 25, fg. I, and fet off the half-fiding of the knee at 4,
and at 12, and ftrike a line. Strike the lines acrofs the
knee of the head, where it is intended to have the upper
fide of the battens, as at i, 2, 3, &c. to i2. Then, to de-
termine on the fiding of the knee at the fore part, pin a
batten from the upper part of the knee round the fore-fide,
marking thereon the lines I, 2, 3, &c. Then apply the
batten to the perpendicular 2^, fg. I, keeping it fall at
the upper end, and mark ou the perpendicular the fpoti
I, 2, 3, &c. Then from the perpendicular 1^, fg- i, take
the half-fiding at each fpot, and fet them off on their corre-
fponding lines at the fore-fide of the knee : proceed in the
fame manner for the half-fiding of the ftem at l^,fg. i, and
ftrike in the lines as ticked acrois the knee. Then batters
being made to thofe lines, and nailed acrofs the mould, the
half-fiding of the knee may be readily fet oft at the upper fide
of each batten, and the knee, wh?n put together, may be
trimmed ftraight from the fore-fide to the ftem or aft-fide of
the knee: the cutting-down, as at i, 2, 3, and ^, fg. I, i«
fided in the fame manner.

To mate the Moidd to the Gripe, G,fg. I. — The gripe it
only the completion of the knee to the keel, and the mould
is made fo fimilar to the knee above as to need no further
defcription.

To make the Moulds to the Cheeks. — The cheeks muft be laid
off to their moulded fize on the half-brendth plan,^. 2, as at
C, C, to the main half-breadth line, allowing the thicknefs
of the plank, as at R, and againil the fide of the knee.
Another mould muft be made to the flight of each cheek, in
the fheer-plan, ^yf^jf. I, at C, or upper cheek; and L C, the
lower cheek, from the heel of the figure Z, to reach as far
aft as the cheeks are there fliewn, marking a firmark at
the fore-fide of the Item. Then, to mould the cheeks to
their proper flight, draw off the knee-arm to the mould
made in the half-breadth plan, marking on the piece the fore-
lide of the ftem from that mould : then faftciung the fliglit-
mould to the knee-arm of the cheek, obferving to keep the
firmark well at the fore. fide of the ftem, and keeping the
mould parallel to the middle line, let the cheek be trimmed
out of winding by the thwartfliip iinej, or lines which are
fquare from the mould. Then there is a certainty, when the
cheek is throated, no angle will appear in the throat, as
there will be fometimes liy the ufual method, particularly
in full-bowed fhips, where the llieer fprings more than the
flight of the cheeks. When the fide-arm of the cheek is

trimmed

SHIP-BUILDING.

trimmed by a mould made to the fiieer of the (hip, and the
fore and aft-arms by the flight of the cheeks laid off on the
floor, there will fometimes be a very difagreeable throat,
which cannot happen when trimmed by the above method.
Althou'Th the iidc-arm may not hang fo much as the (heer of
the fhip? yet it will not look difagreeable, becaufe the throat
of the cheek is the only part that takes the flight.

To lay-off the Head-Rails. — Strike in the perpendiculars
Z and Y from the fore-fide of the figure, and foremoft end
of the uppei- rail in the (lieer-plan, fig. i, down to the half-
breadth -plan, fig. 2. Determine on the half-breadth of 'the
lacing, as at i, z,fig. 3, as the foremoft end of the upper rail
comes againft it. The after end fays againft the plank at
the beak-head timber, from whence Itrike a ftraight line to
the lacin<T at its fore end. Then fet off the fiding of the
rail, allowing the thicknefs of the lining, and ftrike the line
P, or outfide ; which being the fight-fide of the rail when in
its place, is the propereit to be laid off.

Strike the horizontal line 32 at the upper part of the
foremoft end of the upper rail, in the flieer-plan, ^_f . 1.
Then fquare up to the line 32 the aft-fide of the ftem-
timber 20, and as many lines at equal diftances as may be
needful, and number them i, 2, 3, &c, above the line 32,
as (hewn in fig. i. Set off the fame ftations from perpendi-
cular Y, on the middle hne in the half-breadth plan, fig. 2,
and fquare them out to the line P, or outfide of the main-
rail, numbering them, as before, at the middle line ; then
fquare them out from the hne P. Take the diftances from
the line 32 in the fheer-plan, fig. l, to the upper and lower
parts of the main-rail at each perpendicular line, and fet them
off on their correfponding numbers in the half-breadth plan,
fig. 2, which was fquared out from the line P ; and then, by
pinning a batten to thefe fpots, it will give the form of the
main-rail, and it will (hew the fame form, when in its place, as
that in the (heer-plan, fig. i. Where the lines fquared out
from the middle line in the half-breadth plan interfeft
the infide of the main-rail, ftrike them from thence fquare
from the line P to the rail already laid off, and take the
diftances on thefe lines from the line P to the upper part of
the rail, and fet them down from the line 32 in the (heer-
plan,^^. I , on their correfponding perpendiculars ; which will
give the infide of the main-rail in the ftieer-plan, fig. 1 ; as
the ticked line, which rifes above the middle of the rail
forward, being the upper line, and below towards the
after end as the after part, falls below the outfide. The in-
fide of the rail at the lower edge muft be fet off in the fame
manner in the ftieer-plan, in order to lay off the timbers
exadly.

Strike the ticked line in the plan of the rails in the half,
breadth plan, fig. 2, which is the line to which the chamfer
at the under fide of the rail the mouldings are inteaded to
be wrought to, This muft hkewife be hid off in the (heer-
plan, becaufe in a thwartfhip view this is the proper fight of
the lower edge of the rail ; for the lower part of the rail in
the fheer-plan (which was firft laid off in order to lay off
the rail to its proper cant in the half-breadth plan) may now
be rubbed out, when the rail is fuppofed to be chamfered
or wrought.

Id the half-breadth plan, fig. 2, where the lines fquared
out from the middle line interfeft the ticked line before-men-
tioned, ft.rike them from thence fquare from the line P to the
lower part of the rail laid off ; then take the diftances on
thofe lines from the line P to the lower part of the rail,
3nd fet them off from the line 3 2 in the (heer-plan, fig. I .
on their correfponding perpendiculars. This gives the lower
•part of the rail in the (heer-^Un, at the chamfer, being the
r»ght part of the ml when trimmed and in iti place,

Before the main-rail is canted, as in the half-breadth plan,
fig. 2, the proper form of it cannot be afcercained in the
fheer-plan, ^y. i ; for the rail, when canted in order to nuke
the mould, muft be gradually diminifhed from one end to the
other, and from thence transferred to the (heer-plan ; for
inftance, the middle line at the after-part of the rail in the
(heer-plan, is the aft-part of the rail at the outfide ; fo that
from thence to the fore-fide of the rail (hews lefs than the
rail in the middle ; alfo, at the foremoft end the rail will not
(hew fo much as it does in the half-breadth plan ; whereas
in the middle it (hews the fame.

Before the middle rails can be canted in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 2, to their proper fpread, proceed in the follow-
ing manner ; ftrike an horizontal line from where the aft-fide
of the ftcm-timber 20, in the flieer-plan, _^. i, interfeft.;
the upper fide of the upper cheek, as the line 27, in fig. 3.
Take the heights from the upper fide of the upper cheek, at
the perpendicular line 7, in the (heer-plan,^. i, to the
upper and lower parts of the three rails L, M, and N, and fet
them up from the horizontal line before-mentioned in fig. 3,
as you fee ticked at L, M, and N. Then take the diftances
from the middle line in the half-breadth plan, ^.2, at the
hne 7, to the outfide of the main-rail ; likewife to the
infide, and the ticked line for the chamfer of the rail at the
under fide ; and fet them off on their correfponding lines ia
fig. 3, and draw the thwartlhip feftion of the main-raiL
Set off in the half-breadth plan the half-thicknefs of the knee
S Y of the head, and the moulding of the upper cheek C C,-
then take the half-thicknefs of the knee at 7, or aft-fide of
the ftem-timber in the half-breadth plan, fig. 2, and fet it
off from the middle hne u in the plan of the timber, fig. 3,
on the line 27. Then determine the breadth of the timber
at the upper fide of the cheek, and pin a batten to the
curve for the outfide of the timber. Then in the plan of
the timber ,^^. 3, determine on the half-breadths of the middle
rails L and M ; and transfer them from thence to the half-
breadth plan, fig. 2, at the aft-fide of the ftem-timber.
Then fet off the diftance of the foremoft end of the rails
from the middle line, and ftrike in the two lower or middle
rails N, O, in the half-breadth plan, fig. 2.

The middle and lower rails being determined in the half-
breadth plan, fig. 2, the outfides of them, being the fight-
fides, are the propereft to be laid off. The outfide of the
middle rail is marked O, and the outfide of the lower rail
N. Where the upper fides of the middle rail M, and
lower rail L, in the fheer-plan, ^^. i, interfeft the aft-fidc
of the hair-bracket H, ftrike the horizontal lines 33 and
34, anfwerable to thofe in the half-breadth plan, fig. 2.

Where the fines i, 2, 3, &c. which are fquare from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan, fig. z, interfeft the lines
O and N, let them be fquared out from the lines O and N,
in the fame manner as was performed for P. Then take the
diftances from the lines 33 and 34, in the fheer-plan, ^^. i,
(at the fame perpendiculars as before,) to the upper fide of
the middle and lower rails, and fet them off in the half-
breadth plan, fig. 2, from their correfponding lines O and
N, on the fines fquared out. This gives the form of the
upper fides of the middle and lower rails, which is fufhcient
to fhew the method of laying off each rail, agreeable to
their different cant or fpread. The lower fide of the rails
js formed by a diminifhing line to the moulding or depth of
the rail at each end.

It is very feldom that the middle and lower rails are
laid oft on the floor only ; the main or upper rail, when
trimmed, is gotten up into its place, and moulds are there
made to the head-timbers, and then the middle and lower
rsils are fpread and equally divided thereon between the upper

rail

SHIP-BUILDING.

rail and upper cheek, and the moulds made to them when
their fituation is determined on.

But in order to fhew what may be performed on the floor,
the timbers of the head may not only be laid off, but the
bevellings taken, and the very fcores for the rails be cut out
thus :

Take the heights in the flieer-plan, _/?§■. i, at the aft-fide
of each head-timber, from the upper fide of the upper
cheek to the upper and lower fides of each rail, for theout-
fide of the rail, and fet them up from the bafe line of their
correfponding timber, jig. 3, ftriking the horizontal lines as
there ticked. Then take the diftances from the middle
line in the half-breadth ^\zn. Jig. 2, at the aft-fide of each
timber to the out fide of each rail, and fet them off on their
correfponding ticked lines, _^. 3. Where the aft-fides of
the timbers, in the half-breadth plan,^^. 2, interfedt the
infide of the middle and lower rails, let them be drawn
fquare from the lines N and O, to interleft the lines of the
rails laid oft. Then take the diftances from the lines N and
O, on the lines fquared out, to the lines of the rails laid oft",
and fet them down from the lines ^3 and 34, at the aft-fides
of their refpeitive timbers in the ftieer-plan, ^^. i, making
fpots which form the upper fide of the rails at the infide, the
fame as was performed for the upper rail. Take the diftancf s
from the upper fide of the cheek in the ftieer-plan, Jig. 1, at
the aft-fide of tiie timbers, to the fpots laft mentioned, and
likewife to the line for the upper fide of the upper rail
at the infide, and fet them up from the bafe line of each re-
fpeftive timber in^^. 3, and ftrike a faint line. Then take
the diftances from the middle line in the half-breadth plan,
Jig. 2, at the aft-fide of each timber, to the infide of the
before-mentioned rails, and fet them off from the middle line
u, in the plan of the timbers,_^^. 3, on their correfponding
faint lines. This gives the upper part of the rails at the
infide. The fame operation may be performed to find the
lower part of the rails at the infide ; or you may draw the
infide of the rails perpendicular, and fet down the depth
of the rails agreeable to what they meafure on the moulds,
taken in the direftion of the timber. This may determine
the under fide of the rails at the infide.

As the line of the chamfer of the upper rail N (being the
fight-fide of the rail when it is trimmed, and in its place) is
before reprefented in the fliecr-plan, _/ff . i, take the height
from the upper fide of the check to the chamfer of the rail, at
the aft fide of each timber, and fet it up from tlie bafe line of
each correfponding timber, jfg-. 3, ftriking faint lines parallel
to the bafe line. Then take the half-breadths at the aft-fide of
each timber in the half-breadth plan, fig. 2, to the ticked
line of the upper rail, (which is fiippofed to be where the
rail is alfo to be chamfered,) and let them off from the middle
line u, m Jig. 3, on their correfponding lines hit ftruck,
and from thence draw the under fide of the rail to tlie
infide.

Having the upper fide of all the rails, infide and ontfide,
in the plan of the timbers, Jfg 3, fet oft', draw the line for
the upper fide of the rails, which ftiews how much the infi<le
of the rails is higher than the outfide, if cut oft in the di-
reftion of the aft-fide of the timber. Then having the
fpots, as before mentioned, for the outfide of the rails,
(being on the ticked lines firll drawn,) the under fide of the
rails may be drawn parallel to the upper, or to interfeft the
fpot before-mentioned for the infide, which was fet down
agreeable to what it meafureson the mould, taken in the di-
reftion of the rail, as it is marked on the mould.

Having the fcores for the timbers, the half-thicknefs of
the knee of the head at the aft-fide of each timber, let
it oft" from the middle line a on the bafe line of it8 corre-

VoL. XXXI r.

fponding timber in fg. 3. Likewife take the height hom
the upper fide of the upper cheek in the ftieer-p!an, fig. i,
to the ticked curve, reprelenting the cutting, down or lacing
of the knee, and fet it up from the bafe line of each timber
'"A- 3- This will give the fcore to be cut out, in order
to let the timber meet its oppofite at the middle line. Then
fet oft" the fubftance at the upper fide of the upper cheek,
and draw the infide and outfide of the timber as reprefented
in the plate. This will be the exaft form of the timbers,
or more particularly, of the fcores of the middle rails ; and
if laid off in the grofs, might be performed to the greatelt
nicety.

To bevel the Timbers in the Head. — In the ftieer-plan, Jig. i,
fet oft the fiding of the timbers, and ftrike in their fore-fides.
Then fquare a line from the aft-fide to the fore-fide, from
where the aft-fide interfefts the upper fide of the cheek, as
at 18, 19, 20, in the fame manner as was done to find the
bevellings of the cant-timbers.

Take the heights at the fore-fide of each timber from its
heel, as fquared, to the upper and lower fides of the rails, in
the fame manner as direfted for the aft-fide, and fet them
up on the plan of each refpeftive timber, jig. 3 ; then fet
oft" the fore-fide of each timber in the half-breadth plan,
fg. 2, and take the diftances from the middle liite to the
outfide of each rail at the fore-fide of each timber, and fet
them oft' on the plan of each refpeftive timber, fig. 3, on
their correfponding horizontal lines laft mentioned." Where
the fore-fide of eacli timber in the half-breadth plan, /ff . 2,
interfefts the infide of the middle and lower railo, let them
be fquared out from the lines N and O, to interfeft the
lines of their correfponding rails laid off. Then take the
diftances from the lines N and O, in the half-breadth plan,
Jig. 2, agreeable to the lines fquared out, to the lines of the
rails laid off, and fet them down below their correfponding
lines 33, 34, Jig. i, at the fore-fide of each correfponding
timber in the ftieer-plan, _yff . i, making fpots. Then take
the heights from the fquare line at the heel up the fore-fide
of each timber in the ftieer-plan, /^. i, to the fpots laft
mentioned, and fet them up in the plan of their refpeftive
timbers, Jg. 3, ftriking new horizontal lines. Then take
the diftances from the middle line in the lialf-breadth plan,
fg. 2, at the fore-fide of each timber to the infide of the
rails, and fet them off on their correfponding liorizontal
lines laft ftruck, in the plan of each refpeftive timber,_^^. 3.
This will give the direftion of the upper fide of the rails,
and, if rightly perfurmed, will be parallel to tlie upper fide
of the rails laid oil' for the aft-fide.

In the fame manner is every opcr.uioii performed for thf
fore-fide as was direfted for the aft-fide, the heights being
taken from the heel as fquared in the fheer-plan, ^^. i, in-
ftead of the ujjper fide of the cheek, which Ihews how much
the rails hft at the fore-fide from a fquare ; and the half-
breadths being taken at the fore-fide of the timbers in the
half-breadth plan, /ff. 2, ftiew liow much the fcores si the
fore-fide of the timbers are under from a fquaie with tlie aft-
fide, becaufe the timbers in the half-breadth plan are fquare
from the middle line.

Having the dilpofition of the rails for the fore-fide of tlie
timbers, fet off the fame dillance from the rails as it is from
tlie rails of the aft-fide, both infide and outfide, and mark
the curves as ticked for the infide and outfide of each tim-
ber, in the plan of the timbers, _^i^. 3. Then whatever dif-
taiice the ticked lines of the fore-fide are from the lines of
the aft-fide, fo much is the outfide of the timber under, and
the infide Handing from a fquare, agreeable to the fiding of
the timber. Or, having the att-fides of the timbers laid off
exaftly, the fore and aft bevellings might be taken more cor-

4 E reft

SHIP-BUILDING.

reft from the half-breadth ^\in,J'g- 2. The beveUinfr for the
heel of the timbers may be taken agreeable to the flight of
the upper cheek, becaufe the cheek {lands fore and aft ; but
it will not anfwer exadly to the other bcvellings agreeable
to the flight of the rails in the flieer-plan,/^. i, unlefs they
are taken to the hnes of the rails when laid off in the (heer-
plan ; and then the bevellings mult be apphcd clofe to the
fcores that are trimmed for the cant of the rails.

To Lay-off the Rails to the Cant in the Sheer- Plan. —The
perpendicular lines mud be drawn in the flieer-plan, /-. i,
the fame as before, and likewife thofe in the half-breadth plan,
fig. 2, anfwerable to them. Let fall a perpendicular from
the interfeaion of the upper part of the upper rail N, with
the aft-fide of the hair-bracket H, in the fheer-plan, Jg. i,
down to the upper rail P, as before canted in the half-breadth
plan,/^. 2, to which point the rail muft be fuppofed fixed.
Then place a batten to the infide of the rail, as canted in
the half-breadth plan,/^. 2, and mark on the batten the
perpendiculars as at 12, and the interfettion of the lines
I, 2, 3, &c.

Then in the (heer-plan, /^. I, where the perpendiculars
1, 2, 3, &c. interfecl the upper fide of the upper rail, level
aft-lines at pleafure, as you there fee ticked ; then place the
batten to each level line, marking thereon its correfponding
perpendiculars, obferving always to keep the foremoft per-
pendicular marked on the batten to the perpendicular Y.
This gives the fpots to which a batten pinned will form the
upper fide of the upper rail O, and is exaftly anfwerable
in form to the upper fide of the rail N, in the half-breadth
plan,_^^. 2. While the batten is pinned to the form of the
rail, mark thereon the Itations i, 2, 3, &c. ; and when it is
ftraight, place it to any perpendicular line, and mark the ex-
tremities of the rail, and the fevcral Itations, as at 26, fg. 1 ;
then fet off the moulded fize at each end, and ilrike a
ilraight line, which will give tlie tapering at every perpen-
dicular, and a batten pinned thereto will form the under fide
of the rail.

In the fame manner arc the other rails to be performed
in the fheer-plan. The aft-fide of the after-timber being
already laid off, and the cant of the middle and lower rails
being determined on the half-breadth plan. Jig. 2 ; let fall
the perpendiculars 35, 36, where the lines 33, 34, interfedt
the aft-part of the hair-bracket H, in the fheer-plan, _yfn-. i,
down to the half-breadth plan, ^g. 2, and proceed as
above.

It maybe neceffary to notice here, that when Philel.
was engraved, all veflels above a frigate in the royal navy
had beak-heads, which mode has lately been difcontinutd :
but fuch of our readers as may be defirous of knowing the
belt method of laying-ofF the beak-head timbers, are referred
to the " Elements and Praftice of Naval Architefture," bv
Steel. ^

To Lay-ojf the feveral Parts of the Stem.

To Lay-off the Side Stern-Timher. — The fide fl;ern-timber
muft be laid off on the floor, and a mould made to it, fo that
when trimmed and put up in its place on the fliip, that is, to
the tumbling-home of the fide, it (hould appear as its ticked
line in the fhccr-plaH, Plate I. from whence it is transferred
to the floor.

Strike the horizontal lines from the ftern-timber in the
■fheer-plan, Plate VU. Jg. 11. Laying-qf A, to fquare-
timber 36, at the wing-tranfom, at the'fide, at the knuckles
of the upper and lower counters, at the top-breadth, and at
the top-fide. Likewife Ilrike as many between the wing-
tranfom and lower counter as may be thought neceflary,
that part being the moil critical to obtain the exaft for.il
2

of the timber. Then transfer ihefe horizontal lines to the
after-body plan,^^. j, as you fee ticked in the plate, and
number them accordingly. Then take oft the half-breadth
of each horizontal line in the body-plan, ^^. 5, at every
fquare timber, as far forward as timber 28, and transfer them
to their correfponding fquare timbers in the lialf-breadth
plan, Jig. 6. To thefe fpots pin a batten, and mark the
curves, or half-breadths, and continue them as far aft as the
flern-timber in the flieer-plan,^!^. 11, and number them in
the half-breadth plan. Jig. 6, as in the plate.

Where the horizontal hnes in the fheer-plan, Jig. 11, in-
terfeft the aft-part of the flern-timber, fquare them down,
or let fall perpendiculars to their correfponding lines in
the half-breadth plan, Jig. 6, as fhewn in the plate. This
gives the ending of the after-part of the half-breadth lines.
Then take off the half-breadths of the horizontal lines in the
half-breadth plan,/^. 6, at their ending, as above-mentioned,
and fet them off on their correfponding horizontal lines in
the body-plan, ^^. 5. A batten pinned to thofe fpots forms
the aft-fide of the flern-timber A, agreeable to the form in
the fheer-plan. Bat if thefe half-breadths, when fet off in
the body-plan, fhould not make a fair line, then thofe in the
half-breadth plan, fig. 6, which feem mod to require it, muft
be altered at the after end, till they all correfpond to make
a fair line in the body-plan.

Now fet off the moulded fize of the flern-timber upon
each horizontal line, in Jig. it, to which pin a batten, and
the fore-fide of the timber will be reprcfented, becaufe the
mould is to be made broad enough to be anfwerable to the
fore-fide of the timber.

Then, where the horizontal liner, in the fheer-plan, ^^. 1 1,
interfeft the fure-fide of the timber, transfer them to their
correfponding lines in the half-breadth Y>\in, Jig. 6, parallel
to the other lines, which are ticked down from the aft-fide,
and on the half-breadth lines make the fpnts as you fee in
tlic plate. Then take the half-breadtli of each horizontal
line in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 6, at the fpots laft;-men-
tioned, and fet them off on their correfponding horizontal
lines in the body-plan, ^^. 5. Pin a batten to thefe fpots,
and mark the line B, which is the fore-fide of the timber,
agreeable to the line for the fore-fide in the fheer-plan.

Having in the body-plan. Jig. 1 1, the form of the aft-fide
and fore-fide of the ilern-timber, as it appears upon an
horizontal view when in its place, it follows next to point
out a method to make a mould, in order to mould the tim-
ber, fo that it fhall have the fame appearance when it is in
its place upon a horizontal view, as it now fhews in the
fheer and body-plans. Unlefs there be a method which
may be depended upon for theexadl heights of the counters,
it can be to no purpofe to defign a view of the Hern, in order
to difpofe of the decks, the lights, and all other heights, in
fuch a manner, that each part may bear a jufl proportion to
the reft.

Strike the line C in the body-plan, fig. it, the thicknefs
of the mould from the fide of the timber, to which place
a batten, and keep one end well with the horizontal line at
the end of the wing-tranfom, and mark on the batten all the
horizontal lines m the body-plan. Then carry the batten
to the fheer-plan, _/^. 1 1, and keeping the end of tlie batten
well with tlie horizontal line A cf the wing-tranfom at the
fide, fet up all the heights on the batten perpendicular, and
ftrike them through the ilern-timber parallel to the hori-
zontal lines firft Itruck, as you fee in the plate. Where
the ticked horizontal lines in the flieer-plan. Jig. 11, firft
ftruck interfed the fore-fide and aft-fide of the ilern-timber,
fquare them up to the horizonal lines lall ftruck. This
will give the fpots, to which a batten pinned will give the

ticked

SHIP-BUILDING.

ticked lines I and H, to which the mould is to be made.
The lafl heights which were fet up are the proper heights
X){ the knuckles and horizontal lines to be marked on the
mould.

The ticked lines I, H, in the (heer-plan,^^. 1 1, to which
the mould is to be made, are fuppofed to be the (traight
line C in the body-plan, ^f. 1 1, (landing fait at the wing-
tranfom, and the head lifted up till it Hands perpendicular ;
which, if lowered again to the direftion of the ilraight line
C, in the body-plan,ySV. 1 1, will appear exaftly the fame as
the Itern-timber hrll laid oft in thefheer-plan,^. ii, which
is the form of the timber required when .trimmed and in
its place.

In the next place, the mould fhould be fo made, that
the (lem-timber fliall be trimmed both ways by this one
mould ; that is, to the fhape as it appears in the fheer-plan,
Ji^. II ; and likewife to the fore-fide and aft-fide thwartlhip
appearance in the body -plan, fi^. 1 1.

Proceed to make the mould of dry feafoned inch-deal
to the ticked lines I, H, Jij;. 1 1, in the (heer-plan, from the
upper fide of the wing-tranfom at the fide to the head G ;
then, when the mould is in its place, mark on it the upper
horizontal lines, in the fame direftion as they are laid off,
diltinguilhing them by their proper names on the mould,
as the lower counter at D, upper counter at E, heel at A,
No. I at B, No. 2 at C, No. 5 at F, and head at G. Then
take the dillanoes from the Itraight line C, in the body-plan,
^g. 1 1, to the fore-fide of the ftern-timber B, at every hori-
zontal line, and in the direftion of the horizontal lines, and
fet them down in figures at the fore-fide of the mould on
their correfponding horizontal lines : then proceed in the
fame manner, and fet down the diltances or fpilings on the
aft-fide of the mould from the lines C and A. But to
mould the timber from thofe fpilings requires much trouble,
and without great care taken, the ftern-timber will not be
exactly moulded.

Tberi:fore, the moft correft method of finiftiing the mould,
and the eaficft in application when moulding the piece, is,
inftead of having the fpilings marked on the mould, to have
brackets made of |-inch deal, agreeable to the fpilings
(dedudling the thicknefs of the mould) at each horizontal
line, having their ends at the fore-fide and aft-fide cut ex-
aflly fquare from the mould, or their aft-fides may teach
to the round-aft ; then faften thofe brackets to the under
fide of the mould, keeping the middle of their thicknefs
exaftly well with their refpeftive horizontal lines, as they
appear ftiaded in the Ihcer-plan, Jig. 1 1, obferving to keep
the fide of every bracket in the fame direftion from the
mould as the bevel at F, Jig. 1 1, in the body-plan, that is, to
the inclination which the Ilraight hne C has from an hori-
zontal plane in reprefenting the tumbling-home of the ftern-
timber.

To be more exaft, let the half-thicknefs of the brackets
be gauged down to their ends, and the fides chamfered away
thereto, which will direft upon the timber, when trimmed,
the exaft ftations of the knuckles, and alfo of the horizontal
lines.

The brackets may be fo fixed on either fide, as to mould
the tiiTiber for both fides of the (hip.

The mould, thus made, may lie applied in any direftion
in moulding the timber, provided its upper fide is kept
Ilraight, and out of winding. Then examine where the
timber, in its rough ftate, deviates mod from the under fide
of the brackets, and make tliat the general fpiling to be ap-
plied from the under fide of the brackets. Wlierever this
fpiling muft be applied beyond the brackets, owing to the
inequalities of the piece, let a llraight-edged batten, of fuf-

ficient length, be kept well to the under fide of the bracket ;
from which fet down the fpiling required, wherever it may
touch the piece. Then by boring holes with a fmall gim-
blet, exaftly in the direftion of the gauge-line, at the ends
of the brackets, and full as much below the brackets as the
general fpiling, you will preferve the exaft moulding of the
timber, after the rough wood is fawn off, agreeable to the
mould.

To take the bevellings of the aft-fide of the timber, the
round-aft of the ftern at the counters, and top-timber line,
mull be laid off thus in the half-breadth plan. Take the
dillance from the midfhip to the fide ftern-timber, on a
fquare in the ftieer-plan, Plate I., and fet it off upon the
middle hne, Plate VII. Jig. 6, abaft its correfponding per-
pendicular, as fquared down from the counters, &c. at the
fide, fweeping curves to the faid round-aft on a fquare ;
then fix the tongue of a bevel to the different round-aft
hues, and the ftock parallel to the middle hne will be the
bevelling of the round-aft at each place, to be applied fquare
from the mould.

Take the bevelling to cut off the heel from the body-plan,
Plate V\\. fg. II, thus: fix the ftock of a bevel to the
hne C, and the tongue to the round-up of the wing-tran-
fom, as at D ; and apply it over the heel of the mould,
when it lies in its proper place, to where the lower bracket
itrikes the timber.

Suppofing the heel of the timber to be carefully trimmed,
as above direfted, a thin mould may be made to the feftion
of the heel on the wing-tranfom, and the beveUings taken
to fay it to the fafttion-piece from the ftcrn-frame, as that is
generally in its place before the ftern-timbers are trimmed.

The bevellings for the round-up of the knuckles of the
lower and upper counters may be taken from the body-
plan, Plate VII. fg. n, by fixing the ftock of a bevel to
the aft-fide of item-timber A, and the tongue to the
round-up, as at E, and fo applied from the timber when it
is trimmed.

To Lay-ojf the Stem and Quailer-Galleriet, Plate X. Laying
oJD.

la Plate VII. Laying-of A, the laying-off of the fide
ftern-timber to make the mould to, is reprefented in its
proper fituation, that the reader might have a clearer idea of
the operation. But we are not to fuppnfe that any mould-
loft is broad enough to admit of the ftern to be laid off in
that manner ; neither would it appear clear enough, if laid
off in the body-plan.

Therefore, in fome convenient part of the floor, lay off
the horizontal (or level) view of the ftern, as Plate X.

fg. 6, from Plate I. ; and likewife the quarter, as far for-
ward as timber 32, ^i fg. 4.

Strike an horizontal line at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line, whicli will bo a bafe line to the
ftern ; likewife tiie lines 17 and 18 parallel to the bafe line,
to interfedt the knuckles of the lower and upper counters,
at the fide ftern-timber 33, in /r^. 4 ; continuing them
through their refpeftive timbers in fg. 6. Then take the
heights from the bafe line, in fg. 4, to the knuckles of the
lower and upper counters at the midftiip (tern-timber 32,
and fet tliem up the middle line above the bafe line, in_^/. 6.
Then fpring the arc of a circle through thofe heiglits in

fg. 6, and as far as the quarters piojcdl, as B, B, which
will be the knuckles of the timbers. Defign the lower
and upper counter-rails '\n fg. 4, and (et oft' the projeftion
of the plank of each counter, tlnn : ("miaro out a line from
the knuckle of each counter of the mid(hip-timber 32, as a
and b> and draw the thicknefs of the plank of each counter
^E 2 parallel

SHIP-BUILDING.

parallel to the timber, whicli gives the under fide of the
rails ; then transfer the upper and under fides of thofe rails
from fg. 4, to the middle line, Jig. 6, and defcribe parallel
curves to the knuckles 42 and 43 ; and the upper counter-
rail B, and lower counter-rail A, will be alfo reprefented
in the plan of the itern,/_j. 6, and that will fhew how
much the fight-part of the rails will be on a level view
below the knuckles of the timbers.

But the round-up and round-aft of the counter-rails, to
make the moulds to for trimming the rails, mult be laid off
on a fquare, thus : from the fore-fide of the rails at the mid-
fliip-timber 34, in/^. 4, fquare in a line from the knuckle to
touch the fide-timber 33 ; then take the diftance from the
knuckle of the upper counter from the midfiiip-timbcr 32,
to the fide-timber 33, in the direiftion of the above fquare
line, and fet it off from any llraight line, as A A, at C C,
Jig. 9, which is the knuckle or breadth of the upper
counter, fquared down from Jig. 6. Then fpring the arc
B B, which is the round-aft of the upper counter, on a
fquare.

Next take the dillance from the knuckle of the upper
counter, at the fide-timber 33, to the Ime fquared in from
the knuckle of the midfhip-timber, and fet it off as before
at C C, above the line A A, fg. 9, and fpring another
arc, which will be the round-up of the upper counter, on a
fquare. Proceed in the fame manner with the lower coun-
ter, and we fhall have both rails laid off to the round-up
and round-aft on a fquare.

This is the beft way to make the moulds for the round
of the rails ; becaufe if the rails were cut out of a fnying
plank, or piece of thick-ftnff, the round-up would be the
fame ; that when put in the boiler, and fet to the round-aft,
they would then have their proper round-up on a level
view ; or, were they cut out of a fmall piece of timber, it
would anfwer the fame purpofe, and be moil expeditious
and exaft.

The counter-rails may be cut out of a ftraight piece of
timber, without kilning them, as they are apt^to fly after
that procefs, thus : take the round-up and round-aft to-
gether, that is, from the knuckle of the fide-timber to the
knuckle of the midfhip-timber, and fpring an arc thereto,
as before ; then when the rails are trimmed to the Iheer,
and the fore-fide canted to the timber, they will exaftly
conform to the round-up and round-aft, when put in their
places.

Having the round-up of the lower and upper counter-
rails in Jg. 6, and continued them far enough out for the
projeftion of the quarter-galleries, round up the quarter-
deck in the ftern, agreeable to the upper counter-rail, in
the following manner : take the height from the upper
counter-rail, in^^. 6, to the quarter-deck, in the direftion
of the fide -timber at the infide ; and fet it up the middle
line of the ftern. This makes the quarter-deck round more
than the upper counter-rail, and adds life to the ftern ; for
the upper part of the lights in the ftern fhould be parallel
to the tranfom. And if they were to round by the fame
mould as the upper counter-rail, the bars in the faflies next
the fide would be longer than thofe in the middle line, and
would appear as if the top of the lights rounded lefs than
the upper counter-rail. In the fame manner difpofe of the
round of the poop, or round-houfe.

This fhould determine the round of the decks abaft ; and
the beams of thofe decks, as they approach aft in Jg. 4,
mult be gradually increafed in their round-up, to coVrefpond
with the tranfom.

Obferve that the above lines, in Jg. 6, for the quarter-
deck, (hew the round of the deck at the flern-timbers,

without conCdering at prefent the projeftion of the bal-

cony.

Set off withinfide of the Item-timber, in Jg. 6, the
thicknefs of the clamp, and the projedion of the cornice in
the cabin, and let that be the fide of the light. Then de-
termine on the breadth of the munions, allowing fufficient
for the weights and pulley-pieces, and divide the other lights
equally. Set off likewife the mock-hght in the aft-part of a:
the quarter-nallerv, the fame fize as the reft. About half
the breadth of the munions from the mock-light, place the
infide of the quarter-piece ; then determine on the breadth
of the quarter-piece at the heel. About the middle of the
quarter-piece pl.icethe outfide of the gallery, which deter-
mines the outfide of the gallery on the quarters, fig. 4.
Having the breadtli of the lower part of the lights in the
clear, let the depth be one-third more than the breadth at
the lower part ; fet off upon the rake of the llern-timbers,
in _/ff. 4, and transfer that to Jg. 6, which makes a good
proportional light. But obferve, between the upper coun-
ter-rail and the lights mutt be room allowed for the lalh-fiUs,
and about one inch and a half between their heads and the
tranfom above. Then determine on the out-bounds of the
taffrail and quarter-pieces, and lower finilbing.

Next difpofe of the quarter-galiery ^v\Jg. 4, fhewing the
out-lines of the quarter-piece and taffrail, thus : let fall a
perpendicular from the knuckles of the lower and upper
counters of the midfhip-timbers, mjg. 4, as you fee ticked
and numbered 14 and 15 ; then where the horizontal lines
17 and 18, from the knuckles of the fide-timber, interfeft
the perpendiculars 14 and 15, take thofe diltances, and fet
them off" from the knuckles of the fide-timljer, in Jg. 6,
doivn the perpendiculars, c,c,f,f; from thence fpring the
arcs 24, 24, and 26, 26, to touch the horizontal lines 17
and 18, at the middle line, which are called rown,'/ _/brK.'ar(/
on a level. Then will the ticked curves 24, 24, and 26, 26,
be anfwerable to the ticked perpendiculars 14, 15, which
fall from the knuckles of the midfliip-timber in Jg. 4.

Take the heights from the bafe-line, in Jg. 6, to the
knuckles of each counter, at the outfide of the gallery, at
the ticked perpendiculars d and e, and fet them up from the
bafe line in Jg. 4, ftriking the ticked horizontal lines c
and i/. Then from the horizontal ticked lines 17 and 18,
in Jg. 6, take the length of the perpendiculars d and e, to
where they interfedt the ticked curves 24 and 26, or round
forward on a level, and fet them off forward from the per-
pendiculars 14 and 15, in jff. 4, on the horizontal lines c
and d refpedtively, vchich will give the exact knuckles at
the timbers, in Jg. 4, at the outfide of the gallery. Then
take the heights of tiie ends of the rails from, the bafe line at
A and B, fig. 6, and fet them off from the bafe line in
Jg. 4, at the knuckles of the timbers latt mentioned, and
continue them forward, agreeable to the filter of the fhip.
This will give the exaft heights of the lower and fecond
counter-rails, as they will appear on the fhip, if the work
be conformable to the floor.

To Lay-off the Foot-Rail oj the Balcony.

Here we may again repeat the obfer»ation, which was made
about laying-off the beak-head timber, that fince Plate I.
was engraved, the fterns of all fhips of the hne are now con-
tinued upwards to the round-aft of the fecond counter-rail,
without any balcony, as they are much ftronger fo, and
more ufeful, if guns are wanted to be ufed right-aft occa-
fionally. Neverthelefs, fhips of 50 guns have at prefent a
balcony or walk in the ftern.

To underftand the exaft form of the balcony-rails, as
they appear in the Iheer-plan, and likewife in the plan of the

iterO)

SHIP-BUILDING.

ftern, will require much attention, and fome pains taken to
be made correft.

Where the quarter-deck line at the fide interfefts the
fide-ftern timber 33, in ^^. 4, let fall the ticked perpendi-
cular 13 to the half-breadth plan, _/ff. 5 ; and on that per-
pendicular fet off the half-breadth of the quarter-deck at the
ftern-timber, from the middle line in Jig. j, as taken from
Jig. 6. Then fquare down from the lall perpendicular,
where the under iide of the deck at the middle line interfefts
the middiip-ilern timber, in Jg. 4, to the middle line in
Jig. 5 ; and fpring an arc, as the ticked curve I, fliewing
the round-aft of the ftern, at the under fide of the quarter-
deck, and alfo at the aft-part of the timbers, the heads of
which run up to the under fide of the quarter-deck. But
fterns having no balcony, the tmibers are continued up-
wards as much above the taffrail as they may be wanted,
which certainly mult add flrength to the ftern.

In Jig. 5. draw the fide ftern-timber, vt'hich requires to
projedi aft, about ten inches farther than the midfhip-
timbers, as at 24, for the convenience of the neceflaries in
the quarter-gallery, and abaft that allow three or four
inches for the balhifters in the att part of the quarter-gallery,
and let that be the aft part of the quarter-deck at the fide.
Then defign, in Jig . 5, the midlhip part of the ends of the
deck. That part, from the lide-iimber to the outfide of the
gallery, (being the aft part of the itool, ) muft be parallel to
the ticked line I.

Strike the perpendicular line 43 shaft Jigs. 4 and 5, and
where the ticked line I, which is the round-aft at the heads
of the timbers in Jig. J, interfcCts the outfide of the timber,
take that half-breadth, and fet it off on the perpendicular
43 from the middle line. Then take the round-up of the
quarter-deck on a perpendicular, in Jig. 4, at the fide-timber,
and fet it off on the half-breadth laft taken from the per-
pendicular 43, and fpring the arc H, which is the round-
up of the quarter-deck, on a perpendicular.

Let the quarter-deck, at the middle line in Jg. 4, be
continued as far aft as the ends of the deck c, in Jig, 5 ;
then from the fine for the under fide of the deck, drop as
many perpendiculars as may be thought luflicient to find the
true form of the under fide of the deck, from the fide to
the midlhips, as may be feen numbered 23, &c. in Jig. 4.
Carry down thofe perpendiculars parallel to the line 43, to
interfedt the ends ol the deck c, in Jig. 5, and from thence
carry them aft parallel to the middle line, to interfeft the
round-up of the deck H. Then take the diftance from
the hne 43, to the curve H, for the round of the deck at
Ij^, Jig. 5, and fet it down the perpendicular 3, from the
under fide of the deck, jfj. 4. (for per. 2 was too fmall a
round to be perceived in the plate) ; continue the fame re-
gular to 20, Jig. 5, which anfwers to per. (j, in Jg. 4.
Take the half-breadlh in Jg. 6. to the outfide ol the
quarter-deck ftool, and fet it off fquare from the middle
Lne to interfeA the ends of the deck ^r, in Jg. 5. Then
carry aft, as before, to the curve H, the intermediate lines
21, 22, with 23, at the outfide of the ftool, and alio carry
them up to the under fide of the deck mjg. 4, as lo, II, 12.
Then take the dillances from the hne 43 to the round of
the deck H, injg. 5, at 21, 22, 23, and let them oft btlow
the under fide of the deck, on the perpendiculars 10, II, 12.
Then through thefe fpots, and liiofe before fet off, draw
the licked curve to the aft part of the quarter-dick at the
middle line. This will be the exadl form of the under fide
ef the quarter-deck, if cut oft agreeable to the plan,_^^. 5,
from the outfide of the ftool in Jig. 4. Draw the licked
line 40, in Jtg. 4, agreeable to the flieer of the fhip, and
iiet off below the line 40 about one inch and a half, or as

much as the joiners require for the pannelling which is at
the under fide of the balcony, and from that fet up the depth
of the rail. This will give the exad height of the foot-
rail in the fheer,_/?f . 4.

To find the proper height of the aft part of the quarter-
deck at the under fide, anfwerable to that in the flieer,
fg. 4, take the half-breadths at the ticked lines 14 to 23,
on the hne 43, in fig. 5, and fet thi-ni off from the middle
line on the bafe line, as on the left-hand, in fig. (>, and ere£l
perpendiculars as high as the under fide of the deck. Then
take the heights from the bafe line, in fig. 4, to the under
fide of the duck, at Nos. 2, 3, &c. and fet them up on their
correfponding perpendiculars in fig. 6. Through thefe fpots
get in a ticked line, which will give the under fide of the
deck in fg. 6 ; then fet off the thicknefs of the deck, and
get in the parallel line above it. IJkewife fet off the foot-
rail, as before directed, in Jig. 4. This will give the exaft
form of the foot-rail, infg. 6, agreeable to the round-aft in
the plan of the quarter-deck, /fj. 5.

To Lay-off' the Breajl-Rad of the Balcony.

It has been cuftomary to mould the breaft-rail of the

balcony with the fame mould as the foot-fpace-rail is done
with. But to complete the range of ballufters in the bal-
cony, fo as to make them have an agreeable rake in the
VnQiix, fg. 4, and likewife a proper diminifh of tumbling-
home in the plan of the ftern, _^_f. 6, the following method
only can be relied on.

In the plan of the ftern, fg. 6, let the fide-timber bf
produced upwards till it inierfefts the middle line ; and
from that point to the above-mentioned tlations at the under
fide of the quarter-deck, infg. 6, make ticked lines as high
as the breaft-rail. Whatever height the upper fide of the
breaft-rail is intended to be at the middle line, in fg, C,
take that height from the deck at the middle line, and fet it
up from the deck at the feveral ticked lines in the dirertion
of the faid lines, as well as at the fide-timber. Through
thefe fpots get in the upper fide of the breaft-rail D, in
fg. 6. Suppofing thofe ticked lines to be ballufters, they
fhould all be of an equal length. Where the perpendicular
ticked lines 2, 3, &c. infg. 4, inturfecl the lickt-d line for
the deck at the fide, draw them upwards parallel to the
fide ftern-t.mber ; then take perpendicularly the heights
of each of the ticked lines at the upper fide of the breall-
rail from the bafe line infg. 6, and fet them, as taken
from the bafe line,_yfy. 4, to interlcd their correfponding
lines laft-mentioiied. Througli tliefe fpots draw the curve
K, which is the upper fide of the breaft-rail, as it will
appear in the ihcer,_yfy. 4.

Drop the ticked perpendicular i, from the aft-fide of
the breaft-rail, fy. 4, to the middle Unc, fg. 5, and parallel
to that the ticked perpendiculars 2 to 11, vvhicii will be
found to interfeft the ticked lines at the upper fide of the
breail-rail in fg. 4. Then take the dillances (or half-
breadths) from the ticked lines afore-mentioned at the
upper fide of the breaft-rail in fg. 6, to the middle line ;
and fet them off on their correfponding perpendiculars
2, 3, &c. from the middle line infg. 5; a batten pinned
through thefe half-breadths forms the line G, or upper fide
of the breaft-rail. But obferve, it only gives the form of
the bieall-rail correfponding with the aft part of the
deck c ; therefore, if the ballufters are laid off in this manner,
the fore-fide of the mould is the readier to apply on the
deck, in order to cut off the deals, and what the rail is in-
tended to nbate on the ends of the deals nuill be added
thereto, and as much wood as is neceffary to raile the
members of the rail muft be left on the mould .ibaft the

line c.

SHIP-BUILDING.

line f. Whatever is left abaft the foot -rail mould muft be
alfo left abaft the line G for the mould of the breaft-rail,
upon a fuppofition that both moulds are made to fuit the
aft part of the balluilers. The half-breadth of the rails
only being laid off is the moil correa, for then the moulds
will be made in two halves exaftly alike, and may be
fcarfed and nailed together in the middle from any ftraight
line. The middle line and outfide of the timber Ihould be
marked on each mould.

To Lay-off the Taffrail and Quarter- Piece.
The form of the taffrail and quarter-piece, in /g. 6,
being laid off from the plan of the ilern, P/ate I., fquare
up from /^. 5. what the ifern projeds at 24, to the quarter-
deck in fg. 4, and continue it upwards parallel to the fide
llern-timber to the top of the fide, as you fee ticked ; then
fet off the half-breadth of the ftern at the quarter-deck, and
likewife at the top of the fide on the ticked line 2^, fg. 6,
taking the round-aft at each place, and fet it aft at the
correfponding heights from the above ticked line in Jig. 4.
This will give the ticked line T, being the midlhip-timber jt
the upper part of the Hern, or the fore-fide of the taffrail
at the middle line. Let this ticked line T be anfwerable to
the line A A, Jig. 9.

Drop as many perpendiculars from the top of the taffrai'
and outfide of the quarter-piece, as in the left-hand of Jig. 6,
as may be thought neceilary. Take the perpendicular heights
from the bafe line in fg. 6, to the feveral perpendiculars
lalt mentioned on the taffrail and quarter-piece, and fet
them up from the bafe line in Jig. 4, and ftrike in the hori-
zontal lines 2 2 to 31, the laft being the height of the taf-
frail at the middle line. Take fq'jare from the middle line
in Jig. 6, where each perpendicular interfefts the upper part
of the taffrail and outfide of the quarter-piece, and fet them
off from the middle line on the ticked line 2), Jig- 6; then
take the diftances from the ticked fine 25, to the round of
the Hern on a level 26, 26, at each hne fquared down, and
fet them off on their correfponding lines lall ftruck in Jig. 4)
from the ticked line T, forward in the direftion of the
ticked lines. A batten pinned to thofe fpots will give the
ticked curve Q in the middle of the quarter-piece (which, in
a thwartfhip view, is the aft-part uf the timbers, fuppofed
to be continued to the heel of the quarter-piece) ; then
abaft this ticked line fet off the aft-fide of the taffrail, and
continue it to the heel of the quarter-piece ; that will deter-
mine the aft-fide of the quarter-piece, from which fet for-
ward the fiding of the quarter-piece, and that gives its fore-
fide, as it will appear when in its place.

The rims and llools mis^ht be all laid off on the floor ;
but it would appear confufed on the plate, and perplex the
reader. And, indeed, the making of a handfome quarter-
gallery depends chiefly on the performance on the fliip ;
therefore ao explanation may give more ufefal information
than a drawing.

The length of the rims and ftonls being determined in
^g. 4, the breadth abaft need only be taken from Jig. 6,
and let the (fool at the quarter-deck ferve for all the rims
and tlools in the quarter-gillery, keeping the foremolt end
well. At lead, the fame mould that moulds the llool at
the upper parts of the lights, may mould the riin at the
lower part of the fame lights, becaufe the munions in the
quarter-gallery fliould be all out of winding ; and in order
to make them fo, the ftool at the quarter-deck will require
to be longer than the rim at the lower part of the lights,
more or lefs, according to the winding of the top-fide.
Tliis might be allowed for exadly in laying-off the Itools ;

but it is better to leave the llool at the quarter-deck long
enough, and proceed in the following manner.

Suppofe the rim at the iecond counter-rail to be trimmed
agreeable to the form of the ilool at the quarter-deck, and
to be in its place on the fhip ; and fuppole the ftool at the
quarter-deck to be fayed to the fide : then fet off the
breadth of the ftool at the aft part, and nail a batten from
thence to the rim. Then fet off the munions on the rim,
and at every munion on the rim hold a ftraight batten from
thence to the under fide of the ftool, and look them out of
winding with the batten at the aft part, or with each
other, obferving to fet off the fame diftances at the under
fide of the ftool from the aft part as they are on the
rim. Then the wood may be dubbed away, or the ftool
taken down, and mould the under fide (which will nearly
agree) to every fpot, with the fame mould as the rim waa
moulded with. Then you may be certain the fadies will
be out of winding, and, if required, would Aide from one
end of the gallery to the other. Then, when the munions
are fet off, you may find a greater diftance from the fore-
moft munion to the fide on the ftool, than there will be on
the rim ; but this cannot be avoided, and is of but little
confcquence ; becaufe the canting-livre, or confole-bracket,
is introduced on purpofe to intercept the finilhing of the
gallery with the fhip-fide : for if the ftool at the quarter-
deck was to be no longer than the rim at the fecond counter,
it would fall into the hollow of the top-fide at the foremoft
end, and the foremoil munions in the view of the fheer.
Jig. 4, would appear to rake mire than the after ones •
and when looking from before the gallery, the munions ill
the lower and upper gallery would not appear out of
winding, but the whole gallery would feem in confufion {
therefore the upper gallery muft undergo the fame opera-
tion, and then it will bear to be viewed in any direftion.

It isrequifite, at leait, to lay off the ftool and rim of the
lower gallery, and allow for the winding of the top-fide, in
order to mould them nearly ; but by following the above me-
thod in the performance of the work, any little error that
may happen will be corrected.

To lay off the lower rim B, and middle ftool c , Jig. 4, to
make the moulds to, transfer the height of the upper fide
of the lower rim B, and upper ftool c, injlg. 4, continued
forward to fquare timber 32, to the body-plan, P/ale VII.
Jig. 5, upon its correfpondii;g fquare timbers. Then take
the half-breadths as far forward as fquare timber 32, and fet
them off from the middle line on their correiponding timbers
in P/ate X. Jig. 5, and produce the half-breadth lines, and
thicknefs of the planks A and B without it, as far aft as in
the plan, fg 5.

1 hen Iquare down the knuckles of the upper counter from
_fig. i^. to Jig. 5, and fpring an arc to the round-aft, which
will be the fore-fide of the upper counter-rail. Next fweep
another arc to the thicknefs of the upper counter-rail, pai
rallel to and abaft the ticked curve, and the upper counter-
rail will be ftiewn in the plan. Jig. 5. Then take the half-
breadth of the upper fide of the upper counter-rail to the
outfide, B, in fig. 6, and fet it oft from the middle line in
Jig. ^, on the ticked perpendicular 13, as fquared down from j
the outfide knuckle. Thence form the curve F, or outfide ■
of the lower rim. The ticked parallel hne within is the out-
fide of the munions, upon which fet off the ftations of the
lights, making them all alike, and the munions 44, 45, 46,
47, between. Square up the munions to the upper fide
of the lower rim in Jig. 4 ; and from the fpots fquared up
ftrike lines parallel to the fide itern-timber, to the under
fide of tlie middle ftool. The aft part of the middle ftool is
already laid off mfg. 5, and the form of the outfide may

be

SHIP-BUILDING.

be determined by the infide of tlie mould of the lower rim
keeping the fore end well, and allowing the additional length
required by the winding of the top-fide, &c. Then to
prove that the outer edge of the rim and ftool are out of
winding, fquare down the fides of the munions from the
under fide of the middle ftool in_/?^. 4, to the outfide of the
middle ftool in Jig. 5 ; and at the aft-fides of the munions,
take their half-breadths from the middle line, and fet them
off fquare from the middle line \nfg. 6, upon the under fide
of the middle llool. In the fame manner take ofl the half-
breadths of the munions on the rim, and fet them off on the
upper fide of the upper count er-rail. Then ttrike lines to
thofe fpots in fig. 6, and they will be parallel to the fide
ftern-timber and each other, confequently out of winding.
The upper gallery rim and ilools may be laid oft in the fame
manner, and the moulds alfo made ; obferving to rake the
munions of the upper lights agreeably to tliofe below, which
may be fet off^ as follows. Determine on the fore-part of
the upper gallery, and continue it upwards as the ticked
line H, in Jig. 4 ; then with a batten, fitted as fquare as pof-
fible from the fore-fide of the foremoft munion, mark on it
the fides of all the munions. Then fit the fame end of tlie
batten to the ticked line H, and move it diagonally, till the
aft-fide of the after-munion touches the fore-fide of the
quarter-piece, and mark ail the fides of the munion as on
the ticked line 41 ; then ftriking lines through thofe fpots
parallel to the rake of the lower munions, the lights and mu-
nions will be reprefented in the upper gallery.

The upper and lower finiftiings may be formed at plcafure,
making them as light as poffible, to pleafe the eye, and con-
taining fufficient room in the upper finiftiing to hold a
ciltern.

To Lay-off the Stern upon the Rake.

The horizontal plan of the ftern being laid off, proeeed
to lay off the ilcrn upon the rake ; or, at leaft, the taffrail
and quarter-pieces. For, were moulds made to them as
already laid off, it is eafy to conceive that they would be
too Inv; and too narrow, when fixed upon the Ilcrn, to its
round-aft and rake ; which mull be the cafe upon the (liip.
In the plan of the ftern, Jig. 6, llrikc up lines in tlie middle
of each munion, one in the middle of the fide ftern-timber,
one up the infide of the quarter-piece, and one between, to
rake upwards to the centre of the ftern, at the middle line,
as marked 35, 36, 37, and 38, as on the right hand.

Draw the horizontal line B B through Jigs. 7 and 8,
which will correfpond with the ticked lines 25, 25, at the
upper counter in fig. 6. Take the perpendicular heights of
all the timbers, from 35 to 3S, and at the infide of tlic quar-
ter-piece in^^f. 6, from the lines 25, 25, to the ticked curve
for the knuckles of the upper counter, and fet them up
from the line B B mjig. H, and draw parallel lines thereto, as
you fee ticked, and numbered 9, 10, &c. Take likewife
the perpendicular heights from the lines 25, 2^, Jig. ft, to the
interfcftions of all tlie timbers, with the under and upper
fides of the taffrail and quarter-piece ; and fc-t them up from
the line B B, in Jg. 8, where they are ticked and numbered
as before.

Strike lines to the rake of the midfliip and fide counter-
timbers above the upper counter-rail, taken from^^. 4, and
transferred to fig. 8, as the ticked lines 32 and 33. Draw a
line fquare from the midftiip ftern-timber 33, in fig. 8, to in-
terlcft the knuckle at the upper counter at the fide-timber, as
the ticked line 30 ; then continue the midlhip-tiiriber 32 down
to the line 30 ; then take the diftance from the midfliip
to the fide-timber in the diredlion of the ticked line 30,
and fet it off from the line A A, in fig- 9, on the ticked

lines C, C, and raife the arc B B, which fliews how much
the ftern rounds aft on a fquare, agreeable to the breadth of
the upper counter, which round-aft governs all the Uern
above, as before obferved.

Where the timbers 35, 36, 37, 38, and infide of the
quarter-piece,_/'j'. 6, ftep on the ticked line 42, or knuckles
of the upper counter, fquare tht-m down to Jg. 9 ; then take
the round-aft of each timber from the line A A, Jig. 9, and
fet them off fquare from the midlhip-timber 32, fo as to in-
terfeft their correfponding k-vel lines in^^. 8. Then where
the above timbers in Jg. 6. interfedl the upper part of the
taffrail and quarter-piece, let them be fquared down as
before ; and transfer the round-afts to their correfponding
level fines injg. 8, fetting them off fquare from the midfliip-
timber, as before. Then from thefe fpots, down to the fpots
on the level lines of the knuckle of the upper counter, ftrike
the lines of the intermediate timbers, and mark them i, 2, 3,
&c. which fhews the thwartftiip view of the timbers, as
itationed in^^. 6.

If the fide-timber 33, and midftiip-timber 32, were pro-
longed injg. 8. till they interfcft each other, that would be
the centre for the intermediate timbers, as difpofed in fig. 6,
and prove the work.

It will be necefiary to have one fpot at the outfide of the
quarter-piece, as ^g, Jg. 6, and fquared down, as before,
to the round-aft, Jg. 9 ; then take its round-aft at i i,Jg. 9,
from the line A A, and fet it off fquare from the midlhip-
timber 52, in Jig. 8, on its correfponding level line 16, as
transferred iromjg. 6.

Square down the heel of the quarter-piece where it inter-
fefls theknuckle-line,42,_/"_o-. 6, Ui fig. 9, to the round-aft BB.
Then pin a batten to the round-nft on a fquare B B, Jig. 9,
and keeping it faft at the middle line, mark fpots on the
batten, where the ticked lines 2, 4, 7, 10, 12, and outfide
of quarter-piece, are fquared down from the knuckle-ljne 42,
Jg. 6. Then fit the fame end of the batten well to the
middle line, Jg. 7, keeping it ftraight along the line B, and
thereon mark the feveral fpots on the right hand, and like-
wife on the left. Then, if the floor will admit of it, conti-
nue upwards the fpots in the middle of the fide counter-
timber, as at 13, i^yjg. 7, till they intcrfett the middle
line, and from thence, as a centre, may all the other fpots
be continued upwards, as in the plate. But if this cannot
be performed, the heights of the timbers 35, 36, &c. mult be
taken up their perpendicular lines, from the line 25, 2^, fig. 6,
to where they interfeft the upper fide of the taftrail and quar-
ter-pieces, and fet up from its correfponding line 25 the
middle line in Jg. 7, ftriking horizontal lines ; then pin a
batten, as above, to the round-aft B B, fig. 9, and mark
fpots thereon at the middle line, and perpendicular lines
I, 2, 3, 5, &c. fquared down from their heads ; and fet
them off upon their correfponding heights lall let oft in
Jg. 7 ; then lines ilruck through thofe fpots to the fpots
befiiie fet off on the line 25, or B B, the timbers will have
their regular tumble-home, as from the centre in the plate.
Then take the diftance fquare from the line 30 in Jig. 8, up
each feparatc timber, to the fpots on the level lines for the
upper part of the taffrail and quarter-pieces ; and fet them
up fquare from the line B B, Jg. 7, to interfeft their re-
fpeftive timbers, and in like manner the fpot at the outfide
of the quarter-piece ; then a batten pinned to thofe fpots
will reprefent the boundary of the ftern or taffrail T, and
quaiter-picci-s Q, O, on tlie r .ike, fig. 7. Then take the
heights fcjuare from the line ^o, Jg. 8, up the feparate tim-
bers, to the heights for the lower part of the taliVsil and m-
fide of the quarter-pieces, and fet them up, as before, on
their correfponding timbers in /^. 7; then by pinning a

batten

SHIP-BUILDING.

batten to thofe fpots, the linder fiJe of the taffrail I, and
infide of the quarter-pieces, will be completed to make the
moulds to. The cove-rail D may be alfo marked ou the
taffrail mould, and likewife upon the quarter-piece mould.

Praalcal Direakns for the aSual Building.
Having now explained the ufual methods of forminfj the
draughts, and laying off the feveral parts of the {hip, it re-
mains only to defcribe the progreflive manner of its aAual
building, or putting together the feveral parts.

A flip being provided, the blocks on which the keel is
laid are ufually'about five feet afunder. Each block is laid
upon aground-way in the middle of the flip, unlefs a frnaller
vefl'el is intended to be built where the launch has been laid
for a large (hip. In this cafe, by keeping the blocks towards
one fide, the flidiiig-planks may be preferved for that fide.

The blocks, being the foundation of the whole, mi:!t be
ver)' carefully fixed, "and their upper furface to a declivity of
five-eighths of an inch to every foot in the length, obferving
that there may be water enough to launch the (hip into, and
keeping them high enough at the fore-part to clear the fore-
foot of the ground-ways in launching, and to admit of the
fliding-planks to be laid with a dechvity of about feven-
eighths of an inch to a foot.

The caps or upper blocks (hould be more in depth than
the falfe keel ; and they fhould be ciear-grained oak, that
they may fplit out the eafier when the falfe keel is put
under.

The upper fides of the blocks are made ftraight fore and
aft, and level athwart{hips ; fometimes the after-blocks are
raifed above a llraight line, as the great weight of the ftern
and overhanging generally fettle in building.

Keel is generally elm, fawn Itiaight and fquare, and is
fcarfed together with coaks, with tarred flannel between each
fcarf, which are firmly bolted together and caulked.

The rabbet for receiving the plank of the bottom may be
trimmed out, leaving about a foot at each end of the fcarfs,
for the better caulking the butts. In the navy, the rabbet
is lined parallel to the upper fide of the keel to the thick-
nefs of the bottom plank ; but, in moft merchant-fliips, the
rabbet is taken out of the middle of the keel, to prevent its
canting, (hould the (hip take the ground. The keel is fet fair
and ftraight along the middle of the blocks ; and, to keep it
in that pofition, tree-nails are driven along its fides into the
blocks.

Dead or rifmg-'wood is of oak timber, and fayed upon the
upper fide of the keel. The pieces along the middiips are
of a parallel thicknefs, and in breadth to overhang the keel
about two inches on each fide. The dead-wood afore and
abaft, for the fecurity of the half-timbers, is as high as the
cutting-down. This part of the dead-wood below the
ftepping-line is trimmed to the (hape of the body, and above
the ftepping, perpendicular to the fize of the ketlfon. The
fcarfs or butts of the dead-wood fhould give fcarf to the
butts of the keel, and to each other.

Stem is compofed of two or more pieces of oak timber, of
the bell quality, as fhifting it is very expenfive. It is
fawn to its fiding and moulding, then trimmed and fcarfed
together as the keel, and the rabbet taken out likewife.

On the ftern (hould be marked, from the mould, the
heights of the harpins, decks, cheeks, &c. and a line fquare
from the keel, and a middle fine as a guide to fet it by.

Apron is alfo oak fawn to its fiding and moulding, and
fayed to the aft-fide of the ftern, to fuccour it at the fcarfs,
which are bolted through the apron, obferving to place the
bolts within the rabbets.

Bollard-timbers are oak fawn to their fiding and moulding,

their heads in wake of the bowfprit to he left the thick-
nefs of the plank infide and out ; they are fayed and coaked
to the fides of the ftem and apron, and bolted through, where
prafticable, obferving to place the bolts clear of the deck-
hooks. Sometimes oak fillings are fayed between the ftem
and bollard-timbers, to keep them more open in wake of the
bowfprit.

Haivfe-pieces are oak fawn to their fiding and moulding,
and are fayed to the bollard-timbers, and to each other, in
wake of the hawfe-holes ; and are opened above and below
the hawfe-holes, for the admiffion of air, to about one inch
and a half. When in their places, they are to be bolted to
the bollard-timbers and each other, clear of the hawfe-holes
and breaft-hooks. Let it be obferved, that the hawfe-pieces
fhuuld be fo difpofed as to be equally cut by the hawfe-
holes.

Stern-pojl is oak fawn to the fiding and moulding, and
(hould be provided for the top, and to work upwards, if to
be got. The .rabbet is trimmed out on each fide, to re-
ceive the plank of the bottom, to the (hape of the body;
and a tenon left on the heel, one-third the depth of the
keel.

Inner-pojl is oak fawn to a parallel breadth, and fided, as
the (hape of the body may require, below the head : it is
fayed to the fore-fide of the ftern-poft, and a tenon is made
on the heel as on the main-poft, and the head left long
enough to tenon an inch into the tranfom next above it.

Tranfoms are oak fawn to their fiding, whether rounding
upwards or ftraight ; and to the moulding by their refpec-
tive moulds. The wing-tranfom, if fawed only to the mar-
gin bevelling, may be brought in for other ufcs, if found
dcfeftive ; for tranfoms require much trouble and expence
to (hift them ; the quality of the timber ought, therefore,,
to be of the beft, and quite free from any defeft whatever.
In converting the tranfoms, let care be taken to work them
top and butt alternately.

The tranfoms are to be trimmed with the greateft nicety,
and then let on the poft, with fcores on each fide of about
an inch ; obferving the greateft exadnefs in letting them
down, and that they ftand at right angles with the middle
line on the poft. The ends, when cut off to the mould,
are left one inch and a half longer, to tenon and face on to
the aft-fides of the fa(hion-picce. The ends may be opened
or mouthed, to admit the air.

Fnjbion-pieces arc oak fawn to their fiding, then to the
mouldings and bevellings ; and, when trimmed, let on to
the ends of the tranfoms, in the manner already de-
fcribed.

Frame-timbers are oak fawn to their fiding, flraight, and
out of winding, then moulded and fawn to their refpeftive
bevellings, except the cant-floors, which are fided to their
proper cant.

The frame-timbers fhould be converted of found well-
grown timber, without fap or vein appearing in wake of the
ports, and fawn full to their fidings, fo that their fcaii cling
may remain after t!ie ports are trimmed out. Every timber
fhould alfo be provided to its length, confequently each
fhould ftand upon its proper head ; or if one timber happens
to be fhort, provide the next long enough to make good
the deficient length, as through-chocks (hould always be re-
jefted, or only admitted on extraordinary occafions. The
heads and heels of all the timbers to have one-third of the
fubftance left the moulding way, when trimmed ; and the
feats of the chocks lliould not exceed once and a half the
fiding of the timber.

In providing the floors, care (liould be taken to reverfe

the butt end of each fucceeding floor, becaufe the tops may

9 fometimes

SHIP-BUILDING.

fometimes be fcanty ; and, when ftiort of the floor-head,
may be admitted, if the fecond futtock runs down and
meets upon its refpeftive floor.

All floors are required to have fufficient wood to feat
themfelves on the dead-wood, and the throats to run up to
the cutting-down or under fide of the keelfon ; then any
wood wanting below the feating may be made good by a
chock.

The floors, when correftly trimmed, are let down into
fcores cut in the dead-wood, to the exaft height of the
cutting-down from the upper edge of the rabbet of the
keel, in their refpeftive fituations ; fet precifely level, and
at right angles with the middle line of the keel. The floors
are then ribbanded and (hored, fecuring the fliores at the
head and heel to prevent any alteration ; for the truth and
precifion of the whole fabric may be faid to depend upon
the accuracy of the floors, when got into the ribband.

Futtocks. — The feveral futtocks are trimmed ftraight, and
out of winding on the joint fide ; and the lower futtocks in
the navy run down to the fide of the dead-wood, but in
merchant-lhips they are from nine to twelve inches fhort of
the keel, that water may not lie above the ceiling. The
wood wanting on the iniide of the lower futtocks, in the
navy, is made good by crofs-chocks up to the cutting-
down.

The timbers that compofe a frame, or bend, are bolted
together, either clofe or opened, as required ; the joint-
fide of the fecond futtock to the joint-fide of the lower fut-
tock, to the middle of its length or fcarfing, and bolts
thereto with three bolts of fquare iron. The heel of the
third futtock joins the head of the lower futtock, and bolts,
as the former, to the fecond futtock ; the heel of the fourth
futtock joins to the head of the fecond futtock, and bolts to
the third ; and the heel of the top-timber fcarfs on the
head of the third futtock, and is bolted or fattened with
tree-nails to the fourth futtock, taking care that no bolts
are driven in wake of the ports or port-fills.

They are raifed into their places by flieers and tackles,
and great care fliould be taken that the frame be not
Itrained in hoifting, as its form would be altered, and of
confequence the true fhape of the body loll ; to prevent
which, the joints of the chocks and heads are fecured by
naihng quarter over them, and a (hore fitted on the infide
or bag of the frame.

The frames, as hoifted, are kept to their true breadth,
and equally dillant from the middle line, by the crofs pales,
which are nailed at the main height of breadth, or in the
ports : the latter is preferable, if not thought too high,
becaufe the ends need not be cut, and they may remain till
the fliip is planked, and the beams in and kneed.

The frames are next ribbanded thus : the cant-frames
may be gotten near to their ftations by the harpin-moulds,
then the harpins gotten up ; and, if the frames come fair,
may be nailed and floored to tlieir firmarks.

The fquare frames, corrcfponding at the floor-firmark
or guide, mull be levelled, and the joints fet at right angles
with the middle line, obfcrving that the fpacing of the ports
agrees. The ribbands may then be nailed and fliored, and
the lower futtocks bolted to the floors.

FiUing-timbers, or the timbers between the frames, arc
trimmed and hoifted into their places Icparately ; then
equally (paced afunder, and nailed to the ribbands ; then
chocked at their heads and heels, and the whole frame
dubbed fair infide and out to its fcantling for planking.

Keelfon is oak fawn to its fiding and depth, or moulding,
then fayed along the middle of the floors, and bolted
through every floor and the keel, with three or more douls
Vol. XXXII.

on each fcarf, which (hould give as much (hift as poflible to
the fcarfs of the keel. For fome years a three-inch oak
plank has been fayed upon the upper fide of the keelfon,
and the bolts driven through that likewife.

Slemfon is oak fawn to its fiding and moulding, then
trimmed and fayed to the apron, and fcarfed with a hook
or douls into the fore part of the leelfon. The bolts
through the breajl-hooks muft; be confidercd, and one or two
bolts may then be driven through between them.

Sternfon-knee is oak fawn to its fiding and moulding, then
trimmed and fayed againft the tranfoms and upper fide of
the dead-iuood, and fcarfs with a hook, or douls into the
after-piece of the keelfon. It is bolted to the tranfoms and
Itern-pofl; as the keelfon, of which it is a continuation.

Wales are next wrought, and the tlnck-Jluff below them :
they Ihould be faftened with dumps only for the prefent, as
the tree-nail holes, which are double and fingle alternately in
every timber, and fliould be left open as long as poflible,
for the admiffion of air. A doul in the timber next each
butt in the wales, in the ftrake above and below it, has been
lately introduced in the navy, as an additional fecurity.
The wales and diminifliing fl;rakes are then dubbed down
fair, and large cleats nailed at the fore part of every port,
to which the fliip is fubftantially fliored.

Planking. — The bottom is next planked down fufficiently
low to work the orlop-clamps. See Planking expanded,
Plate VIII.

Inboard Clamps, Thick-Jluff, ^e. — Thefe are wrought
fimilar to the outfide fluff" above. The clamps to the fheer
of the deck, and their upper fides to the round-up of the
beam, and the lower edge, fquare to the timbers, unlefs they
work down to the ports ; then, in wake of the ports, the
lower fides are trimmed level, and between the ports fquare
to the timbers. Clamps over ports are bearded from half
their depth to one inch lefs in thicknefs on the under fide,
excepting over the ports, where the wood is left on, for the
muzzles of the guns to houfe to ; and the butts are douelled
as the wales.

The thick-ftufF is to be wrought with a fquare clofe edge
over the joints of the timbers ; and the fpirkittings are to
have a feam allowed, agreeable to the thicknefs with the
outfide fluff', which fliould be a full fixteenth to every inch
in the thicknefs.

Beams are fawn to their fiding, and to the moulded
depth fquare to the fiding. Beams of two, three, or four
pieces are fcarfed together ; and if in three or four pieces,
the middle pieces may be fir, excepting in the hatchways.

Beams in two pieces have a fcarf one-third the whole
length of the beam. Beams in three pieces have the middle
pieces and the end pieces each half the length of the whole
beam, the middle piece having a fcarf each way to take the
arms. Beams made of four pieces have two middle pieces,
each fimilar to the former : the arms and middle pieces are
each to be in length three-fevenths of the whole length of
the beam. See Gun-deck, Plate V'l.

Beams are cither tabled or deuelled, and bolted together
at the fcarfs: if tabled, the lengths of the tables are once
and a half the moulded depth in length, and divided at the
middle of the depth ; and where the wood is taken out on
the upper fide, it is left on the lower fide, and fo alter-
nately ; taking the wood out on tlie upper fide at the table
next the butt, as it will the better hang and fupport the lip.
At each lip, beyond tiie tables, is a coak about fix inches
long ; and next to that is a ftraight lap, about the fame
length.

The beams, when cut ofl" to their length, have tlieir ends

mouthed and charred, and then are let down about one inch

4 F into

SHIP-BUILDING.

into the clamps, at their feveral ftatioBS, at right angles
with the middle line; keeping their upper fides out of
winding with the beam line.

Xnec-s. — The beams, at their ends, are connefted to the
fides by knees, or other fubftitutes for knees. The knees
are fawn or trimmed to their fiding, and fayed to the fide,
taking as little wood as poflible out of the throat the
moulding way, as the greateft ftrength of the knee is there.
Each knee tapers towards the toe to which it is fided ; and
the fubllance in the throat fiiould be about twice and a half
the fiding, and not to admit of any chock that would re-
duce the knee at any part lefs than the fiding.

Each knee (hould have two douls in the beam-arm, and
from three to four bolts ; and the two upper bolts in the
fide-arm of the hanging-knees ihould be kept up as high as
pofiible, and the others equally fpaced to the toe, and
bored as fquare to the fide as the feams outfide will allow.

In thofe parts of the fliip afore and abaft, where wooden
knees cannot be procured of kindly growth, (for upen that
depends the ftrength,) knees of iron are generally placed.
Thefe, although much ufed, particularly in merchant-lhips,
cannot be fo fully depended upon as thofe of wood, becaufe
they cover lefs iurface, are no wife flexible, nor can the
bolts be driven fo tight in iron as in wood. If, therefore,
the (hip flrains, they muft inevitably work loofe. Again,
the holes muft be bored in the direftion in which the knees
are pvmched, fo that where iron knees are intended to be
placed, oak fillings fhould be driven between the timbers ;
ctherwife the bolts may come in the openings, which is in-
admiflible. Befides this, the bolts may come in the feams
of the outfide plank ; when it fo happens, the belt way is
to cut out a piece, and clench the bolt upon the timbers.

Bolts in wooden knees are moftly driven from the outfide,
and clenched upon the knees infide ; but bolts in iron knees
are driven from the infide, with collar or ilout heads, be-
caufe upon the head depends its faftening ; or if the bolts be
of copper, they muft have a ring under the head, and the
head fpread or made large in driving. All bolts driven
from the infide fhould be carefully clenched upon a ring,
let flu(h into the plank, by means of a machine or centre-bitt
for that purpofe, and the points under water carefully
caulked after the ring is let in.

Wooden knees having become fcarce for fome years pad,
many fubltitutes have been attempted ; and iron knees, or
rather knees formed of iron and wood conjointly, are cer-
tainly beft when properly applied. See Substitute.

Standards, either on the deck or to the fides of orlop
beams, are fo fimilar to knees, as to require no further de-
fcription.

Brtajl-hoohs, Jleps, and crutches, are oak fawn to their
fidings, then moulded. The deck-hooks are fayed to the
timbers, the others to the infide ituff. The holes for the
holts are bored alternately, near the edges, equally afunder,
and fquare with the body. Breaft-hooks, fteps, and
crutches, are affifted in the moulding by chocks ; and the
deck-hooks may be affifted by large eakings, worked behind
them. All the chocks, &c. are douelled or tabled, and
ought on no account to have lefs wood or fubftance than
their fiding, clear of the chock.

Riders are oak fawn to their fiding^ moulding, and be-
vellings ; then fayed to their refpeftive places, as follows.

Floor-riders in two pieces have a crofs-chock fayed over
the heels, with a hook and butt fcarf ; their heels run down
to the hmber-ftrake, and the heads run upwards between
the joints of the floor-heads and firft futtock-heads.

Firjl futtock-ridtrs fay clofe to the fides of the floor-
riders, and their heeh extend downwards within four feet

I

of the keelfon ; their heads run upwards between the joint
of the firft futtock-head and under fide of the orlop-beams,
with a crofs-chock fayed over the heels as the floor-rider.

Second futtock-riders fay clofe to the fides of the firft fut-
tock-riders, and fcarf with a hook-fcarf under the head of
the floor-riders, or conneft thereto with a chock. Their
heads run up within two inches of the under fide of the
gun-deck beam, and are fawn with a fwell at the orlop-
beam, to which they tail fideways ; and they bolt through
the beam and the adjoining riders fore and aft.

Third futtock-riders fay and bolt to the fides of the fecond
futtock-riders, and are fawn with a (well, as the above, at
the gun-deck beam. The heads run up within two inches
of the under fide of the upper deck beam, or middle deck,
in three-deck fliips ; and the heels come within two inches
of the upper fide of the orlop-beam.

Ships in the navy at prefent have no infide ftuflf below the
clamps, but have their timbers filled in between with dry
flices of oak, driven in tight and caulked ; and the riders
are fayed over the timbers, and ftand diagonally at the angle
of forty-five degrees.

The Inee of the head is oak, each piece fawn to its fiding,
agreeable to the tapered battens, where they interfeft.
The main piece fhould make the lower part of the knee,
and run up to the fore part of the ilem, to which it fays
high enough for a hole to be cut in it to receive the main-
ftay collar. The front piece runs up to feat the figure, and
fliould be broad enough to take the bobftay holes, and
the lower end ftep in the main piece about one foot below
the load draught of water. Another piece muft be pro-
vided to make the lacing to fecure the figure. The other
pieces between may then be provided, as moft convenient,
marking on the mould the fhape of each piece, as provided ;
the furface of each piece is then fayed clofe together, and
douelled. The knee is hoifted up into its place, and then
bolted with feven or more bolts through the ttem and apron,
and fometimes through the deck-hooks.

Cat-heads are now fawn ilraight, fideways, and plumb,
moulded to flight, in fhips of the line, to five inches in a
foot above a level line without the bow ; and in frigates and
frualler vefTels, to the angle of forty-five degrees. The
inner end fays up to the under fide of two or more of the
forecaftle beams, fo as to ftand fquare with the bow.

Supporters of the cat-heads are knees of oak fayed to the
under fide of the cat -head, and the arm to the fide to ftand
perpendicular ; the upper arm bolted through the cat-head,
and the other through the fide.

Rudder. — The main piece to be oak fawn to its fiding,
and the upper part to the given dimcnfions, and the lower
part to be moulded as broad as the piece will admit.
Whatever the main piece may require to complete its fore-
fide may be elm, fayed clofe to the main piece, and douelled.
The other pieces to complete the furface of the rudder
may be fir, fayed clofe to the main piece and each other,
and douelled. The whole is then trimmed ftraight through
to its thicknefs, and bolted together between the ftraps of
the pintles. The back i? then fayed on, and fattened to the
aft-fide, and the fole at the heel, when cut off to its length,
which is nine inches (hort of the under fide of the keel.
The fore-fide may be then bearded from the middle to two-
fifths the thicknefs, lined down on each edge ; but this has
been found to cut or wound the main piece fo much at the
upper pintle, that, lately, the aft-fide of the ftern-poft is
likewife bearded at the upper end ; and confequently the
fore-fide of the rudder fo much the lefs. The pintles may
next be let on thus : the braces being let on to the ftern-
poft, and fquare from the aft-fide, a ftaff of the whole

length

S H I

S H I

length is run down through the holes of the braces. Now
mark the upper fides of the braces correftly on the ftaff
with a pencil, or both under and upper fides will be belt.
Then mark on the ftaff the upper fide of the wing-tranfom,
and the under fide of the deck-tranfom above ; alfo the
upper fide of the deck ; and, laltly, the under fide of the
keel. Next apply the llaff on the fore-fide of the rudder,
and exaftly mark off the upper fides of the braces in the
middle line, likewife the tranfoms and deck. Then fquare
down, from the fore-fide of the rudder, the upper fide of
each brace, which, it may be oblerved, is the under fide of
the pintles. Now fet upwards the breadth of the ftraps of
the pintles, and the fcorcs may be taken out till their
crowns come flufh with the bearding, and the middle of the
pintles ranges well with the middle line : thin copper is
drelt in the fcores under the pintles. Scores or throatings
are then gouged out, under the pintles, fufficiently large
for hanging the rudder, which may be formed by a piece
of fiieet-lead made to the crown of each brace, and tra-
vcrfed round its refpeftive pintle. Let there be fufficient
room in the fcores to allow for the (heathing ; and that the
rudder may hang eafily, all the fcores muft be made to the
length of the lower one ; that pintle being two inches longer
than the others. The fcore neareft the load water-line is

pened on one fide to fit in the wood-lock, which prevents
Jiie rudder from unlhipping. Ships built in the North have
the pintles put into the braces, and the rudder put together
in that fituation, fo that it cannot be unhung until throat-
ings are cut to clear it of the braces.

After the braces are let on to the ftern-polt, it is beft to
'ry all the pintles in them, and fee that they work eafily in

he braces, and fquare from the ftern-polt. Then their
upper fides may be marked on the ftern-poft, and fet off on
thg rudder, as before direfted, without the poliibility of
error.

The head, if not round-headed, is thirded and bearded
liack about three-quarters of an inch, and the edges taken
(iff to a bold round. The holes for the tiUers may now be
cut through the lower hole three inches clear of each tran-
fom, and the lower part of the upper hole three inches clear
of the deck : laftly, the head-hoops may be driven on.

Amongft other ufefnl machines for drawing bolts out of
fliips (fee Bolts), the following was invented by Mr.
William Hill. See Tranfaclions of the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, &c. vol. x.

" Firll, The ufe of this machine is to draw the keellon
and dead-wood bolts out, and to draw the knee of the head
bolts. Secondly, The heads of the kcclfon bolts heretofore
were all obliged to be driven through the keelfon, floor-
timbers, and keel, to get them out : by this means the
keelfon is often entirely ruined, and the large hole the head
makes materially wounds the floors ; and frequently, when
the bolt is much corroded, it fcarfs, and the bolt comes
out of the fide of the keel. Thirdly, The dead-wood bolts,
that are driven with two drifts, are feldom or never got out,
by which means the dead-wood is condemned, when fome
ot it is rc.iUy forviceablc. Fourtlily, In driving the knee
of the head bolts, fometimes the knee ftarts off, and cannot
be got to again, but is furred up ; but with this machine it
may be drawn to again."

Ill Plate XIV. Ship-building, Jig. 3, A, A reprefent two
llrong male fcrews,- working in female fcrews, near the ex-
tremitieii of the cheeks, againft plates of iron, E, E. CC
is the bolt to be drawn, which, being held between the
chaps of the machine at D D, is, by turning the fcrews by
the lever B, forced out of its hold. F, F are two dogs,
with hooks at their lower extremities, which, being driven

nto the plank, ferve to fupport the machine till the chaps

hare got faft hold of the bolt. At the upper part of thefir
dogs are rings paffing through holes in a collar, msveablt*
near the heads of the fcrews.

Fig. 4. is a view of the upper fides of the cheeks, when
joined together ; a, a, the holes in which the fcrews work ;
b, the chaps by which the bolts are drawn. Fig. 5, th»
under fide of the cheeks ; a, a, the holes in which the fcrew*
work ; b, the chaps by which the bolts are drawn, and where
the teeth that gripe the bolt are more diftinclly (hewn.
Fig. 6, one of the cheeks feparated from the other, the
letters referring, as in Jigs. 4 and 5.

SHIPFUND, Shippond, or Schijpfund, in Commera,
a large weight in Holland, Germany, Denmark, and Swe-
den, containing a diff^erent number of pounds in different
places. At Amfterdam the ftiippond contains 3 centners,
20 lyfponds, 37^ ileen or ftones, and 300 lbs. A lyfpond
is 15 lbs., and a ftone 8 lbs. At Berlin a (hip-laft contains
1 2 fhipfunds, each of 20 lyfponds, or 280 lbs. ; in al)
3360 lbs. : but a laft of fait is 3260 lbs. At Hamburgh
a fliipfund contains 25 centners, 20 lyfponds, or 280 lbs. :
a lyfpond is 14 lbs., and a centner 112 lbs. Hamburgh
weight. At Copenhagen the fhippond contains 3 J- centners,
20 lyfponds, or 320 lbs. ; a lyfpond is 1 6 lbs., and a centner
loi lbs.

SHIPLEY, JoxATHAX, in Biography, an Englifli pre-
late, was born in the year 17 14, and was educated at Chrift-
church, Oxford, where he wrote fome verfes on the death
of queen Carohne ; and in 1738 he took his degree of M. A.
Soon after this he entered into holy orders, and obtained a
living. In the year 1743 he was inftalled prebendary of
Winchefter, and in 1748 appointed chaplain to the duke of
Cumberland, whom he accompanied abroad. In 1749 he
became canon of Chrift-church, and in 1760 dean of Win-
chefter. In 1769 he was advanced to the bifhopric of St.
Afaph. He died in 178S. He was author of poems, and
fermons on public occafions.

SHIP-MONEY, an impofition which was anciently
charged upon the ports, towns, cities, boroughs, and
counties of the realm ; by writs commonly called Jhip "writs,
under the great feal of England, for the providing and fur-
niihing certain fliips for the king's fervice.

This impofition wa^ revived by king Charles I. in the
years 1635 and 1636; but by ftat. 17 Car. I. it was de-
clared to be contrary to the laws and Itatutes of the realm,
claim of right, liberty of the fubjeft, &c.

SHIPPANDSTOWN, in Geography, a town of Vir-
ginia, on the foutli fide of the Patowmack ; 40 or 50 miles
from Alexandria.

SHIPPENSBURGH, a poft-town of Pennfylvania, in
Cumberland county, on a branch of Conadogwinnet creek,
which difcharges itfelf into the Sufquehannah ; containing
about 200 houlcs, ciiicfly built of ftone, 1159 inhabitants,
and three ineetiiig-houfee, one for Secedere, one German,
and one Methodift. It derives its name from its proprietor
John Shippen, efq. of Philadelphia, who leafed out the place
in fmall huufe-lots on ground-rents from two to four dollars
a year ; 146 miles W. of Philadelphia.

SHIPPER, Skipper, or Schipprr, a Dutch term, fig-
nifying the nuiUer of a ftiip.

We alfo ufe the word, popularly, for any common fen-
man.

SHIPPIGAN Island, in Geography, an idand in the
gulf of St. Lawrence, on the fouth fide of Clialeur bay,
S.W. of, and feparated by a narrow channel from, Mifcow
ifland.

SHIPPING denotes a muhitude of vclfel.s.

SHIP-SHAPE, in Sea Language, denotes the fafliion

of a ftiip, or the manner of an expert failor : thus, they

4F 2 fay,

SHI

fay, themaft is not rigged, Jhip-Jhape, and trim your fails

■SHIP'STON-UPON-STOUR, in Geography, a mar-
ket-town in the upper divifion of the hundred of Ofwald-
now, and county of Worcefter, England, is fituated in a
diftria entirely detached from the body of the county, and
elofe to the left bank of the river Stour, whence is derired
the latter part of its name. The houfes here are chiefly
built of ftone; but notwithftanding this advantage, the
town cannot boaft much of its appearance, many of them
being fmall, and thatched with ftraw. Several attempts
have been made to eitablidi manufadures here, but without
any permanent fuccefs. The market-day is Friday, weekly ;
and there are two annual fairs, one on the 2 2d of June, and
the other on the firft Tuefday after the loth of Odober ;
both of them for horfes, cows, and (heep. The manor of
Shiptlon formerly belonged to the priory of Worcefter,
and is now part of the poffefiions of the dean and chapter.
The church is only a chapel of eafe to the mother church
of the pari(h of Tredington, which extends about nine miles
in length and two in breadth. According to the population
returns of 181 1, the pari(h contains 297 houfes, and 1377
inhabitants, of whom about 1000 refide within the townlhip
of Shipfton-upon-Stour. Nalh's Survey of Worcelter-
(hire, 2 vols. fol. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv.
by Mr. Laird, 8vo. 1813.

SHIPTON, a flourifliing townftiip, of excellent land, in
Lower Canada, on the ealt bank of the St. Francis ; 20
miles N.W. of Afcot, and containing about 356 in-
habitants.

SHIPWRECK. See Wreck.

SHIRAVERD, m Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Ghilan ; 30 miles S. of Altara.

SHIRBEY, a town of Syria, the refidence of a fcheik ;
15 miles E. of Aleppo.

SHIRBORN, a river of England, in the county of
Warwick, which runs into the Sow.

SHIRE, ScYKA, originally Saxon, yr;V, or fc'tre, formed
from fcyran, to divide ; a part or portion of the land, called
alfo a county ; which fee.

SniK^-Clerk, he that keeps the county conrt ; and his
office is fo incident to that of the (heriff, that the king can-
not grant it away.

Snm^- Man, was anciently the judge of the (hire, by
whom trials for land, &c. were determined.

SHiRE-Afo<f, in our Old Writers, an aflembly of the
county or Ihire at the affizes, &c. See Scyregemot.

QniUE-Reve. See Sheriff.

Shire, Knights of the. See Knight.

SHIREWOOD or Sherwood Forejl, in Geography, is
an ancient and extenfive foreit, comprehending a large por-
tion of the county of Nottingham, England. Thoroton,
in his Hiftory of Nottinghamfliire, fays that it ftretches into
the hundreds of Broxton, Thurgarton, and Baffetlaw ; and
meafures about twenty-five miles in length, by from feven to
nine in breadth, an extent which feems to agree with its an-
cient boundaries, as itated in a perambulation made in the
fixteenth year of Henry III. The period when this diliriA
was originally cohftituted a foreft is unknown, but that
event mult have occurred previous to the time of Henry II.,
as in the firft year of that monarch's reign, it appears from
official records, that William Peverel was called upon to an-
fwer " De Placitis Forefts in Comitatu Nottingham." At
that time Peverel had the whole profit and command of this
foreft ; but it muft foon afterwards have reverted to the
crown, for in ii6i the (heriff" of the county prays to be
difcharged of " 4/. in vafto foreftae ;" and in 1 163 he prays
for a fimilar difcharge, and for the difcharge of " 40/. paid to

S H 1

the canons of Shirewood for alms." In the Foreft books ii
inferted a copy of a charter by king John, granting to Ma-
tilda de Caux, and Ralph Fitzftephen her hulband, and their
heirs, all the liberties and free cuftoms which any of the an-
ceftors of the faid Matilda, lords of Laxton, had held in
Nottingham(hire, including the foreft of Shirewood. The
fame rights afterwards fell to John Birking, as heir-general
to Matilda de Caux ; and in i 226 the foreft is mentioned at

being then in pofTeffion of his fon ; but this line failing, it 1&
defcended to the family of the Everinghams, who having jf
loft their pofTeffions by forfeiture in the reign of Edward L
it reverted to the crown. Since that event, its civil jurif-
diftion has been generally vefted in the (herifFs of the county,
and its foreft jurifdiAion only granted to various individuals
among the nobility and gentry, as fpecial marks of royal
favour. An inquifition taken before Geoffrey de Langley,
in the reign laft mentioned, illuftrates the cuftoms of this
foreft. By it the chief keeper appears to have been obhged
to have three deputy keepers for a like number of diftrifts,
in order to attach all trefpafl'es, and prefent them at the at-
tachment before the verdurers. In the firft keeping, which
lay between the rivers Lene and Doverbeck, he was to have
one forefter riding with a page, and two forefters on foot ;
two verdurers, and two agifters. This keeping contained
the three hays of Bafkwood, Lindeby and Willay. The
High Foreft, including the hays of Birkland and Bilhagh,
and the park of Clipftone, formed the fecond keeping ; and
here were two forefters riding, with two pages and two agifters.
The third keeping, Rumwode, had one forefter on foot ; two
woodwards, one at Carburton, and the other at Budby ; and
the fame number of verdurers and agifters. The chief
keeper was further bound to have a page bearing his bow,
whofe duty it was to gather " chiminage," which is ufually
fuppofed to have been a tax for the formation and preferva-
tion of roads.

By the laft furvey made of this foreft in 1609, it was par-
celled out into three walks, called the north, middle, and
fouth walks. The foreft officers, under the fuperintendance
of the chief joftice in eyre north of Trent, are a lord
warden, a bow-bearer and ranger, four verdurers, a ftevi'ard,
and nine keepers, befides two fworn woodwards for Sutton
and Carleton. The furveyor-general of the woods has like-
wife a jurifdiclion over this foreft, as far as regards the
wood and timber of the crown. He has a deputy in the
foreft, who has a fee-tree yearly, and a falary of 20/.
Thorney-wood Chace, though a branch of this foreft, is
diitinft from it in jurifdiftion, having been granted by
queen Elizabeth to John Stanhope, efq. and his heirs, as
hereditary keepers. This chace comprehends a large portion
of the fouth walk, and was formerly well ftocked with
fallow deer ; but thefe, of late years, have greatly dimi-
ni(hed in number.

Of the ancient woodland in this extenfive traft, little re-
mains except in the hays of Birkland and Bilhagh, which
form an open wood of large old oaks, covering about 1500
acres of ground; but modern plantations have lately increafed
rapidly, and there are, in different diftrifts and parks, a
few trees, remarkable alike for their great age and magni-
tude. In Clipftone park is an immenfe oak, called the Par-
liament oak, from a tradition that a parliament was affembled
here by Edward I.; and in the fame park is another tree,
ftyled the Broad oak, the bole of which meafures 27^ feet in
circumference. Many of thefe venerable oaks may likewife be
feen in Welbeck park, on the (kirts of the foreft, where fome
of them are upwards of 34 feet round. Rooke, in his " Sketch
of the Foreit," mentions a recent difcovery of a very curious
mode of afcertaining the great antiquity of fome of thefe
trees. He tells us, that in cutting down fome timber in

Birkland

SHI

Birklarid and Bilhagh, letters were found cut or damped in
the body of the trees, denoting the king's reign in which
they were fo marked. The cyphers were of king John,
James I., and William and Mary. The mark of John was
eighteen inches within the tree, and about a foot from the
centre ; it was cut down in 1 791 ; but the middle of John's
reign was 1207, from which, if we fubtraft 120, the num-
ber of years requiiite for a tree of two feet diameter to arrive
at that growth, it will make the date of its planting 1087.

The forelt of Shirewood was, in ancient times, frequently
the fcene of royal amufement. As early as the reign of
Henry II., Mansfield was the general refidence of the court
upon thefe occafions, and it was in this vicinity, according
to tradition, that Henry made acquaintance with the miller
of famous memory, fir John Cockle. This foreft was like-
wife the retreat of another perfonage, equally celebrated in
the chronicle of ballad, the illuftrious Robin Hood, who,
with little John, and the rell of his aii'ociates, making the
woody fcenes of it their afylum, laid the whole county under
contribution. Thoroton's Hiftory of Noltinghamlhire,
republifhed, with additions, by John Throlby, 3 vols. 410.
1790. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xii. by
Mr. Laird, 8vo. 1813.

SHIRINKI, one of the Kurile iflands, about 26 verfts
from Poromulhir. On it rifes a round mountain-top ; and
about it, on the coaft, walls of rock and loofe brittle Hone,
but it has no fandy bay, nor any fafe inlet for Ihipping.
The idand is nearly as broad as it is long, and may be about 40
verfts m circumference. It is only inhabited by fealions and
other marine animals, with fome red foxes and fea-fo wis that
have been carried thither with the ice. There is no wood on
the itland, except a few fticks of the mountain pine and fome
elder bufhes ; and it has neither a ftream nor a fpring of
water. The rocks are very much difpofcd to break and fall
in fragments. N. lat. 50° 40'. E. long. 138° 3'.

SHIRLEY, Anthony, in Biography, fecond fon of
Thomas Shirley of Wetton, in Suiiex, a celebrated tra-
veller, was born in 1565. He itudied at Oxford, where he
took his bachelor's degree in 1581, after which he joined
the Englilh troops, which, at that time, were ferving in
Holland. In 1596 he was one of the adventurers who went
to annoy the Spaniards in their fettlements in the Well In-
dies, and on his return he was knighted. After this he was
lent by the queen into Italy, in order to afllft the people of
Ferrara in their contelt with the pope : before, however, he
arrived, all the difputes were accommodated, and peace
was figned ; he accordingly proceeded to Venice, and tra-
yelled from thence to Perfia, where he came in great favour
with Shah Abbas, by whom lie was fent ambafiador to
England in 1612. By the emperor of Germany he was
raifed to the dignity of count, and by the king of Spain he
was appointed admiral of the Levant ieas. He died in Spain
about the year 1630. There is an account of his Weft In-
dian expedition in the third volume of Haclnyt'sCoUeftion,
under the following title : " A true Relation of the Voyage
undertaken by Sir Anthony Shirley, Knight, in 1596, in-
tended for the Ifland San Tome, but performed to St. Jago,
Dominica, Margarita, along the Coaft of Tierra Firnia to
the Ifle of Jamaica, the Bay of Honduras, Thirty Leagues
up Rio Dolce, and homewards by Newfoundland, with the
memorable Exploits achieved in all this Voyage." His
travels into Perfia are printed feparately, and were publilhed
in London in 1613; and his travels over the Cafpian fea, and
through Ruflia, were inlcrtcd in Purchas's Pilgrimages.

Shiuley, James, a poet and dramatic writer, was born
in London about the year 1594. He received the early
part of his education at Merchant Taylors' fchool, from
which place he was removed to Oxford. He was, on ac-

S H I

count of his talents, patronized by Dr. Laud, who, how-
ever, would not conlent to his t.;kir.g orders, by reafon
of his being disfigured by a large mole on his cheek,
which, in his eilimation, according to the canons of the
church, rendered him unfit to officiate in clerical duties.
Shirley therefore left Oxford without a degree ; but he af-
terwards removed to Cambridge, and meeting with no farther
obftacle,' he took orders, ar.d obtained a curacy. His reu-
gious creed was not fufficiently fettled, and he went over to
the church of Rome, abandoned his cure, and opened a
grammar-fchool at St. Alban's. After fome time he deferted
this employment, and became a writer for the itage. His
produdlions were fuccefsful, and he acquired a reputation
which caufed him to be taken into the fervice of queen
Henrietta-Maria. When the civil war broke out, he ac-
companied the earl of Nevvcaftle in his campaigns, and alfo
affiftedhim in the compofition of feveral of his plays. On
the ruin of the king's cauie he came to London, and refumed
his occupation of a fchool-mafter, in which he met with
confiderable encouragement, and he (hewed his attention to
the duties of his office, by publilhing fome works on
grammar.

During the Commonwealth, theatrical amufements being
fufpended, Shirley had no room in which he could difplay
his dramatic talents ; but after the Reftoration, feveral of his
pieces appeared again on the ftage. The death of this
author is thus defcribed : his houfe' in Fleet-ftreet being
burnt in the grejit fire of London, lu the year 1666, he was
forced with his wife to retreat to the fuburbs ; in confequence
of the lofs and the alarm wliich this occafioned, both himfelf
and wife died within a few hours of each other, and they
were buried in the fame grave.

Mr. Shirley was author of thirty -feven plays, confifting
of tragedies and comedies, and of a volume of poems, pub-
lifhed in 1646. He had the reputation of being the chief
among the fecond-rate poets of his time, but his works have
long fince difappeared from the ftage, and they are fcarcely
ever referred to by more modern authors, yet there have been
critics who thought highly of them. Dr. Farmer, in his
EfTay on the Learning of Shakfpeare, fays the imagination
of Shirley is fometimes fine to an extraordinary degree. He
affifted Mr. Ogilvie in his trandation of Homer and Virgil,
by writing notes on them.

Shirley, in Geography, a townlhip of America, in Maf-
fachuletts, in the N.W. part of Middlefex county ; 41
miles N.W. of Bofton : incorporated in 17J3, and contain-
ing 814 inliabitants. — Alfo, a townlhip of Pennfylvania,
in Huntingdon county, containing 862 inhabitants.

SHI RON, or ScHiRvoN, a town of Thibet ; 120 miles
N. of Catmandu. N. lat. 30° 10'. E. long. 85' 5'.

SHIRVAN. See ScHiRVAN.

SHISNIEZ, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 12 miles
N. of Conftantina.

SHITAKOONTHA, a name of the Hmdoo deity
Siva. It means the blue-lhronUd ; and the fable accounting for
the name is often alluded to in the writings of th.at fanciful
people. It relates, that when the ocean was churned, in the
manner defcribed under our article Kurmava taua, poifon
was produced among the fourteen precious articles refulting
from that marvellous operation. The word, as well as
poifon, means medicinal drugs. This was fwallowcd by
Siva.

«' To foften human ills, dread Siva drank

The poifonoua flood that ftained his azure neck."

In the fongs of Jayadeva, tranflatcd by fir W.Jones, in

praifc of Vifhiiu and Lakflimi, under their names of Krilhna

and Radha, the following pallage occurs, which we are in-

10 duced

S H O

duced to exlrad as an inftance of the playful gaiety of
Hindoo poetics, and the prevalence of mythological allu-
fions in all their writings. Heri and Narayana, we may
premife, are names of Viflinu ; and Padraa, or the Lotos, of
Lakfhmi.

" Whatever is delightful in the modes of mufiG ; whatever
is divine in meditations on Vifhnu ; whatever is exquifite in
the fweet art of love ; whatever is graceful in the fine itrains
of poetry ; — all that let the happy and wife learn from the
fono-3 of Jayadeva, whofe foul is united to the foot of Na-
rayana. May that Heri be your fupport, who expanded
himfelf into an infinity of bright forms, when, eager to gaze
with myriads of eyes on the daughter of the ocean, he dif-
played his great character of the all-pervading deity, by the
multiplied refleftions of his divine perfon in the numberlefs
gems on the many heads of the king of ferpents, whom he
chofe for his conch : that Heri, who, removing the lucid
veil from the bofom of Padma, and fixing his eyes on the
delicious buds that grew on it, diverted her attention by
declarintf, tliat when (he had chofen him as her bridegroom,
near the" fea of milk, the difappointed hufband of Parvati
drank in defpair the venom which dyed his neck azure."
Jones's Works, vol. x. Af. Ref. vol. iii.

The many-headed king of ferpents is named Sefha, a fre-
quent fubjeft of poetical exuberance. See Sesha.

Of the blue-necked Siva, Nilakantha is another name,
of fimilar meaning as that at the head of this article ; and
which indeed occurs oftener than Shitakantha, or Shita-
koontha.

SHITTAT, in Geography, a town of Arabii Deferta ;
50 miles W.N.W. of Melched Ali.

SHITTEN Bay, a bay on the W. coalt of the illand
of St. Chriftopher.

SHI VAL, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ; 25 miles
E. of Baddammv.

SHIVERAP'lLLY, a town of Hindosftan, in the cir-
car of Cicacole ; 20 miles W. of Cicacole.

SHIVERS, in a Ship, the feamen's term for tiiofe little
round wheels in which the rope of a pulley or block runs.
They turn with the rope, and have pieces of brafs in
their centres, which they call the coak, with holes in them,
into which the pin of the block goes, and on which they
turn.

Thefe ihivers arc ufually of wood, but fome are of brafs,
as thofe in the heels of the top-mads. See Sheave.

Shivers, in Rope-making, the foul particles taken from
the hemp, when hatchcUing.

SHIVERING, the Itate of a fail when the wind is too
oljjjjjue to fill it, fs that it flutters about. Tiiis muft be
the cafe when a vefiel is put about, till the fails are filled
again with the wind.

SHIVERY Salt, a name given by the falt-workers to a
fort of fait, very little different from the common brine-falt.
See Salt.

SHIUMLA, in Geography, a town of Bulgaria, in the
fangiacat of Driilra. In this place, thought by the Turks
to be impregnable, they were defeated by the Ruffians with
terrible flaughter ; 62 miles E. of Varna. N. lat. 43° 10'.
E. long. 26° 27'.

SHIZAR, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo ;
15 miles S.E. of Famich.

SHOAD, in Mining, a term for a train of metaUine
Hones mixed with earth, fometimes lying near the furface,
fometimes at confidernblc depths, but always ferving to the
miners as a proof that the load or vein of the metal is
thereabout.. The deeper the Ihoad lies, the nearer is the
vein.

•SHOAD-5/on«, a term uled by the miners of Cornwall,

S H O

and other parts of this kingdom, to ezprefs kuch loole
maffes of itooe, as are ufually found about tJie entrances into
mines, fometimes running in a ftraight courfe, from the load
or vein of ore to the furface of the earth.

Thefe are ftones of the common kinds, appearing to have
been pieces broken from the Itrata, or larger mafles, but
they ufually contain mundic or marcafitic matter, and more
or lefs of the ore to be found in the mine. They appear
to have been at fome time rolled about in water, their
corners being broken off, and their furface fmootfaed and
rounded.

The antimony mines in Cornwall are always eafily difco-
vered by the (hoad-ltones, thefe ufually lying up to the fur-
face, or very nearly fo ; and the matter of the ftone being
a white fpar, or debafed cryllal, in which the rati*e colour
of the ore, which is a fhining blueifh-black, eafily difcovers
itfelf in itreaks and threads.

Shoad-llones are of fo many kinds, and of fuch various
appearances, that it 13 not eafy to defcribe or know them :
but the miners, to whopi they are of greateft ufe in the
tracing, or fearching after new mines, dittinguifh them from
other llones by their weight ; for if very ponderous, though
they look ever fo much like common ftones, there is great
reafon to fufpeft that they contain fome metal. Another
mark of them is their being fpungy and porous ; this is a
fign of efpecial ufe in the tin countries, for the tin (hoad-
ilones are often fo porous and fpungy, that they refemblc
large bodies thoroughly calcined. There are many other
appearances of tin (hoads, the very hardeft and firraeft ftones
often containing this metal.

When the miners, in tracing a fhoad up hill, meet with
fuch odd ftones and earths, that they know not well what i,
to make of them, they have recourfe to vanning, that is,
they calcine and powder the ilonc, clay, or whatever elfe is
fuppofed to contain the metal ; and then wafhing it in an in-
ftrument, prepared for that purpofe, and called a -vanning
Jhovel, they find the earthy matter wafhed away, and of the
remainder, the ftony, or gravelly matter lies behind, and the
metalline matter at the point of the Ihovel. If the perfon
who performs this operation has any judgment, he eafily
difcovers not only what the metal is that is contained in the
(lioad, but alfo will make a very probable guefs at what
quantity the mine is likely to yield of it in proportion to
the ore. Phil. Tranf. N^ 69. Price's Mineralogia,
p. 124, &c.

SHOAL, in Sea-Language, is the fame as /hallow, and
is applied to flats in the water.

They fay it i« goodjhoaling, when a fhip failing toward?
fliore, they find by her founding it grows (hallower and
(hallower by degrees, and not too fuddenly ; for then the (hip
goes in fafety.

Shoal Inlet, in Geography, a channel between two fmall
iflands on the coalt of North Carolina. N. lat. 34° 5'. W.
long. 77° 58'-

SHOALNESS, a low cape on the weft coaft of North
America. Captain Cook met with fome Indians on the cojit,
near this cape, who came off to the (hips in canoes, expreil-
ing, as he conceived, their pacific intentions by hallooing and
opening their arms, as they cautioufly advanced. At length
fome of them approached near enough to receive fome trifle*
that were thrown to them. This brought on, fays captain
Cook, " a traffic between them and our people, who got
dreffes of flcins, bows, arrows, darts, wooden veffels, &;c. ;
our vifitors taking in exchange whatever was offered them.
They feemed to be the fame kind of people that we had lately
met with along this coaft ; wore the fame ornaments in their
hpsandnofes, but were far more dirty,and not fowell clothed.
They appeared to be wholly unacquainted with people likt-

S H O

S H O

as; knew not even the ufeof tobacco ; nor was any foreign
article feen in their poffeffion, unlefs a knife may be confi-
dered as fuch. This indeed was no more than a piece of
common iron fitted into a wooden handle. They however
knew the value and ule of this initrument fo well, that it
feemed to be the only article they wiflied for. Moil of them
had their hair (haved or cut (hort off, leaving only a few
locks behind, or on one fide. As a covering for the head
they wore a hood of ftins, and a bonnet apparently of wood.
One part of their drefs was a kind of girdle, very neatly
made of Ikin, with trappings depending from it, and pafling
jL'tvvcen the legs, fo as to conceal the adjoining parts. By
".he ufe of fuch a girdle, it fhould feem that they fometimes
go naked, even in this high latitude, for they hardly wear
it under their own clothing. The canoes were made of
ftins, like all the others we had lately feen ; except that
thefe were broader, and the hole in which the man fits was
wider than in any I had before met with." N. lat. 60°.
E. long. 198^ 12'.

SHOALS, IJles of, or, as they were formerly called.
Smith's Iflands, a group of fmall iflands, fituated on the
coait of New Hampfhire, in America. The line that divides
the diftrift of Maine from New Hampfhire pafTes between
thefe iflands, leaving part in one of thefe itates and part in
another. They contain about 140 poor fifhermen, who are
fupplied with a religious teacher by the fociety for propa-
gating the gofpel. They have a meeting-houfe, which ferves
as a landmark for feamen, and a parfonage-houfe, erefted by
charity. Thefe iflands confiil chiefly of a barren rock, with
little foil. N. lat. 42° 59'. W. long. 70° 33'.

SHOAL-WATER Bay, a bay on the N.E.coad of
New Holland, W. of Cape Townfliend. — Alfo, a bay on
the W. coail of North America. N. lat. 46° 50'. W.
long. 124° 10'

SHOAR, or Shore, a prop, or counterfort, fet up to
fupport any thing of weight which leans on one fide- See
Buttress.

Shoars, or Shores, in Shlp-builJing, are fir-baulks,
fpars, or pieces of timber, fixed under the ribbands, or
againft the fides and bottom of the (hip, to prop or fupport
her whilfl building or repairing.

SHOBA, in Geography, a town of fome note in Africa,
in the kingdom of Dar-fur; 42 miles or 2^ days' journey
W.S.W. of Cobbe. This place is faid to hi well fupplied
with water, and has near it fome chali<-pits, which, when Mr.
Browne vifited them, were almolt exhaulled for the purpofc
of adorning the royal refidence, L'.nd lome others, with a
kind of white-walh. In Shoba refide fome Jolabs ; the
reft of the people are Ferians, and occupied in other pur-
fuits.

SHOCK, or ScHOCK, in Commerce, a German word
txpreffing 60 pieces.

SHOE, in Geofiraphy, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean,
near the coaft of Waygoo. S. lat. o" i'. E. long. 130° 53'.

Shoe Indians, Indians of North America, in an ifland of
lake Miiiouri. N. lat. 48" 15'. E. long. 105° 45'.

Shoe, a covering for the foot, ufually of leather.

Its ftrufture, though the objedl of a particular art, is too
popular to need explaining.

Its hillory is more obfcure. Bend. Baudoin, a flioe-maker
by profeflion, has a learned trcatife of tlie ancient flioe, " De
. Solea Veterum," where the origin, matter, form, &c. there-
of, are particularly inquired into.

Baudoin maintains, that God, in giving Adam fkins of
beafts to clothe him, did not leave him to go bare-footed,
bul^gave him (hoes of the fame matter ; that, after raw (kins,
iBcn came to make their (hoes of ruflies, broom, paper, flax,

filk, wood, iron, filver, and gold; io diiTerent has their
matter been. Nor was their form more liable, with regard
either to the fliape, colour, or ornaments ; they have been
fquare, high, low, long, and quite even, cut, carved, &c.
Pliny, lib. vii. c. 56, tells us, that one Tychius, of Bceotia,
was the firft who ufed (lioes.

M. Nilant, in his remarks on Baudoin, obferves, that he
quotes Xenophon wrongly, to fliew that even in his time
they Hill wore (hoes of raw flcins.

Xenophon relates, that the ten thoufand Greeks, who had
followed the young Cyrus, wanting flioes in their retreat,
were forced to cover tfieir feet with raw (l<ins, which occa-
fioned them great inconveniencies.

Nilant will not even allow, that the flioes of the country
people, called carbatimt, and peronete, were of crude fl<in,
without any preparation.

The patricians, among the Romans, wore an ivory crefcent
on their flioes : Hehogabalus had his fhoes covered over with
a very white linen, in conformity to the priells of the fun, for
whom he profefled a very high veneration ; this kind of (hoe
was called adS-, udo, or odo. Caligula wore (hoes enriched
with precious ftones. The Indians, hke the Egyptians,
wore flioes made of the bark of the papyrus. The Turks
always put off their flioes, and leave them at the doors of
the mofques.

Shoes made by rivetting injlead of fewing. A patent
was taken out for this invention in 1809, by Mr. David
Mead Randolph, an American. In his fpecification, he de-
fcribes that the rivetting which he propofes to fubftitute for
fewing, is only applicable to the foles and heels of boots or
flioes, all the other parts being made in the ufual manner.
The lajl which is ufed for this method is the only implement
which demands a particular defcription. It is firlt made in
wood, of the fame figure as the common lad, and adjufted in
the ufual manner to the fize and fliape of the (hoe which is
intended to be made or put together upon it. The lower
part or fole of the lall is then covered with a plate of iron or
ileel, about the fame thicknefs as a (lout fole leather: this plate,
being formed to the exaft (hape which is dcfired, is fadened
down upon the wood by fcrews or rivets. The iron plate
has three circular holes made through it, one at the toe, an-
other about half way between the toe and the heel, and a
third at the heel : the Iioles are about an inch in diameter,
and being filled up with wooden plugs, and cut down even
with the furface of the iron, they will admit the points of
temporary nails to be driven through the leather iole to pe-
netrate into the wood, and fix the fole upon the lall whillt
the work goes on.

The making of the flioe is condudled in the ufual manner,
until it is ready for putting on the lall. To do this, the inner
fole is put upon the iron fole of the laft ; then the upper-
leathers are put upon the oppofite part, and the edges of the
leather are turned down over the edges of the inner fole : the
outer fole is then applied over the turning-down, and fallened
in a temporary manner upon the lall, by driving one or two
nails, tlirougii both foles, into the wooden plug^i bciorc men-
tioned, which fill up the holes in the iron face of the lail.
Now, to unite the two foles to the upper-leathers, holes are
pierced all round tlie edgrs of the fole, and fmall nails are
driven in, which are of fiilficient length to penetrate tiinnigh
the fole and the turning-in of tiic upper-leathers, and
alfo through the inner fole, fo as to reach the metal face
of the la(i, and being forcibly driven, their points will
be turned by the iron, fo as to clench withinfide, or rivet
through the leather, and ferve inflead of the fcwing or ditch-
ing commonly employed to unite xhr lolc to the ujiper-
leathers.

Shoes

SHOES.

Shoes, Machims for making. Thefe are the invention of
Mr. Brunei, of whofe mechanical genius we have had frequent
occafion to fpeak in this work. He has lately eftablifhed
at Batterfea an extenfive manufaftory of {hoes, chiefly
intended to fupply the army, where all the operations
are performed by the aid of machines, which aft with
fuch facility, that they can be managed by the invahd fol-
diers of Chelfea Hofpital, who are the only workmen em-
ployed, and moft of them difabled by wounds, or the lofs of
their legs, from any other employment.

The'fhoes made by thefe machines are different from the
common (hoes, in thecircumftance of the fole being united to
the upperjeathers by a number of fmall rivets inftead of
fewing, in the fame manner as thofe we have mentioned in
the preceding article. To facihtate the defcription we intend
to give of the machines, we (hall firft defcribe the itrufture of
one of thefe (hoes. Its upper-leathers are the fame as any
other (hoes, and confid of three pieces ; viz. the vamp, or
part which covers the upper part of the foot, and the two
quarters which furround the heel, and are fewed together be-
hind it ; they are alfo fewed to the vamp at about the middle
of the length of the (hoe. The fole part of the (hoe is
compofed of the real or lower fole, with its welt, the heel,
and the inner or upper fole.

The lower fole has an additional border, which is called
the runner, or welt, fixed upon its upper fide, all round the
edge, by a row of rivets, fo that it makes a double thicknefs
to the fole towards the edge ; but this additional piece is
only of fmall width from the outfide of the fole inwards,
and gradually diminilhes away in thicknefs to nothing, as it
recedes from the edge of the fole, fo that the middle part of
the fole is only of the fame thicknefs as the iingle leather.
The upper-leathers are made fufficiently large to turn in, all
round, beneath the foot, under the edge of the inner fole,
for about three-quarters of an inch wide, and the outer
fole, reinforced by the welt, is appHed beneath, fo that the
turning-in is included between the two foles ; that is, it is
included between the edge of the inner fole and the welt, or
extra thicknefs which furrounds the lower fole. To hold
the fhoe together, a row of rivets is put through the fole,
all round the edge, and they are of fufiicient length to pafs
through all the four thickneifes, viz. the lower fole, the
welt, the upper-leathers, (where they are turned in,) and alfo
through the inner fole ; and thefe rivets being made fait, unite
the parts of the (hoe together in a much firmer manner than
fewing. The rivets have no heads, but are made tapering,
and the largeft ends are on the outfide of the fole, which
prevents them from drawing through ; and at the fame time,
the Ilrength of the rivetting will not be materially impaired
by the gradual wearing away of the fole leather.

Thefe rivets prevent the wear in a very great degree, and
for this reafon there is a greater number of rivets put into
the fole than merely thofe which hold the (hoe together.
The different nails are, fird, the Jborl nails, or rivets, which
only penetrate through the fingle thicknefs of the lower fole ;
thefe are arranged in parallel rows acrofs the tread of the
foot, that is, about two-thirds of the length from the heel ;
there is likewife a double row of (hort nails, which is car-
ried round parallel to the outline of the toe, at about three-
quarters of an inch from the edge, and extends as far as the
middle of the foot. Next, the tacking nails, which are of
a fufiicient length to reach through both the fole and the
welt, and thus fix the two together : of thefe, there is a row
all round the edge of the foot, nearer to the edge than the
row of (hort nails before mentioned. Laftly, the long
nails, which, as before defcribed, faflen the (hoe together :
thefe form alfo a complete row round the edge of the

whole (hoe, and nearer to the edge than auy of the pre-
ceding rows. The heel is alfo fattened on by a row of long
nails round its circumference. The heads or thick ends of
all thefe nails appear on the lower furface of the fole, and
all contribute to preferve the leather from wearing. We
(hall now proceed to a defcription of the ingenious inllru-
raents and machines ufed in this manufactory, beginning
with thole for

Cutting out the Leather. — This is performed by (lamps,
each of which is an iron frame or ring, bent to the fize and
figure of the fole, or other part to be cut out by it : one
edge of the frame is edged with fteel, and ground (harp, fo
that it will cut the leather : the (harp edge of this frame
being placed upon the fltin, and (truck with a mallet, will cut
out a piece from the (kin, which is exaftly of the fame fize
as the interior opening of the frame. The leather for the
foles is fird foftened, by foaking it in water ; the (kin is then
fpread out on a block or table of lead about two feet long
and eighteen inches wide, and the (tamp or knife for the
foles is placed upon the (kin in the molt advantageous po-
fition to cut out the piece ; then two or three blows upon
the top of the knife with a beetle or large wooden mallet,
forces its edge through the leather, and cuts out the piece,
which remains in the opening of the knife, but being taken
out another is cut in a fimilar manner.

A knife of this kind is provided for all the pieces which are
ufed to form the fhoe, and they are called after the names
of the refpeftive pieces, which are as follow; i. The
fole, which is not cut out the full fize for the fole of the (hoe,
but wants a piece at the heel. 2. The fole-piece is a femi-
circle, to be joined to the fole to make up the heel. 3. The
heel : thefe two la(t pieces are cut out of the fmall pieces, or
fcraps of leather. 4. The runner, or welt, which is applied
upon the fole, all round the edge, to make the extra thick-
nefs where the upper-leather is to be joined to the fole. All
thefe parts are cut out from the ftrong hides. 5. The inner
fole. The upper-leathers are, 6, the vamp, or part which
covers the toes and upper part of the foot ; 7 and 8, the \
right and felt quarters, which furround the heel, and are
fewed to the vamp, being alfo fewed together behind
the heel.

All thefe parts, except the welts, are cut out by knives
of the above defcription, there being a fet of knives for every
different-fized fhoe which is made in the manufadtory. For
cutting out the inner foles, the knife is fixed horizontally,
with its edge upwards, beneath a heavy cail-iron lever,
which moves on a centre pin, fupported in the fame framing
which fuflains the knife. The lever has a plate of lead at-
tached to it near the centre, fo that when it is brought
down horizontally the lead will defcend upon the knife,
the edge of which being imprinted into the lead, will cut
through the leather which is previoufly fpread upon the '
knife. To ufe this cutting-out machine, the fole is firlt
cut out roughly from the (liin by a common cutting-knife
round a wooden pattern, and the lever being hfted up nearly
to a vertical pofition, the rough fole is laid fairly upon the
edge of the knife ; then, by letting fall the lever, its weight, •
and the leverage upon the plate of lead, caufes a fufficient
predure upon the leather to force it upon the edge of the
knife, and cut it to the exaft fhape required. The lever is
guided in its defcent, to enfure that its lead (hall fall pre-
cifely upon the knife.

Immediately after the foles are cut out, they are (tamped
on the grain-fide of the leather with a number which de-
notes the fize of the fhoe to which they belong. The damp
is engraved on the face of a fmall hammer, fo that one blow
makes the defired mark. The heels and other parts are alfo

marked,

SHOES.

marked, that the workman may make no miftakes in putting
the fhoes together.

The leather for the welts is cut into ftrips of about an
inch wide : for this purpofe, the piece is fpread on a flat
table about two feet fquare, the furface of which is
covered with fmall iron rulers the width of the intended
ftrips, and fcrewed down upon the wooden table, leaving
between them fufficient fpaces to admit the point of a knife.
Several fmall pins projeft up from thefeiron rulers to pene-
trate the leather and hold it fall. To confine the leather
down whilft it is cut, a frame of iron is fixed to the table by
hinges at one end, fo as to fold down horizontally upon the
leather, and the frame is covered all over with Cmilar rulers,
the intervals between them correfponding exaftly with thofe
between the rulers on the table. The cutting is performed
by a hooked knife, fixed into a long handle. The workman
holds down the frame upon the leather, and introducing the
hooked point of the knife between the bars, draws it to-
wards him ; this cuts through the leather, and he repeats it at
every interval between the rulers, and thus divides the whole
leather into flips of the fame breadth as the rulers.

To prepare thefe flips for ufe, each one is fplit lengthways
into two other flips, by an oblique cut along the middle of
it ; thus producing two flips, which have bevelled or fea-
thered edges, fimilar to a ruler for drawing. The fplitting
of the Itrips is performed by a very complete machine, con-
fining of a pair of brafs rollers, one of which is turned
by a winch, and the other receives its motion from it by
means of a pair of equal cog-wheels, one wheel being fixed
upon the ends of each of the rollers. The rollers are mounted
one above the other in an iron frame, in a fimilar manner to
thofe ufed for laminating : the lower one has a groove formed
round it, which is of a proper fize to receive the ftrip of
leather before it is divided, and the prefTure of the upper
roller comprefTes it into the groove. A guide, confiiting
of an iron ftem, with a fquare hole through it, is fixed up
before or in front of the rollers, to conduft the leather into
the groove ; and on the oppofite fide, or behind the rollers, is
a (lem, or ftandard, which receives a cylindrical flcel pin, and
holds it fall in an horizontal pofition, in the direflion in wliich
the ftrip of leather will move when it comes through the
rollers. The end of this (teel pin is flattened and ground
to a fine fharp edge, like that of a chifTel, and prefenting itftlf
to the end of the ftrip of leather as it is pafft-d through the
rollers, will evidently divide the ftrip longituduially into two
pieces, when the leather is forced forwards againft the edge of
the cutter by the motion of the rollers. This edge is placed
obliquely to the axis of the rollers (or to the furface of tlie
leather which pafles between them), and therefore will divide
it by an obhque cut, fo as to produce two narrow feather-
edged pieces from each ftrip. The prefiure of tlie rollers
upon the leather tends to confolidate its texture, and fupply
the place of hammering.

Preptiralion of the Sole*. — The leather is hardened by
pafling it between rollers, to produce the fame efteft as
hammering does in the ordinary method of fhoe-making.
The rollers ufed for this purpofe are made of brafs, about five
inches diameter, and as much in length ; they are mounted in
the ufual kind of frame, except that inftead of fcrews to
hold down the upper roller, and regulate its diftance from
the lower one, two plain cylindric pino are inferted into the
holes which ufually receive the fcrcws, and thefe pins have
a ftrong lever bearing upon their upper ends, to prefs the
upper roller down upon the lower, by the adtion of a
weight at the extremity of the lever. Thefe pins are only
about four inclies dillant from the centre or fulcrum of the
lever, and the weight (of about 100 pounds) is at a diftance
■ Voi. XXXII.

of four feet from the centre, it therefore prclTei dovrn the
upper roller upon the lower, with a force of nearly 1 200
pounds. The lower roller has a cog-wheel upon the ex-
tremity of its fpindle, which is moved by a pinion upon the
end of an axis turned by a winch ; one man turns this winch
and another puts the foles between the rollers. Two foles
are prefented together, being laid one upon the other, with
the flefh fides of the leather towards each other, and an iron
plate is placed between them, which is made thick in the
middle, and diminifhes every way to the edges, where it is
thin. The grain or hair fide of the leather of the two foles
is outfide, fo as to be in contaft with the rollers when the
foles are prefented to the machine which draws them in ;
and when they have nearly pafled through, the man who
turns the winch reverfcs the motion, and rolls them back
again, then forwards, and fo on for four or five times, in the
fame manner as the motion for mangling linen. After this
operation the leather becomes hard and folid, and much re-
duced in thicknefs, particularly at the middle part.

The heels being fo fmall cannot conveniently be rolled ;
but to produce the fame efFeft they are ftampcd in a fly-
prefs : for this purpofe, a heel-piece is put into a fmall box
or cell of call-iron, of a proper fhapc to receive it, and x
thick plate, which is fitted to the box, being laid upon it,
the whole is put beneath the fcrew of the prefs, one blow
of which is fufficient to prefs the iron plate upon the leather,
with a force which will render it hard and folid.

The fole is made complete by joining to it the fmall femi-
circular piece at the heel ; for this purpofe, the parts which
are to be joined together are cut bevelled, fo that they will
overlap without incrcafing the thicknefs, and then three or
four nails are driven through the bevelled parts, to hold
them together. To cut the joints bevelled, a fimple prefs
is ufed ; the fole is laid flat upon the edge of the bench, and
a piece of iron is prefled down upon it by a lever, upon
which the workman leans his elbow. The edge of the
bench is bevelled, and faced with iron, and this, together
with the upper piece of iron, guides the knife, fo that it
vi'ill cut the joint bevelled : the heel-piece is then cut in the
fame manner, but reverfed.

/Ipplieation of thejhort Nails. — The leather for the fole is
next mlaid with (horl copper or iron nails, which are put
through holes in the leather, in the broad part of the foot,
where the greateft wear will take place ; and there is alfo a
double row of fimilar rivets, inlaid round the toe part, at
about three-quarters of an inch within the edge of the fole.
The holes for thefe nails are firft purched m the leather of
the fdle by a punching machine, and then a fecond machine
cuts the nails, and infcrts them into the holes.

The punching machine is moved by the foot of the work-
man, who is feated before a fmall femicircular table of call
iron, on which he places the leather. This tabic is fup-
ported by a ftrong column, rifing from the floor to a height
of about two feet above the table, which is joined to the
column by a projedting bracket, lo that the column is on
the oppofite fide to that where the workman is hated. The
upper part of the column has two arms, projrfting forwards
from it towards the workman, and extending over the table ;
at their extremities they are formed into fockets, to fuftain
a fquare iron rod or perpendicular flidcr, which at the lower
end has the piercer or awl fcrewed into it : one of the
fockets guides the upper part of the flider, and the otlur
the lower part, fo that it has a freedom of motion in a per-
pendicular direction, but no other. The flider is cauled to
defcend by means of a treadle moving on a centre pin, at-
tached to the foot of the iron column, beneath the bench ;
from this treadle an iron rod afcends through a hole in the
4 G bench

SHOES.

bench (and alfo tlirougli holes in the arms, which project
from the column to fuftain the Aider), and at the upper end
this rod is conneaed with a lever, which moves on a joint at
the upper end of the iron column, whilft the extreme end of
the lever is connefted with the top of the perpendicular
Aider. By this arrans;ement it is clear, that the foot, being
prelled upon the treadle, will communicate motion by the
iron rod and upper lever to the Aider and piercer, and
force its point throusrh the leather, which is placed upon
the fmall iron table. A (hort lever and counterpoife are pro-
vided to raife up the Aider again the inftant the preAure is
removed. To prevent the piercer itriking upon the iron of
the table, and breaking the point, a fcrew is inferted in a
piece projefting from the Aider, and its point in defcending
comes to re!l upon the upper of the two arms which fuftain
the Aider, and thus ftops the defcent of the Aider at the
proper place.

The piece of leather for the fole is fixed upon a pattern
made of iron plate, cut to the fame fize and Aiape as the
ible, which is united to it by two Aiarp gauge pins, which
are fixed in the pattern, one at the middle of the tread, and
the other in the centre of the heel ; and thefe pins projeft
fo far, that they will juft penetrate through the leather, to
hold it faft againft the pattern, which is perforated with all
the holes which are intended to be pierced in the fole. The
leather is applied upon the pattern, and ftruck with a mallet,
fo as to force the gauge pins into the leather, and imite the
fole and the pattern together ; the pattern is then laid flat
upon the table of the machine, with the leather uppermoll,
and is brought beneath the joint of the piercer, fo that it
will penetrate in the defired place. To afcertain this place,
a fmall llud or pin is inferted into a hole in the table, in the
exaft fpot where the point of the piercer defcends ; the ftud
projefts a little above the furface of the table, but is only
held up by a fpring, fo that it can eafily be prefled down.
The pattern being placed fo that any of the holes therein
receive the pomt of the ftud, it is evident that when the
preflure of the foot makes the piercer defcend, its point will
make a punfture in the leather which is faftened upon the
pattern, which pumSlure will be oppofite to the hole in the
pattern ; and though it perforates the leather quite through
the thicknefs, the point of the piercer cannot be blunted
againft the iron, becaufe it is received in the hole in the
pattern, and the ftud defcends by the preAure, fo that the
pattern will lie quite flat upon the furface of the table. In
this manner the workman pierces any number of holes in the
leather, placing it beneath the point of the piercer by the
aid of the pattern, and then preffing the foot to bring the
point down and pierce the hole. As foon as the piercer
rifes, he removes the pattern to another hole, and fo on. A
fmall piece of iron is fixed juft above the leather, which pre-
vents its being lifted up, and following the piercer when it
rifes. The piercer paAes through a hole in this piece.

Nailing Machine for the /hort Nails The fole being thus

pierced with holes, the ftiort nails are put into it by a very
curious machine, which at the fame time forms the nails,
by cutting them oft' from the end of a ftrip of iron or cop-
per, of the fame breadth as the length of the intended nails.

The fole is prefented to the machine by laving it upon a
fmall table, fimilar to the laft machine, and'is direfted by
means of the fame pattern ; fo that each of the holes in the
leather will be fucccAivcly brought beneath the point of a
blunt piercer, which defcends by the action of a treadle.
In the upper part of the machine is a pair of ftiears, to cut
the nails : they confift of a lever, loaded at the extremity
with a weight, and conneAed with the treadle, fo that the
end of the lever is lifted up when the treadle is dcprcA'ed by

the foot. Near the centre of this lever is a cutter, which is
fixed to it, and moves with it. Another cutter is fupported
by the frame, fo as to be ftationary, and in the proper fitua-
tion to come in contaiSl with the edge of the moving cutter,
when the end of the lever is hfted up. The cutters aft in a
manner fimilar to a pair of fhears, to cut off a fmall piece
from acrofs the end of a Aip of iron, which is introduced
between the cutters. This piece forms the nail or rivet,
which is to be put into the hole in the leather ; and im-
mediately after it is cut, it falls into a tube, by which it is
condufted down to a fmall cell or tube, fituated immediately
over the leather. In this the nail ftands perpendicular, and
ready, when the piercer defcends, to be forced down into
the hole in the leather ; becaufe the cell which receives the
nail is exaftly beneath the point of the piercer, fo as to hold
it perpendicularly in the proper Ctuation. The workman
i; feated before the machine, and with his right hand dircfts
the fole, with its pattern beneath the piercer, in the fame
manner as before defcribed. In his left hand he holds the
ftrip of iron or copper which is to make the nails ; and he
introduces the end of it through a fmall hole, which con-
dufts to the cutters, puftiing it forward with a gentle
force : this caufes the end of the ftrip to enter between the
cutters, when the (hears are open. Then adjufting the fole
by the pattern, fo that one of the holes in the leather will
be beneath the nail contained in the cell, he preAes down the
treadle : this forces the nail down from the cell into the
leather, by the defcent of the piercer, and at the fame time
clofes the Aiears, and cuts off a nail acrofs the end of the
ftrip. The nail immediately defcends by the tube into the
cell, where it places itfelf perpendicularly, and ready to be
put in its place in its turn. Thus the machine, at every
Itroke, cuts a freAi nail to fupply the place of that which it
puts in the leather by the fame ftroke. The ftrip of copper
is turned over every time, to form the uails alternately bead
and point.

When all the nails are put in, they are battered down
with a hammer ; and as they are but very little longer than
the thicknefs of the fole, this reduces them to an even
furface.

application of the Welt to the Sole. — The welt, or runner, is
a narrow Aip of leather applied upon the fole, round its
edge, to make the fole of a double thicknefs round the edge,
where the upper leather joins to the fole, although the fole
is only fingle within. The welt is made from the feather-
edged Aips which we have before mentioned, and is faf-
tened to the fole by tacking nails of fufncient length to pafs
through both the fole and the welt. Thefe nails are ar-
ranged all round the circumference of the fole, and the
holes are firft pierced through the fole by the punching
machine, which we have before defcribed, but by a dif-
ferent pattern of iron, which is attached to the fole by its
two gauge pins entering the fame holes which were made
through the leather in the firft operation. This pattern is
pierced with a row of holes all round the circumference,
which are arranged within the former row of rivets, or
farther from the edge of the fole ; but around the toe and
tread of the foot, for half its length, the holes are in double
number, or at half the diftance that they are in the heel
part. This pattern being ufed in the fame manner as before
defcribed, the punching machine pierces the fole with holes,
exaftly correfponding to it ; which holes are filled with
tacking nails in a feparate machine, fomething fimilar to the
nailing machine before defcribed. But as the nails are
longer, it would be too laborious to cut them by the fame
motion ; the nails are, therefore, cut by a machine made
on purpofe, and applied to the leather bv

Tht

SHOES.

The nailing Machine for long Nails. — This is made exaAly
the fame as the punching machine before defcribed, but with
additional apparatus to fupply the nails, and put them into
the holes. Thus it has a vertical column, with a table and two
projefting arms to fupport the perpendicular Aider, which is
caufed to dcfcend when the foot is applied upon the treadle,
'and to rc-aicend by the aftion of the counter-weight. The
piercer at the lower end is not (harp-pointed, not being in-
tended to penetrate the leather, but only to force the nails
into the holes previoufly pierced by the preceding opera-
tion. The additional parts are as follow : a circular plate,
or wheel of brafs, about nine inches diameter, and of a
thicknefs nearly equal to the length of the nails ; it is per-
forated with a great number of holes, to contain the fame
number of nails ; the holes being made round its circum-
ference, as clofe together as convcflient, and arranged in
four circles, one within the other. The interior fpace
within the circle? is formed with fix arms, like a wheel ; and
in the centre is a hole, which fits loofely upon an upright
centre pin, {landing in the centre of a fmall circular table,
which is fixed fideways to the upper of the two arms, which,
as before mentioned, projeft from the vertical column of
the machine, and fuftain the upper end of the perpendicular
Aider. Upon this circular table the wheel is fupported in
a horizontal pofition, at the height of i8 or 20 inches
above the table on which the leather is placed, and with
liberty to turn upon its centre pin. The wheel is filled
with nails when it is ufed, one being put into every hole
of its circumference, with the points downwards ; and the
holes are fufficiently large to let the nails drop through the
wheel, except when their points reft upon the circular table
which fupports the wheel. At one part of the circum-
ference of this table an opening is cut through it, and a
fmall tube defcends from it, to conduft a nail down to the
point of the piercer. The motion of the wheel upon its
centre brings the nails fucceffively over the opening or mouth
of the tube ; and therefore each nail, in its turn, drops by
its weight through the hole in the wheel into the tube,
which is made fo fmall, that the nail mull defcend with its
point downwards, and fall into a fmall cell, fo fituated that
the nail will ftand exaftly beneath the point of the piercer,
when the fame is at its higheft pofition. Bat when the
piercer is deprefled by the aftion of the treadle, its point
will aft upon the head of the nail, and force it down
through the cell into the leather placed upon the table of
the machine ; the hole in the leather having been previoufly
pierced by the punching machine. The cell which receives
the nail is very ingenioufiy contrived to hold it in a per-
pendicular dircftion, beneath the end of the piercer. It is
fituated immediately above the leather, and is conical within,
fo that the nail drops down into it until it becomes fixed
fall ; but when the ii.iil is to be forced down by the pierciir,
the cell opens in two halves, being formed by notches in
two pieces of flcel, which are only held together by being
fcrewed together at one end, and are made fo thin as to
fpring together, and form a cell for the reception of the nail,
although they will readily feparate when the piercer forces
down the nail. It is during the afcent of the piercer that
another nail is dropped down from the wheel through the
tube, and received into the cell, whilit its two halves are
ftill kept open by the piercer ; or rather as the piercer at
this moment occupies the interior of the cell, the nail is re-
ceived in the fpace, or open joint, at which the two halves of
the cell feparate, I'o that the nail lies clofe by the fide of the
piercer. But when the piercer has rifen up completely out
of the cell, its two halves fpring together, and the joint in
which the nail is placed being formed with faces inclining

inwards, they throw the nail into the cell itfelf, in which it
drops down till it llicks faft ; becaufe, as before ftated, the
cell is fmaller at the bottom ; and in this fituation the nail
is certain to be held perpendicular, with its head under the
point of the piercer.

To turn the wheel round, fo as to fupply a frefti nail
every time that one has been put into the leather, the edge
of the wheel is cut into ferrated or Hoping teeth ; the num.
ber of teeth being equal to the number of holes made in each
of the four circles to contain the nails. A fmall detent
or click takes into thefe teeth by a hook, fo that it will
turn the wheel when moved in one dircftion, but Aide over
the teeth when moved in the other direftion. The click is
jointed to a fhort lever, fixed upon the upper end of an up-
right axis, which pafies down through the two projefting
arms of the main column, fo as to be very near the per-
pendicular nider ; and a (hort lever, fixed to this axis, bears,
by the aftion of a fpring, againft a wedge fixed to the Aider.
The aftion of this mcchanifm is to turn the wheel round one
tooth at a time : thus, when the Aider defcends, its wedge
forces the end of the fhort lever farther awa'y from it ; this
movement is communicated by the upright axis and upper
lever to the click, which flides over the Hoping fides of the
teeth of the wiieel ; but on the re-afcent of the Aider, the
wedge allows the lever and click to return by the aftion of
a fpring, and the hook of the click, having caught a tooth
of the wheel, will turn the wheel round the fpace of one
tooth. In this manner, at every defcent of the Aider the
click engages a frefh tooth of the wheel ; and at every
afcent, the wheel is turned round upon its centre pin ; the
weight of the wheel, reding upon the flat circular table,
being fufficient to retain it as it is placed.

The nailing machine afts with the fame rapidity as the
other machines, to put a nail into every one of the holes
previouAy made ; and for this purpofe the leather is kept
upon the fame pattern by which thofe holes were pierced,
not only for the purpofe of placing the leather fo that the
nails fliall be inferted into thofe holes, but that the thicknefs
of the pattern may allow the nails to penetrate and projeft
through the leather on the under fide. When the nails are
all put in, they are beat down with a hammer, to drive all
the heads to a level with the furface. The leather is then
feparated from the pattern, and put into a frame called

The luehing Stand. — This machine is a fmall fquare table
of cait-iron, fixed on the top of a pedeital, in which it is
capable of turning round, for the convenience of the work-
man, and to enable him to work at the diflerent fides, as he
remains featcd before the table. An iron frame is con-
neftcd with the table by hinges at one fide, fo that it can
be lifted up or turned down, to lie fl,it upon the furface of
the table ; and in this fituation it can be faftcned down by
means of a fimple clamp. This frame is intended to hold
faft the leather which is placed beneath the frame : the in-
terior opening of the iron frame is nearly of the fame fizc and
Aiape as the lole of the fhoe. The fole is placed flat upon
the table, in the proper pofition, which is determined by
two gauge pins fixed into the table, and entering the holoa
made in the fole ; then the iron frame being turned down
upon the leather, will inclofc the fole as it were with an iron
hoop, or railed border, all round the edge ; and the frame
being clamped faft down, the fole is confined, as if lying
in the bottom of a cell of iron, of the fame figure as itlelf,
and with the nail points projefting upwards from the fole.
In tliis frame the welt is applied, by laying the drip of leather
upon the edge of the fole in contaft with the infide of the
iron frame, and bending it to follow the curves of the out-
line of the fole. As faft as any part of the length of the
4G 2 ftrip

SHOES.

ftrip is fettled to its pofition, it is attached to the fole by
linking it down with a mallet upon the points of the nails.
The thin or feathered edge of the ftrip of leather is put in-
fide, fo that the edge of the fole, for about the breadth of
half an inch, is of a double thicknefs ; but within this, the
extra thicknefs dimini{he6 away to nothing, leaving only the
thicknefs of the fole. The ends of the ftrip of leather
which compofe the welt, where they join and complete the
circuit of the fole, are cut floping, fo as to lap over each
other, and make a joint, without any increafe of thicknefs,
or apparent divifion. When the fole is taken out of this
frame, the welt and fole are beat well down together, to
make a good joint ; it is then carried to the cutting prefs,
in which the edge or outline of the fole and welt are cut
fmooth, and to the fame fize ; becaufe, as the frame of the
welting machine muft be rather lefs than the fole, in order
that the frame may bear upon the edges of the fole all
round, and thus hold it faft, the welt, which is moulded or
bent round within the frame, will be a fmall quantity lefs
all round than the fole. To guide the knife in cutting
round the edge of the fole, it is confined between two iron
patterns, which are made exaftly to the fize to which the
edge is to be pared. They are attached to the fole by two
gauge pins, fixed into one of the plates, and pafling through
the holes in the fole, projcft far enough on the oppofite
fide for the other plate to be fallened on, in its required
pofitioB, by two holes which receive the ends of the pins.

The cutting-prefs very much refembles a common lathe : a
horizontal fpindle is fupported in a frame, confifting of two
itandards, erefted from a horizontal plate, to fuitain the
fpindle, which paftes through a collar in one of thefe ftand-
ards, and projefts fome inches beyond it, having at the
extremity a piece of wood flat on the furface, and of the
fame (hape as the fole. Againft this flat furface the two
iron plates, with the fole between, are placed, and they are
forcibly prefted together by the aftion of a fcrew, fitted
into a third iron ftandard, erefted from the fame horizontal
plate, and preffing by means of a' lever upon the iron
plates exaftly oppofite the end of the fpindle. This pref-
fure caufes the fpindle to retreat a fmall quantity in the
direftion of its length, and then a flat circular plate, fixed
upon the fpindle, (in the fame fituation as the pulley of a
common lathe,) is made to prefs againft a fimilar flat plate,
which is fallened to the frame, and therefore cannot turn
round. By the friftion between thefe two furfaces, the
fpindle becomes immoveable, and the prefs holds the fole
firm, whilft the workman, who is feated before the machine,
cuts all round the edge with a drawing-knife, which is
made (harp in the middle, and is worked with both hands
by having a handle at each end. When he has with this
tool pared down that part of the edge which is upper-
moft, he releafes the fcrew of the prefs, and a fpring then
caufes the fpindle to advance fo far as to relieve the flat
circular plate, which is fixed upon the fpindle, from its
contaA with the fixed plate. This leaves the fpindle at
liberty to be turned round, and the fole turns with it, fo as
to bring up a new part of the edge of the leather to a
convenient fituation to be pared or cut ; and the fcrew is
then turned to faften the fpindle as before defcribed, and
at the fame time to prefs the fole between the two patterns.
When the edge of the fole is thus cut, it is carried to a
grindftone, and ground fmooth : the ftone is turned with a
quick motion, by means of a band and large wheel ; the lea-
ther is afterwards pohlhed by applying it to the edge of a
wooden wheel, on which a little bees-wax is fpread.

^pphcatton of the long Nails. — The fole, thus re-inforced
by the welt, is returned to the punching machine, and be-

ing attached to another pattern, a range of holes is pierced all
round theouter edge, through both,juftwithin theformerrow
of tacking nails ; after which, by the nailing machine, thefe
holes are filled with nails which projed through the upper
fide of the welt, being longer than any of the former, and
being alfo intended to penetrate through the upper-leather
and inner foles, and thus faften the (hoe together. In this
(late the fole is ready to be put to the upper-leathers.

The upper-leathers are prepared for applying to the fole,
in the fame manner as the ordinary (hoe, -viz. by fewing
the vamp, or piece which covers the upper part of the fuot,
to the two quarters which go round the heel, and alfo
fewing thefe two quarters together behind the heel. The
workmen do not hold the work upon their knees to few it,
but four men work at a fquare table, the corners of which
are cut off, and a fmall piece of wood projects from each
angle : the two pieces of leather which are to be fewed
together are laid upon one of thefe pieces of wood in the
proper pofition to be fewed, and are held faft by an endlefs
ftrap, which is laid over them, and the workman binds it
faft down, by prelTing his foot in the ftrap, like a ftirrup.
This method of lewing, which is far fuperior to the common
mode, might, from its fimplicity, be ufed by all (hoe-makers,
and would render their bufinefs lefs unhealthy ; whereas at
prefent they are fubjeft to many difeafes from fitting in
the awkward and unnatural pollure which is neceffary to
reach their work, when they hold it upon their knees.

Operation of cloftng or rivetling the Shoe together. — The
upper-leathers are put upon a laft, and held tight there-
upon whilft the fole is applied. This is done in

The Clamping Machine. — It is a fmall oval table, fup-
ported on a column, but capable of turning round upon
the column, to enable the workman to work at any fide,
lu the centre of the table a laft is fixed, with the fole up-
wards; it is fupported at a height of about fix inches from
the table. The fole is made of caft-iron, in a folid piece,
with the ftem or part by which the laft is fupported ; but
the under part, upon which the upper-leathers are to be
moulded, is made of wood, for the convenience of altering
the figure when neceftary. The laft is fixed upon the table
by means of two fteady pins ; and a ftrong pin, which pro-
jefts from the lower part of the laft, and paftes through
the table, is bound faft by a wedge, which confines the laft
firmly upon the table, in the fame manner as if it was made
in a piece therewith. The table has a number of pieces of
brafs attached to it by hinges, and arranged all round the
laft in fuch a manner, that they can be turned up againft
the lower part of the laft, and then form clamps, which are
exaftly adapted to the figure of the lower part of the laft,
and will therefore clamp or bind the leather firm upon the
laft at the toe, heel, and every part thereof, except at the
flat part of the fole. The brafs clamps are of fuch dimen-
fions, that they will touch each other when turned up, and
thus form a complete cell or box, in which the lower part
of the laft will be contained, and the leather confined upon it ;
but the cell being made in feveral pieces, or clamps, they
can be removed one by one, as found neceftary. The
clamps are forced up to their fituation by means of an in-
dependent fcrew for each, which is tapped in an oblique
direftion through the edge of the table, and the point
forces up the end of a fmall rod, which is jointed to the
clamp near the part where it afts upon the leather : by this
means the force of the fcrew afts to turn the clamp up
upon its hinge, and at the fame time prefs it againft the
leather. When the preflure is releafed by difplacing the
end of the fmall rod from the point of the fcrew, the clamp
will be fufFered to fall back upon the table ; and this being

done

SHOES.

done to all the clamps, the laA. flands infulated in the
middle of the table, from which it can be detached by
withdrawing the wedge which confines it. The inner fole of
the fhoe is firll put upon the fole of the lalt, beirjg (lightly
fattened thereto by two (hort pins, one of which is driven
through the gauge hole in the toe of the fole, and enters
a hole made in the laft ; and the other pin is fixed in
the heel part of tlie lalt, and enters the hole in the fole.
Tlie upper-leathers are now put upon the lalt in the trua
pofition. In this ftate, the lait is taken to the clamping
machine, and fattened into its place in the centre of the
table ; the clamps are then turned up, one by one, be-
ginning at the heel, and the upper-leathers being pulled up
all round by a pair of pincers, fo as to make them fit tight
upon the lait, the clamps are fcrewed tight. In this (late,
the upper-leathers are made to take the form of the lad,
being firmly attache.d thereto, except at the fole part : at
this part the leather Itanda up all round about three-
quarters of an inch, which quantity is turned down Hat
upon the edge of the inner fole (previoudy faltened upon
the fole of the laft), and a fmall quantity of palte is put in
to make it ftick fall : four or five notches are cut out in the
leather at the toe and at the heel, to make the part which
is turned down lie flat upon the fole, without folds or
overlapping, and then, to make a clofe contadl, the leather
is beaten down. Parings of leather are likewife palled, and
ftuck flat upon the inner fole for levelling, to make up the
fole to the fame thicknels in the centre as it acquires to-
wards the edges all round by the turning-in of the upper-
leathers. In this (tate, the nail which fattened the inner
fole to the lail is withdrawn, being now unnectlfary, and
the real fole is applied, an iron frame, or faddle, being
employed to determine its proper pofition upon the laft.
This frame is made of thin iron, and its figure within is
fimilar, and of the fame fize as the row of nails which pro-
jeft through the fole, and by which the fole is to be rivetted
into its place : it is made in two halves, whicli are united by
a joint or hinge at the heel part ; and at the toe part are
two holes, through which a pin can be put to hold the
frame together. This pin, as well as the joint pin of the
hinge at the heel, projefts downwards furaciently to enter
into a hole made in each of the two clamps at the toe and
heel, in fuch a pofition as to guide the frame, fo that it will
apply the fole exadlly in the proper pofition.

The fole, when prepared as before defcribed, by inferting
all the long nails in the holes, fo that their points project
throBgh the leather, is put into an iron box or mould, and
a plate being laid upon it, is put into the fly-prels, and
by a fingle blow the fole is rendered concave withinfide, fo
as to adapt itfelf to the laft. When it is taken out of the
mould, the iron frame before-mentioned is put together
round the row of nails, the fize of the infide of the frame
being made exaftly of the proper fize to receive the projedting
points of the nails, and retain them perpendicular to the
leather, and prevent them from fpreading' out. The fole
is then applied in its place by the two guide pins of the
frame, and by ftriking upon the hcadi; of the nails, their
points penetrate through tlie turning-in of the upper-
leather, and alfo through the inner fole. When they arc
well entered the iron frame is taken away, by withdrawing
its pins, and opening its two halves on their joint, and the
nails are driven down into their places. This caufes them
to projedl through the inner fole into the (hoe, and the
points meeting the iron laft are turned back, and thus
clenched into their places. To render this more certain,
tj^e fole of the lalt is made with a (light groove all round,
where the points of the nsils will fall, and the groove

6

being of a femicircular figure, the points are more readily
turned thereby, ind are all turned the fame way, fo that
they will not interfere.

The (hoe is now put together, and the clamps being re-
lieved and turned down, the (hoe is taken off the laft ; for
which purpofe the heel of the laft is made in a feparatc
piece, and jointed to the other by inclined fittings, and
with a tongue or rebate, fo that it can be held faft in its
place by a fingle hook or fpring catch ; but this being re-
lieved, the (hoe draws o(f the laft with the grcateft eafe,
the heel part remaining within the (lioe, and is taken out
afterwards. The (hoe is novi' carried to the rlvettlng laft,
where it is put upon a laft exadlly fimilar to that of the
clamping machine, but faftened down upon a bench, and the
fole is fmoolh without the groove, which caufed the points
of the nails to turn up. Upon this laft the nails are beaten
down, to rivet all faft, and make the lole fmooth withinfide :
the heel is then put on by laying it in its place, and driving
down the long nails which have been put through it by
the nailing machine, in the fame manner as for the (ole.

The fole of the (hoe is now rafped with a coarfe file, to level
all the nail-heads, and render the leather fmooth ; the (hoes
are then carried to the grindftone, by which they are poliftied,
and finilhcd up in every part, the foles blacked, and polilhed
by the wheel with a compofition of bees-wax and ivory
black, which renders them glod'y : the upper-leathers are
then bruihed by a circular bru(h, which is turned by the
lathe, and the (hoes are rendered fit for fale, except thofe
which require binding and lining, with a lining of thia
leather, in which cafe they are finifhed in the fame manner as
common (hoes.

Nail Machine. — This is equally deferving of notice with
any otlier part of this ingenious manufaclory. In our
article Nail we have defcribed fome nail machines ; but
we confider this as a much better machine for cutting
brads or nails without heads. The nails are cut from (heet-
iron, the plates being firft reduced into (lips, of a breadth
equal to the length of the intended nails, by a large pair of
(hears, adling in the fame manner as thofe defcribed in the
article Canteen, but are conltrudled in a fuperior manner,
by employing call-iron for the framing and for the lever.
The iron plate is prefented to the machine by one man,
whilft another works the handle, and at a fingle (Iroke
cuts oft the defired ftrip of iron : the (heet of iron is cut fo
that the diredlioii of the grain, or fibrous texture which
the iron acquires by rolling, will be acrols the length of
the ftrip. From this it follows, that when the nails are
formed by cutting oft narrow pieces from the end of the
ftrip, the grain of the iron will be the lengthwile of the
nail.

Theftf///«fo/"/AfnaiZf is readily performed by the machine,
which is turned by the foot of the workman, whilft he
lupplies the iron by his hands. The motion of the treadle
turns a crank and heavy fty-whecl, fimilar to the wheel of a
lathe: fnmi the fame crank a rod proceeds to the longer end
of a ftoiit lever, the axis of which is iupported on pivots in
the upper part of the frame, fo as to be above the wheel
and crank. At a (mall dillance from the centre of the
lever, and at the oj)ponte fide of the axis to the long lever,
a fteel cutter is fixed, which adls againll a lixcd cutter fup-
ported by the frame ; the fixed cutter has an edge on the
upper fide, and the moving cutter, which is fixed to the
lever, is made (harp on the lower fide. The revolution of
the wheel and crank caufes the lever to rife and fall, and
the edges of the two cutters in this motion pafs as clofe
together as poflible, without touching. At the moft elevated
pofition of the moving cutter, its edge rife« above the edge

of

S H O

of the fixed cutter fo far, that the thicknefs of the ftrip of
plate can be admitted between them ; the end of the ftrip is
pufhed back, fo that a fmall portion of the end of it over-
hangs the edge of the fixed cutter ; therefore the edge of
the fixed cutter, when it defcends, meets this overhanging
piece, and preffing it down upon the edge of the fixed cutter,
cuts it off, and the piece fo feparated forms a nail. When
the moving cutter re-afcends, the iron is pufiied forwards
again to overhang the fixed eutter, and another nail is thus
cut off. The nails are narrow at one end to form the
point, but at the other end are about as broad as the tliick-
nefs of the plate, fo as to be of a fquare figure ; but at the
point they are, in one direftion, as broad as at the head ; this
is the direction of the thicknefs of the plate, fo that in
reality the nail is the figure of a fmall wedge initead of a
pyramid, the point being in fadt a fliarp edge. To efFeft
this, the cut which the machine makes acrofs the end of
the ftrip of iron is not perpendicular to the length of the
ftrip, but rather inclined thereto ; and at every fucceflive
nail which is cut, the inclination of the cut is reverfed, fo
that the head of one nail is cut from the fame fide as the
point of the next, and fo on alternately of the whole
length of the flip of iron. The thickneis of the nail is
regulated by the quantity which the end of the flip is al-
lowed to projeft over the edge of the fixed cutter, and the
angle of inclination by two itops, againft which the edge
of the flip is always brought to bear, when the workman
places it ready for the cut. To ftop the end of the iron, a
part projects from the lever beneath the edge of the mov-
ing cutter, and is curved to the arc of a circle defcribed
from the axis : this itop is as far removed behind the edge
of the cutter as the thicknefs of the nail intended to be
cut off by the defcent of the moving cutter. In working
the machine, the workman keeps the wheel conftantly re-
volving by the motion of the treadle ; and holding the flip
with its edge in contact with the two ftops, fo as to give
it the proper inclination, he pufties it forwards, with a gra-
dual prefture, againft the moving cutter : then the inltaiit
the cutter is fufficiently railed to admit the flip, it will ad-
vance forwards, until the end of the flip touches the ftop
which is beneath the cutter : on the defcent of the cutter,
the nail is cut off", and the workman immediately turns the
flip with the other fide upward?, which has the effeft of
reverfing the inclination of the cut ; and pufliing it for-
wards another nail is cut as the former, and thus the ope-
ration continues with the utmoft rapidity.

There are feveral fuits of machines in this manufaftory,
fo that a great number of ftioes are proceeding at the fame
time through the different ftages of their fabrication ; and
the rapidity of the execution is fuch, that a given number
of workmen will here make a far greater number of Ihoes
than by the common method, and they are more durable,
particularly for the ftrong ftioes which are defirable for
foldiers. Several of the machines were conllruded by
Mr. Maudflay, with his ufual accuracy of execution.

Shoe-makers' Machine.— This is a fimple contrivance, to
enable thofe artifans to perform their work in a ftanding
pofture ; by which means they will avoid the difeafes inci-
dent to thofe who follow fedentary employments.

In the common method of working, the ftioe-maker is
obliged to fit and ftoop in the moft awkward pofture ima-
gmable, fometimes in order to hold the ftioe and laft between
his Itomach and his thigh, whilft he fews the fole to the
upper leather ; at other times he muft hold the laft between
his knees ; and to few the leathers together whilft he holds
them upon his knees, he muft lean very much forwards
In all thefe operations he fits as it were doubled up, fo as to

S H O

impede the aftion of his lungs, and ultimately produce many i
difeafes. The machine is a kind of vice, to hold the (hoe
in any pofition whilft it is fewed.

The Society of Arts have fliewn a laudable defire to re-
commend thefe n'.achines to the trade ; and to induce their
general adoption, they have given feveral rewards to thofe
who have produced machines. The firft of thefe was Mr,
Holden, then Mr. Parker, and next Mr. Stafs, whofe ma-
chine, being more improved than the preceding, demands
fome defcription. A fmall bench, or table, is firmly fup-
ported on four legs, at about four feet from the ground ; a
circular cufhion is affixed upon the bench, having a hollow
or bafon in the centre of it, with a hole from the bottom
of the hollow, quite through the cufliion, and alfo through
the centre of the bench. This hole receives a ftrap, which
is doubled, and the two ends fewed together. The lalt is
put into the double of the ftrap, and it is drawn down by a
treadle, fo as to hold the laft firmly in the hollov/ of the
cuftiion, which is ftuff^ed foft withinfide ; and as the hole
through the cuftiion is too fmall for the ftioe to pafs down,
the lalt can be fet in any direftion which is molt convenient
for the fewing ; but by relieving the treadle, it can be re-
moved in an inftant, turned round, and fixed again to few
another part. A feat can be applied in front of the ma-
chine, for the workman to reft himfelf occafionally : this
feat is fupported by only two legs, and a piece of wood,
which projects horizontally from beneath the feat, and
enters into a mortife, made in a part of the frame. Upon
this the workman fits altride, as if upon a faddle ; and as
his work is held before him at a proper height, he fits in an
upright pofture, which is not attended with the fame pre-
judicial eftefts as ftooping to work upon the knee. The
machine is provided with a fmall tray, or box, behind the
cufhion, to contain all the fmall articles which the work
requires ; alio a drawer beneath it for tools, &c. ; a whet-
ftone fixed up at a convenient height ; and an anvil, which
fits into the hollow of the cuftiion, fo as to lie firmly, to
hammer the leather upon inftead of a lapftone.

Shoe-makers are to make their ftioes of fufficient leather,
or forfeit 3^. 4^. (i Jac. I. c. 22.) and journeymen ftioe-
raakers embezzling leather fliall make fatisfaftion for damage,
or be ordered by juftices to be whipped, "Sec. Perfons
buying or receiving fuch leather, are to make reafoiiable
recompence, to be levied by diftrefs, &c. and fearch is to be
made after the iam.e : alfo leaving their work undertaken,
or neglefting it, to be fent to the houfe of corredtion for a
month. 9 Geo. I. cap. 27. 13 Geo. II. c. 8. See
Leather.

Shoe, in the Manege. A horfe-ftioc is a piece of flat
iron, with two branches or wings, which being commonly
forged according to the form of the hoof for which it is
defigned, is made round at the toe, and open at the heel.

A fhoe for all feet, is one that is cut at the toe into two
equal parts, which is joined by a rivetted nail, upon which
they are moveable in fuch a manner, that the ftioe is enlarged
or contracted lefs or more at pleafure, in order to make it
fit all forts and fizes of feet

To ftioe a horfe after the form of a lunette, a patin, &c.
fee Lunette, Patin, &c. See alfo Shoeing of Her/it,
&c.

Berenger obferves, that the ancients did not fiioe their
horfes, that is to fay, they did not nail upon their hoofs
any pieces of iron, or of other metal, in the form of the
modern horfe-flioes: but when they intended to defend
them from any thing that might annoy them in travelling,
they fattened upon their feet, by means of ftraps and liga-
tures, a fort of fandal, ftocking, or what we call boots.

Thefe ,

S H O

Thefe were made of fedges twitted together like a mat,
or elfe of leather, and were fometimes ftrengthened with
plates of iron, and adorned by the rich and oRentatious
with filver and gold, as in the inftances of Nero and
Poppia.

It does not appear in what era, or in what conntry, the
modern art of flioeiiig tooii its rife. The earlied proof
which the above mentioned writer has met with is the fnoe
faid to have belonged to the liorfe of Childeric, who lived in
the year 48 1, and is prcferved in Moutfaucon's Antiquities
of France. It perfeftly refi-mbles the fhoe now in ufe.
Berenger's Horfemanfhip, vol. i. p. 234.

Shoes of the Horfe and other Animals, the crooked pieces
of iron attached to the hoof of the horfe or other beafts,
by means of nails. There are various forms and fliapes of
flioes in common ufe, and others whicli are adapted and ac-
commodated to the particular purpofes and circumilances
of the hoofs. Different forts of animals, likewile, require
different forms in their fhoes. In fpeakiiig of the (hoe
■vi\\\cW?, conca've an\x.f, loiuer furfacc, it has been remarked
by fome, that there are certain proportions to be obierved
in its different parts. Its breadth ihould be confidcrably
lefs than the breadth of the common fhoe ; it is totally un-
neceffary to cover any part of the fole, efpecially when care
is taken to preferve its natur.il hardnefs. The breadth of
the Ihoe at the heels fhould be one-lialf of its breadth at
the toe. Its thicknefs fhould decreafe gradually from the
t'c, fo as to be reduced one-half at the extremity of the
heels. As to tiie diftribution of the (lamp-holes, every
perfon acquainted with the fubjeil knows, that in fhoes for
the fore-feet, tliey fliould be at the toe and quarters, be-
caufe the wall, or cruft, of the fore-feet is (Ironger at the
toe than at the heels. The reverfe of this is to be obferved
in the hind (hoes, becaufe the heels and quarters of the hind-
feet are commonly ftronger than the toe. It is impodible
to lay down any general rule for difpofing of thefe holes in
bad feet ; it muil be the bulinefj of the (arrier to diltribute
them in fuch a manner, as to be able to fix the nails in thofe
parts of the cruft where the horn is found and firm. Far-
riers generally multiply thefe flamp-holes too much, which
brings the nails too clofe together, occafions the horn to
break in fplinters, and at length deflroys the crult.

The following number is recommended for good feet ;
ni/2. for race-horfes fix, that is three on each fide ; for
faddle-horfes fcven, four on the outfide and tlirce within,
the quarter on this fide being weaker than on the other ; the
fame number for coach-horfes of the middling fize ; for
large coach-horfes four on each fide ; and for cart-horfes, five
on the out a;id four on the infide. It is alfo of principal
importance to determine the weight of thejljoe, for it is mat-
ter of aflonifhmeiit, to fee fome horfes with fhoes weighing
each five pounds, making together a burden of twenty
pounds of iron attached to their four feet. It is obvious
to common fenfe, that fuch an additional weight, fixed to
the extremity of the leg, mud be productive of fome incon-
venience or other; and, in fact, the mufcles are thereby
compelled to greater exertion ; the ligaments are (Icetched,
and the articulations continually fatigued : and, befides all
thefe evil confeqiiences, the fhoe by its weight forces out
the nails, and fo entirely fpoils the texture of the wall or
cruft, that it becomes often extremely diiTicult to fix the
fhoe to the hoof. Why then, it is a(ked, do not prac-
titioners of the prefent day, who are daily witneffes of tliefe
fafts, and indeed are the principal authors of them, apply
thcmfeives to the corredtion of their own errors ? The
anfwer, it is feared, is obvious ; becaufe he who is unedu-
cated and deftitute of found principles in his art, cannot

9

S H O

turn to real profit the experience he has acquired, nor
abandon the path of prejudice and cuftom, in which he lias
fo long journied, but fatisfies himfelf with continuing to imi-
tate and repeat whatever he has feen done by others.

The weights which are propofed, for (lioes of different
kinds, are nearly as follow :

For the flrongeft fort of cart-horfes - - 2 12

For the fmaller horfes of this kind - - - 112

For the largeft coach-horfes - - . . i 12

For the fmaller ditto --..](,, „ j .

For faddle-horfes of any height . . I 2 to 10

For race-horfes - - . . . OAtoc

And by reducing the fuperfluous breadths of thefe (hoe?,
tlieir thicknefs may, it is fiippoled, be inereafed without
making any addition to their weight. See Shoeing.

Shoes of Cattle, the fmall platei; of iron that are faftcned
upon the feet of oxen, or other cattle employed in field or
road labour. Shoes of this fort coiifill, according to fome,
of a flat piece of iron, witli five or fix ftarap-ho'les on the
outward edge, to receive the nails : at the toe is a projec-
tion of fome inches, which palTiiig in the cleft of the foot,
is bent over tlie hoof fo as to keep the fhoe in its proper
place. This projection is not, however, employed in the
general practice of making thefe fiioes, nor can it in com-
mon be of any utility. See Shoeing of Oxen.

Shoe of Gold, in Commerce, an ingot ufed as money in
China. Gold is here confidered as merchandize ; it is fold
in regular ingots of a determined weight, which the Englifh
callyic« of gold; the largeft of thefe weigh 10 tales, and
the gold is reckoned 94 touch (that is 94 parts fine in 100),
though it is really only 92 or 93. Formerly, 10 tales of
filver were given for one tale of gold of the fame degree of
fineuefs; but of late, from 100 to no tales of (ilver of
94 touch have been given for 10 tales of gold of 92 or
93 touch; and Ibmetimes from 110 to 120 tales, or even
more, of Spanidi dollars, reckoned at 92 touch, have beeu
paid for 10 tales of gold. It muft be obferved, that when
gold is exchanged for filver, its price is always valued by
the lo-tale weight ; and it is fold either above or below
touch, as follows : if the gold be 96 touch, and fold at 5
under touch, fubtraft 5 from 96, and 91 remains; then 91
tales of filver arc paid for 10 of gold: if gold be fold at
10 above touch, the finenefs being ftill 96, add 10 to 96;
and 106 tales of filver are paid for 10 tales of gold.

We (hall here oblervc that there is but one kind of money
made in China, called cajh, which is not coined but call, and
which is only ufed for (mall payments : it is compofed of fix
parts of copper and four parts of lead ; it is round, marked
on one fide, and rather raifcd at the edges, with a fquare
hole in the middle. Thefe pieces are commonly carried,
like beads, on a ftring or wire. A tale of fine filver fhould
be worth 1000 cafh ; but on account of their convenience
for common ufe, their price is fometimes fo much raifed
that only 750 cafli are given for the tale. See Tale.

Shoe, Horfe, in Fortification, Mining, &c. Sec Horse-
shoe.

Shoe, Horfe, Head. See House-shoe Head.
Shoe uf the Anchor, in Sea Language, a fniall block of
wood, convex on I he back, and having .1 (mall hole fuf-
ficient to contain the point of the anchor-fluke on the fore
fide. It is ufed to prevent the aiiclior from tearing or
wounding the planks on the fliip's bow, when afcending or
defcending ; for which purpofe the Ihoe Aides up and dowD
along the bow, between the fluke of the anchor and the
plaiik'i, as being prefled clofe to the latter by the weight of
the former. Falconer,

Sjioe,

S H O

Shoe, To, an Anchor. See Shoeing the Anchok.

SiiOE-Bloch, are two fingle blocks, cut in a folid piece
tranfverfely to each other. They are ufed for legs and falls
of the bunt-lines, but are feldom employed.

Suoz-Heuftng. See Housing.

SHOEBURY Ness, in Geography, a cape of England,
en the fouth coalt of the county of Eil'ex, at the mouth of
the Thames. Here king Alfred erefted a, fortrefs againft
the Danes. There are two villages near North and South
Shoebiiry, both containing together about 200 inhabitants ;
5 miles N.E. from the Nore. N. lat. 51'' 32'. E. long.
0° 45'.

SHOEING o/'HoRSEs, a term applied to the operation of
faftening the pieces of iron on the bottom parts of the hoofs,
or that of fixing fhoes to the feet. Thefe, and fome other
animals deftined to labour, are fliod with iron, in order to
defend and preferve their hoofs. The fhoes of horfes fhould
difter according to the feet, as has been already feen. The
eommon form of fhoes, and the method of (hoeing, are
wholly condemned by fome, as Mr. Clark, and a new
method recommended, which appears founded on juft prin-
ciples, and to have been fanftioned by much experience. It
is remarked, that in preparing the foot for the fhoe, accord-
ing to the common method, the frog, the fole, and the bars
or binders, are pared fo much that the blood frequently ap-
pears. The common fhoe by its fotm (being thick on the
infide of the rim, and thin upon the outfide), muft of confe-
quence be made concave or hollow on that fide which is
placed immediately next the foot, in order to prevent its
refting apon the fole. The fhoes are generally of an im-
moderate weight and length, and every means is ufed to
prevent the frog from refting upon the ground, by making
the fhoe-heels thick, broad, and flrong, or raifing cramps or
eaukers on them. From this form of the fhoe, and from
this method of treating the hoof, the frog is raifed to a con-
fiderable height above the ground, the heels are deprived of
that fubftance which was provided by nature to keep the
cruft extended at a proper width, and the foot is fixed as
it were in a vice. And by the preflure from the weight of
the body, and refiflance from the outer edges of the fhoe,
the heels are forced together, and retain that fhape imprefied
upon them, which it is impoflible ever afterwards to re-
move ; hence a contradlion of the heels, and of courfe lame-
nefs. But farther, the lieels, as has been obferved, being
forced together, the crufl prefies upon the procefles of the
coffin and extremities of the nut-bone : the frog is confined,
and raifed fo far from the ground, that it cannot have that
fupport upon it which it ought to have : the circulation of
the blood is impeded, and a wafting of the frog, and fre-
quently of the whole foot, enfues. Hence, it is contended,
proceed all thofe difeafes of the feet known by the names of
founder, hoof-bound, narrow-heels, thrufhes, corns, hiffh
foles, &c. ^

And it has likewife been frequently obferved, that there
arifes from this comprefTion of the internal parts of the foot,
a fwelling of the legs immediately above the hoof, attended
with great pain and inflammation, with a difcharge of thin,
ichorous, fetid matter : from which fymptoms, it is often
concluded that the horfe is in a bad habit of body (or what
is termed a greafe faUing down), and mufl therefore undergo
a courfe of medicine, &c. The bad effefts of this praftice
are ftill more obvious upon the external parts of the hoof.
The crull towards the toe, being the only part of the hoof
free from comprefTion, enjoys a free circulation of that fluid
neceffary for its nourifhment, and grows broader and longer;
from which extraordinary length of toe, the horfe ftumbles
m bis going, and cuts his legs. The fmaller particles of

S H O

fand infinuate themfelves between the fhoe and the heeU,.
which grind them away, and thereby produce lamenefs.
All this is entirely owing to the great fpring the heels of
the horfe muft unavoidably have upon the heels of a fhoe
made in this form. This concave fhoe in time wears thin at
the toe, and, yielding to the preflure made upon it, is forced
wider, and of confequence breaks off that part of the cruft
on the outfide of the nails. Inflances of this kind daily
occur, infomuch that there hardly remains cruft fufEcient to
fix a fhoe upon. And further, it is generally thought, that
the broader a fhoe is, and the more it covers the fole and
frog, a horfe will travel the better. But, as it has been re-
marked, the broader a fhoe is of this form, it muft be made
the more concave ; and, of confequence, the contrafting
power upon the heels mufl be the greater. It is likewife
to be obferved, that, by ufing ftrong broad rimmed concave
fhoes in the fummer feafon, when the weather is hot and the
roads very dry and hard, if a horfe is obliged to go faft,
the fhoes, by repeated flrokes (or friftion) againft the ground,
acquire a great degree of heat, which is communicated to
tlic internal parts of the foot ; and, together with the con-
tradlion upon the heels, occafioned by the form of the fhoe,
muft certainly caufe exquifite pain. This is frequently fuc-
ceeded by a violent inflammation in the internal parts of the
hoof, and is the caufe of that difeafe in the feet fo fatal to
the very befl of our horfes, commonly termed a founder.
This is alfo the reafon why horfes, after a journey or a hard
ride, are obferved to fhift their feet fo frequently, and to
lie down much. And if we attend further to the convex
furface of this fhoe, and the convexity of the pavement upon
which horfes walk, it will then be evident that it is im-
poflible for them to keep their feet from flipping in this
form of fhoe, efpecially upon declivities of the flreets. It
is alfo a common practice, efpecially in this place, (Edin-
burgh,) to turn up the heels of the fhoes, into what are
called cramps or eaukers, by which means the weight of the
horfe is confined to a very narrow furface, uia. the inner
round edge of the fhoe-rim and the points or eaukers of each
heel, which foon wear round and blunt ; befides, they for
the molt part are made by far too thick and long. The
confequence is, that it throws the horfe forward upon tlie
toes, and is apt to make him flip and flumble. To this
caufe we mufl likewife afcribe the frequent and fudden
lamenefs horfes are fubjeft to in the legs, by twifting the
ligaments of the joints, tendons, &c. It is not affirmed
that eaukers are always hurtful, and ought to be laid afide :
on the contrary, it is granted that they, or fome fuch-like
contrivance, are extremely neceffary, and may be ufed with
advantage upon flat fhoes where the ground u flippery ; but
they fhould be made thinner and fharper than thofe com-
monly ufed, fo as to fink into the ground, otherwife they
will rather be hurtful than of any advantage.

It is fuggefted that the Chinefe are faid to account a fmall
foot an ornament in their women ; and for that purpofe,
when young, their feet are confined in fmall fhoes. This no
doubt produces the defired effeft ; but mufl neceffarily be
very prejudicial to them in walking, and apt to render them
entirely lame. This praAice, however, very much refembles
our manner of fhoeing horfes ; for, if we looked upon it as
an advantage to them to have long feet, with narrow low
heels, and fuppofing we obferved no inconvenience to attend
it, or bad confequence to follow it, we could noi poflibly
ufe a more efFeftual means to bring it about than by follow-
ing the method already defcribcd. It is fuppofed that in
fhoeing a horfe, therefore, v.e fhould in this, as in every
other cafe, ftudy to follow nature : and certainly that fhoe
which is made of fuch a form as to refemble a« nearly as

poffible

SHOEING.

poflible the natural tread and ftiape of tlie foot, muft be
preferable to any other. But it is extremely difficult to lay
down fixed rules with refpeCt to the proper method to be
obferved in treating the hoofs of different horfes : it is
equally difficult to lay down any certain rule for determin-
ing the precife form to be given to their fhoes. This will be
obvious to every judicious praftitioner, from the various
conftruftions of their feet, from difeafe, and from other
caufes that may occur ; lb that a great deal muft depend
upon the difcretion and judgment of the operator, in pro-
portioning the (hoe to the foot, by imitating the natural
tread, to prevent the hoof from contracting a bad fhape.
In order, therefore, t.> give fome general idea of what may
be thought moft neceil^ryin this matter, it is endeavoured
to defcribe that form of ffioe, and method of treating the
hoofs of horfes, which, from experience, has been found
molt beneficial. And in this '.t is to be remembered, that a
horfe's ffioe ought by no means to reft upon the fole, other-
wife it will occafion lamenefs ; therefore it muft reft entirely
-")on the cruft : and, in order that we may imitate the natu-
ral tread of the foot, the fhoe muft be made flat (if the
height of the fole does not forbid it) ; it muft be of an
equal thicknefs all around the outfide of the rim ; and on
that part of it which is to be placed immediately next the
foot, a narrow rim or margin is to be formed, not exceeding
the brf-adth of the cruft upon which it is to reft, with the
nail-holes placed exactly in the middle, and from this narrow
rim the fhoe is to be made gradually thinner towards its
inner edge. And that the breadth of the ftioe is to be re-
gulated by the fize of the foot, and the work to which the
horfe is accuftomed ; but in general, it fliould be made
rather broad at the toe, and narrow towards the extremity
of each heel, in order to let the frog reft with freedom upon
the ground. The neceffity of this has been already (hewn.
The (hoe being thus formed and fhaped like the foot, the
furface of the cruft is to be made fmooth, and the ftioe fixed
on with eight or at moft ten nails, the heads of which fhould
be funk into the holes, fo as to be equal with the furface of
the fhoe. The fole, frog, and bars, as has been already
obferved, fhould never be pared, farther than taking off
what is ragged from the frog, and any excrcfcences or in-
equalities from the fole. Mr. Ofmer has remarked, that
the Ihoe fhould be made fo as to ftand a little wider at the
extremity of each heel, than the foot itfclf : otherwife, as
the foot grows in length, the heel of the fhoe in a (hort time
gets within the heel of the horfe ; which preflure often
breaks the cruft, and produces a temporary lamenefs, per-
haps a corn. But thir. method of ffioeing horfes has been
followed long before Mr. Ofmer's trcatife on that lubjcft
was publifhcd ; and for thefe feveral years paft it has been
endeavoured to introduce it into pradtice. But fo much are
farriers, grooms, &c. prejudiced in favour of the common
method of Ihoeing and paring out the feet, that it is with
difficulty they can even be prevailed upon to make a proper
trial of it. They cannot be fatisfied unlefs the frog be
tniely fhaped, the fole pared, aod the bars cut out, in order
to make the heels appear wide. This praftice gives them a
fhow of widenefs for the time ; yet that, together with the
concave form of the (hoe, forwards the contraftion of the
heels, which, when confirmed, renders the animal lame for
life.

It is contended, thar in this flat form of fhoe, its thickeft
part is upon theoutfideof the rim, where it iamoll oxpofcd to
be worn ; and being made gradually thinner towards its inner
edge, it is therefore much liglitcr than the common concave
fhoe ; yet it will laft equally as long, and with more advan-
tage to the hoof; and as tlie frog or heel is allowed to reft

Vol. XXXII.

upon the ground, the foot enjoys the fame points of fupport
as in its natural itatc. It muft therefore, it is fuppoled, be
much eafier for the horfe in his way of going, and be a means
of making him fure-footed. It is likewifc evident, that, from
this Ihoe, the hoof cannot acquire any bad form ; when, at
the fame time, it receives every advantage that poffibly could
beexpefted from fhoeing. In this refpeit it may very pro-
perly be faid, that we make the fhoe to the foot, and not
the foot to the fhoe ; as is but too much the cafe in the
concave (lioes, where the foot very much rcfembles that of a
cat's fixed into a walnut- fhell. But it is to be obferved, that
the lioofs of young horfes, before they are fhod, for the
moft part are wide and open at the heels, and that the cruft
is fufficiently thick and ftrong to admit of the nail's being
fixed very near the extremities of each. But, as has been
formerly remarked, from the conftant ufe of concave fhocs,
the cruft of this part of the foot grows thinner and weaker,
and when the nails are fixed too far back, cfpecially upon the
infide, the horfe becomes lame : to avoid this, they are placed
more towards the fore part of the hoof. This caufes the
heels of the horfe to have the greater fpring upon the heels
of the fhoe, which is fo very detrimental as to occafion lame-
nefs ; whereas by ufing this flat form of fhoe, all thefe tn-
conveniencies are avoided ; and if the hoofs of young horfe*
from the firlt time that they were fhod, were continued to
be conftantly treated according to the method here recom-
mended, the heels would always retain their natural ftrength
and fhape. By following this flat method of fhoeing, and
manner of treating the hoofs, feveral horfes now under this
management, that were formerly tender-footed, and fre-
quently lame, while (hod with broad concave fhoes, are now
quite found, and their hoofs in as good condition as when
the firft fhoes were put upon them. It is thought that if
farriers confidcred attentively the defign of fhoeing horfes,
and would take pains to make themfelves acquainted with
the anatomical ftrudlure of the foot, they would then be
convinced, that this method of treating the hoofs, and
this form of fhoe, is preferable to that which is fo gene-
rally praclifed. But it has been alleged, that in this
form of fhoe, horfes do not go fo well as in that commonly
ufed. This objedtion will eafily be fet afide, by attending
to the following particulars. There are but few farriers that
can or will endeavour to make this fort of fhoe as it ought
to be. The iron, in forming it, does not lo eafily turn into
the circular fhape neceffary, as in the common flioe ; and per-
haps this is the principal rcafon why they objeft to it, efpe-
cially where they work much by the piece. And as many
horfes tliat are commonly fliod with concave fhoes have their
foles confiderably higher than the cruft, if the fhoe is not
properly formed, or if it is made too flat, it muft unavoid-
ably reft upon the fole, and occafion lamenefs. Further,
that the praftice of paring the fole and frog is alfo lb
prevalent, and thought fo abfolutcly neceffary, that it i«
indifcriminately pradtifed, even to excefe, on all kinds of
feet ; and while tiiis method continues to be followed, it
cannot be cxpedted that horfes can go upon hard ground,
on this open (hoe, with that freedom they would do if their
foles and frogs were allowed to remain in their full natural
ftrength. Exi)erience teaches us, thjt in very lhiu-(olcd
(hoes, we feel an acute pain from every fliarp-pointed tlone
we happen to tread upon. Horles are fenfible of "le (ame
tiling in their feet, when their (oies, 5:c. arc pared too tiiin.
Hence they who are prejudiced againfl this method, without
ever reflecting up(m the thin Hale of the fole, &c. arc apt
to condemn it, and draw their conclufioiis more from out-
ward appearances tiian from any reafoning or knowledge of
the ftrudture of the parts. From a due attention likcwife to

4 n the

SHOEING.

the ftruaure of a horfe's foot in a natural ftate, it will be
ebvious, that paring away the fole, frog, &c. muft be hurt-
ful, and in reality is deftroying that fuWtance provided by
nature for the defence of the internal parts of the foot : from
fuch praftice it muil be more liable to accidents from hard
bodies, fuch as ftiarp (tones, nails, glafs, &c. From this
confideration we fhall likewiVe find, that a narrow piece of
iron, adapted to the ftape and fize of the foot, is the only
thing neceffary to proteft the cruft from breaking or wear-
ing away ; the fole, &c. requiring no defence if never pared.
But there is one obfervation farther necellary to be made ;
which is, that the (hoc (hould be made of good iron, well
worked, or what fmiths call hammer-hardened, that is, beaten
all over lightly with a hammer when almod cold. It is well
known, that heating of iron till it is red foftens it greatly ;
and when the (hoes thus foftened are put upon hories' feet,
they wear away like lead. But when the (lioes arc well
hammered, the iron becomes more compaft, firm, and hard ;
fo that a well-hammered (hoe, though made confiderably
lighter, yet will laft as long as one that is made heavier ; the
advantage of which is obvious, as the horfe will move his
feet with more atlivity, and be in lefs danger of cutting his
legs. The common concave fhoes are very faulty in this
refpeft ; for, in fitting or (haping them to the foot, they
require to be frequently heated, in order to make them bend
to the unequal furface which the hoof requires from the
conftant ufe of thefe fhoes ; they thereby become foft, and
to attempt to harden them by beating or hammering when
they are (haped to the foot would undo the whole. But fiat
fhoes, by making them when heated a little narrower than
the foot, will, by means of hammering, become wider, and
acquire a degree of elallicity and firmnefs which it is necef-
fary they fhould have, but impoffible to be given them by
any other means whatever ; fo that any farrier from praftice
will foon be able to judge, from the quality of the iron, how
much a (hoe, in fitting it to the circumference of the hoof,
will ftretch by hammering when it is almoft cold : this ope-
ration in fitting flat fhoes will be the lefs difficult, efpecially
when it is confidered, that as there are no inequalities on the
furface of the hoof (or, at leaft, ought not to be) which
require to be bended thereto, fhoes of this kind only require
to be made fmooth and flat ; hence they will prefs equally
upon the circumference or cruft of the hoof, which is the
natural tread of a horfe. And a preference has lately been
given by Mr. Moorcroft to this Ifind of flioe, which he calls
the " feated fhoe," and which he has formed in a die, in the
fame manner as money is ftruck in coining. The upper fur-
face of this (hoe confifts of two parts ; an outer part, which
is a perfeft plane near the rim, correfponding with the
breadth of the cruft, and called ihefeat ; and an inner part.
Hoping from the feat, and diftinguifhed by the name of the
he-vel. The feat is obvioufly intended to fupport the cruft
in its whole extent, the bevel to lie off" the fole ; and this
part being more or lefs broad, according to the kind of work
propofed to be done, will give the requifite ftrength to the
ihoe. As the whole of the cruft bears on the feat, it is lefs
liable to be broken than when only a fmall part of it refts
on the ftioe. In confequence, likewife, of the cruft refting on
the flat feat, the weight of the body has a tendency to fpread
the foot wider in every direftion, rather than to contraft it, as
has been obferved to happen with the common ftioe, and when
afterwards fhod with the feated one, it has become wider with-
out the horfe having been taken from his ufual work ; and
again, it is obferved, that a foot being of a full fize and proper
form when firft fliod with the feated flioe, has retained the
fame fize and form without the flighteft alteration, as long
as the feated fhoe was ufed. By the fiope or bevel in the
3

ftioe, a cavity is formed between it and the fole, fufKcienf t<3
admit a picker, and to prevent preffure on this part, without
the fole itfelf being hollowed, and confequently weakened^
For if it be one of the fundlions of the horny fole to defend
the fenfible fole, of which, from its fituation and nature, no
one can doubt, it mult be evident that the more perfeft it is
left, the ftronger it muft neceffarily be, and of courfe the more
competent to perform its office. And though he cannot be
fanguine enough to fuppofe that this (hoe will prevent
lamenefs in every cafe, there is neverthelefs fufficient proof
from experience to adert, that it will diminiih its frequency.
Some (trong objections have however been made to this forns
of (hoe by Mr. Coleman. If it fhould be found, where the
fhoe is applied, that the file very frequently receives pref-
fure, then we fhall demonftrate that the praftice is incom-
patible with the principle. If it be good praftice for the
fole to receive preflure, then the principle muft be erroneous
that attempts to make the fhoe reft totally on the cruft ; and
if the principle be well founded for the cruft only to fupport
the (hoe, then, if the fole be in contaft with the fhoe, the
praftice muft be imperfeft. Except a model is taken to
every horfe's foot, it is impoffible for the refting-place of the
fhoe precifely ta fit the cruft ; for the cruft not only varies
exceedingly in different horfes, but in the fame heof at differ-
ent parts. The flat furface, therefore, that is only broad
enough for the toe, is frequently too broad for the quarters
and heels. And in all the fhoes he has ever feen of this de-
fcription, the flat part of the flioe is made of the fame breadth
at the quarters as at the toe. It is farther to be obferved,
that this furface very generally exceeds the cruft at every
part. In the fame proportion as the feat of the fhoe ex-
ceeds the breadth of cruft, exaftly fo much of a flat furface
is oppofed to an equal quantity of fole. The principle of
this fhoe is therefore defeated by the praftice ; for, inftead of
the feat refting on the cruft, it projcfts over the edge of the
fole. It is therefore a faft, that while great pains have
been taken to make a flat feat on the fhoe, m order to fup-
port the cruft only, and the web concave, in order to remove
predure from every part of the fole, that the feat has never-
thelefs very rarely fitted the crult ; and confequently the
foles of all flat feet, at their conneftion with the cruft, muft
receive more or lefs of preflure from the feat of the fhoe.
Where the fole is concave, this fhoe will only reft on the
cruft ; but a fhoe that is flat on its whole internal furface
would anfwer the fame purpofe ; for the concave part of
the fole oppofite to the concavity of the web of the fhoe
would receive no preflure, even from a fhoe wholly flat.
He therefore recommends a flioe which has been found free
from thefe and other objeftions, and which indeed bids fair
to fuperfede the ufe of every other kind. But before this
is noticed, it may be neceffary to mention curforily the fhoes
propofed by Mr. St. Bel, and Mr. Taplin ; but in faft the
changes they have introduced are rather novelties than im-
provements. Mr. St. Bel has indeed committed a great
error, that of promoting the arched form of the horfe's
foot, and thus raifing the frog out of the way of preffure,
a praftice highly injurious to the animal.

It is indeed obferved, in refpeft to Mr. St. Bel's mode of
ftioeing, by Mr. Coleman, that he employed a fhoe with a
fiat upper furface ; but, from not attending to the very-
important operation of removing the fole under the heels of
the fhoe, to every kind of hoof, it frequently failed of fuc-
cefs. But that the belt form of the external furface of the
fhoe is a regular concavity, that is, the common fhoe reverfed.
This fhoe leaves the hoof of the fame figure when fhod,
as before its application. And it is evident, that a con-
cavity has more points of contaft with pavement and other

tonvex

SHOEING.

convex bodies ttian a flat or convex furface, and that the
Iiorfe is confequently more fecure on his legs. A (hoe that
is flat externally, may preferve the hoof equally well in
health ; but this form is not fo well calculated to prevent
the horfe from flipping as a concavity.

And in explainmg the principles and praftice of flioeing,
it is fuppofed there are two circumttances neceifary to be
attended to, -viz. to cut the hoof and apply the fhoe.
Before the hoof is protefted by iron, fome parts require to
be removed, and others preferved. This is even of more
importance than the form of the flioc. But many have at-
tended chiefly to the fhoe, and not to its application or to
the hoof ; and this error has produced more mifchief and
more enemies to the Veterinary College, than all the preju-
dices and calumnies of grooms and farriers. The firft thing
to be attended to, is to take away a portion of the fole be-
tween the whole length of the bars and cruft with a draw-
ing knife ; for the heels of the fole cannot receive prefl^iire
without corns. To avoid this the fole fliould be made con-
cave, fo as not to be in contaft with the fhoe. If there be
any one part of the praftice of (hoeing more important than
the reft, it is this removal of the fole between the bars and
crull. When this is done, the horfe will always be free
from corns, whatever may be the form of the (hoe. Be-
lides this, the heels of the (hoe fhould be made to reft on the
junction of the bars with the cruft ; whereas, if the bars are
removed, the (hoe is fupported by the cruft only, and not by
the folid broad bafis of cruft and bars united.

And it is added, that it is nece(rary that the fole fhould be
cut before any other part of the hoof be removed. If the
heels have been tirft lowered by the butteris, then polTibly
there may not be fufficient fole left to enable a drawing-knife
CO be applied without reaching the fenfible fole ; whereas,
by cutting the fole in the firft inftance, we can determine on
the propriety of lowering the heels and (hortening the toe.
The fole can then defcend, without the motion being ob-
itrufted by the (hoe ; and any foreign bodies that may have
got into this cavity are always forced out when the fole de-
fends, without producing any mifchief. When the (hoe is
applied, the cavity between the fole and (hoe (hould be fuffi-
ciently large, at every part, to admit a large horfe-picker,
and particularly between the bars and cruit. If the fole is
naturally concave, a (hoe with a flat furface applied to the
cruft, will not touch any part of the fole ; and if the fole
be flat, or even convex in the middle, or towards the toe,
the quarters and heels of the fole will generally admit of
being made concave with a drawing-knife, fo as not to re-
ceive any preilure from a flat flioe. If a (hoe with a flat
upper lurface does not leave ample fpace for a picker be-
tween the fole and (hoe, then it is requiilte to make either the
fole or the (hoe concave. When the fole appears in flakes,
and thick in fubftance, it will be better to make the whole
of the fole concave by a drawing-knife ; and this operation
(hould always be performed before the toe is fliortened or the
heels lowered. When we have made the fole hollow, then a
(hoe with a flat furface will reft only on the crull : but if the
fole be flat, or convex, and thin towards the toe and middle
of the hoof, fo as to prevent the poflibility of removing the
fole at tliefe parte, to form a concavity, tiien it is neceilary
to employ a fhoe fufHciently concave to avoid predure, and
to admit a picker. In this cafe, however, the fole at the
heels and quarters, even in convex feet, will generally allow
of removal with a drawing-knife, and then the quarters and
heels of the (hoe may be flat. It therefore follows, that
where the lole can be made concave, a (hoe with a flat fur-
face may witii fafety be applied ; but where parts of the
(ole, from difeafr or bad (hoeing, become flat, a (hoe with a

concave furface is required. As the lioof is always growing,
and as the (hoe preferves it from friftion, the toe of the cruft
requires to be cut once in about twenty-eight days. The
more horn we can remove from this part, the fooner it will
be proper to apply a flioe thin at the lieels, without mifchief
to the mufcles and tendons, and the horfe will be lefs Uable
to trip.

And it is ftated that the bars and frog fliould never be re-
moved. What is ragged and detached had better be cut off
with a knife by the groom than left to the farrier, who will
perhaps remove fome of the found parts. Where the frog
is not large and projecting, the heels maybe loweredby a rafp,
or the butteris, for in every cafe we are to endeavour to bring
the frog in contaft with the ground. The frog muft havepref-
fure, or be difeafed. Neverthelefs, when the frog has been dif-
ufed for a confiderable period, and become (oft, it muft be ac-
cuftoraed to preflure by degrees. If the quarters are high,
and much exceed the convexity of the frog, we (hould gra-
dually lower the heels, and endeavour to bring the frog and
heels of the (hoe on the fame parallel Hne. Where work is
required of the horfe, while the frog is foft and difeafed, it
may be gradually ufed to prelTure, by lowering the hoof
about the tenth of an inch every time of (hoeing, until the
frog be hard, and equally prominent with the heels ; or if
the horfe is not wanted, great advantage would be derived
from his (landing without (hoes on a hard pavement. But
the feet of horfes are fo varioufly deformed by bad manage-
ment, it will berequifite in flioeing to attend to each particu-
lar kind of hoof. If any form of (lioe be indifcriminately
applied for all kinds of feet, it muft frequently fail of fuc-
cefs : but by proper attention to the different hoofs, we can
generally improve the whole foot, fo as to employ the (hoe«
recommended at the Veterinary College. And, after the
hoof has been properly prepared, then it is requifite to ap-
ply a (hoe, and to vary its length, breadth, and thicknefs at
the heel, furfaces. &c. according to the hoof. If the heels
of the fore-feet are two inches and a half, or more, in
depth, the frog found and prominent, and the ground dry,
then only the toe of the hoof requires to be (hortened, and
afterwards protected by a fliort flioe made of the ufual
thicknefs at the toe, but gradually thinner towards the heel.
For a common fized faddle-liorfe, it may be about three-
eighths of an inch thick at the toe, and one-eighth at the
heel. The intention is, to bring the frog completely int*
contaft with the ground, to expand the heels, prevent
corns, thrulhes, and canker. If applied in May or June,
when the ground is dry, it may be continued all the fummer;
and in warm climates, where this is the cafe, no other
proteftion for the hoof is requilite. And he adds, that fo
long as tlie wear of the hoef is not greater than the fupply
afforded by nature from the coronet, fo long may the (hort
(hoes be worn ; but in wet weather tliis is not the cafe : he
has known fome light horfes to wear them the whole year ;
but fuch inftances are not common. Ncvcrthelefs, the (hort
fhoe can be employed on moft horfes with advantage in fum-
mer, when the heels are from two and a half to three inches
in depth, and the frog equally prominent ; but, unlefs the
hoof has been properly preferved, the heels and frog are
generally too low for the fliort flioc. The toe of the liorfe
requires to be (hortened as much as poffible ; but if the frog
touches the ground, no part of the heels fliould be cut ; .ind,
by purfuing this practice, tlie heels will frequently grow (ufli-
ciently high to receive the (hort flioe. After fpoakingof the
application of the (hort (hoe to running horfes, it is ftated, that
during the wet months, we protcft the whole cruil by a
long fhoe ; and if the heels of the hoof are low, we employ
the fame (hoe in fummer. In winter, when the heels are too
4H a high,

SHOEING.

high, it is better to lower them moderately with a rafp, than
to wear tliem down with a fhort (hoe, as the wet may caufe
more horn to be deftroyed than is neceilary to be removed ;
but it cannot be too often repeated, that the fole between the
bars and crult Ihould be taken out before the heels are cut.
If tlie heels are firll removed, then poffibly the horn left
will be infufficient to afford a proper degree of concavity be-
tween the bars and crult. Where very high-heeled (hoes
have been worn, the frog would be liable to injury, as well
as the mufclcs and tendons that bend the leg, from the fud-
den application of a (hoc made thin at the heels. Indeed,
whether the (hoc or hoof be the caufe that elevates the frog,
the attention is required to bring it gradually intocontafl with
the ground. We therefore thin the heel of the ihoe by de-
grees, that the frog may become accuftomed to hard prellure.
The thicknefs of the laft (hoe at the heel will always furnilh
a proper criterion for that to be next applied. If only a
fmall portion of the hoof can be taken from the toe, the heel
of the new (lioe (hould be about one-tenth of an inch thmner
than the (hoe removed ; and the growth of the crull will ge-
nerally be equal to this diminution of iron. By reducing the
heels of the flioe in the fame proportion as the hoof grows,
a thin-heeled (hoe may, in a few months, be employed ; and
yet the horn being preferved at the heels, and cut at the toe,
every time of (hoeing, the heels (fhoe and hoof together)
will be as high, and frequently higher, than when the former
thick-heeled (lioes were employed. The cruit that defcends
at the heels we allow to remain ; but fubtraft an equal quan-
tity of iron from the heels of the (hoe, and as much horn as
polTible from the toe of the hoof. This lyftem fhould be
continued till the heels of the (hoe are about one-fhird the
thicknefs of the toe. In proportion as the cruft from the
coronet to the toe increafes, and the heels decreafe in depth,
the back fiiiews and mufcles will be put on the ilrctch.
And the converfe of this mud be equally true, that as the
heels are high and the toe (hort, the mufcles and linews are
relieved. It therefore follows, that every atom of horn or
iron taken from the toe of the crull, or (hoe, tends to relax
the parts behind, and that the removal of horn or iron from
the heels produces the oppofite efTeft. If thefe fimple fads
are kept in view, there can be no difficulty in afcertaiiiinij the
quantity of iron that may be removed with fafety from the
heels of any (hoe, without danger of mifchief to the
mufcles and tendons.

But in the (hoeing of horfes that are liable to cut, the fol-
lowing ufeful directions have been given by Mr. Moorcroft.
It is contended, that in order to prevent a horie from Itriking
the foot or (hoe againll the oppofite leg, by which it is often
bruifed or wounded, is an important point ; inafmuch as this
accident occurs very frequently, and it not only blemilhes
and disfigures the leg, but alfo endangers the fafety of the
rider. The parts (truck in the hind-leg, are the infide of
the fetlock-joint, and the coronet ; in the fore leg, the infide
of the fetlock-joint, and immediately uiider the knee ;
which latter is called \.\ie fpeedy cut, from if: happening only
when a horfe goes fall. Young horfes, when firll backed,
generally cut their fore-legs, although naturally they may
be good goers. This arifes from their placing the foot on
the ground too much under the middle of the breaft, in
order the better to fuppi.rt the burthen to which they are nn-
accultomed; but by degrees they acquire the method of ba-
lancing the wt ight, with the foot in the fame direftion it
would naturally have were they without it. It may, there-
fore, he thinks, be laid down as a gener:d rule with fiich
horfes, that, till they regain their natural method of goin^,
the edge of the inner quarter of the (lioe (hould follow
exadly the outline of the crud, but ihould not be fet

within the cruft, nor (hould the cruft itfelf be reduced in
thicknefs ; as both thefe pradices tend to weaken the inner
quarter, and to deform the hoof. And here it mull be ob-
ferved, that the outer edge of the fhoe fhould, in all cafes of
found feet, follow exaftly the outer edge of the cruft, ex-
cept juft at the heel, where it fhould projeft a little beyond
the line of the hoof. Alfo, that horfes with narrow chefts,
having their legs placed near together, are apt to cut when
they begin to tire ; and with thefe the pradice jufl mentioned
fhould always be employed. Horfes that turn their toes
much outwards are, of all others, ipoft fubjed to cut. But
in reply to the affertions of fome, that th:s accident alfo hap-
pens to f uch horfes as turn the toes much inwards, he denies
having met with a flngle inltance of the kind. In horfes of
the firll defcription, it has been long obferved, that the inner
quarters of the hoof were lower than the outer, and that
the fetlock-joints were nearer each other than in horfes whofe
feet pointed llraight forwards. Thefe two fads probably
led to a conclnfion, that if the inner quarters were raifed to
a level with the outer, and fo much the more as they were
made proportionably higher, that the fetlock-joints would
be thrown farther apart, fo as to admit of the foot paflJng
by the fupportinglegwithout Itrikingthejoint. Accord.ngly,
for the two laft centuries, at leaft, it has been ufual to make
the inner quarter of the fhoe higher than the outer ; and not
only has this been the general pradice, but it has been re.
gularly recommended by almoll every writer from that time
to the prefeiit. Afid notwithftanding this method has very
frequently failed of luccefs, yet repeated difappoinl.ncnt ap-
pears never to have led to the circum.ltance of queftioning
the truth of the principle. Nay, indeed, the reliance placed
upon it has been fo (Irong, probably from the fir plicity
of the reafoniiig on which it was founded, that in the cafes
where it molt particularly difappointed expedatioi., its failure
was generally attributed to the pradice not being carried
fufiiciei.tly far; and accordingly the fhoe has been (till more
raifed on the inner quarter, and the edges of the crull and
fhoe have been filed au ay. When thefe expedients likewife
failed, the lad refource hasb=en, a circular piece of leather
placed round the joint to receive he blow of the foot.

It is noticed, that about four years ago, a (hoe, with the
outer quarter thick and the inner one thin, was applied in a
cafe which had baffled many attempts on the old plan. On
the firft trial the horfe ceafcd to cut, nor has he ever done it
fince ; which can only be attributed to his having conltantly
worn the fame kind of fhoe. And other bad cafes, which
have occurred occafionally fince that period, have been
treated in the fame way, and with the fame fuccefs, although
for a long tim.e he was at a lofs how to explain them. If
the adion of cutting principally depends on the faulty pofi-
tion of the fetlock-joints, and of the feet with refped to
each other, and it feems generally agreed that fuch is the
fad, it fhould feem. that a means which, by raifing the outer
quarters, m.ull throw the fetlock-joints ft ill nearer to each
other, would necefTarily iiicreafethe defed in queftion ; but
as the reverfe of this adually takes place, it might induce a
fuipicion that there exills (ome other caufe of cutting which
has been hitherto overlooked. For hjrfes which cut their
hind-legs, thi (lioe, at the outer heel, (hould be from half
an inch to an inch in thick!ie('s, according to the kind of
horfe, and to the decree in which he may cut. The web of
the fhoe fhould gradually become thinner till it reaches the
toe, which (h nild be of the ordinary thicknefs, and from
which it (hould flope off, and end like a tip in the middle of
the inner quarter. For horfes which cut only in a flight de-
gree, a fhoe of the fame thicknefs throughout, but reaching
on the inner quarter only as far as the middle of the foot,

will

SHOEING.

will in niofl inftances be found fufficient. This (hoc, in
point of efTecl, would be equally proper for the fore-feet,
■were it not that in fuch horles as are iifed for the faddle, the
fore-feet, being more charged with weight than the hind-feet,
are more particidarly fubjcdl to be injured, and a horfe thus
fliod on the fore-feet might go unfafe : therefore, it is expe-
dient to let the iriner quarter of the (hoe be thin, and reach
to the heel ; but the outer edge fliould be bevelled off, fo as
to ilope inwards. The fame kind of fhoe is equally well
calculated to prevent the fpeedy cut ; obferving to bevel off
more ftrongly the part which Itnkes, and not to put in any
nails thereabouts. And here it may be proper to remark,
that in found feet, the iiecl of the (hoe fhould reach as far on
the heel of tlie hoof as to admit of the angle formed by the
cruft, and the bar relling fully upon it ; but it fliould net be
carried quite as far as the end of the heel of the hoof. But
in order to afcertain what would happen to a horfe fhod
with diflerent kinds of (hoes, the following trials were
made.

Experiment i. A horfe with a narrow cheft, who had
never cut, and having parallel fhoes on his fore-feet, was
trotted at about the rate of eight miles an hour, in a itraight
line, over ground fufficiently foft to retain flightly the mi-
prefTions of the Ihocs, but not to admit the feet to fink into
it. Then two parallel lines were drawn along the track,
including between them the prints of the Ihoes. By tliefe
it was found, that there was regularly a diltance of nine
inches and a half between the outer edge of the near fore-
flioe and that of the off fore-fhoe.

2. Shoes thick in their inner quarter, and like a tip,
reaching only halt way on the outer quarter, were then
ufcd ; ;.nd it appeared that the diilance between the outer
ed,;i , of the prints of tli • fhoe«, taken as before, was re-
guhirly reduced to eight inches and a lialf.

3. The lame fhoes were afterwards placed on the opprfite
feet, fo that the thick heel was on the outer quarter ; and
the refult, under circun-.ftances exafllv th fame a'i in the
foregoing experiments, was, that the diflancc between the
outer edges of the prints of the fhoes was regularly increafed
' ) eleven inches. To account for thef- refult s, it is necef-

;iy to attei.d clofely to the different effcfts produced by
liie weight of the fore part of the body acting ujjon the two
fore-feet, when raifed on the inner or outer Quarters, during
the oppolite ftates of refl and aftion. And iirit, with re-
gard to fh :s railed on the inner quarter: wliillt a horfe fo
fhod is llandnig ilill, the fetlock-joints are certainly thrown
fan her apart than wlicn any other kind of flioe is ufcd.
Hence it wa"i concluded, that the limb which fupportcd t!ie
body would have its fetlock-joint thrown fo much outwards,
as to keep it completely out of the way of the foot in mo-
tion But it appears that the imprcflions made on the
ground by fuch fhoes are an inch nearer together, than thofe
made by parallel (hoes, and two inches nearer together than
thofe made by flioes raifed on the outer quarter. l\nA this
may be thus explained : when the horfe is at reft, the weight
is fupported equally by the two fore-feet ; but the inftant
one foot quits the ground, the weight is fuddcnly tranf-
ferred to the other; and by the outer quarter being lower
than the o])pofite one, the fore part of the horfe has a ten-
dency to fall over to the outfide. To prevent this, the
moving foot is fuddenly brought clofe to the fetlock of the
fupporting foot, in order to relieve it by catching the
Weight ; and the foot itfelf is placed on the ground too
much under the middle of the breafl. The fame circum-
ftance occurs to both feet in their turn : and the horfe,
being thus in conllant danger of falling to one fide or to the
Other, is conltrained to bring his feet near together to prc-

8

ferve his balance ; and in doing this, ftrikes the foot againft
the oppofite fetlock. And it frequently happens, that the
more the toes are turned outwards, the nearer the fetlock-
joints are brought together, and the more the horfe is dif-
pofed to cut. However, this is true only to a certain ex-
tent ; for if this faulty pofition of the lower part of the leg
be carried artificially beyond a given point, inflcad of pro-
ducing an increafed degree of cutting, in molt inllanccs it
remedies the defeft altogether. The reafon of this is jufl
the rcverfe of what takes place when the inner quarter is
raifed ; that is to fay, when the weight of the fore part of
the body relh only upon one leg, it bears too much upon
the inner quarter, from its being lower than the outer
quarter ; and thus the horfe has a tendency to fall over to
the infide of the fupporting leg. To prevent this, the
moving foot is thrown farther from the fupporting leg, in
order to maintain the balance : and thus the foot miffes the
fetlock-joint.

In cafes where the roads are covered with ice, it becomes
nccefl'ary to have the heels of horfes' fhoes turned up, and
frequently fliarpened, in order to prevent them fr^im flip-
ping and falling ; but this cannot be done without the fre-
quent moving of the flioes, which breaks and dellroys the
cruft of the hoof where the nails enter. To prevent this, it
has been recommended to thofe who are willing to be at the
expence, to have fteel points fcrewed into the heels or quar-
ters of each fhoe, which might be taken out and put in oc-
cafionally. And_the method of doing this properly, as laid
down by Mr. Clark, is lirll to have the flioes fitted to the
fliape of the hoof, then to make a fmall round hole in the
extremity of each hei 1, or in the quarters, about three-
eightlis of an inch diameter, or more, in proportion to the
breadth and fize of the fhoe : in each of ihefe holes a fcrew
is to be made. The ilecl points are likewife to have a fcrew
on them, exailly fitted to that in the fhoes. Care muit be
taken that the fcrew on the points is no longer, when they
are fcrewed into the fhoe, than the thicknefs of the latter.
The Heel points are to be made fliarp : they may either be
made fquare, triangular, or chiffel-pointed, as may be mod
agreeable. The iieight of the point above tiie fhoe fliould
not exceed a quarter of an inch, for a faddle-horfe ; they
may be made higher for a draught-horfe. Tlie key or
handle, that is iiecefl'ary to fcrew them in and out occa-
fi ii.dly, is n ade in the fhape of the capital letter T, and of
a fuflicient fize and Itrength. At the bottom of the handle
a u.eket or cavity mult be made, properly adapted to the
fhape of the ttcel point, and fo deep as to receive the whole
head of the point that is above the (lioe. In order to pre-
vent the fcrew from breaking at the neck, it will be necef-
fary to make it of a gradual taper. The fame is likewife to
be obferved of the female fcrew that receives it ; that is, the
hole mult be wider on the upper part of the fhoe than the
under part. The fharp points may be tempered or har-
dened, in order to prevent them from growing too foon
blunt ; but when they become blunt, they may be fliarpened
as at firft. Thefe points fliould be unfcrewed, when the
horfe is put into the liable ; as the ftones will do them more
injury in a few minutes than a day's riding on ice. A
draught-horfe fliould have one on the point ot each fhoe, as
that gives him a tinner footing in drawing on ice ; but for
a faddle-horfe, when points are put there, they are apt to
make hini trip and Humble. And when the flioes are pro-
vided with thefe points, a horfe will travel on ice with the
greatell fccurity and fleadiiiefs, much more fo than on caufe-
way or turnpike roads, as the weight of the liorfe preflcs
them into the ice at every Hep. And in addition to the
common (hue fur horfes that have found feet, there are alfo

other*

S H O

others of various (hapes, determined by the neceflity of the
cafe, as by the different derangements and difeafes to which
the horfe's foot is hable. See Shoe.

Shoeing of the Afs and Mule. With refped to what
concerns the flioeing of other animals, Mr. Clark thinks
that the mule, being an animal uncommon in this country,
the afs of no great value, and the ox not generally employed
in labour, it is needlefs to fay much on the fubjeft. The
flioe for the fore-feet of the mule is very fimilar to that which
the farriers call the lar-Jhoe. It is very wide and large,
efpecially at the toe, where it fometimes projefts four inches
and upwards beyond the hoof. This excefs is given it with
a view to enlarge the bafis of the foot, which is in general
exceedingly narrow in this animal. The (hoe for the hind-
feet is open at the heels, like the horfe's (hoe ; but it is
lengthened at the toe, like the preceding one. And it is
added, that the foot of the afs, having the fame Ihape as
that of the mule, requires the fame kind of (hoe, with this
only difference, that the (hoe of the fore-foot is not clofed
at the heels, and that its edges do not projeft fo much be-
yond the hoof. The fame form of (hoe is ufed for the hind-
feet of this animal.

Shoeing nf Oxen, the bufmefs of fixing (Tioes upon ani-
mals of this kind, and which is conftantly neceffary wherever
they do any fort of field or road labour ; but it is a praftice
which is yet far from being performed in a perfeft manner.
Mr. Clark remarks, that in many parts of France, where
the ox is ufed for draught, it is fometimes neceffary to em-
ploy eight (hoes, one under each nail ; or four, one under
each external nail ; and fometimes only two, one under the
external nail of each fore-foot. In this country two pieces,
or (hoes, to each foot are generally, however, made ufe of ;
being moftly fixed on, efpecially in the northern diftrifts,
with three or four large-headed nails to each (hoe. They
are fitted on in a fimilar manner to thofe of the horfe. But
from the (hoes of thefe animals being, from the fmallnefs of
the pieces, fo hable to break, it has been fuggefted to have
them (hod with whole (hoes, in the manner of the horfe ;
but how far this is a praftice that will anfwer, mult depend
upon future trials. It is probable, that in this way the foot
will be too much confined to fucceed in any very perfeft
manner. Where oxen are left without (hoeing, they are
continually liable to become lame, and to be incapable of
going on with their work. As there is much trouble in
the (hoeing thefe animals, from its being necedary to caft
them each time, it has been found requifite to have recourfe
to contrivances for (hoeing them ftanding. See Ox-shoeing
Machine.

SHOEMAKERS' Chips, in AgrkuUure, the refufe
cuttings pared off in making (hoes, which, when coUefted
in fufficient quantity, are found ufeful as a manure. See
Manure.

SHOENECH, in Geography, a Moravian fettlement in
Pennfylvania, near Nazareth, begun in 1757.

SHOESHARMO, a town of Little Bucharia ; 6orailes
S.W. of Acfu.

SHOGLE, See Choug.

SHOKET, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Da-
mafcus, on the Orontes ; 22 miles S. of Antakia.

SHOLAVENDEN, a town of Hindooftan, in Ma-
dura ; 14 miles W.N.W. of Madura.

SHOLAVERAM, a town of Hindooitan, in the Ma-
lawar ; 14 miles S. of Tripatore.

SHOLINGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
20 miles S. of BomrauzepoUam.

SHOOCAMPETTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Coim-
^etore ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Caroor.

S H O

SHOODS, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied
to hulls.

SHOOLARUMBOO, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the province of Dindigul ; 17 miles N.N.W. of
Dindigul.

SHOOLERAMCOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in
the province of Dindigul ; 7 miles N. of Dindigul.

SHOOMTSHA, one of the Kurile idands, the neareft
to Kamtfchatka. The channel between the Lopatka and
this ifland is 15 verlls broad. The length of the ifland
from N.E. to S.W. is 50, and the breadth ^o verfts.
The land is low, with moderate ridges of hills. The eaiterii
coafts, about the middle of the idand, form ffeep (hores and
rocky (helves, and are for fome way into the fea ftudded
with rocks. Here is one, and it is faid that a vein of filver
has been formerly worked. In the centre of the ifland is a
lake, five verfts in circuit, which flows by a ftreamlet into
the fea. In this are caught fine falmon, and feveral other
kinds of fi(h. There are no (tandard trees upon the ifland,
but merely bulhes of alder, willow, and an efpalier kind of
pine, or Siberian cedar, on which grow little cedar-nuts.
The inhabitants are not genuine Kurilcs, but of Kamtftia-
dale defcent ; of thele 46 perfons pay tribute. N. lat. 51'^
25' to 52°. E. long. 156^ 14'.

SHOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 15 miles
S.E. of Koofliaub.

SHOOT, in Agriculture, the young branch of any fort
of plant, which is afforded in one feafon. It alfo fignifies
a young animal of the cattle kind, in fame diftnfts.

Shoot, in the Sea Language. They fay the ballad
(hoots, when it runs over from one fide to another.

SHOOTE, among neat cattle, an affeftion of the bowel
kind, with which calves are often attacked a few days after
calving. The ufual fymptoms are, firft, a colic or pain
that is more or lefs violent, and is frequently very fevere
and dangerous, efpecially when it is contagious. This
colic is terminated, and the calf relieved, by a difcharge
taking place from the bowels ; though this fometimes proves
fatal before the ftioote appears. Secondly, a loathing and
refufing of food, even previous to the difcharge ; which de-
creafes and increafes according to the duration and violence
of the diforder. Where the difeafe prevails, the beft medi-
cine which can be adminiltered is that of eggs and flour
properly blended with oil, melted butter, and anifeed, lin-
feed, or fimilar mucilaginous vegetable matters ; and milk
fimply mulled with eggs may be often given with much
advantage.

SHOOTER'S Hill, in Geography, a hill in the co»nty
of Kent, between London and Dartford.

SHOOTING. See Gunnery and Projectile.
Shooting of Bombs. See Bomb.
Shooting with Air. See Wind-gun.
Shooting, Malicious, in Law. See Mahim.
Shooting of Salts. It is to be obferved, that the figures
arifing from the (hooting of diffolved falts are not conftantly
the fame, but vary according to different circumftances, fuch
as when they happen to flioot more or lefs hallily, or in dif-
ferent proportions of liquor. See Salt.

Shooting Point, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on
the fouth coaft of the county of Fife, and caft fide of
Largo bay.

SHOOTS, Hot. See Hot.
Shoot, IVater. See Water.

SHOP-LIFTER, a perfon who, on pretence of buy-
ing goods or otherwife, takes an opportunity to fteal them ;
and if the goods amount to the value of five (hillings,

though

S H O

S H O

ttioiigh no perfon be in the (hop, he is guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy, by lo & li W. III. c. 22.

SHORAB, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Segeltan ; 30 miles W. of Meimend.

SHORAY, a town of Hindooltan, in the circar of
Chanderec ; 22 miles N. of Kimlafla.

SHORE, Jane, in Biography, the concubine of king
Edward IV., was the wife of Mr. Matthew Shore, a gold-
fmith in Lombard-itreet, London. Hiltorians reprefent
her as extremely beautiful, chearful, and generous. The
king, it is faid, was no lefs captivated with her temper than
her perfon ; (he never made ufe of her influence over him
to the prejudice of any one ; her importunities were always
in favour of the unfortu.iate. After the death of Ed-
ward, fhe attached herfelf to the lord Haltings ; and when
Richard III. cut off that nobleman as an obftacle to his
ambitious fchemes, Jane Shore was arretted as an accom-
plice, on the accufation of witchcraft. For this (he was
doomed to a public penance, and to the lofs of her pro-
perty. She was alive, buf probably in a very wretched
ftate, under the reign of Henry VIII. when (lie was feen
by fir Thomas More, poor and old, and without the fmalleit
trace of her former beauty. Mr. Rowe, in his tragedy of
Jane Shore, has adopted the popular ftory, related in the
ballad, of her perilhing with hunger in a place wherie
Shoreditch now Hands. But Stow allures us, that this
place had its name long before her time.

Shore, John, a famous performer on the trumpet.
Matthias Shore, the father of John, and Colley Gibber's
wife, was fergeant-trumpet, in which office he was fuc-
ceeded, firft by his brother William Shore, and afterwards
iiy his fon John. His daughter, Mrs. Gibber, had been a
fcholar of Purcell in finging and playing on the harpfi-
chord ; in the e.\ercife of which talents at home, her con-
queft over the heart of Colley Gibber firft began. Purcell,
from his connexion with the family, and his admiration of
John's performance on the trumpet, took every opportunity
in his power to employ him in the accompaniment of his
longs and other theatric compofitions ; and this accounts
for the frequent ufe he made of that martial and field in-
llrument, even when the fubjeft of the poetry was pacific.
John Shore lived till the year 1753, when he was fucceeded
as fergeant-trumpet, by that admirable performer the late
Mr. Valentine Snow, whofe exquifite tone and fine (hake
mult be llill remembered by many perfons living, who have
heard him at Vauxhall, and in Mr. Handel's oratorios.

Shore, among Builders, &c. See Shoar.

Shore, or Common Shore, a corruption oi fewer. See
•jewers.

Shore, in Agriculture, a fort of artificial drain or courfe
formed in low flat lands for the purpofe of freeing and re-
Keving them from the collefted furface-waters. The want
of (hores is now moft common in walle and unreclaimed lands ;
but it occalionally occurs in thofe of other kinds, in wet
feafons, to the great injury and prejudice of the prevailing
crops, and the future produftivenel's of the land, as the
loitering furface-water can get off in no other way. There
are very great extents of even appropriated lands, in fome
cafes, that are greatly damaged and inconvenienced by
water lodging and ftagnatiiig in the furrows of the ridges
and the ditches, for want of having fulficient proper (liores,
or public drains, for drawing it o(f ; and of public proper
laws and regulations for enforcing the re-opening and
the cleanfing, from time to time, of thofe which have been
formed at former periods ; as well as for the preferving of
the whole always in a fuitably open Hate.

It ie extremely probable, that a large proportion of the

\av fiat lartds of this country, which are now in a fome*
what dry condition, were, in their natural (late, liable to be
at times covered with water. This appears to have been
the cafe, from the compaft gluey compofition of the foil,
and the (ligiit covering of black vegetable earth which
(till forms the lurface of them, where the work of tillage
has not been performed upon them. And, from many of
fuch low flat grafs lands now lying in a tolerably dry ftate,
from large trafts of thofe of the arable kind, whofe foils
are now barely out of the reach of water, which, in wet
feafons, fill their drains and ditches to the brim, as well as
from the lefs admilTible evidence of tradition in low-lying
diftriAs, — it would feem, it is faid, to be equally probable,
that much induftry and exertion have at former periods
been employed, to free the lands of this fort in the country
from the ftate in which nature and time had placed them.

The feudal fyftem is fuppofed to have been particularly
favourable to undertakings of this ufeful kind, and that,
fince its decline, the courts of the manorial defcriptioD,
which fucceeded and furvived it, have contributed to en-
force its beneficial regulations. But that as they have now
for the moft part loll their power, exiftence, and authority,
or where they are Itill continued and retain them, what re-
lates to the bufinefs of public drains and water-courfes, in
their management, is too often negledled and overlooked.
Hence it is noticed by a late writer, that, " relative to this
important department of rural economics and internal
policy, the country may be faid to have been moving, and,
in a general view of it, ftill continues to move, in a retro-
grade direftion."

In a great number of Ctuations, vaft injury and incon*
venience are at prefent fuftained from the want of the (hores,
drains, ditches, and other outlets for drawing off the water
being kept properly open and funk for its difcharge into
the adjoiniiig rivers, brooks, or feas.

Some fufncient power and authority for the regulation of
all matters of this nature (hould certainly exill in every
diftrift of the kingdom ; which is not now the cafe, at
lead to any full and eftcdlual extent, as many moft import-
ant benefits and advantages would necelTarily refult from it,
in the management and improvement of lands, as well as
in the increafe of the produce of it.

It has been fuggefted, that a great deal may be effefted
in this way, by the having recourfe to the appointment of
juries for the condufting of the bufinefs of Jlirtres and
•water-courfes, wherever there are the flighteft remains of the
exiftence of manorial courts. And that, even where there
is nothing of this fort to be met with, it would not fail to
have a good effeft, in many cafes, where the lands are con-
fiderable, to have flunding ivquefls, chofen from among the
neighbouring tenantry in an annual or other manner, for
the purpofe of directing the proper regulation of the
public Jhores, drains, 'waler-courfes, and other modes of
conveying away the fuperabundant water from the land.

Shore, Sea, is a general name tor tlie fea-coaft of any
counti-y. A bold fiiore is a coalt which is fteep and
abrupt, fo as to admit the clofeft approach of (hipping
without expofing them to the danger of being ilranded.

The (hores of the fca are divided, by count Marfigli,
into three portions, according to whicii, all his dcfcriptions,
in his account of the bafoii of the lea, arc given. The
firft part of the (liore is that trad of land to whicli the
fea juft reaches in llorms and high tides, but which it never
covers ; the fecond part of the (hore is that which is covered
in high tides and llorms, but is dry at other times ; and
the third is the dclcent from this, which is always covered
with water.

The

S H O

The Jirjl part is only s continuation of the continent,
and fuffers no alteration from the neighbourhood of the
fea, except that it is rendered fit for the growth of fome
planU, and wholly unfit for that of others, by the faline
iteams and impregnations ; and it is fcarcely to be conceived
by any but thofe who have obferved it, how far inland
the efFefts of the fea reach, fo as to make the earth proper
for plants, which will not grow without this influence,
there being feveral plants frequently found on high hills
and dry places, at three, four, and more miles from the fea,
which yet would not grow, unlefs in the neighbourhood of
it, nor will ever be found elfewhere.

The fecond part or portion of the fliores is much more
affefted by the fea than the former, being frequently wafhed
and beaten by it. Its produftions are rendered fait by the
water, and it is covered with fand, or with the fragments of
fhells in form of fand, and in fome places with a tartareous
matter depofited from the water, and the colour of this
whole extent of ground is ufually duflvy and dull, efpecially
where there are rocks and Itones, and thefe are covered with
a flimy matter.

The third part of the fliores is more affefted by the fea
than either of the others, and is covered with an uniform
crutt of the true nature of the bottom of the fea, except
that plants and animals have their refidence in it, and the
decayed parts of thefe alter it a little.

Shore of Muchul, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on
the E. coalt of the county of Kincardine, fo called from
a village near the coaft ; 3 miles N. of Stonehaven.

SHORED ITCH, St. Leonard, a parifli in the hun-
dred of Ofl'ulllon, and county of Middlefex, England, is
fituated in the northern fuburbs of London, and forms
one of the twenty-three out-pariihes of Middlefex and
Surrey, which are mentioned in the bills of mortality.
This parilh is of great extent, and is divided into four
liberties, called the liberties of Churchend, Hoxton, Holy-
well, and Moorfields. The church, a modern edifice, was
opened for divine fervice in Augull, 1740, having been
erefted in place of a very old church, which Ellis, author
of the " Hillory and Antiquities of Shoreditch," Hates
to have been of Saxon origin. The afcent to the church
IE by a double flight of ilcps leading under a portico, fup-
ported by four Doric columns. The body is plain in its
architefture, but is well lighted by fpacious windows. The
fteeple, which rifes to a very confiderable height, has rather
a handfome appearance. In the old church were a variety
of monuments and brafles in memory of perfoiis of dillin-
guifhed rank ; among whom were the countefs of Weft.
morland (daughter to Edward, duke of Buckingham),
who dieJi in 1553; Eleanor, countefs of Rutland, who
died in 155 1 ; and two fons of the faid countefs of Rut-
land J but none of thofe in the new church poflefs any in-
tereft. This parifh abounds with alms-houfes, eftabliftied
either by pubhc city companies or by private individuals.
In Holywell was anciently a priory for nuns of the
Bsnediftine order, which was founded early in the twelfth
century, and poflefTed a revenue of 293/. per annum at the
time of the dilfolution. According to the parliamentary
returns of 1811, this parifti contained 7658 houfes and
43,930 inhabitants. The Hiftory and Antiquities of the
Parifh of St. Leonard Shoreditch, by Henry Ellis, quarto,
1797.

SHOREHAM, New, a borough and market-town in
the half hundred of Filhergate, rape of Bramber, and
county of Suflex, England, is fituated upon the coaft of
the Englifti Channel, at the dillance of about 6 miles W.

S H O

from Brighthelmftone, and 55 miles S. by W. from London.
This town is indebted for Us origin to the decay of Old
Shoreham, which is now a very trifling village, but ap-
pears to have been a place of confiderable importance in
ancient times. New Shoreham is a borough by prefcrip-
tion, and has fent members to parliament fince the year
129J, the 23d year of the reign of Edward I. In 1771 it
became confpicuous in the annals of electioneering, by the
developement of a remarkable fcene of corruption praftiied
in the elcdfion of members for the parliament then ailembled.
The returning officer having returned a candidate with only
37 votes, in prejudice to another who had 87, of which he had
rejected 76, without afligning any fatisfaclory reafon for fo
doing, was called upon to account for hi? conduct at the bar
of the houfe of commons; whenhedefendedhimfelf, by Hating
that thofe whom he had queried formed part of a fociety,
called the Clinltian club, the oftenfible objeft of which was
only a mafli to cover its real one, the fetting the borough
to fale to the highelt bidder. In conlequence of thefe afler-
tions, the houfe rcfolved ilfelf into a committee to inquire
into the truth ; and beui^; fully fatisfied on that head, after
a patient inveftigation, it was refolved to incapacitate the
members of the club from voting at eleftions in future.
An aft was accordingly pafled foon afterwards, by which
69 perions were disfranchifed, and the right of voting was
declared to belong to every freeholder, above 21 years of
age, " who fliall have, within the rape of Bramber, a free-
hold of the clear yearly value of forty fhillings ; and in fuch
perfons as by the ufage of the borough have, or fhall here-
after have, a right to vote at fuch eledlions." By this ex-
tenfion of the eleftive franchife, the number of voters hag
increafed from about 200 to 1200 perfons.

The church of New Shoreham is a curious and interefting
fpecimen of ancient Norman architefture. At prefent only
the eaft end is fitced up and appropriated to divine fervice,
as the nave, or part weft ward of the tower, has been entirely
deilroyed. It confifted of a nave, tranfept, tower, and
choir ; and by its ftyle of architefture, appears to have
been built near the end of the twelfth century. See a
beautiful engraving of it in Cooke's " Southern Coall of
England."

New Shoreham is governed by two conftables, annually
eleSed, who are the returning officers. The market-day is
Saturday, weekly ; and there is a fair on the 25th of July.
It was formerly a town of more relative note than at pre-
fent, and had a priory of Carmehte or White Friars,
founded by fir John Mowbray, knt. ; as alfo an hofpital
dedicated to St. James. It is chiefly remarkable, however,
for being built upon the fpot where Ella, the Saxon, landed,
with fupplies from Germany in aid of his countrymen. Hen-
gift and Horfa. According to the parliamentary returns
of 18,11, the parifii contains 168 houfes, and 770 inha-
bitants. Hiftory of the Boroughs of Great Britain, and
the Cinque Ports, 3 vols. 8vo. 1792. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. xiv. by F. Shoberl, 181 3.

Shoreham, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of
Vermont, and county of Addifon, on the E. fide of lake
Champlain ; containing 2033 inhabitants.

SHOREHAVEN, a fea-port on the fouth coaft of
the ifland of Stromloe, with a good harbour, called Tros.
N. lat. 61° 40'. E. long. 11° 7'.

SHORL, in Mineralogy. See ScHORl..

SHORLING and MoRLiNG, in our Old Writers, wwds
ufed to diftinguifh fells uf fheep ;Jhorllng being the fells
after the fleeces are fhorn off the fheep's back ; and marling
the fells flead off after they die or are killed. In fome
parts of England they uuderftand by ijiarling, a fheep

whofe

S H O

S H O

whofe fleece is (horn off ; and by a morling, a flieep that
dies.

SHORN Velvet. See Velvet.

SHORT, Thomas, in Biography, a phyfician of the early-
part of the lall century, and theauthor of many works relating
to chemiilry, meteorology, and medicine. Few particulars
are recorded of his life, which feems to have been fpent
more in the purfuit of fcience, than in the excrcife of his
profefTion. He was a member of the Royal Society. The
following are the principal works which he left. " Me-
moir on the Natural Hiftory of Medicinal Waters," 1725.
"A Didcrtation on Tea," 1730. " Natural Hiftory of
the Mineral Waters of Yorkihirc, Lincolnfhire, and Derby-
fliire," 1733. " A General Chronological Hiftory of the
Air, Weather, Seafons, Meteors, &c. for the Space of
250 Years," 1749. " Difcourfes on Tea, Sugar, Milk,
made Wines, Spirits, Punch, Tobacco, &c." 1749.
" New Obfervations, Natural, Moral, Civil, Political, and
Medical, on Bills of Mortality," 1750. See Eloy, Dift.
Hift. and the Works of Short.

Short, James, an eminent optician, was born at Edin-
burgh in the year 17 10. At the age of ten he loft his
parents, and being left in a Hate of mdigence, he was ad-
mitted into Heriot's Hofpital, where he foon (hewed a fine
mechanical genius, by conftrudling for himfclf a number of
curious articles with common knives, or fuch other inftru-
ments as he could procure. At the age of twelve he was
removed from the hofpital to the High-fchool, where he
(hewed a confiderable tafte for claflical learning, and he
foon became at the head of his forms. He was intended
for the church, but after attending a courfe of theological
leftures, he gave up all thoughts of a profclTion, which he
found little fuited to his talents, and from this period he
devoted his whole time to mathematical and mechanical
purfuits. He was pupil to the celebrated Maclaurin, who
perceiving the bent of his genius, encouraged him to pro-
fecute thofe particular ftudies for which he feemed bed
qualified by nature. Under the eye of his preceptor he
began, in 1732, to conftrudl Gregorian telelcopes ; and, as
the profcfTor oblerved, by attending to the figure of his
fpecuhn, he was enabled to give them larger apertures, and
to carry them to greater perfeftion, than had ever been
done before him.

In 1736 Mr. Short was invited to London by queen
Caroline, to inftrudl William, duke of Cumberland, in the
mathematics ; and on his appointment to this office, he was
elefted a member of the Royal Society, and patronized by
the earls of Macclesfield and Morton. In the year 1739
he accompanied the former to the Orkney idands, where
he was employed in making a furvcy of that part of Scot-
land. On his return to London he eftablilhed himfelf as
an optician, and in 1743, he was commiffioned by lord
Thomas Spencer to make a rc(le£lor of twelve-feet focus,
for which he received 600 guineas. He afterwards made
feveral other tclefcopes of the fame focal diftance, with
improvements and higher magnifiers: and in 1752 he com-
pleted one for tlie king of Spain, for which, with the whole
apparatus, he received I 200/. This was the nobleft inftru-
ment of the kind that had ever been conftrufted, and has
probably not been furpafied, Hnlefs by the grand telefcopes
manufaftured by Dr. Herfchel.

Mr. Short was accullomed to vifit the place of his na-
tivity once every two or three years during his rcfidence in
London, and in the year 1766 he paid his laft vifit to Scot-
land. He died in June 1768, after a very (hort illnefs,
when he was in tlie 58th year of his age. His eminence
as an artift is univerfally admitted, and he is (pokcn of by

Vol, XXXIL

thofe who knew him from his youth upwards, as a man of

virtue and very amiable manners.

Short Accent, in Grammar. See Accent.

Short Crooks, in Agriculture, are a fort of crooks,
which are formed of bent pieces of wood of the oak or
elm kind, and fo contrived as to be fixed on the horfe's
back^ the ends or crooks turning up, fo as to fecure the
loads on them. They are in ufe in the counties of Devon
and Cornwall, in the latter of which they have both (hort
and long crooks, as they term them, which are made ufe
of for carrying (lieaf-corn, hay, faggot, biUct-wood, (late,
and flag-ftones. They are a relic of the old mode of
carrying loads in hilly diftrifts. Single-horfe carts would
probably anfwer the purpofe in a far better way. See
Cart.

Short Grafs, in Gardening, a term applied to the
pieces of grals which are kept in a continually mown,
Ihort, clofe (late, as on lawns, and in pleafure-grounds, or
other fituations about country refidences. The portions of
mown or fhort grafs about feats and houfes of the above
fort in the modern improved modes of laying out pleafure-
grounds, are moilly much more confined in their hmits than
was formerly the cale ; as they are not only troublefome,
but very expenfive in keeping in that proper order aF.d neat-
nefs whicli is necefiary for the purpofe of ornamental
effeft, and the utility of walking upon them as occaCon
may require; and becaufe a much better and more natural
effedl is found capable of being produced without them ;
while at the fame time the lands can be rendered ufeful in
fupporting animals, and of courfe no lofs be fuftained.

Where pieces of fhort grafs are, however, formed, and
to be kept in order, it will be necefiary to roll, mow, and
(weep up the grafly litter in a clean neat manner from
them once or oftcner in the courfe of the week during the
fpring feafon, and frequently at other times. The rcfufe
litter, tlius procured, may be employed for different garden
purpofes, where it cannot be converted to better ufes. See
Lawn and V i,Y.s^\i\\v.-Ground.

It is moftly in too dirty a date to be applied as food
for any fort of cattle (lock.

Short- Gra/} Scythe, that fort of tool of this kind
which i:; employed in mowing (hort grafs. Scythes for
this ufe (liould be rather (liort, and laid in the (haft with
the edges low, in order that the grafs may be cut in a clofe
neat manner, without leaving any fcythe ridges or bulks, ag
they are ufually termed. The fwaths or fcythe cafls, in
performing this fort of mowing, are commonly made nar-
row, in the intention, that the grafs may be well and levelly
cut out of the bulks or parts under the Iwaths, and by
fuch means have a more neat and even appearance. See
Scythe.

Short Smalls, in Agriculture, a fort of oat, which is fo
named on account of its remarkable (liortnefs. It is much
grown in the county of Eftex, and is a thick, full, weighty
fort, that fuccecds well on mod lands of the more dry
kind. See Oats.

Short Sails, in a Mun of War, are the fame with_/f^A/.
ing fails, being the fore-lail, main-fail, and fore-top-(ail,
which are all that are iifed in fight, lelt the reft Ihould be
fired and fpoiled : befides the trouble of managing them
when a (liip gives chafe to another.

If a chafe (hews a difpofition to figlit, they fay the chafe
flrips into her Oiort fails, i. e. puts out her colours in the
poop, her flag at the main-top, and her dreamers or pen-
dants at the yard's arms ; furls her fprit-fail, pecks her
niizcn, and flings her main-yard.

'I'ojhorten Sail. See Sail.

4 I SHORT-

S H O

S H O

SHORTFORD, q. d. fore-clofe, an ancient cuttom in
the city of Exeter, when the lord of the fee cannot be an-
fwered rent due to him out of his tenement, and no dillrefs
can be levied for the fame. The lord is then to come to the
tenement, and there take a ftone, ©r fome other dead thing-,
off the tenement, and bring it before the mayor and bailiff,
and thus he muff do ieven quarter-days fucceflively, and if on
the feventh quarter-day the lord is not fatisfied his rent and
arrears, then the tenement {hall be adjudged to the lord to
hold the fame a year and a day ; and forthwith proclamation
is to be made in the court, that if any man claims any title
to the faid tenement, he muff appear within the year and day
next following, and fatisfy the lord of the faid rent and
arrears : but if no appearance be made, and the rent not
paid, the lord comes again to the court, and prays that, ac-
cording to the cuffom, the faid tenement be adjudged to him
in his demefne as of fee, which is done accordingly, fo that
the lord hath from tlieuceforth the faid tenement, with the
appurtenances, to him and his heirs.

SHORT-JOINTED, in the Manege. A horfe is faid
to be ffiort -jointed, that has a ftiort pattern ; when tills jonit,
or the paffern, is too ffiort, the horfe is fubjeft to have his
fore-legs from the knee to the cornet all in a ffraight line.
Comm.only fhort-jointeJ horfes do not manege fo well as the
long-jointed ; but out of the manege, the fhort-jointed are
the beff for labour or fatigue, efpecially thofe of the farm
breed.

SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS, Myopia, a defeft in the
conformation of the eye, wherein the cryffalline, &c. being
too convex, the rays reflefted from different objefts are re-
frafted too much, and "made to converge too faff, fo as to
unite before they reach the retina, by which means vifion is
rendered dim and confufed. See Myops.

A learned author thinks it probable, that out of fo great
a number of fhort-fighted perfons as are daily to be met with,
few are born fo, for it generally grows upon young people
at the age of twenty or twenty-five, and therefore might
poffibly be prevented by uling their eyes, while young, to
all forts of conformations, that is, by often looking through
glaffes of all forts of figures, and by reading, writing, or
working with fpeftacles of feveral degrees of convexity ;
for whatever be the powers by which the eye conforms itfelf
to diffinft vifion, they may poffibly grow weak, or lofe their
extent one way or other, for want of variety of exercife.
It feems an opinion without foundation, to think that fuch
an exercife of the eyes can aiiywife injure them, provided
due care be taken to avoid looking at objefts that are too
bright.

Short-fightednefs may come by accident ; of this we have
a remarkable inffance, mentioned by Dr. Briggs in his Oph-
thalmographia, of a perfon upwards of feventy years old,
who had ufed fpeftacles fur ten years, and yet by catching
cold, he fuddenly became fo ffiort-fighted, that he could not
dillinguifh objefts three feet off', and after the cold and de-
fluxion were cured, he continued to read the fmallett print
without fpeftacles for many years.

Dr. Smith mentions a young gentleman, who became
Jhort -lighted immediately after coming out of a cold bath,
in which he did not totally immerfe hinifelf, and has ever fince
ufed a concave glafs for many years.

It is commonly thought that Ihort-fightednefs wears off in
old age, on account of the eye becoming flatter : but the
learned doftor queftions whether this be matter of faft, or
hypothefis only.

It is remarkable, that fhort-fighted perfons commonly
write a fmall hand, and love a fmall print, becaufe they can
fee more of it at a view. That it is cuitomary with them
II

not to look at the perfon they converfe with, becaufe they
cannot well fee the motion of his eyes and features, and are
therefore attentive to his words only. That they fee more
diffinftly, and fomewhat farther oft, by a ffrong light than
by a weak one ; becaufe a itrong light caufes a contraftion
of the pupil, and confequently of the pencils, both here and
at the retina, which leffens their mixture, and confequently
the apparent coiifufion ; and, therefore, to fee more diffinftly,
they almoft clofe their eye-lids, for which reafon they were
anciently called myopes. Smith's Optica, vol. ii. Rem. p. lo.
&c.

Dr. Jurin obferves, that perfons who are much and long
accuftomed to view objefts at fmall diftances, as ftudentsin
general, watch-makers, gravers, painters in miniature, &c.
fee better at fmall diftances, and not fo well at great diffances,
as the relt of mankind. The reafon is, that in the eye, as
well as in other parts, the mulcles, by conttant exercife, are
enabled to contraft themfelves with more ftrength, and by
difufe are brought to Icfs llrength. Hence, in the perfons
before-mentioned, the greater mufcular ring of the uvea con-
trafts more eafily and ffrongly, and the cornea more readily
obeys the contraftion of the ring, whence they fee better at
fmall diftances. And the cornea, by being thus often and
long bent into a greater convexity, does by degrees lofe fome-
thing nf its elafticity, fo as not to return to its natural elafti-
city, when the miilcular ring ceafes to aft upon it. This is
one caufe of their not feeing fo well at great diffances : alfo
the ligamentum ciliare, being feldom employed to leffen the
convexity of the capfula, does by degrees become Icfs capa-
ble of performing that office : and the capfula being feldom
drawn out, and put into tenfion, muff lole fomething of its
diftenfile quality, fo as lels eafily to comply with the aftion
of the ligament. And this is another caufe of their not feeing
fo well at great diftances. Jurin, Efiay on dift. and indift.
Vifion,

The ordinary remedy for ftiort- fightednefs is a concave
lens, held betore the eye, which making the rays diverge, or
at leaft diminifhing much of their convergency, makes
amends for the too great convexity of the cryftalline.

Dr. Hook fuggells another remedy. Finding that many
fhort-fighted perlons are but little helped by concaves, he
recommends a convex glafs, placed between the objeft and
the eye, by means of which the objeft may be made to appear
at any diftance from the eye : and confequently, all objefts
may be thereby made to appear at any diftance from the eye,
fo that the ffiort-fighted eye ftiall contemplate the pifture of
the objeft in the fame manner as if the objeft itfelf were in
the place. It is true, the image will appear inverted, but
we have expedients to remedy this too ; for, in reading,
there needs nothing but to hold the book upfide down.
To write, the beff way, in this cafe, will be, for the perfon
to learn to do it upfide down. For dilfaiit objefts,. the
doftor afferts, from his own experience, that with a httle
praftice in contemplating inverted objefts, one gets as good
an idea of them as if feen in their natural pofture.

SHOSTACK, in Commerce, a money of account in
Poland and Hungary. In Hungary, a ftioftack is 2 im-
perial grofchen, or 6 creutzers ; an imperial grofche, or
kayfer grofche, is 2 polturats, 3 creutzers, or 12 pfenings ;
a polturat is 6 pfenings, and a creutzer 4 pfenings. A
Hungarian grofche is worth 2 creutzers in Upper Hungary,
but 2| creutzers in Lower Hunga^ry : thus, 5 grofchen in
Upper Hungary, or 6 grofchen in Lower Hungary,
=: I kayfer grofche. A rixdollar of account is worth 1 5
imperial florin, i|. Hungarian florin, 15 ftioftackp, 30 im-
perial grofchen, or 90 creutzers. An imperial florin is 10
flioftacks, or 20 imperial grofchen, and a Hungarian florin,

8 J fttof-

S H O

8y {hoftacks, or fj^ imperial grofchen ; thus, 7 florins of
the empire = 8 Hungarian florins.

In Poland, the florin of 30 grofchen or grofz, each of
which is divided into 18 pfenings, contains 2^ fhoftacks,
90 (hillings, or 270 pfenings. A flioftack is worth 12
grofchen, or 36 fchiUings ; a grofche, 2 fchillings ; a fchil-
ling, 3 pfenings. Kelly's Cambift.

SHOT, Indian, in Botnny. See Canna.

Shot, in the Military Arl, includes all forts of ball or
bullets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the piftol. See
Bullet, Cannon, &c.

Thofe for cannon are of iron ; thofe for iiiufkets and
piftols are of lead.

Shot, for ordnance, efpecially in the fea fervicc, zre of
(everal forts : as.

Shot, Round, balls or globes of iron fitted to the bore
of the piece.

Shot, Bar, is formed of two bullets, or rather half
bullets, joined together by an iron bar, ferving to cut down
mafts, fails, &c.

Shot, Cafe, Chain, Grape, Langrel, Random, Star,
and Trundle, fee the refpedtive articles. See alfo Fire-
Arms.

Shot, for fowling, is otherwife called hail, by reafon of
its figure and fize.

The method of calling it is as follows : the lead being
melted, llirred, and flcimmed, a quantity of powdered yel-
low orpiment is ilrewed in it, as much as will lie on a fliilling,
to twelve or fifteen pounds of lead ; the whole being well
ftirred, the orpiment will flame.

To judge whether there be orpiment enough in, a little of
the lead is dropped into a glafs of water, and if the drops
prove rpund, and without tails, there is orpiment enough,
and the degree of heat is as it fliould be.

This done, a copper plate, hollow in the middle, and
three inches in diameter, bored through with thirty or forty
fmall holes, according to the fize of the fhot, is placed on
an iron frame, over a tub of water, four inches above the
water ; the hollow part is to be very thin ; on this plate are laid
burning coals, to keep the melted lead m fi:fi(in. The lead
is now poured gently, with a ladle, on the middle of the plate,
and it will make its way through the holes in the bottom of
the plate into the water in round drops.

Great care is taken to keep the lead on the plate in its pro-
per degree of heat : if too cold, it will flop the holes ; and
if too hot, the drops will crack and fly.

The fliot, thus made, are dried over a gentle fire, always
ftirring them that they do not melt ; this done, the greater
are feparaled from the fmaller by palling them through fieves
for that purpofe.

Shot, Fnjh. See Fresh Shot.

Shot, Hip. Sec Hip Shot.

Shot, Water. See Water Shot.

Shot of a Cable, on Ship-board, is the fplicing of two
cables together, that a fliip may ride fafe in deep waters and
in great roads, for a fliip will ride caficr by one fliot of a cable,
than by three fhort cables out a-head.

SHOT-FLAGON, a fort of flagon fomewhat bigger
than ordinary, which, in fome counties, particularly Dcrby-
fhire, it is the culloin for the hofl to fcrvc his guelts in, after
they have drank above a (hilling.

SHOTS, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied to
young llore-fwine.

SHOTT, in Geography, a town of Egypt ; 3 miles S. of
Siut.

Shott, a large valley or plain of Africa, in the country

S H O

of Sahara, on the borders of Algiers ; 50 miles in length,
and about 1 2 in breadth. The word commonly figmfies the
fea-fhore, or the banks of fome lake or river ; but the mean
ing here is fomewhat varied, and denotes the borders or area
rather of fuch a plain, as, according to the feafons of the year,
is either covered with fait, or overflowed with water. Se-
veral parts of the Shott confift of a light oozy foil, which,
after iudden rains, or the overflowings of the adjacent rivers,
are changed into fo many quickfands, and occafion no fmall
danger to the unwary traveller. La Croix was badly in-
formed, in affirming that all the rivers of this kingdom run
from fouth to north : fince, befides feveral others in a quite
contrary direftion, we have no fewer than five, and thofe
very confiderable Itreams, which empty themielves from the
northward into the Shott ; 100 miles S.W. of Conitantina.

SHOTTEN Herrings. See Herring.

Shotten, Blood. See '&IMOD-Sholten.

SHOTTSWOOD, in Geography, a town of America,
in New Jerfey, on the Rariton ; 4 miles E. of Brunfwick.

SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesley, in Biography, a Britifli
naval hero, was born about the year 1650, of parents in
rather humble circumilances, but who having expeftationi
from a relation, whofe name was Cloudefley, they thought
fit to beitow that name on their fon, as a probable means of
recommending him to his relation's notice. Neverthelefs,
being perhaps difappointed in their plans, they put out
their fon apprentice to a flioe-makcr, to which bufinefs he
applied fome years, when lie bctonk himfelf to the fea,
under the proteftion of fir John Narborough, witli whom
he went out in no higher capacity than that of cabin-
boy. He foon, by talents and (leady application to the art
of navigation, became an able feaman, and obtained prefer-
ment, through the favour of fir CKriilopher Myngs. After
the clofe of what is called, in hiltory, the fecond Dutch
war. Shovel went out with fir .lohn Narborough, who was
deputed to check the piratical ftate of Tripoli. In the
fpring of 1674 fir .Tohn arrived before Tripoli, and being
ordered to try ncgoriation rather than force, he fent Shovel
with a meilage to the Dey, dcfiring reparation for the evils
already fullained, and fecurity for the time to come. The
Dey, defpifing his youth, treated him with difrefpeft, and
fent him back with an equivocal anfwer. Mr. Shovel, on
his return, proved that he had not been an unobfervant
fpeftator on fhore ; and the admiral, pleafed with his re-
marks, fent him again with a fecond meffage. He was
treated with more rudenefs than before, which he bore with
apparent lubmiflion, and made life of it as an excufe for re-
maining longer on fhore ; and on his return he allured the
admiral, that it was very praiticable to burn all the fhips in
the harbour. Sir John immediately appointed him to the
enterprife, which he executed with the molt complete fuc-
cefs. The account which the admiral fent home refpefting
the conduft of this young man was io honourable to his
talents and courage, that in the courfe of a few months he
had the command of the Sapphire, a fifth-rate, given him ;
and foon after was raifed (lill higher in the fcrvice, by being
appointed to the James Galley, a fourth-rate, in which he
continued to the death of king Charles II., by whom he
had been raifed.

By Jameb^ II. captain Shovel was preferred to the com-
mand of the Dover, a fourth-rate, in which he was at the
time of the revolution. This event was fortunate for captain
Shovel, as well as very agreeable to his way of thinking ;
for being in almoll every engagement during the reign of
William, he became contpienous, and made his rife in tiic
fervicc as quick as it was pofTible to be eftedled. He waa
in the battle of Bantry-Bay, in the Edgar, a third-rate, and
4 I 2 gave

S H O

gave fuch fignal marks of courage and conduft, that when
the king came to Portfmouth, he was pleafed, on the re-
commendation of admiral Herbert, who for that aftion was
raifed to the dignity of earl of Torrington, to confer on
him the honour of knighthood ; a title which was, by being
more feleft, of much more worth than it now is. In June,
l6go, fir Cloudefley Shovel was employed in convoying the
king and his army into Ireland. William, for his good
conduft on this occafion, appointed him rear-admiral of the
blue, and delivered to him the commiffion with his own
hands.

In the following year fir Cloudefley Shovel attended the
king to Holland; and in 1692 he was declared admiral of
the red, and again accompanied his majelty to Holland ;
and on his return he joined admiral Ruilel with the grand
fleet, and had a large (hare in the danger and glory of the
celebrated battle of La Hogue. When it was thought re-
quifite that the fleet (hould be put under command of joint
admirals in the iucceeding year, he was one ; and, fays the
judicious and cautious Campbell, " if there had been no-
thing more than this joint commiffion, we might well enough
account from thence for the misfortunes which happened in
our affairs at fea, during the year 1693." The joint ad-
mirals were of different parties ; but as they were all good
feamen, and probably meant well to their country, though
they did not agree in the manner of ferving it, it is molt
likely «' that, upon mature confideration of the pofture
things were thpn in, the order they had received from court,
and the condition of the fleet, which was not either half
manned or half viftualled, the admirals might agree that a
cautious execution of the inllruclions which they had re-
ceived was a method as fafe for the nation, and more fo for
themfelves, than any other they could take." On this oc-
cafion fir Cloudefley Shovel was at firft an objeft of popular
odium ; but when the affair came to be Itriftly invelUgated
in parliament, he gave fo clear and fatisfaftory an account
of the matter, that it fatisfied the people that the com-
manders were not to blame ; and that if there was treachery,
it muft have originated in perfons in office at home. The
character of fir Cloudefley remaining unimpeached, we find
him again at fea, in 1694, under lord Berkley, in the ex-
pedition to Camaret-bay, in which he diflinguiflied himfelf
by his dextrous embarkation of the land forces, when they
failed on that unfortunate expedition ; as alfo when, on
their return to England, it was deemed neceflary to fend
the fleet again upon the coaft of France, to bombard
Dieppe, and other places. From this time till 1702, Shovel
was not engaged in any expedition of moment, when he was
fcnt to Vigo, after the capture of that place by fir George
Rooke, to bring home the fpoils of the Spanifh and French
fleet. He arrived on the 16th of Oftober, and carried oft
whatever could poffibly be brought home, burnt the reft,
and arrived fafely in the Downs on the 7th of November ;
which was confidered as fo remarkable a fervice by the
court, that, though he was no favourite at court, it was
refolved to employ him in affairs of the greateft confequence ;
and he fo effeftually crufhcd the power of the French at fea,
that they did not afterwards dare to meet the Britifh fleet ;
and on account of the great fhare which he had in the vic-
tory obtained the 13th of Augull 1704, he was appointed
rear-admiral of the fleet of England in the January fol-
lowing. He performed many other afts, which were ufeful
to his country, and important to the caufe in which it was
then engaged. His lall a£l was the defence of the coalls of
Italy, of which, when he had taken due care, he left a fuf-
ficient force at Gibraltar for the purpofe, and fet fail with
ten ftiips of the line, five frigates, four fire-fhips, a floop,

S H O

and a yacht, for England. On the 22d of OAober, 1 707,
he came to foundings, and in the following morning he had
ninety fathom water. About noon he lay by, but at fix
in the evening he made fail again, and ftood away under
courfes, believing that he faw the hght on St. Agnes, one
of the iflands of Scilly. Soon after this feveral of his fhips
made fignal of diftrefs, as he himfelf did. It was with dif-
ficulty that fir George Byng, in the Royal Anne, faved
him.felf, having one of the rocks under her main chains.
Several others run the raoft imminent rilks ; but the ad-
miral's fhip, and fome more, pcrithed with all aboard.
How this accident happened has never been properly ac-
counted for. The body of fir Cloudefley Shovel was
thrown afliore the next day upon the illand of Scilly,
where, falling into the hands of fome filhermen, he was
ftripped and buried. Among their plunder was an emerald
ring of great value, which, being fliewn about, made a
great noife all over the iflaud, and led to the difcovery of
the body. This was now taken up, and conveyed to Lon-
don, when it was interred with great folemnity in Weil-
miniler Abbey. To his memory an cxpenfive monument
of white marble was erefted, by diredlion of her majefty,
on which was the following infcription : " Sir Cloudefley
Shovel, knt., rear-admiral of Great Britain, admiral and
commander-in-chief of the fleet ; the jufl rewards of long
and faithful fervices, he was defervedly beloved of his
country, and elteemed, though dreaded, by the enemy,
who had often experienced his condudl and courage. Being
fhipvvrecked on the coafts of Scilly, in his voyage from
Toulon, on the 22d of Oftober 1707, at night, in tlie 57th
year of his age. His fate was lamented by all, but efpe-
cially the fea-faring part of the nation, to whom he was a
very worthy example. His body was flung on the fhore,
and buried with others in the fands ; but being foon after
taken up, was placed under this monument, whicii his royal
millrefs has caufed to be ercfted, to commemorate Heady
loyalty and extraordinary virtues." See Stockdalc's edition
of Campbell's Lives of the Admirals.

Shovel, in ylgricuhure, a well-known implement, con-
fiiling of a long handle, and a broad blade, with raifed
edges.

Shovel, Cajilng, a tool fomewhat of the wooden fhovel
kind, which is fometimes employed in cleaning or dreffing
corn. It is very ufeful in this mode, where the wind is
trufted to for managing the bufinefs.

Shovel, Draining, a fort of tool of this nature, fre-
quently employed for the purpofe of clearing out the loofe
crumbly earthy materials from the bottom parts of drains.
It is formed with a crooked handle, the edges of the fhovel
part being turned up on the fides, in order to prevent the
materials which are fcraped up from falling off. In confe-
quence of the crookednefs of the handle, the workman is
prevented from ftooping fo much as would otherwife be the
cafe, in performing the work. There are different con-
ftruftions of this implement made ufe of, in managing bufi-
nefs of this fort.

A fcoop is likewife fometimes made ufe of, both with
and without this implement, for the purpofe of fcooping up
and clearing out all the crumb":, loofe mould, and other
fimilar materials, from the bottom parts of drains, before
they are laid or filled with fpray, brufh-wood, or any other
fubftance, in order that they may be quite clear and free of
any fort of obftruftion. The tool is formed in a crooked
fcoop-like manner at the head, and of different fhapes, fizes,
and breadths, according to the nature of the drains and
openings in which it is to be employed ; being, in working,
drawn or puftied along the bottoms of the cuts or drains.

S H O

S H O

The handle has alfo occafionally a crooked form, in order
lo eafe the workman in iifing it.

Shovel, Paring, that fort of tool of this kind, which is
employed in fome places for paring off the fvvard or turf
from the furface of ground, in order to burn it. The
fliovel which is ufed in Devonftiire for this purpofe has a
hollow heart-fhaped form in the fliovel part, with a long
handle, which makes it a very powerful implement. The
plate of the mouth part is from nine to ten inches in width,
where the handle is inferted, wliich is made with a confider-
able curve upwards ; the blade is about twelve inches in
length, terminating with a broad angular point, which,
with its fides, are conflantly kept very fharp and keen for
cutting; on the left hand, or land fide of the tool, a fliarp
wing, comb, or coulter, rifes up in an oblique manner, to
cut a:id divide the flice part from the whule ground. This,
however, in confequence of the toughnefs of the furface,
and the impediments prefented by the roots of furze, flag';,
heather, and other fimilar matters, is not unfrequently dif-
penfed with ; the flice being rent or torn off by the work-
man from the fide of the whole ground, while it is cut up
and feparated from the earth below. When a foot or fifteen
inches of the flice rifes upon the handle of the fhovel, it is
feparated from the uncut part of the furface by a fudden
effort or exertion with the tool, and by a turn of it is
whelmed or laid over the mould fide upwards. Where the
(late and circumflances of the furface will permit, as by not
being too much loaded and encumbered with the above forts
of plants, the effort of feparating the cut from the uncut
fward may in all cafes be much leliened, by having the flice,
which is next to be pared, cut or nicked in fuch lengths as
may be moft convenient to the workmen. And in fome
particular places and fituations of land, the reguh-r nicking
of the flice to be pared from the ground is indeed found in-
difpenfibly ncccflary, as where the ground is of fuch a
moory quality as to render the operation impratlicable with-
out it. In all fuch inltanccs it is, however, probably much
better, as being more convenient and expeditious, to have
the fhovel formed with a cutting wing, by which the whole
may be done at once, without any fort of delay in the bufi-
ncfs. This fijrt of ihovel may be feen at_/ff . 9, in the plate
of paring ploughs.

SilovEi., Spit, an ufeful tool for fome fmall purpofcs.
It is that fort which is often employed in fctting fmall roots
or plants, as thofe of the cultivated faffron, and fome others
of a fimilar nature.

SHOVELER, in Ornithology. See Broad-lealeil
Duck.

SHOVELING, in Jgricuhiire, a term ufed in Ireland
to figiiify the throwing the mould of furrows, in cleaning
them out, over the ridges.

SHOULDER, HuMunus, in yinatomy. See Extre-
mities.

Shoulder, Fracture of, in Svrgery. See Fkactuhe.

Shoulder, Luxation of. See Luxation.

SnovLDKH-Bl.iJf, m Anatomy, a bone of the fhoulder,
of a triangular form, covering the hind part of the ribs,
called by anatomiils the fciipula and omoplata. See Extre-
mities.

SiiouLDER-.B««f. See Extremities.

Shoulder, in the Manege, is the joint of a horfe's fore-
quarters, that joins the end of the fhouldcr-blade with the
extremity of the fore-thigh.

Shoulder of a Branch, is that part of it which begins at
the lower part of the arch of the banquet, ovcr-againll the
middle of tlie fonccau or chaperon, and forms another
'Tch under the banquet. The fhoulder of a branch calls a

greater or leffer circumference, according as it is defigned to
fortify or weaken the branch. See Bridle, Banquet, and
Branches.

SHOULDER-i'^^^f^ Horfes, called in French chevillees, are
fuch as have their fhoulders gourdy, itiff, and almoft with-
out motion. A horfe charged with fhoulders, is one that has
thick, flelhy, and heavy fhoulders.

Shoulder of a Bajiion, in Fortification, is where tlie
face and the flank meet.

SnouLDER-ZJrrtin, in Agriculture, a fort of under drain,
conftrufted with a flioulder on each fide of the cut or open-
ing, fo that fome fort of ftroiig fubllance may be laid over
it, and form an opening or drain for the water below. See
Drain.

Shoulder, in Block-Making, a projeftion made upon the
furface of blocks, pins, &c. by reducing one part to a lefs
fubftance.

SHOULDER-5/oiri, a large fingle block, left nearly fquare
at the lower end, or arfe of the block, and cut Hoping in
the direftion of the flieave. Shoulder-blocks are ufed on the
lower yard-arms, to lead in the topfail-fhects, and on the
topfail-yards, to lead in the top-gallant-fheets ; and by means
of the fhoulder they are kept upright, and prevent the
(heets jambing between the block and the yard : they are
alfo ufed at the lower outer end of the boomkins, to lead in
the fore-tacks.

SiiovLDER-ef- Mutton Sail, a triangular fail, fimilar to the
lateen fail; but attached to a mall iiiltcad of a yard.

SHOULDERING, in Fortification. See Epaule-
ment.

SHOULDERING-PIECE, in BuilJing. See Brac-
ket.

SHOULDER-KNOTS. See Epaulettes.

SHOULDER-PITCHT, in Farriery, is a difeafe in a
horfe, when the pitch or point of the fhoulder is difplaced,
which makes the horfe halt downright.

SHOULDER-SPLAIT, or Shoulder-torx, is a
hurt which befalls a horfe by fome dangerous flip, by which
the fhoulder is parted from the breafl.

SHOULDER-WRENCH, is a ftrain in the fhoulder.

SHOUT, Cla.mor, in Antiquity, was frequently ufed
on eccleliallical, civil, and military occafions, as a fign of
approbation, and fometimes of indignation. Thus as Ci-
cero, in an afl'embly of the people, was cxpofing the arro-
gance of L. Antony, wlio had had the impudence to caufe
hinifelf to be infcribcd the patron of the Romans, the
people, on hearing this, raifcd a (liout to (licw their indig-
nation.

In the ancient military difcipline fliouts were ufed, I, upon
occafion of the general's making a fpeech, or harangue,
to the army from his tribun.il : this they did in token of
their approving what had been propofed. 2. Before an
engagement, in order to encourage and fpirit their own men,
and fill the enemy with dread.

This is a pradice of great antiquity, bcfidcs whicii, it
wants not the authority of reafon to fupport it, for as
mankind are endowed with two fcnfcs, hearing and fee-
ing, by which fear is raifed in the mind, it may be pro-
per to make ufe of the ear as well as the eye for that
purpofe.

Shouts were alfo raifed in the ancient theatre, when
what was afted pleafed the fpectators. See Acclama-
tion.

It was ufual for thofe pri fent at the burning of the dead
to raife a great (hout, and call the d.ad pcrfon by his name
before they fet fire lo the pile. See BuuiAL.

SHOWEL,

S H K

S H R

SHOWEL, in /IgricuUure, a term applied to a blind for
a cow's eyes.

SHOWER, a cloud refolved into rain, and difcharged
on a certain traft of ground.

In Natural Hijlory we meet with abundance of inftances of
extraordinary and preternatural (howers ; z^Jhoivers of blood,
mentioned by Gatlendus and others; a hrimjlnne faoiver,
mentioned by Wormius ; Jhoixiers of frogs, mentioned by
Phny, and even by Dr. Plott ; ajlioiuer of millet feed in Si-
lefia, mentioned in the Ephem. German.; fhoiuers of afhes,
frequent in the Archipelago ; afhoiuer of tvheat, in Wilt-
(hire ; a fhoiver of whitings, mentioned in Philofoph.
Tranfaft. The natural reafons of many of which may be
feen under Raix.

SHOWOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooilan, in
Myfore, where, in 1790, a bloody battle was fought be-
tween the Britifh and Tippoo, and in which the latter was
defeated ; 15 miles S. of Sattimungulam.

SHOWS, or Shaws, in Agriculture, a term applied to
the haulm or tops of potatoes. See Potatoe and So-

LANUM.

SHRAHEEN, in Geography, a mountain of Ireland, in
the county of Mayo ; 1 1 miles N.N.E. of Caftlebar.

SHRAVEY Land, in Agriculture, a term ufed in fome
diftrifts, as thofe of Suflex, and fome others, to fignify
that of a ilrong, gravelly, or flinty nature. The fears or
holes on the fides of fteep hills, where the turf or fw-ard has
flipped away, and laid bare the foil on the South Down,
are fometimes called rtiraves. See Soil.

SHREW, or &HB.-EW- Moufe, in Zoology, the common
name of the creature called by authors Mus araneus, and
Sorex araneus of Linna-us. It is an animal of a mixed
brown and reddifh tawny colour : the belly is white ; its
tail is about one inch and a half long, and covered with (hort
hairs ; its body is about two inches and a half in length ; and
its eyes black and very fmall ; they are indeed little larger
than thofe of the mole, and do not exceed the fize of
the head of the fmalleft pin ; it is no wonder, there-
fore, that the creature is almoil bhnd ; the rofe long aad
flender ; the ears fhort and rounded : the teeth are very
fmall, and differ in their ftape and fituation from thofe of
all other creatures in the world ; and feem as if nature had
in one creature made a fort of mixture of the teeth of the
moufe and the fnake kind.

It has two long fore-teeth, as all the moufe kind have :
but thefc are not fingle, as in mice, but have two or three
other fmall and fharp teeth growing out of them : thefe, to
an accurate obferver, might either be wholly unfeen, or
taken for diftina teeth ; and the anterior long'teeth are not
feparatcd from the reil by any gap or fpace, as in the moufe
kind, but make one continued feries with the others. The
upper jaw in this creature is longer than the under, and the
teeth are fharp and ferrated, fome with two, fome with
three pomts, and thefe fo fmall, that they might eafily
not be feen, but that the tips of them are reddifh. Their
whole number is twenty. eight.

It is very common in many parts of the world, and is
met with m almoit all our dry grounds, in old walls and
Iwles m the earth; near hay-ricks, dung-hills, and necelTary
houfes; It lives on corn, infcfts, and any fihh ; the cats
wdl kill It, but never attempt to eat it. It brings four or
five young at a time.

Its whole body has a fetid and ofFenfive fmell. The an-
cients erroneoufly believed it was injurious to the cattle.
There feems to be an annual mortality of thefe animals iti
the month of Augult, numbers being then found dead m the
paths.

It is diftinguifhed at firft light from the common moufe, in
that it is fmaller ; its nofe longer, and like a hog's ; it has
five toes on the hinder as well as the fore-feet ; its eyes are
extremely fmall ; its ears very fhort ; its claws are long and
whitifh, and its feet fhort. Ray and Pennant.

Shrew- Mou/f, Water, Sorex fodiens of Pallas, is much
larger than the common fhrew ; its length from nofe to tail
being 3f inches ; its tail two mches ; the upper part of
the body and the head are of a black colour ; the throat,
breaft, and belly, of alight afh-colour ; and beneath the tail
there is a triangular dufl<y fpot.

This animal inhabits Europe and Siberia ; was loft in
England till the year 1768, when it was difcovered in the
Lincolnfhire fens ; it burrows in the banks near the water,
and is faid to fwim under water ; it is called in fome places
the blind moufe, on account of the fmallnefs of its eyes ; and
it chirrups like a grafshopper. Pennant.

SHREWSBURY, in Geography, an ancient borough
and market-town in the hundred of the fame name, and
county of Salop, or Shropfhire, England, is fituated on
two hills, peninfulated by the river Severn, at the dirtance
of 112 miles from Bath, and 162 miles from London. It i-
the chief town, or capital, of the county, and, from its hif-
torical importance, is particularly deferving of an extended
defcription, even in a work like the prefent. According to
the parliamentary returns of 181 1, it is divided into the fix
parifhes of St. Giles and Holy Crofs, St. Chad, St. Mary,
St. Julian, St. Alkmund, and Meole-Brace, which united,
contain 3229 houfes, and 16,606 inhabitants. It muft be
remarked, however, that fome of thefe parifhes extend a
fhort way into the country. The liberties of Shre.wfbury
comprife fix other parifhes, four townfhips, and two cha-
pelries.

Origin and Hiftorical Events. — Although no doubt can be
entertained of the high antiquity of Shrewfbury, it being
frequently mentioned by our earlieft hiftorians, there is no
authentic record of its origin. Probable conjefture, however,
has afTigned that event to the fifth century, when the Britons
were forced by the Saxons to abandon all the country to the
eaftward of the river Severn. It is fuppofed that, after the
dettruftion of the Roman Uriconium, the fortifications of
which enabled the pofleflors for a time to check the progrefs
of their enemies, that they eftablifhed themfelves on the fcite
of Shrewfbury, on account of the natural fecurity afforded
by its lofty and peuinfular pofition. At that period this
fpot was called the Pengwerne hill, whence the town re-
ceived the appellation of Pengwerne, to which Powis was
fubfcquently added, when it had become the capital of
Powifland, and the feat of its princes, whofe palace occu-
pied the fame ground with the old church of St. Chad.
Here the Bntons maintained themfelves for feveral centuries,
notwithftanding the repeated efforts of the Mercian Saxons
to difpoffefs them ; but at length the arms of the warhke
Offa proved too powerful for further refiftance, and they
were compelled to retire to Mathrafael, among the moun-
tains of Montgomcryfliire, where they preferved their an-
cient dignity and independence, till finally fubdued by Ed-
ward I. of England.

The Saxons, having obtained poffeffion of this ancient
capital, changed its name from Pengwerne to Scrobbefbyrig,
or Scrobbefbyri, which words have nearly the fame fignili-
cation, viz. " the head of the alder groves." Inftead of
levelhng it with the ground, as was their cuftom when they
feized upon any Britifh town, they feem to have protefted it
with care, and probably even increafed its opulence and ex-
tent. In the reign of Alfred it was numbered among the
principal cities in his dominions : and in that of Edward the

Elder

SHREWSBURY.

Elder it had the privilege of a mint. In 1006, king Ethel-
red kept his Chriftmas here ; but in about ten years there-
after, the inhabitants having declared againft that prince in
favour of his rival Canute the Dane, his fon, prince Edmund,
afterwards king Edmund Ironiide, attacked and took the
town after a fhort fiege. On this occaiion Shrewfbury
feems to have fuffered greatly ; as in the reign of Edward
the Confedor, its houfes only amounted to 252 in number.
Pofterior to the Conqueft, it was beitowed upon Roger de
Montgomery, who was created earl of Shrewfbury, Arun-
del, and Chicheiler ; and appears from Domefday book to
have then paid 20/. in taxes to the king and fheriff. Earl
Roger, on acquiring pofleflion of this city, (for fo it was
ftyled in his time,) fixed his rehdence in it, and founded
both a caftle and an abbey. He did not, however, long
polTefs them undillurbed, for in 1067, Owen Gwynnedd,
prince of Wales, affaulted it with fo formidable a force,
that the conqueror deemed it advifable to repel the invafion
in perfon. He accordingly marched hither from York,
raifed the fiege, and overthrew the Welfh with prodigious
flaughter. Shrewfbury was again beiieged in the reign of
Henry I., in confequence of its then pofTeffor, Robert, fon
to eavl Roger, having united his forces to thofe of the re-
bellious barons ; and it was probably only faved from the
horrors of an aflault by the fubmiiTion of the earl, who was
banifhed to Normandy, and had all his immenfe eftates for-
feited to the crown.

ShrewCbury being efteemed the molt important town and
fortrefs on the marches of Wales, continued, during fe-
veral centuries, to be one of the principal places of rendez-
vous for the Englifti armies, and hence was often vifitcd by
its monarchs. Numerous conflifts tooi. place in its imme-
diate vicinity, and its inhabitants frequently fuffered the evils
incident to fieges. During the wars between Stephen and
the emprefs Maud for the iucceflion to the crown, William
Fitz-Alan, a powerful baron, then governor of Shrewfbury
caflle, fupported the claims of the latter. Stephen, how-
ever, early obtained pofleflion of it, and ungeneroufly put to
death many of the brave knights by whom it was defended.
Fitz-Alan fled to the continent, where he remained an exile
till the acceflion of Henry II., who rellored him to all his
honours and poileffions. In the reign of king John, the
royal council allembled here to confider of the bell means of
checking the incurlions of the Welfh ; when the prince of
Powis came, and frankly offered terms of accommodation :
but to the difgraceof the Englifh lords, inllead of receiving
him with relpeft, they threw him into prifon. Soon after-
wards, however, he was releafed, and a treaty with the
Welfh was concluded, for the performance of which twenty-
nine children were delivered as hollages, all of whom were
moll inhumanly hanged by king John, in confequence of
feme infringement of its terms by the prince of Wales.
But this barbarous maflacre did not long remain unpunillied ;
for in I 2 1 5, the Welfh having difperfed all the armies of the
lords marchers, fuddenly appeared before Shrewfbury, which
fubmitted without refiltance. How long the Wclfli held
their conqueft, or how they loft it, is uncertain ; but in
1221 Shrewfbury had again palled into the poflclTlon of the
Englifli. In the feventecnth year of Henry HI. it was
plundered and burnt by the earl of Pembroke and other
faftious barons, who had joined their arms to thofe of prince
Llewellyn. The rebel Simon de Montfort, earl of Lei-
celter, likewife feized upon this town ; but it foon reverted
to the king: and in 1267, Henry aflcmbled a large army
here, with the defigii of crufliing the Wellh power, but the
interference of the pope prevented the execution of his
views. Edward I., who, during his father's life-time, had

been inverted with the government of Skrewfbury, made it,
in 1277, the principal feat of his court, and removed hither
the courtJ of exchequer and king's bench, that he might the
more ealily accomplifh his favourite objeft, the fubjugation
of Wales.

During the rebellion which the infatuated attachment of
Edward 11. to the Spencer family gave rife to, the king
was received at Shrewfbury with great military parade, and
a tournament was held here, attended by the knights and fol-
diers of the marches. Afterwards, when Edward was de-
prived of his liberty and throne by his queen, and her para-
mour, Roger Mortimer ; Edmund Fitz-Alan, earl of Arun-
del, who had been faithful to his allegiance, was feized by
the inhabitants, and put to death ; for which fervice Morti-
mer, in the name of the king, granted to the burgeffes of
Shrewfbury, whom he calls " the good men of Salop," all
the goods and chattels found upon the earl. Richard II.
held a parliament here in the 20tli year of his reign, on which
occaiion he gave a fumptuous fealt to the members in the
abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul. The next event of im-
portance which occurred at this town was the famous bat-
tle of Shrewfbury, in which Henry V., then prince of
Wales, firft diflinguifhed himfelf in the field, and the gallant
Hotfpur fell, after performing, in conjunftion with his rival
Douglas, the molt brilliant atts of prowefs.

Throughout the whole of that eventful period, marked by
the contentions of the rival houfes of York and Lancafter,
the inhabitants of Shrewfbury ileadily adhered to theinterefts
of the former. The learned author of the " Account of
the ancient and prefent State of Shrewfbury," contends that
it was here, and not at Salifbury, as commonly fuppofed,
that Henry Stafliord, duke of Buckingham, was executed
by order of Richard III., who was chiefly indebted to him
for his ufurped crown. When Henry VII. landed in
Wales, he marched direftly towards Shrewfbury, where he
was received " with raptures of joy" by all except the
" head bailey," who for a time refufed him admittance.
Here he was firll proclaimed king of England, and here he
collected and organized the greater part of thofe forces with
which he achieved the lignal and decifive vittory of Bof-
worth Field. In confequence of thefecircumllanccs, Shrewf-
bury was greatly favoured by that monarch, and was fre-
quently vifited by him during his reign.

From this period till the reign of Charles I. no event of
hillorical importance happened here. When the parliament-
ary war broke out, however, the king came hither, and was
cordially welcomed by the inhabitants, though they had
been ilrongly prejudiced againll him by the commiliioners
for the parliament. The greater part of the army with
which he firll took the field was compofed of pcrfons reli-
dent in this town and the adjoining counties. After the king
left Shrewlbury, it was garrifoned in his caufe ; but the bad
health of the governor having prevented him from enforcing
the difeipline of the foldiery with fuflicicnt vigour, tliey be-
came negligent and debauched. The parliamentary olFiccrs,
colonels Mitton and Bowyer, being informed of the llatc of
the garrifon, made feveral attempts to lurpri/.e tlie town, and
at length fucceeded in their objeil, in February 1645. By
this event the parliament gained the important advantage of
culling off the king's communication with North Wales, and
a formidable aflociation, which was on the point of being
f )rmed between the loyal inhabitants of the counties of Salop,
Woroeller, Chefler, and Flint, was ddlroycd in the bud.

In Cromwell's life-time, and alio inuiiediately jifter his death,
two attempts were made to gain pofleflion of Shrewlbury
in favour of Charles H.; but both of them were fruflrated.
The laft circuraftaiice which hillory records worthy of notice,

occurred

SHREWSBURY.

occurred in Auguft 1687, when James II. held his court
here. On this occafion, the " fentimcnts of loyal attachment,
for which Shrewfbury has ever been confpicuous, buril forth
with chivalrous enthufiafm."

General Appearance of the roTf/J— Shrewfbury, from its
lofty and peninfular fituation, prefents, at every approach,
a pleafmg variety of views ; " and the noble fweep of the
river, which feems to embrace it, heightens at every turn
the charms of the fcene." Except on the north and well
fides, where the ilreets approach clofe to its banks, a narrow
margin of meadow, or of garden ground, interpofes be-
tween the houfes and the river. The exterior circle of
the town is lined with an unbroken range of well-built
houfes, moll of which command beautiful views over
the adjacent country. On its weilern fide is a public
field, called the Quarry, which occupies about twenty acres
of ground, and is adorned with avenues of trees. At
one extremity of this field are the remains of a rural amphi-
theatre, where the Augulline friars of the adjoining convent
were probably wont to exhibit thofe ancient facrod dramas
called myileries, or Whitfun plays ; which were certainly
afted here in the reign of queen Elizabetli.

Such is the exterior afpeft of Shrewlbury ; but it is to
be regretted that its interior appearance is far from corre-
fponding with the external afpeft. The ilreets are ill ar-
ranged, and fome of them narrow and ftccp, and but in-
differently paved. The houfes are extremely mixed in their
architeftural charafter, exhibiting a ftrange contrail of an-
cient and modern buildings. This circumltance is in part to
be attributed to the happy freedom which Shrewlbury has
enjoyed, from thofe general conflagrations which have occa-
fionally devaltated other towns within the lall two centuries.

Civil Government and Corporation. — Shrewlbury is a cor-
poration, both by charter and preicription. The firll
charter was granted by Henry I. ; but other princes have
fince altered and extended the privileges it conferred. By
tlie charter now in force, granted by king Charles I., the
corporation confills of a mayor, recorder, Reward, town-
clerk, 24 aldermen, 48 alTillants, or common council-
men, two chamberlains, a fword-bearcr, ferjeants at mace,
&c. Four general quarter-feffions are held in the courfe of
the year, and the mayor and fome of tlie aldermen, who are
ma^iftrates, hold a court every Tuefday. The chartered
companies, befides the general corporations, are lixteen in
number, of which thofe of the drapers and mercers are the
moil confiderable.

Shrewlbury fent members to parliament from their earlieft
ellablifhment. They are chofen by the inhabiting burgedes,
who have been legally adefled to the parilh rates. The
mayor is the returning officer. The markets are on Wed-
nefday and Saturday, weekly ; and there are eight annual
fairs.

Public Buildings and In/lituiions. — The public ftruftures
of Shrewlbury are, the caftle, the town-hall, the churches,
the charitable inilitutions, the town and county gaol and
Bridewell, the market-houfe and crofs, the theatre, and the
bridges.

The Cajlle Hands on a narrow neck of land, about five
liundred yards in breadth, which is formed by the windings
of the Severn. It was founded by Roger de Montgomery,
as before mentioned, and became the chief feat of his baro-
nial power. As all the tranfaftions of intere'.l connedled
with this edifice have been noticed under the head Hi/lorical
Events, &c. it id unnecelfary to repeat then). This ftruc-
ture has evidently undergone fo many alterations, and is fo
greatly dilapidated, that it is difficult to form any probable
idea of its ancient ftate. The buildings of it now remaining

confill of the keep, the walls of the inner court, and the
great arch of the interior gate-way. The keep, which is
converted into a handfome dwelling-houfe, confills of two
round towers of equal fize, embattled and pierced, and con-
nefted by a fquare building, about one hundred feet long,
and nearly of the fame height. The inner court is now a
garden, " on a circular grafs-plat in which, the newly
elefted knights of the (hire have been girt with their fwords
by the (heriff, from perhaps the firil foundation of our inva-
luable conftitution." The arch of tlie gateway is clearly
part of the original caftle. It is eighteen feet high, maffive,
and femi-circular, and appears to have fupported a tower,
from which hung the portculIiF. On the oppofite fide of the
court is a fmall poftern, probably built in the time of Charles I.;
and on its fouth fide is a lofty mount, the fummit of which
is furrounded by a ruinated wall, at one part of which rifes a
fmall watch-tower, now a beautiful fummcr room, much
reforted to on account of the fine views which it commands.
This caitle was defended by ramparts of (lone thrown acrofs
the peninfula, from the callle to the river, on eacli fide.
One of them was formed by Robert de Belefme, and the
other by order of Oliver Cromwell. Ramparts and walls
with towers likewife defcr.ded the town on its northern and
eaftern fides, but few traces of thefe remain. The prin-
cipal gates were three in number, and called the Caftle or
North-gate, the Eall or Abbey-gate, and the VVelih-gate,
the latter of which Hood on the Wellh bridge.

The To'wn-/jall \s a modern llru£ture, finifhcd in 1786. It
was defigned by Mr. Haycock, a native of the town, and
exhibits a handfome Hone front. Here are held all meetings
of the corporation, and grand juries, likewife the courts of
juilice for the town and county. The grand jury room is
decorated with portraits of George I. and II., and of admi-
ral Benbow ; and another room is appropriated to the re-
ception of a valuable colleftion of books.

The ejlabli/hed churches are St. Giles's, St. Chad's, St.
Mary's, St. Alkmund, and St. Julian's. St. Giles's is a fmall
plain building, and appears, from fome remains of maflive
fquare piers, and a femi-circular arch, to have been partly
built in the Norman era, and probably on a larger fcale than
it is at prefent. Moil of the other piers are round, and fupport
pointed arches. St. Chad's church is of modern ereftion,
having been built between 1790 and 1792, in lieu of the old
collegiate church, which fell down in the firft mentioned
year, in confequence of its repair having been too long ne-
gleftcd. It is, " upon the whole, a fplendid, and, in many
refpefts, an elegantly ornamented llrufli^re." In thi&
church the mayor and corporation are accullomed to fit on
fellival and other public days. Here are but few monuments,
and none of note ; but in the church-yard is a chapel, in
which many of the tombs and infcriptions refcued from the
ruins of the old church are depofittd : the principal of them,
however, were removed to the refpeftive parifh-chiirches of
the fjmiliej to which tliey belonged. St. Mary's church was
likewife collegiate, and had (he privileges of a royal chapel,
of which advantages it was deprived in the reign of king
Edward VI. It is a venerable pile, in the form of a crofs,
and comprifes a nave, fideaifles, tranfept, choir, and chapels,
with a tower at the wed end. Its architefturc embraces al-
molt every llyle prevalent from the Norman conquell to the
reign of Henry VIII. The nave is divided from the fide-
aifles by femi-circular arches ; but thofe feparatiKg it from
the choir are lofty and pointed. The cieling here is of oak,
and rifes in an extremely flat arch, divided by its principal
beams into fquare panels, including circles richly adorned
with quatre-foils and foliage ; the ribs and bofles being
carved into double rofes, with devices and knots at their in-

terfeAion.

SHREWSBURY.

terfcftion. The chancel, choir, &c. difplay chiefly the
pointed ftyle. At the extremity of the former is a fpacious
window, in the later pointed Ityle, which is nearly filled with
-ftained glafs, brought from the ruins of old St. Chad's
churcli. The principal piece reprefents .Tetl'e in a deep
fleep. The fpire of this church rifcs 2 1 7 feet above the
fummit of the tower, upon which it reds. The monuments
are numerous, and lome of them curious : but we (hall only
notice one infcription, which is remarkable, from the cir-
cumftance of its commemorating a perfon named Cadman,
who was killed in defcending from the fummit of the fpire, by
a rope Planting from thence to the oppofite fide of the river
from that on which the church Hands. The parifh-church
of St. Alkmund's, like the two laft mentioned, was for-
merly collegiate, but its college was diffolved as early as the
reign of king Stephen. The old church was taken down
about the year 1793, and the prefent building raifed in its
itead, which is a clumfy imitation of our ancient architec-
ture. St. Juhan's church, which clofes the lift, is a plain
fubltantial edifice, rebuilt in 1750, on account of the ruinous
condition of the former edifice.

In addition to the above ellablifhed churches, there are in
Shrewlbury fevcral diflenting places of worlhip, -viz. a
Roman Catholic chapel, a Prefbyteriau meeting-houfe, alfo
one for Methodifts, and another tor Quakers.

The Charitabk Injlltutions belonging to Shrewfbury are,
a fmall hofpital, formerly dedicated to St. Giles, another
called Milhngton's hofpital, feveral alms-houfes, an in-
firmary, a houfe of indullry, and the free and charity-fchools.
The infirmary is among the earlieft provincial inititutions of
the kind in England, having been opened in 1747- It is fup-
ported by voluntary fubfcriptions, and by benefaftions.
The houfe is a plain but refpeftable building of brick, with
a Hone portico in front. The houfe of indultry was origi-
nally a foundling hofpital, connefted with that in London,
and was only converted to its prefent purpofes in 1784. It
is governed by direftors chofen from among the inhabitants
of Shrewfbury, and maintains, on an average, about 275 poor,
including children, partly by a rate levied on the fix panflies,
and partly by the produce of the labour of the paupers. The
free grammar-fchool was founded and endowed by king
Edward VI. at the requell of Henry Edwards and Richard
Whitaker, and was afterwards augmented by queen Eliza-
beth, at the inllanceof Thomas Afliton. The fchool-houfe
is a large and lofty ilrudture, forming two fides of a fquare
court. The government of this fchool is veiled in the bidiop
of Lichfield, and the corporation, who appoint two fchool-
mallers, one of whom is fupcrior to the other. Several of
them have been men of great talents and erudition, and have
cherilhcd the Iceds of knowledge in many individuals after-
wards diltinguilhcd in fociety. Among the latter, were fir
Philip Sydney ; lord Brook, lord chief juftice ; lord chief
juftice Price ; Ur. Bowers, bi(hop of Chichefter ; Dr. John
Thomas, bilhop of Salifbury ; and the learned Dr. John
Taylor. The learned Dr. Butler is the prefent head mailer.
The other public fchools in this town are Bowdler's charity-
fchool, founded in 1724, by Mr. Thomas Bowdlcr, alder-
man, for the education and clothing of poor children of St.
Tulian's parifli ; Allart's charity-fchool, founded in 1 798, un-
der a bequcll by Mr. .lohn Allart, one of the chamberlains of
the corporation ; and a lubfcription charity-fchool, inllituted
in 1708, for inftrufting poor children of the town at large.

The Totvn and County Gaol and Bridewell, which now
form one building, itands near the caftle, where tiic IherifF
probably had liis gaol in former times. Its fituation is at
once beautiful and falubrious, and though it cannot boall
much elegance of exterior appearance, it is fpacious and
Vol. XXXII.

airy, and poflefTes every convenience requifite for its different
purpofes. In front is a frce-ftone arched gateway, con-
taining a bull of Howard, by Bacon.

The Markd-houfe is one of the largell and mod maghifi-
cent buildings of its kind in England. It is of the age of
queen Elizabeth, whofe arnis, fculptiired in high relief, de-
corate the portal, on each fide of which is an open arcade,
confining of three large circular arches, fupportcd by co-
lumns. The north and fouth ends of the building are likewifc
ornamented with large open arches, over one of which Hands
a (latue of Richard, duke of York, removed hither from
the Welfh bridge in 1791. Adjoining this building is a
conduit, which fupplies a great part of the town with water.
The Market-crofs is a flrong llrufturc of brick and ftone,
having a refervoir over it. The old crofs was deftroyed in
1 705. The Theatre, according to Phillips, the old hiftorian of
the town, is part of the palace formerly belonging to one of
the later princes of Fowls, but though evidently an ancient
itrufture, it feems improbable that its date (hould be fo re-
mote as fuch a facl would neceflarily imply. It is fitted up
in the interior in an appropriate manner.

The Bridges over the Severn at this town are called the
Wellh bridge, and the Englifli, or Eait, bridge. Both of
them are new llruftures, erefted in place of older ones, which
had gone to decay, and were, from their narrownefs, unfuit-
able to the Hate of commercial advancement Shrewfbury
and the county at large now enjoy. The Wellh bridge
confills of five elegant arches, about 266 feet in aggregate
length, 30 feet high, and 30 broad. Adjoining to it is
a quay, faced with Hone, and accommodated with ware-
houfes. The Englilh bridge extends 400 feet in length,
and confifts of feven femi-circular arches, built of fine free-
Hone. The central arch is 60 feet fpan and 40 high from
the low-water mark ; and the two on each fide 35 feet wide
and 20 high. The breadth between the balluftrades is 2J
feet ; and the ornaments are at once light and graceful.

Monajlic Injlitutions. — The principal monalliccHablilhrnent
in Shrewlbury was the abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul,
which Hood in the fuburb that Hill bears its name. It was
founded, or, as fome will have it, refounded and endowed by
Roger de Montgomery, and a nobleman named Warine,
who filled it with monks of the Benediftine order. Thefe
having fubfcquently obtained pofleflion of the relics of St.
Winefrid, their abbey became the conilant rcfort of various
clalfes of people from all parts of the kingdom, who, ac-
cording to their circumllances, olTered donations on the (hrine
of the faint. This fociety, at its diilolution, confillcd of an
abbot, fourteen monks, and three novices, whofe annual
revenues, according to Dugdale, amounted to 532/. ^j. lod.
but Speed rates them as high as 656/. 4/. 3^/. The re-
mains of the abbey are very inconfiderablc, tlie ground
which it occupied being in great part converted into a
garden. There is, however, a very curious little Hrufturc,
which has puzzled the learned in antiquities as to its ufe :
by fome it is regarded as a pulpit for preaching. Its plan
is an odlagon, fix feet in diameter, but confiderably higher.
Over it is an obtule dome of Hone, fupportcd by fix narrow
pointed arches. The roof within is vaulted on eight ribs,
which fpring front the fide walls, and form a bofs at their
croflTing in the centre, bearing a reprefciil.ituni of the cruci-
fixion. 'I'he arches on the fouth fide are without ornament,
but three of them on the north fide are filled willi Hone
panels, adorned with ditleiviit figures of angels and laints.
The abliey church was built in ilie form of a crofs, and was
a fpacious and magnificent edifice ; but at prelent is in a (late
of dilapidation, except the wcHern aifle, which is now ufed
as a parifh-church, inftead of St. Giles's. The other rcli-
4 K giou«

S H R

gious houfes here were, a convent of Auguftine friars,
founded about the year 1256; a fecond of Francifcan or
Grey friars, the dats of which is unknown ; and a third of
Dominicans, founded by lady Geneville in the reign of
Henry III. The queen of Edward IV. twice lay in at this
monallery. Befides thefe, there were chapels dedicated re-
fpeclively to St. Michael, St. Nicholas, St. Catherine, St.
Blaife, and St. Mary Magdalen.

Shrewfbury contains feveral ancient private ftruftures,
which would claim notice, did the limits of our article
permit of a cOmmenfurate extenfion. One of them, ftill
called the Council-Houfe, was formerly the refidence of
the court of the marches of Wales, on their annual vifits
to this town. For fome account of this court, fee Ludlow.

The eminent natives of Shrewfbury, befides Dr. Thomas
and Dr. Taylor, before-mentioned, were Thomas Church-
yard, a poet of fome note, admiral Benbow, and the
Rev. Hugh Farmer, author of feveral learned and critical
works.

The objedts in the vicinity of Shrewfbury, mod worthy
of notice, are the Shelton oak, which is remarkable from a
tradition, that Owen Glyndwr afcended it to reconnoitre,
previous to the battle of Shrewfbury, and for its great fize ;
Battlefield, where the battle was fought ; and Haughmond
Abbey, whick ftands about four miles to the eaflward of
Shrewfbury. It is fituatcd on a rifing ground, which com-
mands beautiful and extcnfive views, and owed its found-
ation and endowment to WiUiam Fitz-Alan, in the year
1 100. The inhabitants were canons regular of St. Au-
guftine, who enjoyed at the diflblution a yearly revenue,
Hated by Diigdalc at 259/. ijj. "jd. and by Speed at 294/.
lis. gJ. of the abbey-church, fcarcely a veftige remains,
but confiderable portions of the other buildings are yet
ftanding. Phillips' Hiftory and Antiquities of Shrewf-
bury, 4to. Some Account of the ancient and prefeiit
State of Shrewfbury, i2mo. 1808, an interefting and judi-
cious topographical work. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xiii. by J. Nightingale and R. Rylance.

Shkewsbuhy, a town of America, in the ftatc of New
Jerfey, and county of Monmouth, on the Sea board, having
Middletown on the N., Freehold W., and Dover S.W.
It is divided from Middletown by North river, which is na-
vigable for a few miles. The compaft part of the town is
pleafant, and contains an Epifcopal and Prefbyterian
church, and a meeting-houfe for Friends. The number
of inhabitants is 3773. This place is frequented in fum-
mer by genteel company from Philadelphia and New
York, for health and pleafure ; 79 miles E.N.E. of Philadel-
phia— Alfo, a townfliip of America, in Rutland county,
Vermont, between Clarendon on the W. and Saltafh on the
E., containing 990 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of York
county, Pennfylvania, containing 1792 inhabitants. — Alfo,
a townlhip in Worcefler county, Maffachufetts, incorpo-
rated in 1727, and containing 1210 inhabitants ; 6 miles E.
of Worcefter. — Alfo, a town of Pennfylvania, in Coderus
creek ; 10 miles S. of York.

Shrewsbury, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into
the Atlantic, N. lat. 40' 22'. W. long. 74° 2'.

SHRIKE, in Ornithology, an Englifh name for feveral
fpccies of the Lnnias ; which fee.

SHRILLA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Luda-
mar ; 38 miles E.S.E. of Benown.

SHRIMP, m Natural Hijtory, is the Cancer Crangon
of LinntEus ; which fee.

This fheil-fifh inhabits the fandy fhores of Britain in vaft
quantities, and is reckoned the mofl delicious of the genus,
borne writers have clafTed it under the genus of Squilla.

S H R

The white (hrimp, or cancer fquilla, is the prawn. (See
Cancer Squilla. ) It inhabits the coaft of Kent.

By 30 Geo. II. c. 21. white fhrimps in the river Thames
and Mcdway are only to be taken from Bartholomew day to
Good Friday ; and red fhrimps in the river Medway only
from April 25 to July I.

SHRINE, formed from fcrinium, a dejh, or cabinet, a
cafe to hold the relics of fome faint.

SHRITE, ia Ornithology. SeeMlssKL-B!rJ.

SHROFF, a fort of banker or money-broker in the
Eafl Indies. See Rupee.

SHRONDO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Dentila, in which are confiderable gold
mines.

SHROPSHIRE, one of the midland counties of Eng-
land, is fituated between 52 and 53 degrees N. latitude, and
2 and 3 degrees W. longitude, from London. It is bounded
on the S. by the counties of Worcefter and Hereford ; on
the E. by Staffordfkire ; on the N. by Chefhire, a detached
part of Flintfhire, and by Denbighfhire ; and on the W. by
the fame county, and thofe of Radnor and Montgomery.
According to archdeacon Plymlcy's " General View of
the Agriculture of Shropfhire," it extends about 44 mites in
length, 28 in breadth, and 1 34 in circumference, comprif-
ing an area of 890,000 acres, or about a 45th part of
England and Wales united. In fhape it approaches to that
of an oval, and is feparatcd into two almoft equal divifions
by the river Severn. The parliamentary returns of 1811,
Hate the number of houies it contains at 36,853, and its po-
pulation at 194,298 perfons, of whom 95,842 were males,
and 98,456 females.

Hiflorical Events. — When the Romans invaded this ifland
in the reijrn of the emperor Claudian, this county was in-
habited by two Britifh tribes, called the Ordovices and Cor-
navii, whofe refpeftive territories were bounded by the Se-
vern. The Ordovices, who appear to have been a moll
warlike and enterprifing people, joined with the Silures,
under the renowned Caraftacus, to defend their country.
Among the hills of Shropfhire, that great chieftain for a
time fuccefsfuUy itrove againft the overwhelming tide of
Roman conqueft ; and here, feveral antiquaries contend, was
fought the unfortunate conflict which terminated his mili-
tary career, and led to his captivity. After that event,
Shropfhire formed part of the province called Flavia Cxfa-
rienfis, and feenis to have been held in undifturbed tranquil-
lity fo long as the Romans remained in Britain ; but when
they withdrew their forces to the continent, it again became
the theatre of war between the Britons and the Saxons.
For fome centuries it conftituted part of the kingdom of
Powifland, of which Pengwerne, now Shrewfbury, was the
capital (fee Shrewsbury); but in the reign of the great
OfFa it fell under the dominion of the Saxons, when the
Britifh princes retired to Mathrafael, in Montgomeryfhirc.
To fecure his conquefts, Offa formed an immenfe rampart
of earth, extending about 100 miles in length along the
confines of Wales ; but the utility of this work, for the
purpofes of defence, feems to have been very inconfiderable,
as we find the Welfh conftantly making inroads into the
Mercian territories.

In the ninth century, when the Danes invaded this ifland,
Shropfhire fhared in the calamities which their ferocity
brought upon the kingdom, but in a much lefs degree than
moft other counties. During the reign of Edward the Con-
feffor, Gruffydd, prince of North Wales, became the terror
of the Englifh by his incurfions into this county. Harold
undertook an expedition againft him, in which he was fo
fuccefsful, that the Wclfh were glad to purchafe peace by

the

SHROPSHIRE.

the mafTacre of their chief. After the conqueft, nearly the
whole of ShropHiire was beftowed on Roger de Montgo-
mery, a relation of the conqueror's ; but the inroads of the
Welih frequently difturbed liim in the enjoyment of his
fplendid acquifitions. In 1067 they laid fiege to Shrewf-
bury, the feat of his baronial power, with fo formidable a
force, that the king found it neceliary to march againll them
in perfon, when they were defeated with great flaughter.
This difcomfiture, however, only ferved to increafe the
warlike fpirit of the Welih ; and WiUiam, finding himfelf
foiled in his repeated attempts to reduce thofe high-fpirited
foes to fubmillion by open combat, adopted a more politic
mode of warfare. He iflued grants to certain of his favourites
of all the lands they fhould be able to conquer from the
Welfli ; and endeavoured to divide and weaken the Welfli
border c»hieftains themfelves, by promifing a confirmation of
all the rights and privileges to fuch of them as would
fimply acknowledge the fovereignty of the Englifh crown.
Hence appears to have originated the feignories and juril-
diftions of the lord marchers, whofe power was even more
arbitrary and defpotic than that of the monarch himfelf.
They conilrufted and repaired fortrefles at their pleafure,
and garrifoned them with foldiers of their own. They
likewife built towns, and exercifed the moil abfolute au-
thority, both civil and military, witliin their refpeclive
territories. In later times, however, this power was con-
fiderably controlled by a chief court of the marches of
North Wales, which was generally held at Ludlow, but
fometimes alfo at Shrewftury and other towns ; and was
(till more Umited after the union of Wales with England,
from which period no lord marcher could exercife any pre-
rogative not confirmed to him by charter, without a fpecial
licence from the crown. During the various revolts which
occurred fubfcquent to the death of Edward I., and alfo
during the contentions for the crown between the houfes
of York and Lancaftcr, Shropftiire was occafionaliy the
fcene of military contells, of which the mod celebrated
was the battle of Shrewfbury. When the civil war broke
out in the 17th century, this county was peculiarly diftin-
guiihed for its loyalty ; but except the taking of the county-
town by the parhamentary forces, no tranfaftion of peculiar
intereft happened within its limits throughout that unfor-
tunate era.

General Afpecl, Soil, and Climate Shroplhire pofleifes

within its boundaries almoit every variety of natural charm ;
the bold and lofty mountain ; the woody and fecluded
valley ; the fertile and widely cultured plain ; the majelUc
river, and the fequeltercd lake. The foil is no Icfs various.
In the hundred of Ofwcltry, a deep loam and gravelly foil
prevail ; and in thofe of North Bradford and Eall Brimilrey,
a light or faiidy loam. PimluU hundred contains a mixture
of " boggy land, and of fandy foil, with a greater propor-
tion of found wheat land." In the other hundreds, clays of
different confiilcnce form the mott general foil ; but there
are numerous patches and extenfivc trafts both of deep and
fandy loam, gravel, &c. The climate of courfc partakes
of the charadler of its furface and foil. On the caltern fide
of the county, where the land is warm and flat, harveil fre-
quently commences a fortnight fooner than near tlie middle
of the county, where the vales are extenfivc, but the furface
lefs light, and the bottom often clayey ; and hay and grain
are both gathered earlier there than on the weftern fide,
where the vales are narrow, and the high lands frequent and
extenfive, although the foil is not in general fo flifi". The
eailerly winds prevail moll in fpring, and thofe from the
weft in autumn ; but the eailerly winds are tlie mofl regular ;
thofe from the well blowing for a fcries of month* (five

or fix perhaps) ftrong and frequent, and then for nearly
a fimilar period lefs often and lefs violent. The fame may
be faid of the wet and dry feafons in this county, but the
periods of both appear to be much fhorter.

Rivers and Lakes. — Shropfhire abounds with rivers as
much as any county in England. The principal among
them is the Severn, which, after bounding the county for
feveral miles, enters it near Melverley, and flows on in an
irregular Terpentine channel to Shrewfbur)-, which it nearly
encircles. At this town it turns towards the north, but
foon again fweeps to the fouthvvard, pafTing by Wroxeter,
Madeley, and Bridgenorth, to Bewdley, where it enters
Worcellerfhire. Its courfe within Shropfhire is elUmated
at nearly feventy miles in length, throughout the whole of
which fpace it is navigable for barges, trows, wherries, and
boats, and is abundantly fupplied with fifh of various deno-
minations. The contributary ilreams to this great river,
belonging to the county, are the Camlet, the Vyrnyw, the
Morda-Brook, the Perry, the Mcole-Brook, the Rea, the
Tern, the Bell-Brook, the Cund-Brook, the Worf, the
Marbrook, and the Bore-Brook, all of them confiderable
waters. Thofe of moil importance, which do not join the
Severn, are the Morles, which falls into the Dee, the Temc,
the Shelbrook, the Elf-Brook, the Weever, the Clun, the
Ony, which difcliarges itfelf into the Teme, in Herefordfhire,
and the Corve ; but befides thefe, there are nearly a hun-
dred flreams of minor extent, which our limits will not
permit us to mention. The lakes here are numerous, but
none of them are very extenfive. That of Ellefmere, which
is the largeft, covers about 1 16 acres of ground.

Minerals. — Shropfhire is well fupplied with minerals.
The mines of lead-ore, on the weftern fide of the county,
are extremely produftive, and their produft is reckoned to
be of excellent quality. Copper and calamine are likewife
found here in great quantities, but neither of them has
hitherto been mined with any degree of fuccefs. Coal of a
fuperior kind is wrought on the eallern fide of the county,
particularly in the parifhes of Welhngton, Lilleihall,
Wrockwardine, Wombridge, Stirchley, Dawley, Little-
Wenlock, Madeley, Barrow, Benthall, and Brofeley. It
is Ukewife found in the hundred of Stottefden, and to the
fouthward of the Clee liills ; alfo on the north and north-
weft confines of the county. Iron-ftone, as is ufually the
cafe, accompanies the coal ftrata, as well as lime-ilone,
which is quarried in various places, but particularly at
Lilleihall, Porth-y-Wain, and Llanymynach, and in the
parifhes of Cardifton and Alberbury. This county further
contains abundance of building-ftone, and flates for cover-
ing roofs. At Pitchford, about feven miles S.E. from
Shrewfbury, is a red fand-ftone, approaching the furface in
many places, which exudes a mineral pitch. From this rock
is extrafted an oil, known by the name of Betton's Britifli
oil. Mr. Arthur Aikin is preparing an intcrefting publica-
tion on the mineralogical ftratification of this county.

State of Property, Isfc. — The extent of ettates in tliit
county is very various. While the poficfFions of a few
noblemen and gentlemen include from 10,000 to 25,000
acres each, there is an infinite number of freeholders' and
yeomen's cftates of all inferior fixes. TIic number of free-
holders entitled to vote amount to above jooo ; and the
total rental of the county, tithes inclulivc, to about
900,00c/. There is much copyhold tenure, but of eafier
cuiloms than in moft of the neiglibouring counties. The
lords of fome cuftomary manors have enfrancliifed the copy,
holders, upon receiving an equivalent in money ; but the
cuftoms of the greater number are ftill preferved and afted
upon. In the manors of Ford, Cundover, Wcro, and Lop.
4 K 2 pington,

SHROPSHIRE.

pington, the lands defcend to the youngeft fon ; and in the
manors of Cardigan and Stretton, (where the eldeft fon fuc-
ceeds,) in default of fons, the daughters are co-heireffes.

/Agriculture. — The extent of farms is nearly as various as
that of eftates ; but in general they are of a large fize, and
are, in feme inllances, held on leafes for life ; in others, for
feven, ten, or twenty-one years ; and, in many cafes, from
year to year only. The crops commonly cultivated are
wheat, barley, oats, peafe, turnips, and potatoes; hops,
hemp, flax, and cabbages, are only railed in fmall quan-
tities. The growth of hay and the improvement of pallure
lands are rather neglefted branches of Shropfliire agricul-
ture ; but on the borders of the Severn, and in the vicinity
of feveral of the Ictfer ftreams, there are many excellent
trafts of mcr.dovv lard, which produce grafs in great luxu-
riance, without the aid of any other manure than what
is depofited by the floods. The grafles molt common in
the county are the following : the fweet-fcented vernal
grafs, Timothy grafs, meadow fox-tail, and fome fpecies
of the agrollis ; but the latter flower too late to be of much
ufe for cultivation. Several varieties of the poa and feftuca
are likcwife common.

Woods and Plantations. — Notwithftanding large yearly
falls of timber, there tliU remain in Shropfliire fome fine
woods of oak, and a vaft number of good hedge-row trees,
chiefly a(h and oak. Birches, both as trees and as fences,
are common in the fouth-welt diftrift. There are befides,
in this county, many large trafts of coppice-wood, and fe-
veral extenfive modern plantations ; but the former fuflx;r
much by the demand for charcoal, which the numerous iron
works in this and the adjoining counties occafion.

Of nvajle lands, Shropfliire is comparatively free. Al-
moft all the lands in cultivation are inclofed ; and the com-
mons are every day decreafing, fo that few of any great
extent remain, except that of Morf, near Bridgenorth,
which meafures five miles in length, and nearly three in
breadth ; and the high lands between Church-Stretton and
Bifliop's-Caflle, and from Clwn to the borders of Radnor-
fiiire, which are folely occupied as fliecp-walks, and perhaps
could not be better employed. There are feveral large
mofles, and many firtaller ones, in Shropfliire. The chief
diftrift of moor-land is that in the vicinity of the village of
Kinnerfley.

Roads and Canals. — The turnpike-roads of tliis county
are excellent ; but the parifli roads are in general bad, and
the repair of them mucli negletled, from the want of pro-
per furveyors. Canalf, though late of introduftion into
Shropfliire, are now frequent. The chief cuts are the
Shropfliire canal, which commences at Donnington wood,
and terminates at Coal I'ort on the Severn, running through
an extenfive allemblage of coal and iron works ; the Kctley
canal, which joins that of the Shropfliire ; the Shrewfljury
canal ; and tlic EUefmere Navigation, which forms in itfelf
a fyftem of canals, extending through that large and fertile
traft of country which lies between the Severn on the fouth
and the Merfey on the north, and between the confines of
North Wales on tlie wtit and the borders of StaflFordfliire
on the eaft, a fpace of 50 miles in length, and upwards of
20 in breadth, exclufive of the valhes which open into
North Wales. Its grand objed is to unite the Severn, the
Dee, and the Merfey, and by that means open a communica-
tion between the diflrift above mentioned and the ports of
Liverpool and Briflol.

Manufadures and Commerce. — Among the manufadlures
of Shroplhirc, thofc of Ketley and other places in the iron
diltrift are the molt confiderable. Garden-pots, and other
coarfe earthen veliels, are made at Brofeley, which is likewife

noted for the manufafture of excellent tobacco-pipes. At
Caughley, in the fame neighbourhood, is a china manufac5-
ture of great excellence, and at Coal Port is another of the
fame kind ; befides one of that fpecies of earthenware called
the Queen's or Wedgewood ware. Shrepfliire alfo contains
feveral mills for dyeing woollen cloths, and fome cotton and
linen manufaftories. Thefe various produfts of courfe form
a confiderable fliare in the commercial means of Shropfliire,
but its principal traffic is probably the llaple trade of Shrewf-
bury, in flannels and Welfli webs, which are bought in large
quantities at the markets of Pool and Ofweltry, and are not
only fcnt to every part of the kingdom, but are exported to
different quarters of the world, particularly to the Weft
Indies and to South America.

Ciiid and Ecclejtajiical Divtjwns and Government. — Shrop-
fliire, like every other county in England, is governed by a
lord lieutenant and cuitos rotulorum, a high flieriff, and a
number of jufticcs of the peace, befides the magiftrates of
the privileged towns. It is divided into fifteen hundreds, or
dillrifts, anfwering to that denomination ; namely, Ofwef-
try, Pimhill, North and South Bradford, Brimllrey, the*
liberty of Shrewlbury, the franchiles of Wenlock, and the
hundreds of Stottefdcn, Ford, Chirbury, Cundover, Mnnf-
low, Overs, Purflow, and the honour of Clun. Thefe
again are fubdivided into 229 pariflies, part of which are
within the diocefe of Litchfield and Coventry, and part
within thofe of Hereford and St. Afaph.

Parliamentary Reprefentation and Chief lotuns. — Shropfliire
fends twelve members to parliament, two knights of the
fliire, and tvvo burgeiles for each of the boroughs of .Shrewf-
bury, Ludlow, Bridgenorth, Wenlock, and Bifliop's-Caftle.
The principal landed proprietors who have an influence in
the reprefentation, are the earl of Powis, the lord Bradford
and Berwick, the Hills, the Corbets, and colonel Forefter.
The market-towns in the county are, Church-Stretton, Cleo-
bury-Mortimer, EUefmere, Hales-Owen, Madeley, New-
port, Wem, Great-Wenlcck, Ofweftry, Whitchurch, and
Wellington.

/Antiquities. — Shroplhire contains a great many obje<Els of
antiquarian interell. The chief Roman flations within its
limits were Uriconium, now Wroxeter, Mediolanum, near
Drayton, and Rutunium, near Wem. Antiquaries differ
refpe£ting the precife pofition of the two laft, but with re-
gard to the former, there is little doubt but it was a chief
city of tlie Cornavii, founded and fortified by the Romans.
Watling-flreet enters the county on the eail, between Crack-
ley-wood and Welton, and pailes through it in a bending
line to Leintwardine, in Herefordlbire, on the fouthern
borders. Of the Saxon period no afcertained remains exifl ;
but of the Norman era, and of fubfequent times, there are
many ; as the caftles of Shrewfbury, Ludlow, Bridgenorth,
Clun, and Red Caltle, and the abbies of Shrewfbury, Haugh-
mond, Buildwas, Wenlock, and Hales-Owen, feveral priories,
and a great number of curious churches. The moft remark-
able encampments are tliofe of Bury Ditches and the Walls,
and at Purflow, Basford Gate, and Hawkltone. A General
View of the Agriculture of Shroplhire, bv Jofeph Plyni-
ley, M.A. Archdeacon of Salop, 8vo. 1803. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. xiii. by J. Nightingale and Ralph
Rylance, 8vo. i8ii.

SHROUD, from the Sa-^on Jlroud, a Jhelter, or cover, is
ufed to denote the drefs of the dead. This is required by
ftatute to be made of flieep's wool only. See Burial.

If any one, in taking up a dead body, fteals the fhroud,
the property of which remains in the executor, or the perfon
who was at the charge of the funeral, it is felony.
SHROUDS, in Sea Language. See Shrowds.

SHROVE-

S H R

S H R

SHROVE-TIDE, the time immediately before Lent ;
thus called by our anceftors, becaufe employed in firiv'tng,
that is, in confelTnig their fins to the pried, in order to a
more devout keeping of the enfuing Lent fait.

Shrove-Tuefday is the day next before the firft of Lent.

SHROWDING of Trees, the cutting or lopping off the
top branches : this is only praftifed to trees that are not
fit for timber, but defigned for fuel, or feme other prefent
ufe.

Such trees the hufbandmen find much preferable to coppice,
as they need no fence to fecure them ; becaufe they iland in no
danger from the browfings and rubbings of cattle, which too
have the benefit of grazing under them.

As for the time of fhrowding, it is not to be praflifed
till the trees have Hood three or four years ; and then it mult
be done cither at the beginning of the fpring, or the end of
autumn.

Thofe of the harder fort are not to be lopped above once in
ten or twelve years, and that at any time in the winter. The
pithy and foft woods are bed fhrowded in the fpring. The
Slumps left Ihould always be cut aflope, and fmooth, in order
to call the water off, and prevent its finking in, and rotting
the tree.

SHROWDS, or Shrouds, in Sea Language, are great
ropes in a (hip, which go up on both fides of all mails, ex-
cept the bowfprit.

The flirouds are always divided into pairs, l. e. one piece of
rope is do\ibled, and the two parts fattened together at a
fmall diftance from the middle, fo as to leave a fort of noofe
or collar to fix upon the mad-head.

They are faltened below by chains to the fhip's fides, and
aloft, over the head of the mad ; their pennants, fore-tackle,
and fwifters, being fird put under them : and they are ferved
there, to prevent their galling the mad. The top-mail
flirouds are fadened to the puttocks, by plates of iron, and
by what they call dead-men's eyes, and laniers alfo, as the
others are. See Puttocks.

The flirouds, as well as the fails, are denominated from
the mad to which they belong. Thus they are the main,
fore, and mi/en flirouds, the main-topmad, fore-topmad,
or mizen-topmad flirouds, and main-top-gallant, fore-top-
gallant, or mizcn-top-gallant flirouds.

The number of flirouds by which a mad is fudaincd, as
well as the fize of the rope of which they are formed, is
always in proportion to the fize of the mad, and the weight
of the fail it is intended to carry. The two fore-mad
flirouds, on the ilarboard and larboard fide of the fliip, are
always fitted fird upon the mad-head ; and then the lecond
on the (larboard, and the fccond on the larboard, and fo on
till the whole number is fixed.

The intention of this arrangement is to brace the yards
with greater facility, when the (ails arc clofe-hauled, which
could not be performed without great dilTiculty, if the fore-
mad (hrouds were lad fitted on the mad -head, becaufe the
angle which they would make with the mail would then be
greatly increafed. Falconer.

liniufjjnl (hroud-! are thofe which fupport the bowiprit.
BumL'in (hrouds are thofe which fupport the bumkin. Ful-
tocL (hrouds are thofe which ronnedt tlie efforts of the top-
mad flirouds with the lower flirouds. Benlinck (hrouds are
additional flirouds to fupport the mads in lieavy gales.
Preventer (hrouds are fimilar to Bcntinck (hrouds, and arc
\jfed in bad weather to eafe the lower rigging.

The terms are, enfe the Jlirouds ; that is, flackcn them.

Set taught the Jlirouds ; that is, fet ihcni fader.

SmtowD Trucks. See Trucks.

SlinOWD Stoppers. See STOPPERS.

2

SHRUBS, in Botany and Vegetable Phyftohgy, are com-
monly underdood to be plants with a perennial woody ftem,
of a more humble or flender form of growth than trees.
Linnajus once attempted to define the limits between trees
and flirubs, by the former having leaf-buds, the latter none ;
but this didin£tion was foon found to be of no avail. Trees
of hot countries have generally no buds, while many very
humble (hrubs of cold ones arc furniflicd with this protec-
tion. This is fo obvious, in Willows for example, that
Linnxus probably only meant to apply the rule generically.
Thus the whole genus of Salis liaving buds, and being
modly arboreous, every fpecies of that genus, however di-
minutive, mud be deemed a tree. Accordingly, 5. her-
hacea, hardly an inch higli, is termed in the Flora Lapponica,
the lead of all trees. But the (hrubby genus Lonicera has
Hill more elaborate buds than Salts.

SiiRun, in Gardening, a low woody plant of branchy
growth and ornamental appearance ; it is fom.ctimes, how-
ever, of a large growth and (lature. Shrubs are commonly
divided into the evergreen and deciduous kinds ; and they
may be fubdivided (till farther into the exotic or tender and
the hardy forts, as well as into fuch as are rarely (een or
met with, and fuch as are well knovi-n and in common cuU
tivation. In the former as well as latter of thele great divi-
fions, the plants may likewifc be feparatcd and arranged
according to their fizes, forms, modes of growth, colours,
and other particulars : in the lad of which, it has been ob-
fervcd, there is every fliade between the rnfeus, which is
among the lead, and the Bermudian juniper, vvjiich is nearly
the larged ; — from the holly, which is llightly tinged with
red, to the box, which is of a golden yellow: — in fliape,
from the cyprefs, which grows in the form of a fpire, to
the daphe tarton raira, wliich forms a globular tnft upon
the furface of the ground ; — from the hedera, which fadens
itfelf to the wall, to the ai.dromeda and vinca, which recline
thcmfelvcs upon the lurface.

In the latter, the plants are faid to be diverfified in each
of thefe particulars, being capable of divifion, as they may
be cultivated prnicipally for the beauty of their flowers, as
the rhododendron, erica, and many others ; — for the fmell,
as the fwoet briar, abfinthoides, cleriodendron, jafminum,
and fome others ; — for both thcle qualities, as the rofe. Cape
jafminc, and a few more : — or as being grown, in a great
mealnre, for the beauty of the leaves, as the acuba, varie-
gated holly, elder, and fomc others ; — for the purpofe and
appearance of the fruit, as the mefpilus pyracaiitlia and the
orange; — for tlie beauty of the whole plant, us the anllote-
lia, and fevcral others; — and, lallly, the greated propor-
tion for all thefe properties together, as the myrtle, Inuruf-
tinus, laurel, and (ome others. Some of thele, however,
belong to the former of the above gcner.al divifions or
clafles.

Shrubs arc of very great importance in forming all forts
of coUedions in gardens, and other places ; and in orna-
mental pleafure-ground works thev conllitute a clafs of ma-
terials (if the mod inlereding kind, which cannot be done
without.

In fuch fituations and works they arc arranged, varied,
and placed out, in many different ways, fo as to produce
the mod pleafing elieft and variety in the particular inten-
tions with which they are planted or fet out. See Simuii-
nr.nY.

It has been oblerved by Mr. London, in his work on
" Ornamental Gardening," that the evergreen clafs of
(hrubs arc deficient in m<id fituations, as well as trees of the
fame fort ; but that they deierve to be very generally
planted, equally on account of their uncommon beauty in

the

S H R

the winter feafon, as for their contraft with the yellow and
ruflet tints of the deciduous kind, and trees of the fame
nature, in the autumnal and fpring feafons. They ought,
generally, according to him, to be the prevailing forts
planted near the houfes and buildings of country-feats, not
only for the reafons fuggefted above, but becaufe they are
capable of concealing fome part or parts of the edifices,
difguifing their real extents, and thus blending them at all
feafons with the furrounding fcenery. There is alfo another
circumftance in their favour, which is the fuperiority of
their (lielter and fhade.

It is thought, alfo, that the cyprefs is too feldom phnted
in fuch fituations, as it has the capability and power of giv-
ing a rich claffical appearance and efFeft to them ; as is feen
in fome cafes, as at Foxley and Yoxal Lodge.

And the holly, it is fuggelled, fhould be planted dill
more than any other (hrub, in particular cafes ; as no other
is capable of affording and producing fuch an excellent and
diverfitied effeft in woody fcenery, as is exemplified in fome
ibrelt fituations.

The ivy is capable, it is faid, of anfwering three im-
portant ufes, and of courfe deferving of more frequent
growth. Thefe are the varying of the Hems of fingle trees,
and fmall groups of them ; the giving of effeft to old decaying
trees, and the rendering of ugly trees interefting, as well as
other fimilar rural purpofes ; the producing of variety in dif-
ferent forts of buildings ; and the giving of ornament and
utility to works of the country kind.

In the firit of thefe intentions, in different cafes, where
the number of trees of the fame kind are confiderable, and
very much alike, which are in the fore-ground, one or fe-
veral of them may be varied and diverfified by the ivy (hrub,
in probably as happy a manner, and with as good an effeft,
as in any other way, and better than by the ufe of any fort
of deciduous climbing plant. Single trees can always be
rendered intereitingly different by thefe means, as well as old
and ugly trees of different forts.

In the fecond ufe, where cottages, ruins, irregularly
formed buildings, old houfes, and other fimilar ftruftures,
are to be varied, partially concealed, and rendered different
in their external appearance, but which cannot be cheap-
ly enough done in other ways, they may be highly and
richly diverfified and decorated by the fimple planting of
the ivy (lirub, and direfting it fo as to cover in different
places or parts. The expence of fuch works would alfo
be lefs, in many inftances, it is remarked, if the external
appearance of them were contrived fo as to admit this plant ;
which would not only vary and alter them generally, but
might occafionally be fubftituted for, and fupply the place
of, particular parts, as is exemplified in many inltances.

The lall of thefe intentions is that of planting the ivy
fhrub againd walls of the Hone kind, dikes, and funk fences
between fields, and other fimilar purpofes, in the view of
rendering them more ornamental and durable. The chequer-
ing of them in this way, on their fides, with fhades of green,
and little ribs or columns, and richly mantling their tops,
have, it is faid, much effeft in producing variety, and at
the fame time in rendering them more laiting. Mortared
and unmortarcd walls are hkewife preferved and fecured by
it. Tliis creeping (hrubby plant may confequently be of
extenfive utility in various ways ; as, befides affording
beauty, fheltcr, and durability, it may be beneficial in
thickening hedges in the vicinity of the fea-coaft, when
joined with the elder. It fhould, in all cafes, be carefully
planted, either by fets or young feedlings, which laft is by
much the readielt mode of raifing and providing it. No-
tliing more is wanting, as it fucceeds well in mofl foils,

7

S H R

fituations, and expofures. Where tall plants are wanted
for particular ufes, they mull be provided with good
roots.

In the deciduous kind of fhrubs, the modes of varying and
planting are very different, according to their nature habits,
fizes, and other qualities and circumftances. For the mofl
part, however, the larger forts are put more out of the way,
in order that the fmaller and more curious kinds may be
more fully expofed to view. The peculiar properties in
fome of this defcription of fhrubs alfo direft the modes and
manners of planting them, as that of the time of flowering,
and feveral others. They are varied and planted differently,
likewife, for a great variety of other different reafans.

In planting the laburnum, as there are two forts, which
differ greatly in their fpray or fmall twigs and fohage, tliat
with the fmaller and more delicate branches and flowers fhould
conftantly be chofen for putting out with other fhrubs ; the
other, which is of much larger growth, is well fuited for
poor gravelly foils, rocky banks, and the rocky margins of
water, where, in the two latter fituations, the plants may
fometimes be feen in great perfeftion.

Shrubs of thefe different kinds are raifed and produced in
many different ways, as may be feen under their different
particular proper heads.

Some forts of fhrubs, particularly in the early ftate of
their growth. Hand in need of not merely a foil and fitua-
tion, but a mode of cultivation which is adapted to tlieir
different natures and habits. And though mofl fhrubs re-
quire to have the earth or foil about them either frequently
ftirred, or kept clean and free from all plants of the weed
kind, there are fonrie that fucceed bcfl when the furface of
the ground is overrun with low plants of the mofs kind.

In all cafes, fhrubs are to be preferved in a neat and per-
feft order, by the removal of the decayed and withered
parts, and the proper cutting in of particular fhoots and
branches where neceflar)', efpecially in fome of the deci-
duous kinds. In the evergreen clafs, the knife or fhears,
however, are very feldom to be applied, except for the re-
moval of the deftroyed parts, which are conftantly to be
carefully taken away.

Shrub, Fruit, that fort of low fhrubby plant which
bears fruit of fome kind or other. Shrubs of this kind are
mortly very ufeful, and not few in number. The forts are
various, as the goofeberry, the currant, the rafpberry, and
fome others, cultivated in garden fituations ; and the ber-
berry or barberry, and a few other kinds, in thofe of the
fhrubbery. Shrubs of this defcription, in moll cafes, re-
quire careful attention in cutting, managing, and keeping
the ground in proper order, by due cultivation, and the
proper ufe of fuitable manure. See Small Fruits, and
Standard Fruit Trees.

In planting them, thofe of the garden fort are moll
properly and ufefully put out in fituations by themfelves,
and not in the ufual mode, on the fides or borders of the
different cultivated compartments of the garden ground.

Thofe which produce ornament, as well as fruit, are to
be placed out in variety with other (hrubs, in the more open
parts of fhrubberies, or alone in particular cafes.

Shrubs, Stealing of. See Larceny.

Wilfully fpoiling or deflroying them is a fpecies of that
malicious mifchief, which fubjefts the offender to pecuniary
penalties for the firft two offences, and for the third, if it
be committed in the day-time, and even be the firft at night,
to the guilt of felony, and tranfportation for feven years. |
6 Geo. III. cap. 36. and 48. i

SHRUBBERY, in Gardening, a traft, portion, or fpace
of ground, which is planted with fhrubs, trees, and flower

plants.

SHRUBBERY.

plants, for the purpofe of ornament. The term is, how-
ever, perhaps the moft properly applied to narrow belts and
ftrips of ground, planted with (hrubs and flowers, which are
fometimes the principal ornaments of fmall feats, and other
fimilar conltruftions and conveniencies. They are contrived
in different forms and modes, for the purpofe of friving the
defired effeft ; and the notion of fuch fchemes of planting
(hrubs and flowers is confidered by Mr. Loudon as good and
proper, as when executed according to the principles of
nature and good talle, they muft produce effeifts of the in-
terefting as well as the pleafing kind ; but that from the
reverfe having been fo frequently the cafe, their tawdry in-
fipidity has been juftly reprobated by fome, as Mr. Knight,
in the following line, &c.

" Curfe on the fiirubbery'i infipid fcenes."

It is fuppofed that fhrubberies are, in general, made and
contrived with the intention of procuring walks, which may
either conduft or direft to fome particular place or fcene,
fuch as the kitchen garden, the farm, a wood, or any other
fimilar objeft ; or they may lead and extend merely through
the flirubberies, for their own fakes, and fuch views of ex-
ternal objefts as can be produced from them, or as are de-
ferving of attention. In defigning and forming flirubberies,
therefore, keeping the above in view, thefe three points
will, it is thought, require to be particularly attended to :
firft, the arrangement, diftribution, and grouping of the
(hrubs, which ought to be that of general nature ; in the
fecond, the intermixing of the glades and paftures, which,
in molt cafes, is an eflentially requifite confideration ; and
in the third or laft, the judicious introduAion of the views
of the more diftant fcenery, which is generally defirable,
unlefs in fuch parts as, by way of utility or contrail, are
preferved in a ftate of umbrofity.

The two latter requifites are, it is faid, naturally con-
nefted with piclurefque improvements, the general prin-
ciples of which are blended and intermixed with this branch
of ornamental gardening.

The direftions which this able defigner of rural works of
this nature has given for the formmg of flirjbberies with
proper tafte, in different cafes, fituations, and circumltances,
are, that when fuch groups of (hrubs and flower plants are
fmall and placed upon lawns, they fliould always be of very
irregular fhapes ; but that, when upon gravel, their forms
muil depend upon circumltances. In cafes where they are in
a part in which art is avowed and ought to prevail, then the
more artificial the forms are, fo much the better ; but that
if merely a group for feparating, dividing, or varying a
road, walk, or natural path at a diftance from artificial
fcenes, then the fliape fliould be as irregular as in thofe upon
lawns. Whether fuch flirubbery groups arc made in a
regular or irregular manner, they almoft in every cafe re-
quire to be cultivated or wrought over for fome years after-
wards. This, in the mode of digging and working them
which has been ufually had rccourfe to, produces, it is faid,
a harlh and difagreeable boundary line ; which, in addition
to the means of proper arrangement, fuitable grouping, and
the natural connexion of fnrfacc, may be improved princi-
pally, it is fuppofed, by the dellruftion of fuch lines of
reparation in as complete a manner, as high a degree, and as
extenfively as poflible. Nothing, it is thought, can be more
readily or more eafily accompliflied, as it is only requifite to
keep the earth on the margins or borders of Inch groups of
the fame level as the furfaccs of the lawns orpallures, and
to fufTer both to unite and blend liarmoiiioiilly togetht-r, or
with eacii other. And as all groups of this fhrubbery kind
are only dug or wrought over during a certain period of

time, as until the flirubs become fo large as to render fur-
ther culture unneceflary ; the pafture ftiould be allowed to
gradually encroach and fpread itfelf among the fhrubs and
flower plants, until at lad it wholly covers the furface.
After this, the flirubby group becomes rough and pic-
turefque ; the flower plants, ftill continuing to grow among
the flirubs, will, it is fuppofed, be produftive of exaftly
what is feen to happen in natural groups ; with this elegant
difference, that in place of nettles, thiitles, and fuch eoarfe
grofs weeds, which however, it is remarked, are as good to
the painter as the finelt flower plants, there will be had the
narciflus, faxifrage, faponaria, and others, which are quite
in charafter with the reft of the plcafure-ground, and thrive
well among pafture. It is fuggefted, that in planting the
flirubs in fuch groups, the great art confifts in putting them
in irregularly ; for though the outline of the ground to be
cultivated mufl;, even under the beft tafte, be fomewhat
formal, yet the (hrubs can always be planted as irregularly
as if no outline or form of group exifted. This is, how-
ever, faid to be a plan or manner of diftribution, which has
never been put in praftice ; as whatever the form of the
ground may be which is to be dug and planted, the flirubs
are diftributed in a regular mr.nner over every part of it : —
even when digging is no longer attended to, ftill none of the
(hrubs are thinned out, but the whole left a formal uncon-
nefted clump of vegetation, an appearance, it is obfcrved,
as different from the irregular group-thickets of nature, as
a green hillock is from a rocky precipice. It is ftated,
however, that the groups of this nature, or rather thofe
maffes of formal (hapes which are placed in particular
fituations, fuch as ovals in the fronts of fmall villas, or
ba(ket-work patches upon the lawns in the fronts of refi-
dences of the manfion kind, (hould always have determinate
outlines ; as being devoted, in a great meafure, to tender
flower plants and flowering (hrubs, they will require to be
conftantly in a cultivated llate. Their outlines or boundaries
may, it is fuppofed, be properly formed, according to cir-
cumltances, either of elegant mafonry, wood, baflcet-work,
or of plants of the flower kind, fuch as thrift, the daify,
and fome others, and not unfrequently, wlien furroundcd
by gravel, by a broad margin of turf. In regard to the
general forms of fuch fhrubby planted madcs, it is faid that
they may be oval, circular, pentagonal, or fanciful, accord-
ing to pleafure ; and that their fiirfaces may either bo kept
level with the lawns or other parts, or be gradually raifed
from their margins to their centres. It is however noticed,
that when raifed in this way, the fides (hould always be made
to prefcnt a concave flope, and not that of a convex one,
a> is moll commonly the cafe, and which has a very bad
effeft in different inltances, as in tiie public fquares of the
metropolis. Sec. Bafket-work flirubby groups have not un-
frequently, it is remarked, a very pretty i-flett when covered
with mofs. Others which are unconneiled among thcm-
felvcs, and which have (hapes that are rather unfuitable to
the nature of the fituations in which they are formed, are
likewife productive of variety. In all cafes, fome fort of
agreeable cfleA ought to be afforded in as Itriking a manner
as poflible.

It is conclufivcly remarked, that though the conneftion
of furface in fucii flirubby groups is always of importance,
neither thole of the irregular or regular (hapes ought ever
to be placed in any fituation, except where they have a
proper relation and union with what furrounds them.

In the larger and more extenfivc works of tiie (hrubtxry
kind, the fame rules and princi[)lcR will be nccellary to be
had recourfe to, but witli a greater attention to the produc-
tion of variety and effeft. Thefe arc to bo accompliflied by

fuch

SHU

fuch means as have been already fuggefted, and by giving
them a more natural conformity, as well as by the mtroduc-
tion of greater divcrfity in the (hrubs, trees, and other forts
of plants that are made ufe of in the formation of them. It
is indeed obferved, that one of the mofl effedual means of
rendering rural fcencs ilill more iiiterefting than they com-
monly are, is by introducing a more extenfive variety of
fhrubs than is ufually employed, a vaft number of which
are capable of anfwering the purpofe. They are not, how-
ever, to be planted in fuch fituations in the common in-
difcriminate manner, but with much regard to the effeft
which they are to produce. In (hort, it is concluded, that it
IS in the ftrubbery, or thofe parts of pleafure-grounds which
contain flower plants, Ihrubs, and trees,— which occupy con-
fiderable fpace, — exhibit views of the country or of other
parts of tlie ground, that ornamental gardening and pic-
turefque improvement blend themfelves together in produc-
ing thofe happy effefts which fo much intereit the feelings
and fancy.

SHRUBBY-//ow/-/^W, in Jgriaillure, a plant of the
(hrubby weed kind, whicli is often troublefome and injurious
in woods arid plantations. See Hieracium, and Weeds.

SHRULE, in Geography, a river of the county of
Tyrone, Ireland, which joins the Moyle near New Town
Stewart. There are alfo feveral parilhes of this name in
Ireland, but none called from a town now exifting, except
yiirule in the county of Mayo, on the borders of the county
of Galvvay ; io6 miles N. by W. from Dublin.

SHTUKA, a powerful tribe or kabyle m the province
of Sufe, in the fouthern divifion of the empire of Morocco,
inhabited by Shelluks, amounting in number to 380,000.

SHUARIF, a fmall low ifland in the Red lea, near the
coaft of Africa. N. lat. 24° 22'.

SHUBENACADIE, a river of Nova Scotia, which
rifes within a mile of the town of Dartmouth, on the E.
fide of Halifax harbour, and difcharges itfelf into Coba-
quid bay, receiving in its courfe the Slewinck and Gays
rivers. The large lake of the fame name lies on the E. fide
of the land that leads from Halifax to Windfor, and about
7 miles from it, and 121 from Halifax.

SHUCK, m ^Agriculture, provincially a ilouk, or twelve
fheaves of corn fet up together in the harved field.

SHUD, in Rural Economy, a word fometimes provincially
ufed to fignify filed.

SHUG, in Agriculture, a term ufed to imply the fhaking
of any thing, as hay, &c.

SHUGGINGS, a word fignifying that which is (hed or
fcattered, as grain at harvell, &c.

SHUHUSHU, in Geography, a village of the pachalic
of Bagdad, one day's fail from Korna, and fituated on the
bank of the Euphrates. It is as large as Samavat (which
fee), but much more flourilhing ; for the Euphrates, which
is navigable, even in the driell feafon, for boats of con-
fiderable burthen as far up as this place (where the effects
of the tide are alfo felt), enables the inhabitants to carry on
a trifling traffic with Baiibra. Shuhulhu is a great mart
for horlcs, and is famed for the richnefs of the cloves raifed
in its vicinity.

SHUK, in Agriculture, a term fometimes provincially ap-
plied to a hufli or (hell.

SHUKERA, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 42 miles
S. of Gangotre.

SHULA, or ShuII, in Mythology. See SuLA.
SHUMAN, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia ;
30 miles W. of Vafhgherd.

SHUMBERG, a town of Ulria; 5 miles N.N.E. of
Fedena.

SHU

SHUME, or Asshume, a violent hot wind of Africa,
or, as they are called, Oncas, which, in the intermediate
journies between feveral parts of the Dcfart or Sahara, oc-
cafions great inconvenience and diilrefs to travellers. It
fometimes wholly exhales the water carried in (Icins by the
camels for the ufe of the paffengers and drivers : on which
occafions the Arabs and people of Soudan affirm, that 500
dollars have been given for a draught of water, and that 10
or 20 are commonly given, when a partial exhalation has
occurred. In 1805, a caravan proceeding from Tombuftoo
to Tafilet was difappointed in not finding water at one of
the ufual watering-places, when, as it is faid, all the perfons
belonging to it, 2000 in num.ber, befides 1800 camels,
perilhed by thirll. The intenfe heat of the fun, aided by
the vehem.ent and parching wind that drives the loofe fand
along the boundlefs plains, gives to the Defart the appear-
ance of a fea, the drifting fands refembling exaftly the
waves of the fea, and hence aptly denominated by the Arabs
" el Bahar billa maa," a fea without water. During the
prevalence of this wind, it is impolfible to live in the upper |
rooms of the houfes ; fo that the inhabitants retire to fub-
terraneous apartments, cellars, or warehoufes on the ground-
floor, eating only fruits, as the water-melon or prickly pear,
as the animal food at this time is loathfome whilll hot, and
has fcarcely time to cool before it becomes tainted. The
walls of the bed-chambers, being of ilone, are moiftened
by throwing upon them buckets of water, in order to render
the rooms habitable towards the night ; and fo great is their
heat, that in doing this, the effeft is fimilar to that which is
produced by carting water on hot iron. Mr. Jackfon fays
that he ha; felt the fhume 20 leagues out at fea. When in N.
lat. 30". W. long. 11° 30', a quantity of fand fell on the deck.
He adds, that he never found any extreme inconvenience
from the fhume N. of the province of Sufe, although at
Mogodor it is fometimes felt, but not fo fcverely, during
three days.

The Akkaabahs, or accumulated caravans, which crofs
the great defart of Sahara, and confift of feveral hundred
loaded camels, accompanied by the Arabs who let them to
the merchants for tranfporting their merchandize to Fez,
Moroccco, &c. are fometimes obliged fuddenly to rtrike
their tents, and proceed on their journey, when the fhume
rifes and drifts the loofe fand along the plains, which attaches
to every fixed objeft in its courfe, and foon buries it. We
Ihall here add, that the guides of tliefe accumulated cara-
vans, being enabled by the two pointers to afcertain the
polar ftar, fteer their courfe with confiderable precifion, and
that they often prefer travelling in the night to enduring the
fuffocating heat of the fcorching meridian lun. When the
Akkaabah reaches Akka, the firll ftation on this fide of the
Defart, and fituated on its confine^, in Lower Sufe, which
is a part of Biledulgerid, the camels and guides are dif-
charged, and others are there hired to proceed to Fez, Mo-
rocco, Terodant, Tafilet, and other places. The Akkaa-
bahs perform the traverfe of the Defart, including their fo.
journments at El-wahs, or Oafes, in about 1 30 days. Pro-
ceeding from the city of Fez, they go at the rate of 3^
miles an hour, and travel feven hours a day : they reach
Wedinoon, Tatta, or Akka, in 18 days, where they remain
a month, as a grand accumulated Akkaabah proceeds from
the latter place. In going from Akka to Tagaff^, they
employ 16 days, fojourning here 15 days more to replenifh
their camels ; they then proceed to the Oafis .ii.d well of
Taudeiiy, which they reach in feven days, and after flaying
there 15 days, they proceed to Tomlvjciod, which they
reach the fixth day, mr.king a journey if J4 (iays .icf ual
travelling, and of 75 days' repofe ; being altogether, from

Fea

SHU

Fes to Tombuftoo, 1 29 days, or 4 lunar montlis and 9 day*.
See ToMBUCTOO and Wedinoon. See alfo Caravan.

SHUMSHABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindoo,
ftan, in Lahore ; 6 miles S.E. of Attock.

SHUMUM, a town of Egypt, on the Nile; 13 miles
N.W. of Cairo.

SHUNAITE' EzzAiLE, a town of Egypt ; 30 miles
S.W. of Girge.

SHUNAR, a town of Hindooltan, in Bahar ; 22 miles
N.E. of Bahar.

SHUPARE, a town of Candahar ; 45 miles N. of
Attock.

SHURBA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 30
miles E.S.E. of Boll.

SHURDHUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 50
miles E.N.E. of Junagur.

SHUREGIAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman ; 95 miles S.E. of Sirgian.

SHUREJAN, a diftria of Grand Bucharia, in the W.
part of the kingdom of Balk.

SHURFFAH, a town of Algiers, near the coaft ; 6
miles E. of Dellys.

SHURMEEN, a town of Syria; 32 miles S.S.W. of
Aleppo.

SHURMIN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
raflan ; 25 miles N. of Maru-errud.

SHURPH el Graab, i. e. the plnnacla of the ravens, a
rugged mountain of Algiers ; 25 miles N. of Tremecen.

SHURUBUI, a town of Brafil, in the government of
Para; 22 miles E. of Pauxis.

SHUS, the name of famous ruins in the Perfian empire,
fituated in the province of Kuziftan, or Chufillan, (the
ancient Sujiana, which fee, ) about feven or eight miles to
the weft: of Dezphoul, a town which lies on the eaftern
banks of the Abzal, in a beautiful and fpacious plain,
38 miles W. of Shufter, and celebrated for its elegant
bridge of 22 arches, 450 paces in length, 20 in breadth,
and about 40 in height, the piers of which are conltructed
of large ftones, and the arches and upper parts of burnt
brick. The ruins of Shus extend about twelve miles from
one extremity to the other, (hetching as far as the ealtern
bank of the Kerah, occupying an immenfe fpace between
that river and the Abzal, and, like the ruins of Ctefiphon,
Babylon, and Kufa, confiding of hillocks of earth and rub-
bi(h, covered with broken pieces of brick and coloured tile.
The largeit and mod remarkable of thefe mounds Hand at
the diftance of about two miles from the Kerah. The
firft is, at the lowed computation, a mile in circum-
ference, and nearly 100 feet in height; and the other,
although not quite fo high, is double the circuit of the
former. Thefe mounds bear fome refemblance to the
pyramids of Babylon, with this difference, that inltead of
being made entirely of brick, they are formed of clay and
pieces of tile, with irregular layers of brick and mortar,
five or fix feet thick, to fcrve, as it (hould feem, as a kind
of prop to the mafi. Large blocks of marble, bearing
hieroglyphics, are not unfrequently difcovered here by the
Arabs, when digging in fearch of hidden treafure ; and at
the foot of the mod elevated of the pyramids dands the
" tog:ib of Daniel," a fmall, and apparently a modern
building, erefted on the fpot where the relics of that pro-
phet are believed to red.

Thefe ruins, according to major Rennell, reprefent the
celebrated city of Sufa ; but another didinguifhcd oriental
geographer controverts this opinion, and maintains that
Shuder, and not Shus, occupies the fituation of the ancient
metropolis of the Ead. The arguments alleged by major

Vol. XXXII.

SHU

Rennell in favour of his opinion are, id, the fimilarity of
name, and the fituation, which agrees better with the
didance between Sardis and Sufa, mentioned in the tablets
of Ariftagoras, than that of Shuder ; 2dly, the legend of
the prophet Daniel, whofe coffin was found at Shus ; and
3dly, that Sufa ought to be placed on a river, which has
its fource in Media. Dr. Vincent, in reply, fays, that the
fimilarity of name is a corroborating circumdance, when
we are fure of our pofition. But till the pofition be afcer-
tained, it is only a prefumptive proof, and often fallacious ;
and that Shuder approaches dill nearerthan Shus to Shufhan,
which is its title in Scripture, and Shudian differs not from
Sufa, but by the infertion of a dot in the letter Sch'm. To
the legendary tradition of the tomb of Daniel, little more
refpeft is due, as the learned doftor conceives, than to the
legends of the church of Rome and the Mahon:edan tra-
ditions. Sufa, he adds, was on the river Euleus ; Shuder
is more ancient than Shus ; Sufiana, the name of the pro-
vince, approaches nearer to Shuflian ; and Kuzidan, its
modern appellation, derived from, the mountains which
furround it, is evidently connected with the Kifii. Kufli,
and Koffii of the Greeks. Nearchus failed up to Sula, with-
out entering the Shat-ul-Arab, which he would not have done,
if that city had dood on the Kerah ; and when Alexander de-
fcended the Euleus, he fent his difabled fliips through the cut
of the Hafar, into the Shat-ul-Arab ; and, finally, a drong
reafon for placing Sufa at Shuder occurs in Ebn Haukul,
who fays, that there is not in all Kuzidan any mountain,
except at Shuder, Jondi Shapour, and Ardz ; and as the
cadle of Sufa is reprefented by hidorians as a drong place,
it is reafonable to fuppofe that it dood upon a hilL Mr.
Kinneir, in his " Geographical Memoir on the Perfian
Empire," has examined with critical fkill and great can-
dour the objeftions of Dr. Vincent, and the principles on
which they are founded ; and the relult is, that he inclines
to favour the opinion of major Rennell, in fupport of which
he cites the authority of Strabo, who fays, that the
Perfian capital was entirely built of brick, there not being
a done in the province ; whereas the quarries of Shuder
are very celebrated, and almod the whole of the town is
built of done, but there is no fuch thing in the environs of
Shus, which was anciently formed of brick, as appears
from our author's dcfcription of the pyramids that dill
remain. However the quedion concerning the fcitc of
the city of Shus be determined, it is now a gloomy wilder-
nefs, infcded by lions, hyxnas, and other beads of prey.

SHUSJIMI AN, a town of Perfia, in Khoradan ; 6 miles
N. of Maru.

SHUSTER, a province ordidrift of the Perfian empire,
condituting one divifion of Kuzidan, or Chufidan, the
other being formed by the territories of the Chab Sheikh.
I'lie latter extend from the banks of the Tab to the conflux
of the Karoon and Abzal, and from tlicfhoie of tiie Perfian
gulf to a range of hills which (kirt the valley of Ram
Hormuz to the fouth. The mod fertile fpots ir. this dif-
tritt are thofe in the environs of Dorak, the capital of the
Chab prince, and on the banks of the Hafar and Shat-ul-
Arab. Here dates and rice are produced ; and hence the
Slieikh Mahomed derives his principal revenues. The wheat
and barley that are grown are fcarcely fuflicicnt for the
fupply of the inhabitants. The rice harved is in Auguft
and September, and tliat of other grain in April and May.
The nortlicrn and wcdern parts of the country afford tole-,
rable padurage ; and here the wandering tribes, which
compole the ))rincipal part of the population, ]>itcli their
tents. Both bank"; of the Karoon, from its juiidtion with
the Abzal, eight furfungs below Shuder, to the ruins of
4 L Sibla.

SHU

Sabla, are uninhabited, and confequently almoil wholly un-
cultivated, and covered with brufti-wood, the refort of lions,
wild bears, and other animals. MorafTes are common.
The Chab country is watered by three rivers, -uiz. ift, the
Karoon, fuppofed by fome geographers to be the ancient
Choafpes, but Kinneir difputes their identity ; it rifes 22
furfungs S.W. of Ifpahan, and after receiving many tn-
butary'ilreams in the mountains of Lauriftan, flows through
the city of Shufter to the village of Bundekeel, eight fur-
fungs to the S. of that city, where it meets the Abzal :
piirfuing thence a foutherly courfe, as far as Sabla, N. lat.
30° 32', and 30 miles E. of Baffora, it divides itfelf into
two branches, one of which difcharges itfelf into the fea
at Goban, and the other, affuming the name of Hafar,
feparates, after a courfe of 14 miles, into two branches,
one of which pafTes through an artificial canal, three miles
in length, into the Shat-ul-Arab, and the other enters the
fea by the name of the Bamifliire. 2dly. The Tab, which
fee ; and the 3d is the Jerahi, or ancient Pafitigris,
which defcends from the mountains behind Bebahan, in the
province of Fars, and paffing within a few miles of the
walls of that city, runs through the vale of Ram Hormuz
to old Dorak, in the territory of the Chab Sheikh. Here
it is difperfed in various direftions for the purpofe of agri-
culture ; and the water afterwards is loH, or occafions the
vatl morafl'es in the vicinity of modern Dorak. The prin-
cipal towns in the dittrid of Chab Sheikh are, Dorak
or Felahi, Ahwaz, Etidian, Mafhoor, Goban, and Jerahi,
■whence the river, fo called, derives its name. The revenues
of the Chab Sheikh amount to five lacs of piaftres, or
about 5:0,000/. fterhng a-year; and he can bring into the field
5000 horfe, and 20,000 foot.

The territories attached to the government of Shufter
conftitute the faireft portion of Sufiana. It derives its
iertility from four noble rivers, and from a multitude of
fmaller ftreams. This wealthy province, which, according
to Strabo, yielded to the hufbandman 100 or even 200
fold, and was rich in its produftions of cotton, fugar, rice,
and grain, is now, for the greateil part, a forfaken waite.
The only indications to the contrary occur between Bun-
dekeel, Dezphoul, the vicinity of Haweeza, and the vale of
Ram Hormuz. From the Abzal to the Tigris, and the
river Gyndes, on the weftern fide, and from the banks of
the Karoon to thofe of the Shat-ul-Arab, all is dreary and
defolate ; and on the E. fide of Shuiter a lonely wild, up-
wards of 60 miles in length, extends from that city to the
entrance of the valley of Ram Hormuz. Although the
inhabitants of the towns and villages groan under the arbi-
trary fway of the governor of Shufter, his authority is
hardly acknowledged by the wandering tribes, both Perfian
and Arabian, of Kuzillan. Of the four great rivers which
cmbellifh and fertilize the diilri£t of Shuller, Karoon de-
ferves the firft mention. Next in magnitude is the Abzal,
which has two fources, one in the Siiutur Koh, near
Boorojird, and the other in the mountains of Lauriftan :
thefe form a junftion N. of Dezphoul, and afterpafiing under
the walls of that city, empty thcmfelves, after a winding
courfe, into the Karoon, at Bundekeel. The third river is
the Kerah, or Haweeza river, called by the Turks the
Karafu, which is formed by the junftion of many llieams
in the province of Ardelan, in Kurdiftan : it runs through
the plain of Kermanlhaw, meeting the Kazawur and the Ga-
mafu. The Karafu, increafed in magnitude by tributary
ftreams, flows with a furious courfe towards Kuziftan, and
fupplied with an acceffion of water, it paflTes on the W. of
the ruins of Shus to the city of Haweeza, and enters the
Shat-ul-Arab, about twenty miles below Korna. The

SHU

fourth river is that fuppofed by Mr. Kinneir to be the
ancient Gyndes, which proceeds from an unknown fource
in the mountains of Lauriftan, and joins the Tigris between
Koot and Korna.

Shufter, the capital of Kuziftan, and the refidence of 3
Beglerbeg, is fituated in N. lat 32°. E. long. 48" 59', at
the foot of the mountains of Bucktiari, on an eminence com-
manding the rapid courfe of the Karoon, acrofs which is
a bridge of one arch, upwards of eighty feet high, from the
fummit of which the Perfians often throw themfelves into the
water, without the flighteft injury. On the weftern fide it is
defended by the river, and on the other fide by the old ilone
wall, now fallen into decay. Tlie houfes are good, being
principally built of ftone, but the ftreets are narrow and
dirty. The population, confifting of Perfians and Arabians,
exceeds iy,ooo fouls ; and it has a confiderable manufadlure
of woollen ftufFs, which are exported to Baftbra, in return
for the Indian commodities brought from thence. This
city is generally believed to be the ancient Sufa ; but
fome approved geographers entertain a different opinion.
(See Shus.) Shus, in the old Perfian language, means
pleafing, or delightful, and Shufter ftill more delight-
ful ; and the name is faid to be given to this city by
Sapor, the fon of Artaxerxes Babegan, by whom it was
founded, and caufed to be built under the infpeClion of his
prifoner, the Roman emperor Valerian. It was once,
without queftion, a place of vaft extent, and no inconfiderable
magnitude. The caftle, dyke, and bridge, are moft worthy
of notice. The caille occupies a fmall hill at the weftern ex-
tremity of the town, commanding a fine view of the river,
mountains, and adjoining country. This fortreis is, on
two fides, defended by a ditch, now almoft choaked up
with fand, and on the other two fides by a branch of the
Karoon. It has one gate-way, formerly entered by a draw-
bridge. The hill is almoft entirely excavated, and formed
into furdahs and fubterraneous aqueducts, through which
the water ftill continues to flow. Near the caftle is the
dyke, or '» bund," built by Sapor acrofs the Karoon, with
a view of turning a large proportion of the water into a
channel more favourable for agriculture, than that which
nature had afiigned it. This dyke is conftrufted of cut
ftone, bound together by clamps of iron, about 20 feet
broad, and 400 yards long, with two fmall arclies in the
middle. It has lately been rebuilt by Mahomet Ali Meerza,
governor of Kermanftiaw, and its beneficial effeifs are
already experienced. The artificial canal, occafioned by '
the conftrudion of this .^yke, difembogues, after a long
winding courfe, into the Dezphoul, half a mile from Bun-
dekeel. Near tlie canal is a bridge, built of hewn ftone,
confifting of 32 arches, 28 of which are yet entire. The
city of Shufter is fo remarkable for its falubrity, as to be
the continual refort of invalids from the furrounding ter-
ritories. In fummer the heats are exceffive from nine in the
morning to the fame hour at night, when the air is refrethed
by a gentle breeze from the N.W. During the day the
inhabitants take refuge in fubterraneous chambers, and pafs
the night on the flat roofs of their houfes. The winters are
mild, and the fprings temperate and delightful. Shufter
affords excellent fprings. Kinneir's Geog. Mem. of the
Perfian Empire.

SHUT in Land. See Land.

SHUTESBURY,in Geography, a townftiip of America,
in Hampftiire county, Maflachufetts, on the E. fide of
Connedicut river ; 90 miles W. by N. from Boftoa, con-
taining 939 inliabitants.

SHUTTING, in yinchor- Making, denotes joining or
welding one piece of iron to another.

Shimtinc-

S H W

■S 1

Shutting- f//, in Rural Economy, a term applied to
woods and plantations, which fignities the inclofing and
fecuring them from the injuries which are done to them
by neat cattle and other forts of live-ftock getting into them,
and the keeping of them fecure and fafe for a certain period
of time before they are cut over and converted to ufe in
their different intentions. See Wood.

It alfo implies the removing of live-ftock from the
paftures and other grafs lands, for the purpofe of clofing
them in the view of having the former of a more full, fuit-
able, and better growth or bite, as it is called, and the
latter more produftive of grafs for hay. See Meadow,
and Pasture.

SHUTTLE, in the ManufaSures, an inftrument ufed by
the weavers, which, with a thread it contains, either of
woollen, filk, flax, or other matter, ferves to form the woofs
of ilufFs, cloths, linen, ribbands, &c. by throwing the (buttle
alternately from left to right, and from right to left, acrofs
between the threads of the warp, which are llretched out
lengthways on the loom.

In the middle of the fliuttle is a kind of cavity, called
the eye or chamber of the (huttle ; in which is inclofed the
fpoul, which is a part of the thread deftined for the woof ;
and this is wound on a little tube of paper, rufh, or other
matter.

The ribband-weaver's fliuttle is very different from that
of moft other weavers, though it ferves for the fame pur-
pofe : it is of box, fix or feven inches long, one broad, and
as much deep ; fliod with iron at both ends, which terminate
in points, and are a little crooked, the one towards the right,
and the other towards the left, reprefenting the figure of an
w horizontally placed.

Shuttle, m Inland Navigation, a term expreflinga fmall
fluice, paddle, &c.

SHUTTLE WORTH, Obadiah, in Biography, or-
ganift of St. Michael's church, Cornhill, was eledted, on the
refignation of Harte, for St. Dione's Back-church, who was
fucceeded by Burney in 1749. Shuttleworth, fgon after his
eleftion at St. Michael's, was appointed one of the organifts
of the Temple church. He was the fon of Shuttleworth of
Spitalfields, the father of a remarkable mufical family, and
had acquired a fmall fortune by teaching the harpfichord,
and tranfcribing the compofitioiis of Corelli, before they
were printed in England. He had three fons and a daughter,
all good muficiaiis ; and had frequent concerts at his houfe for
the amufernent of his friends, in which the fons played the
violin and tenor, the daughter the harpfichord, and the old
gentleman the viol da gamba. His fon Obadiah, particularly,
was fo admired a performer on the vioHn, as to be ranked
among the firll mafters of his time. He led the band at the
Swan concert, from itsfirft inftitution to the time of his death,
about the year 1735, when he was fucceeded by Fefting.
His brothers were excellent performers on the violin, and
employed in all the city concerts. But Obadiah is almoft a
fingle inilance of the fame mufician being equally admired
for his performance on two different inflruments. He was
fuch a favourite player on the Temple organ, that great
crowds went thither to hear him of a Sunday evening, when,
after fervice, he frequently played near an hour, giving a
movement to each of the folo flops previous to his final fugue
on the full organ.

SHWAN-PAN, the name of aChinefe inftrument, com-
pofed of a number of wires, with beads upon them, which
tfiey move backwards and forwards, and which ferves to alTill
them in their computations. See Abacu.s.

SHWAYEDONG, in Geography, ^iimiW but neat town
of the Birman empire, oa the Irawaddy, containing about

300 houfes, ranged in a regular ftreet ; eacli dwellmg
having a fmall garden, fenced with a bamboo railing. Its
two monafteries and a few fmall temples did not engage the
particular notice of Col. Symes and his companions ; but
the tall and wide-fpreading trees that overfliadowed them
were objefts of pleafing contemplation. Symes's Embaffy
to Ava, vol. ii. p. 254.

SHY, in Agriculture, a provincial term, fignifying high-
mettled or head-ftrong, in the manner of wild colts, &c.

SHYAMULA, in Mythology, a name of Parvati, the
confort of the Hindoo deity Siva. It means with a blue
body ; and is, with many other names of fimilar derivation,
given to that goddefs, and to Viflmu, Krifhna, and Rama,
who are defcribed and reprefented of " hyacinthine hue."
Among thefe names are Syama, Shyamala, &c.

SI, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Ho-nan ; 50 miles N.W. of Kouang.

Si, or Sia, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in
Chan-fi. N.lat. 36=40' E. long. 1 10° 31'.

Si, in Mufic, a name in finging, given by the French to
the (harp 7th of the key of C, to preclude the embarrafl'ment
of the mutations in folmifation. ( See Hexachord, and Mu-
tations. ) A fimilar expedient had been often attempted
by various authors ; but none had been fo generally adopted
as this, which however was long folely confined to France ;
nor is it yet general all over Europe. And wc think that
the manner in which the French fyllabizc not only vocal
but inftrumental mufic, is f ubjeit to very material objcftions ;
it only provides for one key. If the new fyllablc_y7 had been
ufed for the (harp 7th of every key, as well as that of ut or C
natural, and la for every key-note or tonique in minor keys,
it would have exempted the principianti in finging from
much perplexity. There is no certain name for any note,
except m the key of C, ut, re, mi,fa,fol,la,ft, ut ; and whe-
ther B is flat, natural, or (harp, it is equally denominated/?;
as C, whether natural, flat, or (harp, is always called ut.
When D is the key-note, it is named re ; when it is the 3d
of the key of Bb, or 4th of A, it ftill retains the name
oi re.

Malcolm, in the year 1721, was the firfl who openly cen-
fured thehexachord>, which Dr. Pcpufch, in 1731, defended
with fome warmth, by giving the bell and cleared explana-
tion of their ufe and importance, not only in finging but
compofition, in regulating tlie anfwers to fugues. Fouchs,
Padre Martini, Sala, and the mod rcfpcftable Italian and
German theorills, ftill adiiere to the folmifation which has
produced fo many great compofers and fingers during the
two lalt centuries. Wc have given our opinion fully on the
fubjeft in the article Serra, a Roman maftcr, who propofed
a new method of naming the intervals in cultivating the
voice. See Serra.

The original introduftion of this fyllable is attributed by
Merfennus and other writers to one Le Maire, a French
mufician, who laboured for thirty years to bring it into
pradice ; but he was no fooncr dead than all the muficians
of his country made ufe of it. However, it has been the
more general opinion, tliat the fyllableyf was introduced into
the fcale by Ericius Puteanus of Dort, who lived about the
year 1580. M. Bourdelot afcribes the introduftion of this
fyllable into the fcale to a Cordelier, about the year 1675 »
and he adds, on the tellimony of the abbe de la Louctte,
that it was invented, or a fecond time brought into praftice,
by one Metru, a famous finging-maller at Pans, about the
year 1676; and Bonet inclines to tliink, that the lionour of
the invention might be due to tlie Cordelier, but that the merit
of reviving it is to be alcribed to Mctru. Bourdelot infi-
nuates, that though the ufe of the fyllabe /i is much ap-
4 L 2 proved

S 1 A

proved of by the French muficians, yet in Italy they difdain
to make ufe of it, as being the invention of a Frenchman.
Hawkins's Hift. of Mufic, vol. i. p. 435.

The French are not yet agreed to whom they are obliged
for the (yWMe/t ; fome fay it was Nevers, fome Le Maire,
and other claimants are mentioned by Roufi'eau ; but not
bein^ quite fatisfied with its utility, we (hall bellow no
pains in verifying the claims of an iinperfed invention.

Si ylaion, in Law, the conclufion of a plea to the aftion,
when the defendant demands judgment, if the plaintiff ought
to have his adlion, &c.

SIABE', in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Segertan, or Seiftan.

SIABISCH, 1 river of Ruflia, which runs into the Aba-
kan, near Bankalova, in the government of Kolyvan.

SIAD Y, a town of Samogitia, feated on a lake ; 33 miles
N.N.W. of Miedniki.

SIAGNE, a river of France, which runs into the Medi-
terranean, N. lat. 43° 31'. E. long. 7°.

SIAGONAGRA, a name given by fonje medical writers
to the gout in the jaws.

SIAKA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Ximo ; 1 2 miles W. of Taifero.

SI A- KOH, a mountain of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
50 miles E.N.E. of Kom.

SIAL, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Egypt, which
forms a harbour in the Red fea. N. lat. 24° 30'. E. long.

35° 2'-

SIALACOORY, a town of Hindooftan, in Cochin;

30 miles N.E. of Cranganore.

SIALISMUS, formed from o-iaXov, yi/zW, a word ufed
by the ancients to exprefs a difcharge of faliva, brought on
by the holding hot things in the mouth ; and by us for a
falivation by mercury.

SIALO, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the
ifland of Sibu. N. lat. 9° 53'. E. long. 123° 30'.

SIALOCHI, a term ufed by the ancients to exprefs fuch
perfons as had a plentiful difcharge of faliva, by whatever
means. Hippocrates ufes it for a perfon having a quinfey,
who difcharges a very large quantity of faliva. Others ex-
prefs by it perfons, whofe mouths naturally abound with
a bitter faliva ; and others, fuch perfons as, from having
a very large tongue, fpit into people's faces while talking
with them.

SIALAGOGUES, in Medicine, irora c-mXoc, /a/iva, and
ayx; I excite, comprehend all fuch medicines as increafe the
flow of faliva.

The fubftances which operate upon the falivary glands,
fo as to excite them to pour out their fluid in increafed
quantities, are of two kinds ; namely, thofe which may be
called external, and which, when applied within the mouth,
ftimulate the excretories of faliva and mucus, opening there-
by their acrid quahties ; and thofe which are adminiltered
internally, and operate through the medium of the circu-
lation.

It feems to be a falutary provifion of nature, that when
any acrid matter is applied to the fenfible parts of the tongue
and internal furface of the mouth, a quantity of faliva and
mucus fliould be poured out to wafli it off, or to defend thofe
parts from its irritating eff"eds. Whence, by the continued
application of acrid fubftances, a confiderable evacuation of
the veflels of thofe parts is produced. By emptying the
lalivary glands and raucous follicles, they produce an afflux
of fluids from all the neighbouring veflels to a confiderable
extent. Whence it will be readily underftood, that thefe
mafticatories may relieve rheumatic congeftions, not only in
the neighbouring parts, as in the cafe of tooth-ache, but alfo

S I A

f

congeftions or inflammatory difpofitions in any part of the
head, fupplied by the branches of the external carotid.

Many fubftances are reforted to for this purpofe, and
chiefly the warm and acrid vegetables ; indeed every fub-
ftance that proves fliarp and heating to the tongue, or inter-
nal furface of the mouth, will anfwer the end. The angehca
is a mild and agreeable fialagogue ; the imperatoria more
acrid ; and the pyrethrum more acrid ftill, and therefore
more commonly employed. Other fubftances might be
enumerated, but it may be enough to add, that a bit of frelh
horfe-radifli root, held in the mouth, and chewed a little
there, is as effeftual as any.

The only medicine which we poflefs, that is capable of
exciting a flow of faliva when taken internally, is mercury.
In its crude and fimple ftate of quickClver, however, it is
perfeflly inert, and exerts no influence whatever upon the
living body, until it is oxydated, or combined with other
materials. Its operation then, as Dr. CuUen has ably de-
monftrated, is not, as was formerly fuppofed, by any che-
mical aftion on the fluids of the body, by which they are
attenuated, and thus made to pafs off more readily through
the excretory dufts ; but by a general ftimulant effeft upon
the vafcular fyltem, and efpecially upon the various excre-
tories of it. When blood is drawn from a perfon under the
full influence of mercury, it exhibits no appearance of any
diminution of conGftence ; but, on the contrary, it is always
found in the fame condition as in inflammatory difeafes.

It will not be necetiary to enter into detail in this place
refpefting the mode of adminiftering mercury as a fiala-
gogue, fince that has already been done under the head of
Lues Venerea, for which difeafe principally it is fo exhi-
bited. In this difeafe, indeed, as well as in difeafes of the
liver, in hydrocephalus, and fome other maladies, it is not
adminiftered with a view to the evacuation from the falivary
glands ; its operation as a fialagogue is rather looked upon
as the teft of its full influence on the conftitution, than as
the means of its remedial power. See Cullen, Materia
Medica, part ii. chap. 17.

During the prevalence of a chemical theory, to which the
difcovery of the importance of oxygen in the animal economy
gave rife, and when it was fuppofed that the nitric acid had
been found to be a fubftitute for mercury in the cure of,
fyphilis, it was even maintained that this acid afted in a
fimilar manner upon the falivary gland?, and was, in faft, a
powerful fialagogue. Farther experience, however, while
it difproved the antivenereal powers of this acid, difproved
alfo its virtues as a fialagogue, except indeed it might influ-
ence the excretory dufts of the glands externally, that is by
its acrid qualities in the aft of being fwallowed.

SIALUSSIEB, in Geography, a town of the Arabian
Irak, on the Euphrates ; 8 miles E. of Sura.

SIAM, a country of Afia, the name of which is of un-
certain origin ; but probably derived from the Portuguefe,
in whofe orthography Siam and Siao are the fame ; fo that
Sian, or Siang, might be preferable, as Loubere has fug-
geited, to Siam ; and the Portuguefe writers in Latin call
the natives " Siones." The Siamefe ftyle themfelves " Tai,"
or freemen, and their country " Meuang Tai," or the king-
dom of freemen. The Portuguefe might poffibly derive
the name Siam from intercourfe with the Peguefe.
" Shan," however, is the oriental term. Before the recent
extenfion and encroachments of the Birman empire, the rich
and flourifliing monarchy of Siam was regarded as the
chief ftate of exterior India ; but fome of its limits are not
now eafily afcertained. On the weft of the Malayan penin-
fula fome few poffeffions may remain to the fouth of Ta-
naferim ; and on the eaftem fide of that Cherfonefe, Ligor

may

SI AM.

may mark the boundary. On the weft, a chain of moun-
tains divides Siam, as formerly, from Pegu ; but the nor-
thern province of Yunfhan feems to belong to the Birmans ;
who extended their territory, in this part, to the river May-
kang ; and the limits may perhaps (fays Pinkcrton) be a
fmall ridge running E. and W. above the river Anan. To
the S. and E. the ancient boundaries are fixed ; the ocean,
and a chain of mountains, dividing Siam from Laos and
Cambodia : fo that, according to the ancient defcription
of this kingdom, it may be confidered as a large vale be-
tween two ridges of mountains. The northern boundaries,
as defined by JLoubere, evince that Siam has loll little in
that quarter. His city Chiamai is probably Zamee, fifteen
days' journey beyond the Siamefe frontier. The northern
limit is therefore at 19°, and not at 22°, as he erroneoufly
ilates its latitude ; and therefore the length of the kingdom
may be about 10°, or near 700 Britilh miles, and about
one-half of this not above 70 miles in medial breadth. Or
its admeafurement may be more accurately ftated from about
1 1° of N. lat. to 19° ; being in length of about 550 Britilh
miles, by a breadth of 240.

This kingdom is divided into ten provinces, viz. Sup-
thia, Bancok, Porcelon, Pipli, Camphine, Rappri, Tana-
ferim, Ligor, Cambouri, and Concacema, each of which
has its governor refpeftively. Of thefe provinces we have
the following fhort notices. Bancok is fituated above ieven
leagues from the fea, and in the Siamefe language is called
Fou. Its environs are embelliihed with delicious gardens that
furnifti the natives with fruit, which is their chief nourilhment.
See Bancok.

Tanaferim is a province abounding in rice and fruit-trees ;
it has a fafe and commodious harbour, admitting voflels of
all nations ; and in this province the people find more ample
refources of fubfiltence than in the other parts of the mo-
narchy. (See Tasaskrjm.) Cambouri, on the frontiers
of Pegu, carries on a confiderable trade in the commodity
called by the French eagle-wood, clephants'-teeth, and horns
of the rhinoceros. The fineft varnifh is alfo procured from
this province. Ligor affords a kind of tin, called by the
French calain, the calin of the Portuguefe. (See Ligok.)
Porcelon was formerly a diftinft fovereignty, and produces
dyeing woods and precious gums.

The capital city of the kingdom has been called Siam, by
the ignorance of Portuguefe navigators. In the native lan-
guage the name approaches to the European enunciation of
Yuthia, or Juthia ; it is fituated on an ifle formed by the
river Meinam or Menam. Its walls in Loubere's time were
extenfive ; but not above a fixth part was inhabited. Its
condition, fince it was delivered from the Birman conqueil
in 1766, has not been defcribed. The royal palace was on
the north, and on tlie eaft there was a caufeway, affording
the only free pallagc by land. Dillindl quarters were in-
habited by the Chinefe, Japanefc, Cochin-chinefe, Portu-
guefe, and Malays. The temples, pyramids, and royal
palaces feem to have been much inferior in all refpefts to
thofe of the Birmans. See Juthia.

The other chief towns in the Siamefe dominions arc
Bancok, at the mouth of the Meinam, Ogmo, and others
on the eaflern coall of the gulf of Siam. On the weftern,
D'Anville marks Cham, Cini, and others as far as Ligor.
Along the banks of the great river arc Louvo and Porfc-
louc, with others of inferior note. Louvo was a royal rcfi-
dence for a confiderable part of the year. In general, thefe
towns were only collections of hovels, fometimes furroundcd
with a wooden ftockadc, and rarely with a brick wall. In
the fouth-welt, Tanaferim and Merghi may be regarded as
poileflions belonging to the Birman empire, and the remain-

ing fragment of the Siamefe territory in that quarter pre-
fents no confiderable town ; though villages appear in Junk-
feylon and fome of the other ides. Kscmpfer, m an account
of his voyage to Japan in 1690, defcribes two remarkable
edifices near the capital : the firll is a famous pyramid, and
called Puka Thon, ercfted for the commemoration of a
vidory obtained, on the fpot where it Hands to the N.W.,
over the king of Pegu. This magnificent Itrudture is en-
clofed by a wall, and is 120 feet high, varying in form at
its different ffages, and terminating in a flender fpire ; the
fccond edifice confifts of two fquarcs to the eait of the
city, furrounded by a wall, and feparated by a channel of the
river. Thefe fquares contain many temples, convents,
chapels, and columns, particularly the temple of Berklam,
with a grand gate ornamented with ftatues and various carv-
ings ; the other decorations appear by Kacmpfer's account to
have been exquifite.

Our principal fources of information with regard to Siam
are the publications of La Loubere, who went as ambaffador
from Louis XIV. to the king of Siam, and thofe of the
French miffionaries, of which, that from the papers of the
bilhop of Tabraca by Turpin, m 1771, is the moft im-
portant. According to the account of the latter writer, the
people of Laos and Pegu have ellablifhed a confiderable
colony in Siam, fince their countries were ravaged by the
Birmans. Here are alfo many Malays, and the ancient kings
had a guard of Japanefe, which exhibits, in a ftriking point
of view, the intcrcourfe that fubfilled among oriental
nations.

With regard to the hiftory of Siam, we fhall content our-
felves with obferving, that previoufly to the Portuguefe difco-
veries, this country was unknown to Europeans. According
to Loubere's account, the firft king of the Siamefe commenced
his reign in the year 1 300 of their epoch, or about 756 years
after the Chriilian era. Since the Portuguefe difcovery, their
wars with Pegu, and occafional ufurpations of the throne,
conititute the principal topics of their hiflory. In 1568 the
Peguefe king declared war on account of two white ele-
phants, which the Siamefe refufed to furrender : and after
prodigious (laughter on both fides, Siam became tributary to
Pegu: but about the year 1620, raja Hapi delivered his
crown from this fervitude. In 16S0, Phalcon, a Greek ad-
venturer, being highly favoured by the king of Siam, opened
an intercourfe with France, for the purpofe of fupporting
his ambitious defigns ; but they were punifhcd by his deca-
pitation in 1689, and the Freiicli connet\ion was thus ter-
minated. From Turpin, who has extended the hiltory of
Siam to the year 1770, we learn, that the firft king began
to reign about 1444 years before Chrift,and that he had forty
fucceflors before the epoch of tlie Portuguefe difcovery, or
the year 1546, many of whom were precipitated from the
throne on account of their dcfpotilm. Neverthelefs, as thefe
forty kings cannot be fuppoled to have reigned more than
ten years each, at a mean computation, the firft hiltorical
date cannot afccnd beyond the year 1 100 after Chrift, inltead
of 1444 years B.C. One of the moll remarkable events,
after the French had evacuated Siam, is the war againll the
kingdom of Cambodia, which was reduced to the neceflity
of fecking the protetlion of Cochin-china. Tlie Siamefe
army, having advanced too far into the country, wasdeftroyed
by famine ; and their fleet, though it dcftroyed the town of
Ponteamas, with 200 tons of elephanta' teeth, had little
fucccfs. In 1760 a fignal revolution happened in Siam, pre-
ceded by violent civil wars between two rival princes. Ac-
cording to Turpin's llatemcnt, the Birmans, a people of
the kingdom of Ava, had, in 1754, languilhcd five years
under the Peguefe domination. Having loll by death

their

SI AM.

their king, queen, and moft of their princes, they lamented
their humiliation and fervitude, and anxioufly fought for
a deliverer. With this view they felefxed one of their
companions, named Manlong, a gardener, who, fingularly
quahfied for the office they devolved upon him, by corporeal
and mental endowments, undertook to refcue them from the
yoke of tyrants, on condition of their cutting off the heads of
all the little fubaltern tyrants whom the Peguefe had fent to
opprefs them. They readily fubmitted to his terms ; and
after the maffacre, Manlong was proclaimed king. Havmg
prepared a force, and eftabhflied a difcipline which rendered
the Birmans almoll invincible, he began by the capture and
complete ruin of the city and port of Siriam, which took
place about the year 1759 ; and advancing to Martavan and
Tavail, the new monarch received information of the riches
of Siam, and formed the defign of its conqueft. He began
by fending 30 fhips to pillage the cities of Merghi and Ta-
naferim, and this fuccefs led him to flatter himfelf that he
fhould be able, with great eafc, to fubdue the whole kingdom
of Siam. The court of Siam, hearing of this irruption,
fent to the biihop of Tabraca, to requell that he would arm
the Chriftians, who amounted only to the number of 100,
and yet acquitted themfelves with greater honour than the
pufiUanimous multitude. The Bn-man fovereign, being at
the dillance of three days' march from Yuthia, the capital,
died in confequence of an abfcefs. The fuburbs, however,
on the Dutch quarter were ravaged and burnt ; and the fur-
rounding country was expofed to a thoufand cruelties. The
death of Manlong delivered the Siamefe capital ; the
youngelt of his fons having afTumed the fceptre, found him-
felf under the neceffity of regaining his own kingdom, in
order to ftifle any revolt. The Siamefe fovereign, however,
having rallily pronounced a fentence of death againit the fa-
vourite of his brother, was forced to abdicate the throne ;
and in confequence of this event he became a Talapoin, or
monk, in May 1762, and many of his nobles followed his
example. Siam remained in a ftate of fecurity, upon the re-
port that the new prince of the Birmans had been dethroned
upon his return to Ava ; and that his elder brother, who
bad fucceeded, had nowifh to make conquefts. This pacific
monarch dying fuddenlv, a pretence of war was afforded by
the affiilance which the Siamefe had given to a rebel Birman
governor. In January 1765, the Birmans attacked Merghi
and took it ; and then proceeded to Tanaferim, which they
reduced to afhes. Fluilied with fuccefs, the general of
the Birmans marched againft Yuthia, not doubting that the
conqueft of the capital would induce other cities to fubmit.
The provinces on the north-weft of the royal city were ra-
vaged ; isd the inhabitants faved themfelves from death or
flavery by difperfion into forefts, where they participated
the food of wild beails. The Siamefe, threatened with
fpeedy and total dettruclion, reunited their forces ; but
though they fought with ardour, their fanguinary defeat
fubjefted their country to the power of their conqueror. The
fields, ravaged by the confuming flames, prefented nothing
to them but aflies, and famine became more terriblu than
war. The viftorious Birmans built, at the confluence
of two rivers, a town, or rather a fortified ftation, which
they called Michoug, The Siamefe, on their part, at-
tempted to fortify the capital, and earneftly folicited the
affiftance of two Englifh vefTels which happened to arrive.
The captain of one of them confented to defend the capital,
on condition of being fupplied with cannon and ammunition :
but the jealous Siamefe infifted that he Ihould firft lodge his
merchandizes in the public magazine. With this condition
he complied, and going on board his (hip, haraffcd the
enemy, and deftroyed their forts, fo that every day was

marked either by their defeat or flight. But demanding
more ammunition, the daftardly court became afraid, that
the Englifh captain," with his fingle fhip, would conquer this
ancient monarchy. Its indignant captain withdrew, after
feizing fix Chinefe vell'els, whofe officers received from him
orders upon the king of Siam to the amount of the mer-
chandizes which had been lodged in the public treafury.
Upon his retreat, the Birmans, finding no oppofition, fpread
univerfal defolation, and configned even their temples to the
flames. Inftead of recurring to arms, the fuperftitious mo-
narch and his minifters repofed their whole confidence in their
magicians. A Siamefe prince, indeed, who had been
baniflied to Ceylon, raifed a little army, and returned to the
affiftance of his country ; but the diftra£led court of Siam fent
forces to oppofe their deliverer. Many of the Siamefe, jufUy
provoked by this conduct, joined the Birmans, who in March
1766 again advanced, after having been repulfed by the
Enghfh captain, to within two leagues of the capital. In
September 1766, the Birmans feized a high tower, at the dif-
tance of about a quarter of a mile from the city, and raifed a
battery of cannon, which gave them an abfolute command of
the river. In this ftate of urgent danger, 6000 Chinefe were
charged with the defence of the Dutch faftory, and of a large
adjacent temple. The Birmans, in confequence of previous
Ikirmilhes and a fubfequent affault, feized on five confiderable
temples, which they converted into fortreffes ; but in an-
other aflault they were compelled to retire. The Siamefe
officers, eager to fecure the magazines of grain, as a future
refourcc, produced an immediate famine ; which, followed by
a contagious diforder or peftilence, occalioned the moft dread-
ful devaftation. The Dutch factory was in vain defended
by 'the Portuguefe and Chinefe ; and after a fiege of eight
days. It was taken and reduced to allies. The whole Chrif-
tian quarter of the city fliared the fame fate ; and the virgins
were obliged to marry the firft young men that prefented
themfelves, in order to be protefted by the matrimonial tie,
which the Birmans reverence. The Birmans, demanding an
unconditional furrender, affauked the city, and captured it
on the 28th of April 1767. The wealth of the palaces
and temples was confumed by the flames, or abandoned
to the foldiery. The golden idols were melted ; and
the viftors, findins; that their avarice had been facrificed to
their fury, recurred to afts of violation and cruelty. The
great officers of the kingdom were loaden with irons, and
condemned to the gallies. The king, attempting to efcape,
was mafiacred at the gate of his palace. When nothing re-
mained for thefe conquerors to deltroy, they refumed their
march to Pegu, accompanied, among other captives, with
the remaining princes and princeffes of the royal blood of
Siam. In June the Birmans quitted Siam, after having
burnt the town of Michoug, foon after its conftruftion.

When the Birmans evacuated their conqueft, the Siamefe
ilfued from their forefts, and fuperftitioufly direAed their firft
rage againft their gods, for having abandoned them to a de-
ftruftive enemy. Availing themfelves of the wealth which
accrued from the ftatues, filled by fuperftitious perfons with
gold and filver, who expected to find them when they re-
vifited this world, they proceeded to eleft a leader ; and Phaia-
Thae, an officer of acknowledged ability, was the objeci
of their choice. This new prince difplayed confiderable
bravery and talents; and in the year 1768 fuppreffed a rebel-
lion that was inftigated againft him. The Birmans in vaia
attempted to renew their incurfions into the Siamefe terri-
tory : they were repulfed, and afterwards obliged to turn
their arms againft the Chinefe, who were defeated in their
turn. For further particulars with regard to the hiftory of
Siam, fee Birman Empire. Indeed, if the Birman empire

maintain^

SIAM.

maintains its prefent extent, Siam, we can have little doubt,
will ere long be deprived of its independence. But it is an
event not, perhaps, lefs probable, that the Birman empire
itfelf will fall into confuAon, and be difmtmbered.

Every thing we are told refpeftingthe government, the laws,
the literature, the arts, and perfonal qualities of the Siamefe,
indicates a correfponding ftate of advancement with that
of the Birmans. That the religion of the Siamefe is the
fame with that of the Birmans, and derived from the fame
origin as that of the Hindoos, there feems to be fuffi-
cient evidence. Sommona-Codam, mentioned by Loubere
as the chief idol of Siam, is interpreted by competent judges
to be the fame with the Boodh of Hindooitan. The facred
language called Bali is of the fame origin : the moft eileemed
book feems to be the Vinac, and the precepts of morality
are chiefly five ; viz. not to kill, not to (leal, not to com-
mit uncleannefs, not to lie, and not to drink any intoxicating
liquor. Loubere has given a tranflation of a more minute
code of morals, chiefly compiled for the ufe of perfons de-
dicated to religion, whom he calls Talapoins. Their laws
are faid to be in high reputation all over the Eaft ; and it is
not certain, whether, like thofe of the Birmans, they are of
Hindoo, or of indigenous birth. Their fyitem of legifla-
tion is reprefented by all writers on this country, as extremely
fevere in its fantlions ; death or mutilation being punilh-
ments of unimportant offences. The Siamefe imitate the
Chinefe in their feitival of the dead ; and in fome other of
their rites. The government of Siam is defpotic, and the
fovereign, as among the Birmans, is revered with honours
almoll divine. The fuccefTion to the crown is hereditary in
the male line. The population has not been accurately afcer-
tained, nor have we any documents for this purpofe. Al-
lowing to the Birman empire more than fourteen millions, as
fome have Hated, the Siamefe dominions may probably be
peopled by about eight millions. However, Loubere affures
us in his time, that from aftual enumeration, there were only
found, of men, women, and children, 1,900,000. Loubere
fays that the Siamefe had no army, except a few royal
guards ; but Mandelflo eitimated the army, which may be
occafionally raited, at 60,000, with no lefs than 3000 or
4000 elephants. The navy is compofed of a number of
veflcls of various fizes, which difplay a fingular fantaflic
elegance, like thofe of the Birmans ; and naval engagements
frequently occur. The revenues of this (ovcreignty are of
uncertain computation. Mandelflo delcribes them as arifing
from the third of all inheritances, from trade, conduiled by
royal agents, annual prcfents from the governors of pro-
vinces, duties impofed on commerce, and the difcovcry of
gold, which feems to be a royal claim. Tin is alfo a royal
metal, except that found in .Jnnkfeylon, which is abandoned
to the adventurers. Loubere adds a kind of land-tax, and
other particulars, among which is the royal domain.

Siam appeared to the French, in the reign of Louis XIV.
to be of confidcrable political importance ; for this monarch
was ambitious of forming permanent fettlements, by ren-
dering it a rich mart of Indian commerce. If we had any
apprehenfion that tlio Birmans would become dangerous
to our poffeirions in Bengal, our alliance with Siam might
be highly ferviceable. In a merely commercial point of
view, as it may bo difficult to prefcrve the friendlhip of
both the Birmans and the Siamefe, it is not ealy to deter-
mine from which itatc fuperior advantages might be derived.
If direded by European policy, Siam would form llritt
alliances with the more ealleni Hates of exterior India, as
a common defence againft the growing preponderance of
the Birmans.

As to the manners and culloms of the Siamefe, as they

have embraced a branch of Hindoo faith, they arc rather
Hindooftanic than Chinefe; though its fituation is centrical
between the vaft countries of China and Hindooitan. Lou-
bere has given a detailed account of the Siamefe manners.
The females are under few reftraints, and marry at an
early age, and are pad parturition at forty. Marriages
are conducted by female mediation, and a priett or magician
is ufually confulted concerning the propriety of an alliance.
On the third vifit the parties are confidered as wedded,
after the exchange of a few prefenta, without any farther
ceremony, civil or facred. Polygamy is allowed, more from
oftentation than any other motive; and one wife is always
acknowledged as fupreme. Royal marriages, from confi-
derations of pride, are fometimes incefl;uous ; nor does a
king helitate to efpoufe his own filler. Divorce is feldom
praftifed ; but the rich may chufe a more compliant wife
without difmiffing the former. Few women become nuns,
till they are advanced in years. The Siamefe funerals re-
ferable thofe of the Chinefe. On this occafion, the Tala-
poins iiiig hymns in the Bali tongue. After a folemn pro-
ceflion the body is burnt on a funeral pile of precious woods,
ereited near fome temple ; and the magnificence of the
fpeftacle is enhanced by theatrical exhibitions, in which the
Siamefe are faid to excel. The tombs are pyramidal, and
thofe of the kings are large and lofty. The common food
of the Siamefe confills of rice and fifh ; they alfo eat
lizards, rats, and feveral kinds of infefts. The buffaloes
yield rich milk ; but butter would melt and become rancid ;
and cheefe is unknown.

In Siam little animal food is ufed ; the mutton and beef
being very bad. The doftrine of Boodh infpires the Siamefe
with horror at the effufion of blood. The houfes arc fmall,
and conftrudled of bamboos, upon pillars, in order to guard
againll inundations, which are common. The palaces only ex-
ceed common habitations by occupying a wider fpace, and
being conftrufted of timber, with a few ornaments. They
are alfo more elevated, but have never more than one floor.
With regard to tlieir perfons, the Siamefe are rather fmall,
but well made. The figure of the countenance, fays
Kaempfer, both of men and women, has lefs of the oval
than of the lozenge form, being broad, and raifed at tiie
top of the cheeks ; and the fore-head fuddenly contrafts,
and is almoll as pointed as the chin. Their eyes, riling to-
wards the temples, are fmall and dull ; and the luhile h
commonly completely yellow. Their cheeks are hollow ;
mouth very large, with thick pale lips, and teeth bbckened
by art ; the complexion coarlc, brown mixed with red, to
which the climate greatly contributes. From this dcfcrip-
tion the Siamefe appear to be much inferior in perfonal ap-
pearance to the Bfrmans ; and to approach rather to the
Tartaric or Chinefe features.

The drefs of the Siamefe is flight, clothes being rendered
almoll unnecellary by the warmth of the climate. A mullin
Ihirt, with wide flceves, and a kind of loofe drawers, are
almoll the only garments of the rich, a mantle being added
in winter, and a high conic cap upon the head. The
women ufe a fcarf inllead of the lliirt, and the petticoat ia
of painted calico ; but with this flight drefs they are ex-
tremely modelt.

The Siamefe are faid to excel in theatrical amufcmeiits ;
the fnbjedls being taken from their mythology, and from
traditions concerning their ancient heroes. Their ordinary
amulemcnts confill of races of oxen, and thofe ot boats,
the combats of elephants, cock-fighting, tumbling, wref-
tling, and rope-dancing, religious procclTions, illuminations,
and beautiful exhibitions of lire-works. The men are gene-
rally very indolent, and fond of games of chance ; while

the

SIAM.

the women are employed in works of induftry. Although
the Siamere are indolent, they are ingenious, and feme of
their manufafturcs deferve praife ; neverthelefs, the ruinous
and defpotie avarice of the government crufhes induftry by
the uncertainty of property. They are little flailed in the
fabrication of iron or iteel, but excel in that of gold, and
fometimes in miniature painting. The common people are
moftly occupied in procuring fifh for their daily food, while
the fuperior clafTes are engaged in a trifling traffic.

The language of the Siamefe, called " T'hay," accord-
ing to Dr. Ley den's account of it (Afiatic Refearches,
vol. X. p. 244.), appears to be in a great meafure original ;
but there is reafon to conjefture, that it is not different
from that of the Birmans. To this purpofe it is alleged, that
Siamefe dramatifts ufed to perform in the Birman dominions,
which is not probable, unlefs the language were common.
Dr. Leyden fays, that it is more purely monofyllabic, and
more powerfully accented, than any of the Indo-Chinefe
languages. It certainly is conneAed, in fome degree, with
fome of the Chinefe dialefts ; efpecially the Mandarin or
Court language, with which its numerals, as well as fome
other terms, coincide, but thefe are not very numerous.
It borrows words freely from the Bali, but contrafts and
difguifes more the terms which it adopts, tlian either the
Ruk'heng or the Barma. In its finely modulated intona-
tions of found, in its expreffion of the rank of the fpeaker,
by the fimple pronouns which he ufes, in the copioufnefs
of the language of civility, and the mode of exprefiing
efteem and adulation, this language refembles the Chinefe
dialefts, with which alfo it coincides more nearly in con-
ftruftion than either Barma or Ruk'heng. Its conllruAion
is fimple and inartificial, depending almoft folely on the
principle of juxta-pofition. Relative pronouns are not in
the language ; the nominative regularly precedes the verb,
and the verb precedes the cafe which it governs. When
two fubftantives come together, the lad of them is for the
moft part fuppofed to be in the genitive. This idiom is
confonant to the Malayu, though not to the Barma or
Ruk'heng, in which, as in Englifli, the firft fubllantive
has a poffeffive fignification. Thus, the phrafe, a man's
head, is exprefl'ed in Barma and Ruk'heng, by lu-k'haung,
which is literally man-head ; but, in Siamefe, it is kua-thon,
and in Malayu, kapala orang, both of which are literally
head-man. A fimilar diflerence occurs in the pofition of
the accufative with an aftive verb, which cafe in Barma
and Malayu generally precedes the verb, as tummaing cha,
literally rice tat ; but in Siamefe follows it, as ken kaiv,
literally eat rice, which correfponds to the Malayu, makan-
naji. The adjeftive generally follows the fubllantive, and
the adverb the word which it modifies, whether adjeftive or
verb. Whenever the name of an animal, and, in general,
when that of a fpecies or clafs, is mentioned, the generic,
or more general name of the genus to which it belongs, is
repeated with it, as often happens in the other monofylhbic
languages, as well as in the Malayu. In the pofition of the
adverbial particle, the Malayu often differs from the Siamefe ;
as Mana pargi, literally luhere go, but in Siamefe, fai hnei,
go where. The Siamefe compofition is alfo, like that of
the Barma, a fpecies of meafured profe, regulated folely
by the accent and the parallelifm of the members of the
fentence ; but in the recitative the Siamefe approaches more
nearly to the Chinefe mode of recitation, and becomes a
kind of chaunt, which different Brahmins aftured Dr.
Leyden is very fimilar to the mode of chaunting the Sa-
maveda.

The T'hay coincides occafionally, even in fimple terms,
both with the Barma and Malayu ; but thefe terms bear fo

fmall a proportion to the mafs of the language, that they
feem rather the effeft of accident or mixture, than of ori-
ginal connexion.

The T'hay or Siamefe alphabet differs conCderably in
the power of its charafters from the Bali ; though it not
only has a general refemblance to it in point of form, but
alfo in the arrangement of the charaAer. The vowels,
which are twenty in number, arc not reprefented by fepa-
rate charafters, but by the charafter correfponding to the
fliort iikar, varioufly accented ; excepting the vocalic ru
and lu, which are only variations of the r and / confonants.
The confonants are thirty-feven in number, and are not
arranged by the feries of five, like the Deva-nagari and
Bali, but the firft feries, ka, confifts of feven letters ; the
fecond feries, cha, 01 fix ; the third feries, ta or da, of fix ;
the fourth feries, ha or pa, of eight ; the fifth feries, ja, of
four ; and the laft feries, fa, of fix, including the vocalic
akar, though t%vo of them are not in common ufe. Each
of thefe letters is varied by fixteen fimple accentuationi,
and by thirty- fix complex ones. The letters ka, nga, ta, or
da, na, ma, ba ox pa, are alfo final confonants. Hence it
is ealy to perceive the near approximation of the Siamefe
to the delicacy of the Chinefe accentuation ; while in other
refpefts, the alphabet is confiderably more perfeft, than ia
the Mandarin or Court language of the Chinefe, which ha*
neither the fame variety of confonants, nor admits fo many,
in the clofe of a fyllable. The Siamefe pronunciation, even
of confonants, correfponds very imperfeftly to the Eu-
ropean mode : r and / are generally pronounced n in the
clofe of a fyllable ; h is often prefixed to a confonant ; but
from the total fufpenfion of the voice in pronouncing
fyllables which terminate in a confonant, no afpiration can
be pronounced after them ; ma and ha, tya and chya, are
often difficult to be diftinguiflied in pronunciation, as are
ya and ja, kye and chye, with other combinations. From
this circumftance, many combinations of letters are pro-
nounced in a manner fomewhat different from that in which
they are written.

The firft European who attempted the ftudy of Siamefe
literature, was the learned Gervaife, but his lucubrations
have never been publiftied. The learned and indefatigable
Hyde procured from the Siamefe ambaffador at London,
an imperfeft copy of the Siamefe alphabet, which has been
publifhed by Greg. Sharpe, in the " Syntagma Differta-
tionum," 1767. It is inferior to La Loubere's alphabet
in accuracy, though it contains a greater number of com-
pound charafters. La Loubere's alphabet contains three
forms of the fa, correfponding to the Nagari ; but lYieJla
zxiAJh'ha, being difufed in common pronunciation, are com-
monly omitted both in the alphabet and in modern MSS.

The Siamefe or T'hay language contains a great variety
of compofitions of every fpecies. Their poems and fongs
are very numerous, as are their Cheritras, or hiltorical and
mythological fables. Many of the Siamefe princes have
been celebrated for their poetical powers, and feveral of
their hiltorical and moral compofitions are ftill preferred.
In all their compnfitions, they either affeft a plain fimple
narrative, or an unconnefted and abrupt ttyle of fliort,
pithy fentences, of much meaning. The books of medicine
are reckoned of confiderable antiquity. Both in fcience
and poetry, thofe who affeft learning and elegance of com-
pofition, fprinkle their ftyle copioufly with Bali. The laws
of Siam are celebrated all over the Eaft, and La Loubere
has mentioned three works of fuperior reputation, the Pra-
Tam-non, the Pra-Tam-Ra, and the Pra-Raja-Kam-manot.
Of thefe, the firft is a collection of the inftitutions of the
ancient kings of Siam ; the fecond is the conititutional code
6 ef

S I A

of the kingdom, and contains tlie names, funAions, and pre-
rogatives of all the officers; the third, which is about 150
years old, contains additional rej;ulatioiis. Of thefe, the
ilril is the moll celebrated and the molt deferving the at-
tention of Europeans.

The T'hay exhibits conliderable variety of meafures in
compolition, and frequently introduces feveral of them in
the fame manner as is frequently done in Brij'h, Punjabi,
and Sik'h compofitions. The jnoft frequent mcafure, how-
ever, among the T'hay, as among the Ruk'heng and
Barma, feems to be that denominated rap, which confifts
of four long fyllables, but admits occafionally of one or
more intercalary (hort ones : the Ja-ni, which confiils of
five fyllables, the Cho-bang of fix, the Pat'hamang of
feven, the Jefuiita of eight, are alfo frequently employed.
The Siamele are not deficient in literature, and their modes
of education are well explained by Loubere.

From Mandelflo we learn, that the commerce of the
capital of Siam confilted in cloths imported from Hindoof-
tan, and various articles from China ; in exports of jewels,
gold, benjoin, lacca, wax, tin, lead, &c. and particularly
deer-flcins, of which more than 150,000 were fold annually
to the Japaneie. Rice was alfo exported in great quantities
to the Afiatic ifles. The king was, by a ruinous policy,
the chief merchant, and had fadors in moil of the neigh-
bouring countries. The royal trade conlilted in cotton
cloths, tin, ivory, faltpetre, rack, and (kins fold to the
Dutch. A late writer informs us, that the produftions of
this country are prodigious quantities of grain, cotton, ben-
jamin ; fandal, aguello, and Japan woods ; antimony, tin,
lead, iron, load-ltones, gold, and filver ; fapphires, eme-
ralds, agates, cryltal ; marble, and tambac. Siam, in
refpedl of fertility, loco-pofition, and productive labour,
poifefles commercial advantages of the fame nature with
thofe of the Birraan empire ; but on the coail at leaft, the
climate is far from being healthy.

The two firll months of the Siamefe year, correfponding
■with our December and January, form their whole winter ;
the third, fourth, and fifth, belong to that portion which
is called their little fummer ; and the feven others to their
great fummer. As they lie north of the hne, their winter
correfponds with cur's, but it is almod as warm as a French
fummer. The little fummer is their fpring ; autumn is un-
known in their calendar ; the winter is dry, and is diftin-
guifhed by the courfe of the wind, which almoll conltantly
blows from the north, and is refrelhed with cold from the
fnowy mountains of Thibet, and the bleak waltes of Mon-
golia.

We have already defcribed this country as a wide vale
between two high ndges of mountains ; but compared witli
the Birman empire, the cultivated land is not abovj hajf the
extent either in breadth or length. Lefs induftrious than
the Birmans the agriculture of the Siamefe does not extend
far from the banks of the river, or its branches ; fo that to-
wards the mountains there are vail aboriginal forefts filled
with wild animali, whence they obtain the (kins which are
exported. The rocky and variegated fhores of the noble
gulf of Siam, and the fize and inundations of the Meinam,
confpire with the rich and pidlnrefque vegetation of the
rorelhi, illumined at night with crowds ot brilliant fire-
flies, to imprefs (Irangers with admirati .11 and delight.

Tlie foil towards the mountains is parched and infertile ;
but on the fhores of the river confifts, like that of Egypt,
of a very rich and pure mould, in which a pebble can
fcarcely be found ; and the country would be a terreltrial
paradile, if its government were not fo defpotic as to be
juftly reckoned far inferior to that of their neighbours the

Vol. XXXIl.

S i A

Birmans. Rice of excellent quality is the chief produd of
their agriculture ; wheat is not unknown ; peafe and other
vegetables abound ; and maize is confined to their gardene.
The fertility of Siam depends in a great degree, like that
of Egypt on the Nile, 011 their grand river Meinam, and
its co;itributa:y llreams ; for an account of which, fee
Mkinam.

Of the lakes of this country little is known : a fmaU
one, however, lies in the call of the kingdom, which n
the fource of a river that flows into that of Cambodia.
To itsextenfive ranges of mountains, inclofing the kingdom
on tlie call and well, we have already referred. A fmall
ridge alfo palies from call to weft, not far north of Yuthia,
called by Loubere Taramamon. The forefts of the country
arc large and numerous, and produce many valuable woods.
Its chief animals are elephants, buffaloes, and deer. The
elephants in particular are diftinguifiied for their fagacity
and beauty ; and thole of a white colour are treated by the
Siamefe with a kind of adoration, as they believe the foul
of fuch is royal. Wild boars, tigers, and monkies, are
numerous. The reports of the mineralogy of Siam are
various. Mandelflo, or rather hii tranflator Wicquefort,
who added, about the year 1670, the accounts of Pegu,
Siam, Japan, &c. informs U9, that Siam contains mines of
gold, filver, tin, and copper ; and Loubere fuggefts, that
they were anciently more diligently wrought, as the ancient
pits indicate ; not to mention the great quantity of gold,
which mult have been employed in richly gilding the idols,
pillars, cielings, and even roofs of their temples. In his
time no mine of gold or filver, worth the labour of being
wrought, could be found. The mines chiefly wrought by
the Siamefe were thofe of tin and lead. The tin, called
" calin" by the Portuguefe, was fold throughout the
Indies ; but it was foft and ill refined. Near Louvo was a
mountain of load-ftone, and another of inferior quality in
Junkfeilon ; which fee. Piiikerton's Geog. vol. ii.

The Siamefe, though of a melancholy turn, have no ob-
jcdtion to lively mufic. They have often parties on the
water, which they render very pleafant by a number of
voices, and the clapping of hands, with which they beat
time.

The inftrument in the higheft favour with them produces
a found fimilar to two violins perfetlly in tune, played at
the fame time. But there h nothing more difagreiable than
its diminutive, the kit of this inllrument, which is a kind of
rebec, or violin with three brafs ftrings.

Their copper trumpets vu-ry much relemble, in tone, the
cornets with which the peafants of France call their cows.
Their flutes are not much fvveeter. They make likewife a
kind of carillon with fmall bells, which are lively, and not
dilagreeable, when not accompanied by their iron drum,
which ftuns every one that is not accultomcd to its noify
harihni'fs. They have drums made of terra colta, a baked
clay, with a long and very narrow neck, but open at the bot-
toru : they cover the drum with a buftaloe's hide, and beat
it with the hand ni fuch a manner, that it ferves for a bafi
ill their concerts. Their voices are not difa^jrecable, and if
we were to hear them ling fame of their airs, we Ihould not
be difpleafed. Latorde.

Si.wr, a name (bmetimes given to the cou.itry aboTe de-
fcribed. Sec Jui'iil.v, and the preceding article.

SiA.M, Gulf of, a large bay of the Eall Indian le.i, be-
tween Cambodia and the peniiilula of Malacca, having to
the north Siam.

SIAMODEL, a town of Hindoollan, in the Caroatic ;
13 miles N. of Nellore.

SIAMPA. SecCniAMPA.

4 M SIAN,

S I A

S I B

SIAN, Scio, or Cio, a town of Africa, in Melinda.

SIANCAS, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Tucuman ; 30 miles E.S-E. of St. Salvador de
Jugui.

SIANDUPADA, a town of Hindooltan, in Myfore ;
13 miles S.W. of Bangalore.

SIANELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 13
miles S.W. of Bangalore.

SIANG, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang-fi. N. lat. 23°58'. E. long. 109° o'.

SIANG-CHAN, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Tchc-kiang ; 2^ miles S.E. of Ning-po.

SIANG-HIAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Hou-quang ; 40 miles S.W. of Tchang-tcha.

SIANG-TAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Chan-fi ; 20 miles S.E. of Tfing.

SIANG-YANG, a town of Corea ; 28 miles N N.W.
of San-pou.

SiANG-YANCi, a city of China, of the firlt rank, in
Hou-quang, on the river Han. N. lat. 32° 5'. E. long.
Ill" 39'.

SIANG-YN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Hou-quang, on the Heng river ; 27 miles N.N.W. of
Tcheng-tcha.

SIANKE, or Synke, m Natural Hiftory, a name given
by the people of fome pnrts of the Eall Indies to the caryo-
phyllus, or clove-fpice. The people of the Moluccas, ac-
cording to Garcias, call it chanqu;, which is only a fmall
difference of pronunciation. The Turks and Perfians call
the fame Ipice calafur.

SIAO, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Kiang-nan ; 22 mile'; W. of Pefu.

SiAO, an ifland in the Ealt Indian fea, about 30 miles m
circuit, which belongs to the fultan of Ternate. The
Dutch maintain in this ifland a corporal, a few foldiers, and
a fchool-mait-er for the inftruftion of the children of the
natives. It abounds with provifions. N. lat. 2° 44'. E.
long. 125° 5'.

SIAO-CHAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Tche-kiang ; 1 7 miles N.W. of Chao-king.

SIAO-HE-CHAN, a fmall ifland near the coaft of
China. N. lat. 37° 54'. E. long. 120" 34'.

SIAO-HO-TCHAN, a town of Chincfe Tartarj'. N.
lat. 41° 43'. E. loner. 1 21° 42'.

SIAO-NON-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tartary.
N. lat. 41^ 24'. E. long. 126^ 50'.

SIAO-PI-HOTUN, a town of Corea. N. lat. 40° 24'.
E. long. 125- 26'.

SIAO-TEIN, a river of China, which runs into the
Eaftei-n fea, N. lat. 37° 21'. E. long. 118^ 44'.

SIARA, a fmall town of BrafiC and capital of a dif-
trift or captaincy of the fame name, fo called from a river
which rifes in the mountains, and difcliarges itfelf into the
ocean in S. lat. 5° 30'. The captaincy is fmail, not being
above 54 miles in compafs. It has two fortrefles, one on
the north, joining to the town of Siara, and fituated on a
fmall hill on the right fide of the haven, which is fo (hallow
as to admit only fmall vcflels ; and the other, called Fort
St. Luke, fituated on the coail, at the mouth of a fmall
river, navigable only by barks. This diltrid abounds in

ng. 39° 46'.

SIARDEHUI, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
8 miles N.E. of Udegherry. •
SIARMAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ma-

zanderan, on the Cafpian fea; 12 miles E.S.E. of Ferra'
bad, or Farabat ; which fee.

SIAS, a river of Ruffia, which runs into lake Ladoga^
near Sialkoi.

SIASKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Peterfburg, near lake Ladoga; 24 miles N.E. of Nova
Ladoga.

SIATGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 20
miles S. of Bahar.

SIATON, a town on the fouth coaft of the ifland of
Negroes. N. lat. 9- 21'. E. long. 123° 3'.

SIB, a town of Arabia, in the province of Mafcat ; 30
miles W.N.W. of Mafcat.

SIBABA, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the fouth coall of Mindanao. N. lat. fi' 36'. E. long.
122° 25'.

SIB./E, or SoBll, called alfo Iba or Saba, in Andenl
Geography, 3 people of India, on this fide of the Ganges,
and one of the firft nations that encountered Alexander on
the banks of the Acefmes.

SIBALD ds Wirt, in Geography. See Falkland
IJlands.

SIBALDES, a clufter of iflands near the coaft of Pata-
gonia. S. lat. 50" 53'. W. long. 59° 35'.

SIBATTA, a town of Japan, m the ifland of Niphon ;
15 miles S.E. of Nambu.

SIBAU. See Sebou.

SIBB, a diftricl of the Perfian empire, in the province of
Mekran, governed by a chief, who reiidcs in a fmall town
of the fame name. It confilts of a very cxteniive plain,
through the centre of which fl 'ws a river, nearly dry, in
the bed of which are fcveral groves of date-trees ; but the
country, generally fpeaking, is quite barren.

SIBBA. See Sebea.

SIBBALDIA, in Botany, fo named by Linnaeus, in
memory of fir Robert Sibbald, knt., M.D., author of
Scotia Illujlrata, a foho volume, publiflied at Edinburgh in
1684, a confiderable part of which is dedicated to plants,
and in which the firft ipecies of the prefent genus is, for the
firft time, dchneated. — Linn. Gen. 155. Schreb. 208.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 1567. Ma-t. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 345. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 199. Purfli v. i.
211. Jull. 337. Lamarck lUuttr. t. 221. Girtn. t. 73.
— Clafs and order, Pentandria Pentagynia, Nat. Ord. Sen-
t'tcofe, Linn. Rofaces, ^\x^.

Gen. Ch. Cal Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cut half
way down into ten fegments ; its bafe ereifl ; fegments
fpreading, half-lanceolate, equal in length, permanent, the
intermediate ones narroweft. Cor. Petals five, ovate, in-
ferted into the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, capillar)',
ftiorter than the corolla, inferted into the calyx ; anthers
Imall, obtufe. Pift. Germens five, ovate, very flwrt, in
the bottom of the calyx ; ftyles from the middle of one frde
of each germen, the length of the ftamens ; ftigmas capi-
tate. Peric. none, the clofed calyx (heltering the Steds,
which are five, fomewhat oblong.

Obi. The piltib were found by Linnoeus to be fome-
times, though very rarely, doubled in number, on the fame
plant with other flowers that had only five. They appear
to vary from five to ten.

Eii. Ch. Calyx in ten fegments. Petals five, ftanding
on the calyx. Styles from the fide of each germen. Seeds
five, in the bottom of the calyx.

I. S. procumbens. Procumbent Sibbaldia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 406. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 82. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl.
Bot. t. 897. Lightf. Scot. 175. Fl. Dan. t. 32. (Fra-
garise fylveilri affinis planta, flore luteo ; Sibb. Scot. p. 2.

25-

SIB

SIB

25. t. 6. f. I. Scotch Cinquefoil; Petiv. Herb. Brit.
t. 41. f. 7.) — Leaflets wedge-fhaped, three-toothed. — Na-
tive of the fummits of the highelt mountains of Lapland,
Scotland, Switzerland, Siberia, and North America.
Tournefort gathered it alfo in Cappadocia. The plant
thrives bed in a mouldering micaceous foil, flowering in
June and July. The root is perennial and woody, throwing
out many (hort, fpreading, leafy, herbaceous, round,
downy Jlems, which are flightly branched, and procumbent,
except fometimes at their floweiing extremities. Leaves on
long ftalks, whofe bafe bears a pair of oblong, acute _y?;-
pulat, like thofe of a rofe ; their leaflets three, on fhort
partial (talks, wcdge-fliaped, inclining to ovate, green,
hairy, entire, except their three large terminal teeth. Flowers
in fmall terminal leafy corymbs, inconfpicuous, with mi-
nute yellow petals and jlamens, inferted into the thickened
rim of the green leafy calyx. Seeds dry, hairy. We have
noticed in Fl. Lapp, that Plukenet's t. 212. f. 3, cited by
Linnaeus, and recently copied by Purfh, belongs rather to
the Potenttlla fubacaulis ; nor does this figure, in eflential
points, refemble our SibbalJia.

2. S. ereaa. Tall Sibbaldia. Linn. Sp. PI. 407. Willd.
n. 2. Purfh n. i. (S. n. 42 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 186.
Pentaphylloides fohis tenuiflime laciniatis, flofculis carncis ;
Amman. Ruth. 85. t. 15.) — Leaves in numerous linear
fegments. Stem ereft, much branched, leafy. Petals
obovate. — Native of (lony ground in Siberia, flowering in
Augult. Mr. Nuttall is recorded by Purfh, as having
gathered this plant on the banks of the MUlouri, in North
America. The root is tapering, brown, probably pe-
rennial. Stem ereft, a fpan high, round, downy, much
branched in a corymbofe manner, leafy from top to bottom,
many-flowered. Leaves crowded, (talked, hairy, repeatedly
three-cleft, witii linear, obtufe, revolute, entire fegments,
like thofe of an yfrtemifia. Flowers fomewhat racemofe,
fmall, flefli-coloured.

3. S. altaica. Large-flowered Sibbaldia. Linn. Suppl.
191. Willd. n. 3. "Pall. A6t. Petrop. for 1773, 526.
t. 18. f. 2." (S. n. 42, var. j ; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 187.)—
Leaves in numerous linear fegments. Stems (lightly
branched. Petals roundifh-hcart-fliaped. — Pound by Pallas
very abundantly on the rocks of Dauria. The Jlems are but
about three inches high, flender, often fimple, and (lightly
leafy. Flowers, efpccially their petals, three or four times
the IJze o{ the lall, of which neverthelefs Gmclin, and at
one time Pallas himfelf, thought this plant a variety.

SII5BENS, or Sivvex.s, in Medicine, an infcftious dif-
cafe, of a chronic nature, fomewhat refembling (yphilis,
prevalent in the wellern parts of Scotland. It is faid to be
(o denominated from the appearance of a fungous cxtu-
berance from fome of the cutaneous fores, not unlike a rafp-
berry ; the word Jil/ien, or Jivven, being the Highland
appellation for a wild rafpbcrry. Whence it has alio been
fometimes confounded with the yaius, a difcale of tropical
climates, brought from Africa, and fo denominated by the
Negroes from the fame fruit. See Framboe.sia and
Yaws.

This mahvdy is not of ancient date in Scotland. The
firlt writer on the fubjedl was Dr. Gikhrill, who, in the
year 1765, diltributed a (hort defcription of X\\e Jihhens
among the people of Ayrfhire, which was afterwards pub-
lifhed by the Philofoplncal Society of Edinburgh. (See
Effays and Obfervations Phyfical and Literary, vol. iii.
art. II.) According to tradition in the Highlands, the
itlifeafe was introduced there by the (oldiers of Oliver Crom-
well, who laboured under the venereal dileafe, when gar-
rifoncd in that (.ountry. From thence it is faid to h;,ve been

carried to Dumfries by a party of foldieri, who had been
llationed in the north Highlands ; and it is perfedly afcer-
tained, according to Dr. Paterfon, that it was introduced
into Ayrlhire, about the year 1745, by people who went
thither from Dumfries to buy cattle. Since that period, it
has conltantly prevailed in different places in that diftriA,
at diflFerent times ; fometimes abating fo much, both in vim-
lence and frequency of occurrence, as to give hopes that it
would entirely difappear ; then breaking out again with
greater violence, generally in the harved feafon, and fpread-
ing over feveral parilhes. (See Dr. Paterfon's Letter, in
Beddoes's Contributions to Phyfical and Medical Know-
ledge, p. 408.) At its firft appearance, it occafioncd little
uneafinefs or apprehenfion to thofe affedted with it ; but it
was foon difcovered to be a formidable difeafe, refembling
in charafter the venereal difeafe, and to be propagated es-
tenCvely by its contagion, infomuch that, as Dr. Gilchrift
exprefl'es it, " great are the perplexity and diftrefs, the fuf-
picion and terror, caufed by it, wherever it comes ; and
hitherto nothing has been able to prevent the fpreading of
it." The difeafe difters, however, materially from lues ve-
nerea, though it is cured by the fame remedy j the poifon
being introduced into the fyltem not through the medium
of the organs of generation, but commonly by the mouth
and throat, in which the primary ulcerations occur.

The fibbens alniolt always begins with an inflammation
of the throat, firlt on the uvula and velum pendulum of the
palate, and afterwards on the tonfils, of a dark red colour,
which is fucceeded in one or two days, and fometimes fo late
as fix or eight, by fmall pimples, or veficles, which termi-
nate in ulcers, with a white furface, and red abrupt edges.
There is often alfo an aphthous appearance, or a ferics of
white fpecks and (loughs, upon the roof of the mouth, and
infide of the cheeks and lips, which commonly (hews itfelf
alfo at the corners of the mouth, in a fmall rifing of the (kin,
of a pearl or whey-colour ; upon which part alfo a fmall
fungous excrefcence often appears, not unlike a rafpberry,
which changes to a fcab, and is a pretty fure fign of the
difeafe, aithough there be no aphtha: or fore throat. The
uvula is fometimes dcftroyed by the ulceration ; and chil-
dren at the brealt, when thus atTefted in the mouth and
throat, have pcri(hed from hunger, not being able to fuck
or (wallow.

In a little time the conftitution is contaminated by the
abforption of the poifon, and a ferics of fecondary fymp-
toms appears. In fome, and efpecially in adult perlon»,
dark red fpots, or fometimes fungous excrcfcenccs, arife
about the anus and periiixum, which gradually increafe and
ulcerate. But the moft common appearances are eruption!
of a pu(tular charaftcr on the (kin, coiitaining, however,
little fluid, and foon terminating in a dry fcab, furrounded
by a livid margin, and ultimately in ulceration. In fome,
and cipccially in children, thefe eruptions occupy chiefly the
belly, groins, and fides, and ar^.* fometimes fccn on the face.
The ulcers, into which tliey pafs, ufually make but fmall
progrefs, not exceeding in general the point of the finger
ill fi/c, and being irregular in their forms, and pretty clean,
with (lightly inflamed edges. In fome inftances, however,
they have been Icen to become confluent, and to unite into
one large foul ulcer over a great part of the abdomen, ex-
haling a moll intolerable and peculiar (tench. In fome
children, indeed, the whole Icalp ha"; gangrened, and the
cars have nearly fallen oS. Smaller ulcers have alfo formed
on the bread and face, covered with a purulent Hough, re-
maining inert, without pain or inflammation, and icldom
increafing in (Ize.

In other cafes, where the primary fymptoni. iiavc be«ii
4 M ' moderate.

SIBBENS.

moderate, and have fubfided, the fecondary fymptoms,
aff'efting the fliin fuperficially, afl'ume different fhapes.
The whole furface of the body, Dr. Gilchrill fays, has
been obferved to be mottled, of a duiky copper colour, or
a dirty hue, as the difcolourings of the fldn in this difeafe
commonly are. Infants of the month have had a rednefs in
the lower part of the belly, buttocks, thighs, and part of
the legs, where fometimes it terminates abruptly in a ring.
In fome of thefe there was an inflammation, and a watery
fhining fwelling of the pudenda. A more certain appear-
ance in fuch fubjeds fomewhat older are broad red patches,
as large as the palm of the hand, over all the trunk, as well
as the limbs, attended with inflammation. A duller, or
cluiters, of fmall puftules come out ; the ll<in grows dry,
and peels off, leaving a new tender fkin beneath ; and this
will happen a great many times, fometimes in one place,
fometimes in another. Scabby eruptions are often met with
on the fcalp, fore-head, infide of the thighs, groins, and
parts contiguous ; where frequently fmall hardneffes, rifing
juft within the fkin, excite a very troublefome itching. Be-
fides the inflammation and excrcfcences about the fundament
already noticed, other appearances of the difeafe prefent
themfelves on the bread, fhoulder?, and elfewhere, efpe-
cially a fort of ier/ifs exedens, or fpreading tetter, healing
in one part, while it breaks out in another adjoining, and
leaving a great deformity of the fkin, after it cicatrizes.
In a few cafes, an eruption of tubercles occurs upon the
face, rather numerous, and in figure and fize refembling the
fmall-pox at the height, but being of a reddifh colour.
Thefe are attended with great heat and tumour of the face,
fo as fometimes to clofe up the eyes. In fome cafes they
have fpread thickly over the whole body, and fuppurated,
not unlike the confluent fmall-pox, and have even proved
fatal, as the fwelling fubfided ; but in others, where not
fo numerous, they gradually decay, without coming to
fuppuration. In fome perfons there is a fwelling of the
furface, without any appearance of tubercles ; in which
cafe, the cuticle exfoliates from time to time in fine white
reticulated flakes, as often as it is renewed. In other cafes,
tubercles arife from fmall bright red fpots, of a more in-
tenfe rednefs than thofe juft mentioned, which in fome
places become confluent, and form a flat fmooth elevation,
which foon becomes of the ufual colour of the fliin, and
fometimes flightly ulcerates. The face, too, is often af-
fefted with different kinds of eruption, fometimes alone,
and fometimes together with the reft of the body.

Where the difeafe affumes ftill greater malignity, larger
boils appear difperfed over the arms, flioulders, face, legs,
and feet, which fuppurate, and form ulcers, which pene-
trate to the mufcular parts, laying them quite bare, and
feeming even to corrode them fuperficially. Thefe ulcera-
tions are of a high florid colour, with fcarcely any dif-
charge upon their furface, except a little ichor, which ren.
ders them exquifitely tender and painful, and fcarcely bear-
ing the mildelt apphcations. Their edges are hard and
ragged, their fize various, and their appearance very ma-
lignant J fo that Dr. Gilchrift fays, when viewed fingly,
they might have been miftaken for real cancers ; but the
number of them, the manner of their coming out, and other
circumflances, foon determine the difeafe to which they
belong.

There is one fymptom, not yet particularly defcribed,
but from which the difeafe takes its name, which remains
to be mentioned. An itchy tetter, or a fort of ring-worm,
breaks out in a circular form, which either Ipontaneoufly,
or from being fcratched, becomes raw and excoriated, and
does not fcab, but continues to ooze out an ichorous hu-

8

mour. In a fhort time a fungous excrefcence fprouts up,
much like a rafpberry or ifrawberry, elevated one half
above the furface, and, when fully formed, appearing as
if fet in a focket cut in the flefh exaftly to receive it.
Sometimes, however, a black fcab forms, crulling over the
fore, except at thr edges, where there is a crack or ring,
like the line of feparation between a mortified and a found
part, from which the fame fort of ichor is conllantly oozing.
By degrees this crack enlarges towards the centre, and
the fcab, being pulhed off, gives place to the fungus
juit defcribed. In other cafes, thefe fpongy excrefcences
are preceded by a dark or grey fcurf, reiembling the fcaly
leprofy. Ttiefe parts are the leat of an intenfe itching, and
when they are excoriated by fcratching or rubbing, the
fungus has room to fprout up. Thefe fores occupy every
part of the body, and many of them are feen in the fame
lubjedt at the fame time ; but the excrefcences do not al-
ways fprout up, and are more commonly produced in the
fores which never form a fcab, than in the fcabby or fcaly
ones. The fungus is rather indolent than tender to the-
touch, and its colour is not remarkably different from thai
of the fungus of other fores.

The fibbens very rarely affefts the bones, and then only
by extending from the foft parts, and perhaps never attacks
the large and more folid bones. In feveral cafes, the teeth,
with their fockets, have been lotl, and fome of the bones of
the cheeks and nofe have come away, and a portion of the
cartilaginous feparation of the noflrils has been deftroyed by
the difeafe. Several perfons die in a flate of heftic, from
the very extenfive ulcerations, before the bones could be
materially affefted.

Caufes of Sibhens. — This difeafe has been principally pre-
valent among the lower ranks of the people in Scotland,
though not exclufively ; for fome families of good condition
have loll their children by its attacks. The difeafe affefts the
young and adult perfons equally ; but perfons advanced in
years appear to be lefs liable to the infeftion. Children,
however, and women, from their more irritable frame, are
moll fufccptible of it.

The difeafe is commonly communicated by the dire6t
conveyance of the infeftious matter by fome fpecies of con-
taft, and generally through the medium of the mouth ;
whence the primary fymptoms appear in the mouth and
throat, as before defcribed. " It is propagated," Dr.
Gilchrifl obferves, " by ufing the fame fpoons and knives,
and wiping with the fame cloth, which the infefted have
ufed, without cleaiiCng or wafhing them ; drinking out of
the fame glafs or cup ; fmoakmg with the fame pipe ;
fleepmg with the infected, or in the fame bed-clothes they
have lain in, and handling their fores ; by fucking or giving
fuck ; fainting, or killing, and fondling children, or feeding
them in an uncleanly way."

Dr. Gilchrill adds, that it is completely proved, that the
fibbens is propagated chiefly by thefe inattentions to clean-
linefs, by this circumllance, that " it has never got footing
among thofe of better fafhion," nor in towns, where, ex-
cept with the very lowefl, greater attention to cleanlinefs is
generally obferved ; and that it was unknown among the
more cleanly i.ihabitants of the Englifh border, while it
occ .rred at Dumfries, and along the Scottilh boundary.
Another proof wjs deduced from the more frequent occur-
rence of the difeafe after autumn, which was thus accounted
for. " A company of reapers is made up of very different
people, brought together from all parts : they eat and drink
promifcuoufly out of the fame cups and difhes ; and a few
fpoons are made to ferve a good many, by putting them
round from one to another. The fame is done with a

pipe

I

. SIB

pipe in fmoaking. When the body is warm, and the pores
open, the tender iliin of the hps and mouth is molt difpofed
to receive the infeftion, which the heat, in labouring, will
render more aftive and apt to be communicated. A girl,
who had the thruth to a great degree, at this fcafon, fpread
the difeafe through a whole pariih, where it was not tormerly
kr.own."

Contagions of this fort are not ufually communicable by
effluvia ; but it feems to be believed, by thofe who have
witnelled the progrefs of fibbens, that it may be propagated
without aftual contaft. Dr. Gilchrift fays, " nor is it un-
likely, that, in certain circumltances, the breath may be-
come infeftious ;" implying, however, his want of pofitive
evidence on the fubjeCl. But Dr. Paterfon atferts, tliat
" it is perfedly afcertained, that the breath of people, la-
bouring under the fore throat, is loaded with infeftion, and
communicates the difeafe, without the contatt of ulcers."
Beddoes' Contributions, loc. cit.

It will be obvious, from the preceding detail of the
fymptoms and caufes of fibbens, that it is the refult of a
morbid poifon, operating firll locally, and afterwards coii-
ttitutionally, and producing phenomena exceedingly analo-
gous to thofc of the venereal difeafe. There is alfo the
farther analogy, as we fhall fee, that the cure is effected
principally, if not exchifively, by mercury : whence feveral
writers, and apparently Dr. Gilchrift amonq; the reft, have
deemed it a modification of fyphilis. It was foon dif-
covered, fays this writer, " to be of the venereal kind, or
Jie foul difeafe." Dr. Paterfon, however, has pointed out
-everal circumftances which mark a difference between the
two. In the firft place, he obferves, the venereal difeafe
was common in Scotland long before the fibbens appeared ;
and he had never been able to trace the latter to any perfon
affefted with fyphilis. Secondly, it is much more infetlious
than common fyphilis, for it feldom gets into a family with-
out infefting every perfon in it, and frequently ipreads
rapidly over a village. If the common lues were to fpread
in a fimilar manner, its progrefs in all large towns would be
truly dreadful. Thirdly, the fibbens is a more purely cu-
taneous or fuperficial affeftion than the common lues, for it
very rarely indeed occafions buboes, and almoll never affeds
the large bones. And, laiUy, the fibbens is much more
readily cured than the ordinary form of fyphilis ; for a much
lefs quantity of mercury removes blotches and cxtcniive
ulcers, than is required to cure the fecondary fymptoms of
fyphilis, contrafted in the ordinary manner. Its ordinary
commencement in the organs of deglutition, and its never
appearing in a primary form on the genitals, nor being pro-
pagated by coition, appear alfo to eilablifh a diltinftion
between the two maladies.

Curf of Sibbens. — We have partly anticipated this fubjeft
in tiie preceding paragrapii, where we have ftated that mer-
cury is found to be the fpecific remedy. It appears that,
like fyphilis, the difeafe is perhaps never cured by the un-
afiifted efforts of the conllitution ; and that mercury, as in
the other affeftion, does not fail to cure it, except in thofe
deplorable cd^es, where, from the long continuance of the
difeafe, he£lic fymptoms have come on, and the conftitution
is fo broken down as to be unable to bear the remedy.

It feems to be a well afcertained faft, too, that, of all
the preparations of mercury, the corrofive fublimate, or
oxymuriatc, is the beft adapted for the cure of fibbens ;
that is, it cures it more fpeedily, and with equal certainty
willi any other mercurial preparation. This circumftance
alio conftitut.s a point of dillindtlon between the two ma-
ladies, and may a'^ife, according to Dr. Paterfon's fiig-
geftion, from the fibbens being a more fuperficial or

S I B

cutaneous affeition than fyphilis. Dr. Gilchrift, however,
confiders it better to adopt the ordinary courfe of mercury,
though not carried to the extent of high falivation, for the
pi.irpole of infuring regularity by means of confinement,
without which, he fays, it often failed, and the fymptoms
returned, rendering another courfe of medicine neceflary.
Experience fhews, he fays, that the difeafe is proof againfl
all flight adminiftrations of the remedy ; that it will fooner
or later return with greater force, or in a worfe form ; and
that it is only to be eradicated by a regular courfe of medi-
cine, judicioufly adapted to the feveral degrees and circum-
ftances of the malady.

As the extenfive propagation of the difeafe in Scotland
was afcribable to the uncleanly praftices which prevailed
among the lower clafles of the people, fuch as ufing the
fame utenfil? in eating and drinking, pafTing the fame pipe
from mouth to mouth, fleeping in the fame bed, ufmg the
fame towel, &c. ; fo the molt effeftual check to- the pro-
grefs of the malady was to be expefted from a fyltem of
prevention, which coiiiilled in adopting a more decent and
cleanly proceeding. Dr. Gilchrift recommended the per-
lons employed in harveit-work, each to carry with him a
difh, cup, knife, fpoon, and a cloth to wipe ihem with,
that all the party might not eat with the fame utenfils, and
transfer contagion to one another. He alfo llrongly urged
the imriropriety of admitting that common familiarity,
which every one claims by cuftom to kifs and fondle
children, and efpecially to deny it to ftrangcrs, and thofe
of low rank. By attending to thefe, and fimilar means of
prevention, the difeafe appears to have been materially con-
trolled, and its prevalence diminiihed.

SIBBIKITTIN, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
Neola. N.lat. 12^38'. W. long. 1 1° 35'.

SIBBO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nyland ;
10 milei S.W. of Borgo.

SIBBOLETH. See Shibboleth.

SIBBUL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the coun-
try of B.iica ; 25 miles W. of Angela.

SIBDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in
Caria ; one of the fix towns which Alexander the Great
placed in dependence on that of Halicarnaffus.

SI BELLA, in Geography, a mountain of Calabria Ultra;
9 mile'; E.S.E. of St. Sevcrina.

SIBENEN, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the
Kander, 4 miles W. of Spietz.

SIBENTAAL, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles W. of St.
Polten.

SIBERIA, or, as it is fometimes denominated, AJtatic
Ruffia, \^ that part of the immcnfe territory of the Ruffian
empire, which lies to the E. of the Ural chain of mountains,
by which the empire is interlefted from N. to S. and thus
divided into two parts, differing from each other both as to
dimenlions and quality. Siberia is dcfcribed as a flat traft
of land of confiderable extent, declining imperceptibly to-
wards the Frozen ocean, and by equally gentle gradations
riling towards tlie fouth ; where at lall it forms a great
chain of mountains, conllituting the boundary of Ruflia on
the fide of Ciiina. The large portion of the habitable globe,
now diilingiiinied by the appellation of Aliatic Rufiia, ex-
tends from about the 37th degree E. longitude to more than
190" or 170*^ W. long.; and aliuming the degree in this
high northern latitude at 3.3 miles, the length may be com-
puted at 4590 geographical miles. The greatcft breadth
from the cape of Cevero Voftoclinoi, called in feme maps
Taimara, to the Altaian mountains S. of the fca of Baikal,
may be ellnnated at 28", or 1680 geographical miles. In
Britilh miles the length, at a grola computation, may be

Hated

SIBERIA.

ftated at J350, afld the breadth at i960, which extent ex-
ceeds that of Europe. The vaft country of Siberia, fays
Mr. Tooke, contains, by calculation, upwards of 10^ mil-
lions of fquare verfts, comprehendinfr within it feveral king-
doms, taken by roving Kozaks (Coffacks) on their own ac-
count, and then furrendered to the tzar, who completed
the conqueft ; at prefent this country confifts of feveral of
the moft extenfive governments. The fartheft eaftern bound-
ary is that of Afia, and the feas of Kamtfchatka and
Ochotflc, and the northern is the Arftic ocean. On the W.
the frontiers correfpond with thofe between Afia and Europe,
and the fouthern limits may be ftated more at large in the
following manner : The river Cuban, part of the Caucafian
chain, and an ideal line, divide the Ruffian territory from
Turkey and Perfia. The boundary then afcends along the
north of the Cafpian through the Iteppe or defart of Iffim,
and the ealtern fliorc of the river Ob, to its fource in the
Altaian mountains, where it meets the va(l empire of China,
and proceeds among that chain to the fources of the Onon,
where it includes a confiderable region called Daouria, ex-
tending about 200 miles in breadth, to the fouth of the
mountains called Yablonnoy ; the limit between Ruffia and
Chinefe Tartary being partly an ideal line, and partly the
river Argoon, which joined with the Onon conftitutes the
great river Amur. Thence the boundary returns to the
mountainous chain, and follows a branch of it to a promon-
tory on the north of the mouth of the Amur.

The population of Afiatic Ruffia may be regarded as
primitive, except a few Ruffian colonies recently planted ;
and the Techuks in that part which is oppofite to America,
fuppofed to have migrated from that continent, in their per-
fons and cultoms are different from thofe of the Afiatic
tribes. Next to the Techuks, moft remotely north, are the
Yukagirs, a branch of the Yakuts, and further well the
Samoyedes. South of the Techuks are the Koriaks, and fur-
ther fouth the Ivamtfchadales, who are a dillinft people, and
fpeak a different language. The Lamutes are a branch of
the Mandfliures or Tungufes, who are widely diffufed be-
tween the Yenifei and Amur, and the fouthern tribes, ruled
by a khan, conquered China in the 17th century. The
Oftiaks, and other tribes of Samoyedes, have penetrated
confiderably to the S. between the Yenifei and the Irtifch,
and are followed by various tribes of the Monguls, as the
Kalmucks, Burats, &c. and by thofe of the Tartars or
Huns, as the Teluts, Kirgufes, and others. The radically
diftinft languages amount to feven, independently of many
dialefts and mixtures.

The vaft extent of northern Afia was firft known by the
name of Sibir, or Siberia ; but the appellation is gradually
paffing into difufe. When the Monguls eftablifhed a king-
dom in thcfe northern regions, the firft refidence of the
princes was on the river Tura, on the fcite of the town now
called Tiumen, about 180 miles S.W. of Toboltl< ; but
they afterwards removed to the eaftern ftiore of the Irtifch,
and there founded the city of Ifljer near Tobolfk. This new
refidence was alfo called Sibir, of unknown etymology, and
the name of the city pafTed to the Mongul principality.
Although this is doubted by Coxe, Pallas f.iys that the
ruins of Sibir are ftill vifible 23 verfts from Tobolfk, and
that k gave name to the rivulet Sibirka, and the whole of
Siberia. When the Ruffians began the conqueft of the
country, they were unapprised of its extent ; and the name
of this wcftern province was c^radually diffufed over the half
of Afia. The principality eftabhihed by the Monguls under
Sheibuni in 1242 in the weftcrn part of Siberia, around To-
bolflv and the river Tura, from which it has been fomctimes
called Tura, has been already mentioned. The aftual con-

queft of Siberia commenced in the reign of Ivan Vaflillie-
vitch II., who afcended the Ruffian throne in 1534. In-
duced by the profpeft of eftabhfhing a traffic for Siberian
furs, he determined to undertake the conqueft of the coun-
try, and in 1558 added to his titles that of lord of Sibir, or
Siberia. Yarmak, a Cofiack chief, being driven, by the
Ruffian conquefts in the fouth, to take refuge, with 6000 or
7000 of his followers, near the river Kama, afterwards
marched down the Ural chain, defeated the Tartar Kutcliun,
khan of Sibir, and pre^led forwards to the Tobol and the
Irtifch, and alfo to the Oby, and in this aftonifhing expe-
dition, fubjugated Tartars, Vogules, and Oftiaks. Finding
it impoffible to maintain and complete his conquefts with his
fmall army, he furrendered them in 158 1, by a formal capitu-
lation, to the tzar Ivan VaffiUievitch, who nobly rewarded
his magnanimity and exertions. This conqueror of Siberia,
however, did not live to witnefs the full accomplifhment of
this enterprife. He died in 1584; and after his death the
difcovery and conquefts which he had made were profecutcd
by regiments of Donlkoi Coffacks, fent thither for that pur-
pofe, as far as the eaftern ocean and the mountains of China;
and in the middle of the 17th century this whole part of the
world had become a Ruffian province. A perlon, whofe
name was Cyprian, was appointed firft archbifhop of Sibir
in 1 62 1, and at Tobolfl<, where he refided, he drew up a
narrative of the conqueft. About the middle of the 17th
century the Ruffians had extended eaft as far as the river
Amur ; but Kamtfchatka was not finally reduced till the
year 1711. Behring and other navigators afterwards pro-
ceeded to difcover the other extreme parts of Afia. In his
firft voyage of 1728, Behring coafted the eaflern ffiore of
Siberia as high as latitude 67° 18', but his important dif-
coveries were made during his voyage of 1 741. The Aleu-
tian ifles were vifitcd in 1745 ; and in the reign of the em-
prefs Catharine II. other important difcovcries followed,
which were completed by captain Cook. In the fouth the
Mongul kingdom of Kazan was fubdued in 1552, and that
of Altrakhan in 1554, and the Ruffian monarchy extended
to the Cafpian fea. In 1727, after previous conflifts, the
Ruffian limits were continued weflward from the fource of
the Argoon to the mountain Sabyntaban, near the conflux
of two rivers with the Yenifei ; the boundary being thus
afcertained between the Ruffians and the Monguls fubjetl
to China. The trade with China has been condufted at
Zuruchaitu, on the river Argoon, N. lat. 50°. E. long. 337°>
and at Kiachta, about 90 miles S. of the fea of Baikal, N.
lat. 51°. E. long. 106°. This boundary between two ftates
is the moft extenfive on the globe, reaching from about the
65th to the 145th degree of longitude ; 80° (lat. 50°)
yielding, by the allowance of 39 geographical miles to a
degree, 3120 miles.

The moft curious antiquities in Siberia feem to be the
ftone tombs which abound on fome fteppes, particularly
near the river Yenifei, reprefenting in rude fculpture human
faces, camels, horfemen with lances, and other objefts.
Here are alfo found, befides human bones, thofe of horfes
and oxen, with fragments of pottery and ornaments of drefs.
The moft fingular ancient monument in Siberia is found on
the river Abakan, not far from Tomfk, being a large tomb
with rude figures.

The religion of the Greek church, which is profefFed by
the Ruffians, has made no great progrefs in their Afiatic do-
minions. Many of the Tartar tribe": in the S.W. are Ma- '
hometans, and others are votaries of the fuperltition of Dalai
Lama. But the religious fentiments of the Sohamanians
are the molt prevalent ; particularly among the Tartars,
Finns, Samoyedes, Oftiaks, Mandfhurs, Burats, and Tun-
gufes ;

SIBERIA.

gufes ; and they have been adopted by the Koriaks, Te-
chuks, and people of the eaftern ifles. On the eaftern coa(t
of the fea of Baikal is the rock of the Schamans, an idol of
a peculiar fhape : whilft the Schamanians admit one chief in-
fernal deity and his fubalterns, authors of evil, they alfo be-
lieve in one fupreme uncreated bcneiicent being, who commits
the management of the univerfe to mferior deities, and they
delegate portions of it to fubaltern fpirits. See Schamans.

The archiepifcopal fee of Tobollk is the metropolitan of
Ruffian Afia in the nortli, and that of Aftrakhan in the
fouth. There is another fee, that of Irkutik and Nerfhinfli,
and fome others of more recent origin.

Siberia is divided into two great governments, thofe of
Tobolfk in the welt, and Irkutik in the ealt. The fmaller
provinces are Kohvan, Nerlhinlk, Yakutlk, and Ochotft.
In the S.W. is the government of Caucafus, with one or
two other divifions, blending Europe and Alia.

The population of Siberia cannot be computed at above
^\ millions. The political importance and relations of this
part of the Ruffian empire principally relate to China and
Japan. The manners and culloms of Afiatic Ruffia vary
with the numerous tribes by whom it is peopled. The-
Tartars are the moll numerous ; next to thcfe in importance
are the Monguls, one tribe of whom, -vi-z. the Kalmuck's,
are found to the W. of the Cafpian, while the others, called
Burats, Torgats, Sec. are chiefly round the fea of Baikal.
Further to the eaft are the Mandfliurs or Tungufes. See
thefe denominations refpeftively.

The languages of all the original nations of Afiatic Ruffia
are radically different ; and among the Tungules, Monguls,
and Tartars, there are fome traces of literature, and not a
few MSS. in their feveral languages.

The principal city of Afiatic Ruffia is Aftrakhan, which
fee. Azof (which fee) derives its importance chiefly from its
being a fortified poll. The chief towns on the Afiatic fide
of the Volga, are Samara and Stauropol. At the mouth of
the river Ural, or Jaik, ftands Gurief ; but the chief place
after Aftrakhan is Orenburgh, founded in the year 1740, and
the feat of a confiderable trade with the tribes on the E. of
the Cafpian. Beyond the Uralian chain the firft city that
occurs is Tobolflv ; which fee. Kolyvan i'i a town of lome
confequcnce on the river Ob, iiaving in its vicinity fome filver
mines of confiderable produce, and north to this is Tomlk.
Farther to the E. the towns become of lefs confequcnce.
On the river Yenifei is a fmall town of the fame name, and
another called Sayandv. On the river Angara ftands Ir-
kut(]<, fuppofed to contain 1 2,000 inhabitants, the chief
mart of the commerce between Ruffia and China, and tlie
feat of fupreme jurifdiftion over eaftern Siberia. On the
wide and frozen Lena ftands Yaknt(l< ; which fee.

Tlio chief commerce of this part of the Ruffian empire
confiils in iables and other valuable furs, for whicli the Chi-
nefe return tea, filk, and nankeen. That with the Kirgufcs
confifts in exchanging Ruffian wonUen cloths, iron, and honf-
hold articles, for horfos, cattle, flicep, and beautiful flieep-
tkins. On the Black lea there is fome commerce with Tur-
key, the exports being furs, kaviar, iron, linen, &c. and
the imports wine, fruit, coffee, filks, rice. In the trade
on the Cafpian the exports are the fame, and the return
ctiicfiy filk. Tiie principal Ruffian harbours arc Aftrakhan,
Gurief, and Kidiar, near the mouth of tin- Terek, but tlie
belt tiaven is Baku, belonging to the Pcrfians. The Tartars,
on the call of the Cafpijn, bring the products if their coun-
try and of Buchana, as cotton-yarn, furs, ftuffs, hides, and
rhubarb ; but the chief artick- is raw filk from Shirvan and
Ghilaii, on the W. of the Cafpian.

In Afiatic Ruffia the climate extends from the vine at the

I

bottom of the Caucafus, to the folitary lichen on the rocks
of the Arftic ocean. Through the greater part of Siberia,
the moil fouthern frontier being about 50°, and the northern
afcending to 78", the general climate may be confiderej
rather as frigid than temperate ; being in three quarters of
the country on a level with that of Norway and Lapland,
untcmpered by the gales of the Atlantic. To the S. of the
fea of Baikal, the chmate correfponds to that of Berlin,
and the N. of Germany. The chains of higli mountains,
which form the fouthern boundary of thefe provinces, con-
tribute alfo to increafe the cold ; fo that the fea of Baikal
is commonly entirely frozen from December till May. The
fineft climate in thcfe eaftern parts is that of Daouria, or the
province around Nerlhinlk : and the numerous towns on the
Amur evince the great fuperiority of what is called Chinefe
Tartary, which is comparatively a fertile and temperate
region. The change of the feafons is very rapid ; the long
winter is almoft inflantaneoufly fucceeded by a warm fpring;
and the quicknefs and luxuriance of the vegetation exceed
defcription.

The greater part of Siberia, that is, the middle and
fouthern latitudes of it, as far as the river Lena, is ex-
tremely fertile, and fit tor every kind of produce ; but the
northern and eaftern parts, being encumbered with wood,
are dcllitiite of this advantage, being unfit both for paf-
turagf and culture. The whole of this part, as far as the
6oth degree of N. latitude, and to the Frozen ocean, is full
of bogs and moraftes covered with mofs, which would be
ahfolutely impaffable, if the ice, which never thaws deeper
than feven inches, did not remain entire beneath it. In the
central parts vegetation is checked by the fevere cold of fo
wide a continent. Towards the S. there are vail forells of
pine, fir, larch, and other trees, among which is a kind of
mulberry, which might thrive in many climates that are now
deftitute of it. The fublime fcenes around the fea of Baikal
are agreeably contralled with the marks of human induftr)-,
the cultivated field and the garden. Many parts of Siberia
are totally incapable of agriculture ; but in the fouthern and
wellern diftridls the foil is remarkably fertile. North of Koly-
van barley generally yields more than twelve-fold, and oats com-
monly twenty-fold. Exclufive of winter wheat, molt of the
ulual European grains prolpcr in fouthern Siberia. In fome
parts flax grows wild, and hemp is prepared from the nettle.
Woad is found in Siberia, and faffron near tiie Caucafus.
The bell rhubarb abounds on tlie banks of the Ur.il or Jaik,
in the fouthern dillrifls watered by the Yenifei, and in the
mountains of Daouria. But it is not poffible that agricul-
ture fliould flonrilh while the peafantry are fiaves, and fold
with the foil. Neverthelefs, an intelligent traveller was
furprifed at the abundance of buck-wheat, rye, barley,
oats, and otfier grain which he obfervcd to the S. of To-
bolflv ; where the cattle were alfo very numerous, and in the
winter fed with hay. The large garden llrawberry, called
hautbois, is found wild in the territory of Irkutflc ; and on
the Altaian mountains the red currant attains the ll/e of a
common cherry, ripening in large bunches of excellent fla-
vour. Near the Volga and the Ural are excellent melons of
various kind^

Some of the largclb rivers of Afia belong to the Ruffian
empire; fuch are the Ob, of 1900 Britilh miles in c<jurfe ;
the Yenifei, about 1 750; and Lena, 1570. To thefe we may
add the Irtifrli, the Angara, the Sehi:ga, the Yaik, &c.
The lakes of this country are numerous. The moll confider-
able in the ncrth of Siberia is that of Pia/inlKo ; that of
Baikal, delcribtd under that article ; a large lake between the
rivers Ob and the Irtifch, 170 miles long, divided iiy an
illand into two parts, called the lakes of Tchang and Soumi.

lu

SIB

In this quarter there are many fmaller lakes, and others to
the N. of the Cafpian, fome of which are fait, particularly
that of Bogdo. To thefe we may add the Allan Nor, or
golden lake, and the lake of Altyn, called by the Ruffians
Teletako. The mountains are the Uralinn, the Altaian,
Bogdo Alim, or the Almighty mountain, Sinnaia-Sepka,
Schlangenberg, which is the richeft in minerals, the Sayanflc
mountains, the mountains of Nerfhindc ov Ruffian Daouria,
the chain of Stanvooi or mountains of Ochotik, and Cauca-
fus. For the fteppes of Ruffia, fee Steppe.

Siberia has hitherto been found to poffefs fcarcely any
genera of plants ; and even all the fpccies of any confiderable
importance, are thofe trees which are common to it with the
north of Europe. Under the head of the zoology of
Afiatic Ruffia, we may enumerate the rein-deer, which per-
forms the offices of the horfe, the cow, and the fheep ; the
dogs of Kamtfchatka, which are ufed for carriage ; the horfe,
which is found wild, a fpecies of afs, the urus or bifon, the
argali or wild ffieep, the ibex or rock-goat, large ilags,
the mufk or civet, and wild, boar ; wolves, foxes, and bears ;
the fable, feveral kinds of hares, the caftor or beaver, the
walrus, and the common feal. But it would be fuperfluous
to enlarge. Siberia is fo rich in zoology and botany, that, as
Mr. Pennant obferves, even the difcovery of America has
fcarcely imparted a greater number of objefts to the natu-
raliil. The mineralogy of Siberia is equally fertile, and dif-
plays many Angular and interetling objefts. The chief gold
mines of Siberia are thofe of Catherinburg or Ekatherin-
burg, on the E. of the Uralian mountains, about N. lat. 57°:
the mines of Nerffiinlk, difcovered in 1704, are principally
of lead, mixed with filver and gold ; and thofe of Kolyvan,
chiefly in the Schlangenberg, or mountain of ferpents, fo
called by the Germans, began to be wrought in 1748. The
gold mines of Berefof are the chief in the empire ; thofe of
Kolyvan and Nerffiinflv being denominated filver mines. Be-
fides the copper mines in the Uralian mountains, there are
fome in thofe of Altai. But the iron mines of Ruffia are
of the moft folid and lading importance, particularly thofe
which iupply the numerous founderies of the Uralian moun-
tains. Rock-falt is chiefly found near the Ilek, not far from
Orenburg. Coal is fcarcely known ; but fulphur, alum,
fal ammoniac, vitriol, nitre and natron, are abundant. Siberia
pofleffes a variety of gems, partic\ilarly in the mountain
Adunftollo, near the river Argoon, in the province of Ner-
ffiinfl< or Daouria. Common topazes are found here, and alfo
the jacint. The kind of jade called mother of emerald is a
Siberian produft ; and beryl or aqua marinns is found in
AdunlloUo, and in greater perfection in the gem mines of
Mourfintfl<y, near Catherinburg, along with the chryfolite.
Red garnets abound near the fea of "Baikal. The ruby-
coloured fchorl has been difcovered in the Uralian mountains.
The green felfpar of Siberia is a beautiful Itone, and carved
by the RulTians into a variety of ornaments. The Daourian
mountains, between the Onon and the Argoon, afford ele-
gant onyx. The beautiful itones called the hair of Venus
and Thetis, being limpid rock cryitals containing capillary
fchori, red or green, are found near Cathermburg. The
alliance flone confilts of a greyifh porphyry, united, as if
glued together, with tranfparent quartz. Great quantities
of malachite have alfo been found in the Uralian mountains ;
one piece of which is faid to have weighed 107 poods, or
3852 pounds. Siberia afi"ords beautiful red and green jaf-
pers ; and lapis kzuli is found near Baikal. The Uralian
chain prefents fine white marble ; and in the numerous pri-
mitive ranges there are many varieties of granite and por-
phyry. The chief mineral waters of Ruffia are thofe of
Kamtfchatka.

SIB

The iflands belonging to Afiatic Ruffia may be diflri-
buted into the Aleutian, Andrenovian, and Kurilian groups,
^vith the Fox ifles, which extend to the promontory of
Alafka in North America. See thefe articles refpeftively.
For further particulars refpefting Siberia or Afiatic Ruffia,
fee Russia. See alfo Coxe's Ruffian Difcoveries ; Tooke'9
Rufl'. Emp. ; and Pinkerton's Geog. vol. li.

SIBERIAN KozAKS, or Cojfacks, a branch of the Don-
flvoi Codacks, who, inftigated by a difpofition to roaming
and pillage, in the i6th century, abandoned their habitations
on the Don, in order to plunder the countries lying eafl-
ward. In order to rcKrain tlieir progrefs, Ivan Vaffillie-
vitch II., who fat upon the Ruffian throne, affembled, in
the year IJ77, a confiderable army, and got together a
fleet of (hips to chaflife thefe audacious robbers. Thefe
hordes, intimidated by thefe hollile preparations, difperfed
and fled into the neighbouring regions. See the preceding
article.

Siberian Barley, in Agriculture, a hardy fort of grain of
the barley kind. See Bakley.

Siberian Oat, an ufeful fort of hardy oat brought from
that country. See Oat.

It has been found by fome as much fuperior to the com-
mon black oat as the Poland fort is to others. It has the
advantages of beint; capable of being fown with fafety in
December, and of being fit to cut as foon or fooner than
early peas ; the produce is greater than the ufual forts ; and
rain, inllead of injuring, rather improves the colour, which
is of the pied kind. The kernel is plump and large, and
the flraw is faid to make excellent fodder for live-llock of the
neat cattle kind.

SIBIDOOLOO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
ftate of Manding, the government of which is a republic,
or ratlier an oligarchy ; 40 miles N.E. of Karaalia.

SIBIL-EL-MULSIH, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas ; 120 miles N.N.W. of Mecca.

SIBILI, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bam-
bara ; 25 miles N.E. of Sego.

SIBILIAKOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolfk, on the Irtifch ; 2S miles N. of Tara.

SIBIRIXOA, a town of New Mexico, in the province
ofCinaloa; 45 miles N.N.W. of Cinaloa.

SIBNIBAS, a town of Hindooflian, in Bengal; 10
miles E.N.E. of Kiffienagur. N. lat. 23° 2j'. E. long.
88° 50'.

SIBOCKOO, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of
Borneo. N. lat. 4° 24'. E. long. 117° 12'.

SIBOURNE, a town of Fr.ince, in the department of
the Lower Pyrenees, on a fmall river oppollte to St. Jean
de Luz.

SIBRAIM, or Sabarlm, \x\ ylncient Geography, a place
which terminated the land of promife towards the north.
Ezekiel fays (xlvii. 16.) that this city was between the con-
fines of Hamoth and Damafcus, probably the fame which
Abulfeda calls Houverin, a village of the country of Ems,
or Hamoth, S.E. of that city.

SIBSIB, in Zoology, an animal of the empire of Mo-
rocco, abounding in the mountains of the province of Sufe ;
of an intermediate fpecies between the cat and the fquirrel ;
fomewhat fimilar to the ichneumon in form, but not half its
fize : it inhabits the Atlas, and hves in holes, among the ttones
and caverns of the mountains ; it has brown hair, and a
beautiful tail, refembling that of a fquirrel, about the length
of its body. The Shelluks and Arabs eat this animal, and
confider it a dehcacy. This is the only animal which the
Mahometans torment before its death, which they do by
taking hold of its hind-legs, and rubbing it on a itone, or

flat

SIB

S I B

flat furface, for a few minutes, which operation caufes the
animal to fcream out. They then cut its throat, according
to the Mahometan cuftom. In tafte it is faid to refemble a
rabbit ; but friftion, as they pretend, is neceflary to render
it tender and palatable.

SIBTHORP, JojiN, in Biography, an eminent botanift
and traveller, was the youngelt fon of Dr. Humphrey Sib-
thorp, profeiror of botany at Oxford, where the fubjeft of
the prefent article was born, Oftober 28, 1758. He re-
ceived the firft rudiments of his education at Magdalen fchool,
from whence he was removed to the fchool at Lincoln. In
due time he entered at Lincoln college, Oxford ; but upon
obtaining the RadclifTe travelling fellowfhip, he became a
member of Univerfity college. Being intended for the me-
dical profeflion, he was neceflarily lent to Edinburgh, to com-
plete that branch of his education ; but he took the degree
of dodlor of phyfic in his own univerfity. The talte he had
early imbibed for natural hiltory, efpecially botany, was cul-
tivated at Edinburgh, and indulged m a tour to the High-
lands of Scotland. After his return from thence, he vifited
France and Switzerland, fpending a confiderable time at
Montpellier, where he formed an intimacy with the amiable
Broudbnet, (fee Papyrius, ) colleAed many plants of that
country, and communicated to the Academie des Sciences
of Montpellier, of which he became a member, an account
of his numerous botanical difcoveries in the neighbourhood.
The death of an elder brother of his father, by which a con-
fiderable ellate devolved on the latter, occafioned Dr. J.
Sibthorp to return to England in 1783, when, on his fa-
ther's refignation, he was appointed to the botanical pro-
fefforfliip. For this his Oxford degree of M.D. was necef-
fary. ( See Sherard, and Sibihorpia.) It was perhaps
the laft fervice he expefted from it, for he was a favourite
Ion, and had befides an ample independency of his own in
profpeft, from the ellate of his mother, who was his fatlier's
fecond wife. Thefe expectations, and his academical ap-
pointments, though they releafed him from the calls of his
profeflion, only rivettcd more firmly his ardent attachment to
botany ; his paflion for which became, by thofe appointments,
a duty ; nor was he ever, to his lad hour, difpofed to Ihrink
from the talk he had undertaken, or to prefer any relaxation,
or any indulgence, to this laborious purfuit.

During the (lay of profeflor J. Sibthorp at London, in
the winter of 1783, the naufeum and library of the celebrated
Linnseus were fold, by private contraft, to the writer of this
article. The proftlFor was commendably defirous of adding
lo great a treafurx- to the collections, already famous, at Ox-
■ n-d ; but the acquifition depended on a retolute and decifive
tep, which was already taken, and not on any management
or negociation, to which the pcrfon entrullcd with the fale
was luperior. This competition occafioned no interrup-
tion in the friendllup, jull then forined, between the par-
ties concerned, which continued iiicrcafing during their joint
lives.

Dr. Sibthorp palled a portion of the year 1784 at Got-
tingen, where he projefted his fird tour to Greece ; the bo-
tanical inveftigation ot which celebrated country, and efpe-
cially the determination of the plants mentioned by its clafli-
cal authors, had, for fome time pad, become the leading ob-
jcft of his purfuits. He fird vifited the principal feats of
learning in Germany, and furveyed fome of its mountains
and foreds ; but it was impoifible to quit this part of the
world without a confiderable day at Vienna. There he cul-
tivated the friendfiiip of the two profelfors Jacquin, father
and fon ; ftudied with peculiar care the celebrated mauu-
icript of Drolcorides, whicli has fo long been prefervcd in
tlie imperial library ; and procured a moll excellent draughtf-

VoL. XXXII.

man, Mr. Ferdinand Bauer, to be the companion of hi< ex-
pedition. On the 6th of March, 1786, they fet out toge-
ther from Vienna, and palled through Carniola to Triefte,
Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome, an3 Naples, examining
every thing that was curious, and keeping an exadt record
of their botanical obfervations. After viewing the cele-
brated environs of Naples, ihey failed from thence early in
May, and touching at Meffina, as well as at the ide of Milo,
they proceeded to Crete. Here, in the month of June, our
botanical adventurers were welcomed by Flora in her gayeft:
attire. The fnowy covering of the Sphaciote mountaint
was withdrawing, and a tribe of lovely little bloilbras were
juft peeping through the veil.

Having narrowly elcaped Ihipwreck, in returning to Milo
by one of the country veflels, Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Bauer
touched fucceflively at fevcral iflands of the Archipelago,
vifited Athens, and remained for a while at Smyrna. Here
they traced the deps of Sherard and Hadelquid, proceeded
by land to Burfa, climbed the Bithynian Olympus, and at
length reached Condantinople, where they fpent the enfuing
winter, in the courle of which Dr. Sibthorp devoted himfelf
to the dudy of modern Greek. In a botanical excurfion ta
Belgrad, on the 17th of February, 1787, and another to Bu-
jwckderi, March 5, the plants found in flower were almoit
entirely the fame as are met with, at the fame feafon, in Eng-
land. Dr. Sibthorp's refidence at Condantinople, or in the
neighbouring ifieof Karki, proved favourable to his invedi-
gations of the fidies and birds of thofe regions, by wiiich he
was enabled to throw much light on the writings of ancient
naturalids.

On the 14th of March, 1787, having joined company
with captain Emery and Mr. Hawkins, Dr. Sibthorp and
his draughtfman failed from Condantinople in a Venetian
merchant-lhip for Cyprus, taking the iflands of Mytilene,
Scio, Cos, and Rhodes, and touching at the coail of Afia
Minor, in their way. A day of five weeks at Cyprus
enabled Dr. Sibthorp to draw up a Fauna and Flora of that
ifland. The former confilts of 18 Mammalia, 85 Birds,
19 ylmphll/ia, and 100 Fillies; the latter comprehends 616
fpecies of plants. The particular dations, domedic and
medical nfes, and reputed qualities of thele lad, are amply re-
corded ; and the vernacular names of the aiiimab, as well as
of the economical pljiits, are lubjoined. The fame method
is purfiied, in a fublequent part of this journal, refpedling
the plants and animals of Greece, with every thing that could
be colleded relative to the medicine, agriculture, and domef-
tic economy of that country and the circumjacent iflos. The
illudi ation of the writings of Diofcorides, in particular, was
Dr. Sibthorp's chief objetl. The names and reputed virtues
of feveral plants, recorded by that ancient writer, and diU
traditionally retained by the Athenian (hepherds, ferved
occafionally to elucidate, or to confirm, their fynonymy.
The fird (ketch of the Flora Grtca comprifcs about 8jo
plants. " This," fays the author, " may be confidered as
containing only the plants obfei ved by me in the environs of
Athens, on the fnowy heights of the Grecian Alp Parnadus,
on the deep precipices ol Delphis, the empurpled mountain
of Hymettus, the Pentelc, the lower hills about the Pirxus,
the olive grounds about Athens, and the fertile plains of
Boeotia. The future botanid, who Ihall examine tins coun-
try with more leilurc, and at a more favourable fcalcm of the
year, before the fummer fun has fcorclied up the fpring
plants, may make a confiderable addition to this lid. My
intention was to have travelled by land through Greece : but
the didurbed itate of this country, the eve ot a Kiiflian war,
the rebellion of its bafliaws, and the plague at Lanlla, ren-
dered my prajecl impracticable." Ol the Mammalia of

4 N Greece,

SIBTHORP.

Greece, 37 are enumerated, with their modern names, 25
reptiles and 82 birds. All thefe catalogues were greatly aug-
mented by fubfequent obfervations, infomuch that the num-
ber of I'joecies, coUcfted from an invelligation of all Dr. Sib-
thorp's manuCcripts and fpecimens for the materials of the
ProJromus Florx Grirc£, amounts to about 3 coo.

Wc- (hall not particularly trace our traveller's ftcps
through Greece, or the various iflands of the Archipelago.
His health, which fuffered from the confinement of a fliip,
and the heat of the weather, was reltored at Athens, where
he arrived on tlw 19th of June, 1787. From thence he
profecuted his journies in various direftions, and with
various fuccefies. The afcent of mount Delpliis, or Del-
phi, ill Negropont, in a florm of wind and rain, on the.
3d of Auguit, was one of his moll laborious, if not
perilous, adventures ; but his botanical harvcfl was abun-
dant. With regard to fcenery, mount Athos, which he
vifited a week after, feems to have made molt impref-
fion on his mind. This fpot alfo greatly enriched his col-
leftion of rare plants. Froin hence he proceeded to ThelTa-
lonica, Coriutli, and Patras, at whiih lait place he embarked
with Mr. Bauer, on board an Englilli veffel, for Briftol, on
the 24th of September. After a tedious and ftormy voyage,
they arrived in England the firil week in December.

The conftitution of Dr. Sibthorp, never very robuft, had
fuft'ered materially from the hardiliips and exertions of his
journey. But his native air, and the learp.ed leifure of the
univerfity, gradually recruited his Itrength. The duties of
his profeflbrihip were rather a recreation than a toil. Tlie
fuperintendance of his exquifite draughtfman, now engaged
in making finifhcd drawings of the Greek animals, as well as
plants ; and his occaHonal vifits to the Linnocan and Bank-
fnn herbariums, for the removal of his difficulties ; all toge-
ther filled up his leifure hours. He was every where wel-
comed and admired for his ardour, his talents, and his acqui-
fitions. His merits procured an augmentation of his ftipcnd,
with the rank of a Regius profellor ; both which advantages
were, at the fame time, conferred on his brother profeflor at
Cambridge. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in
1789, and was among the flrll members of the Linnxaii
Society, founded in 1788. In the fpring of the year lalt
mentioned, the writer of this, with fir Jofeph Banks and
Mr. Dryander, paffed a week at Oxford, which was devoted
to a critical furvey of the profellor's Grecian acquifitions ;
nor was the honey of mount Hymettus, or the wine of Cy-
prus, wanting at this truly attic entertainment. But the
greater thefe acquifitions, the lefs was their pofleii'or fatisfied
with them. No one knew, fo well as himfelf, how much was
wanting to the perfeftion of his undertaking, nor could any
ether perfon fo well remedy thefe defefts. Though he was
placed, a few years after his return, in very affluent circum-
ilanceb ; and though his neceffary attention to his landed
property, and to agricultural pnrfuits, of which he was paf-
fionately fond, miglit wtU have turned liim, in fome meafure,
afide from his botanical labours ; he fteadily kept in view the
great objeft of his hfe, to which he finally facrificed life
itfelf. No name has a fairer claim to botanical immor-
tality, among the martyrs of the fcience, than that of
Sibthorp.

On the 20th of Marcli, 1 794, Dr. Sibthorp fet out from
London, on his fecond tour to Greece. He travelled to
ConflantiBople in the train of Mr. Lifton, ambaliador to the
Porte, and was attended by Francis Borone, of whom an
account may be feen at the end of the article RutacevE, as
4 botanical afliftant. They reached Conftantinople on the 19th
of May, not without Dr. Sibthorp's having fuffered much
tfom the fatigues of the journey, which liad brought on a

bilious fever. He foon recovered his health at Condan*
tinople, where he was joined by his friend Mr. Hawkins
from Crete. Towards the end of Auguft they made an
excurfion into Bithynia, and climbed to the fummit of
Olympus, from whence they brought a frefli botanical har-
veil. Dr. Sibthorp difcovered at Fankran aged Greek bo-
taiiift, Dr. Dimitri Argyrami, who had known the Danifh
traveller Forllvall, and who was podefled of fome works of
Linnius.

Recovered health, and the accelTion of his friend's com- '
pany, caufed Dr. Sibthorp to fet out with alacrity on his
voyage to Greece, on the 9th of September. Palling down
the Hellelpont, on the 13th, with a light but favourable
breeze, they anchored at Koum Cale, in the Troad, fpent
two days in examining the plains of Troy, and then pro-
ceeded to the ifles of Tmbros and Lemnos. On the 25th
they anchored at mount Athof, and paffed ten days in exa-
mining fome of the convents and hermitages, with the ro-
mantic fcenery, and botanical rarities, of that fingular fpot,
on all which Dr. Sibthorp defcants at length, with great
delight, in his journal. Their departure was, for fome time,
prevented, by a few Barbary pirates hovering on the coaft,
whom thefe monks, unlike the prielts of the Athenian
Bacchus, were not potent or valiant enough to defeat, or
to turn into dolphins. Our voyagers failed on the 5th of
Oftober, and on the 7th landed at Skiatho. From hence,
on the I Ith, they proceeded down the ftrait of Negropont,
and on the 13th pafled under the bridge of five arches, which
conncfts that ifland with the main land of Greece. On the
15th, at noon, they entered the harbour of the Pyrxus, and
proceeded to Athens, where the four fucceeding weeks were
employed in coUefting information relative to the prefent
rtate of the government, the manufaftures, and the domef-
tic economy of that celebrated fpot. Here Dr. Sibthorp
loft his afliftant Borone, who periihed by an accidental
fall from a window, in his fleep, on or about the 20th of
OiAober.

November i6th. Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Hawkins left
Athens by the ancient Eleufinian way, while the clafTical
ftreams of the Cephifus, the heights of Helicon and Par-
naffus lay before them. They proceeded to Patras and to
Zante, where they arrived in the middle of December, en-
riched with a large colleftion of feeds, the only botanical
tribute that could, at this feafon, be collefted from thofe
famous mountains. An apothecary at Zante turnifhed
Dr. Sibthorp with an ample and fplendid herbarium, of the
plants of that ifland, with their modern Greek names ; nor
did the winter pafs unprofitably or unpleafantly in this fe-
queftered fpot ; where neither agreeable fociety, nor copious
information relative to our learned travellers' various objefts,
was wanting. The feafon was fufficiently favourable m the
middle of February, 1795, to allow them to vifit the Morea,
of which peninfula they made the complete circuit in fome-
what more than two months. The Violet and Primrofe
welcomed them in the plains of Arcadia ; and the Narcijfus
Taz'zetta, which Dr. Sibthorp was difpofed to think the
true poetic Narcifliis, decorated in profufion the banks of
the Alpheu?. The barbarian horde, under whofe efcort they
were obliged to travel, had taile enough to colleft nofegays
of thefe flowers. The oaks of the Arcadian mountains pre-
fented them with the true ancient Mifeltoe, Loranihus euro-
ptctis, which Hill ferves to make birdlime ; whilft our Mifekoe,
Vifcum album, in Greece grows only on the Silver Fir. May
not this circumftance account for the old preference of fuch
Mifeltoe as grows on the oak, among the ancient Britons, and
confequently help us to trace the origin of their fuperftitioa
to Greece ? (See Druids.) The Jay, flill called by its

ancient

SIBTHOllP.

ancient name Kkto-u, which is generally taken for the Magpie,
was fcreaming among thefe oaks : and the Water Ouzel, Slur-
nus Cinclus, flying along the rocky fides of the alpine rivu-
lets of Arcadia, prefented itfelf to Dr. Sibthorp's recol-
leftion, as probably the White Blackbird, which Arillotle
fays is peculiar to the neighbourhood of mount Cyllene.
In vain did our clallical travellers look for tlie beauty of
Arcadian (hepherdefTes, or lillen for the pipe of the fylvan
twain. Figures emaciated, and features furrowed, with
poverty, labour and care, were all that they met with. The
vermin of the Pacha's court, with other vermin, who pre-
fume to call themfelves ChrilUan bifliops, and whole places
are all bnught of the Turks, devour the fubilance of thefe
poor people, and drive many of them to a precarious and
predatory life among the mountains.

Proceeding to Argos, and thence to Mycena, the tra-
vellers were highly gratified by finding, on the gate of the
latter, thofe ancient lions, whicli Paufanias defcribes as the
work of the Cyclops ; and near it the reputed tomb of
Agamemnon, a circular building, formed of immenfe maffes
of ftone, placed with fuch geometrical precifion, though
without mortar, that not one had given way. That which
forms the portal is defcribed by Dr. Sibthorp as the
largelt ftone he ever faw employed in any edifice. A number
of fragments of vafes, like thofe commonly called Etrufcan,
lay among the ruins of Mycena. At Hermione, now called
Caftri, in the Argohc pcninfula, famous for the purple dye
anciently prepared there, a vail pile of the (hells from which
that dye was obtained, and itill denominated Porphyri,
icrved to afcertain the fpecies, which is Murex Trunculus of
Linnaeus, figured by Fabius Columna in his rare and learned
work, de Purpura, under the name of Purpura nojlras ino-
lacea. (See PuRPLE Fish.) From this place Dr. Sib-
thorp and his friend intended to have coafted along the bay
of Argos in a boat, but the fea was then infefted with
pirates, which obliged them to give up that projedt, and to
return by land to Argos, whence they proceeded to Corinth,
Patras, and by way of Elis to Pyrgos. Here they ob-
tained another efcort from Said Aga, to whole proteftion
they had before been indebted, and fafely reached Calamata,
on the gulf of Corone, where they were detained by the ce-
lebration of Eafter, on the 12th of April, amid a profu-
fion of (Icy-rockets and crackers. Proceeding in a boat
along the barren and craggy fliore, covered with bufliy and
prickly Euphorh'in, they reached Cardamoula. Here the
Greeks arc tolerably free from the tyranny of the Turks,
and their perfons and demeanour exhibit lefs marks of dege-
neracy. Panagiote, a popular charafter, nephew of the
Cherife, came down, with a train of followers, to wel-
come the Itrangers, and conduft-ed them to his tower-like
caille, where a narrow entrance, and dark winding itair cafe,
led to a chamber, whole thick walls and narrow loop-holes
ieemed well prepared for defence. The country of Maina,
though governed by a Dcy, is under the controul of eight
fubordinate, but partly independent, native chiefs, wlio, like
our old feudal lords, often make ■va.x on each other, when
they bring not only men but women into the field. No
Turk is allowed to live in this dillriCl. Th'- land is extremely
hilly, and eafily defended. Taygetus, the higliell mountain
in the Morea, and almolt rivalling Pariiailus, was alcended
hy our adventurous travellers ; but the quantity of Inow,
and the great dillance, prevented their reaching the fummit.
I'anagiote and fifty of his followers accompanied them, and
he difplaycd his botanical knowledge by fhewing Dr. Sib-
thorp darnel, Hill called aifx, among the corn, which he
faid occafioned dizzinefs ; and a wonderful root, the top ot
which is uled as an emetic, the bottom as a purge. This

proved Euphorbia Ap'ios, to which the very fame properties
are attributed by Diofcorides.

From Cardamoula the travellers were efcorted by the de-
pendants of this hofpitable Grecian chief, along a preci-
pitous road, to Millra, where they had the unexpefted plea-
fure of meeting a party of their Engliih friends, in the garb
of Tartars, with whom they explored the fcite of ancient
Sparta. After returning to Calamata, and furveying from
the fummit of a neighbouring precipice the ruins of Medenia,
with the rich plains watered by the Panifcus, and bounded
by the hills of Laconia, Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Hawkins
haftened to Corone, where a Venetian veffel waited to con-
vey them to Zante, which place they reached on the 29th of
April. Here Dr. Sibthorp parted from the faithful com-
panion of his tour, whom he was dellined never to fee again,
but in whofe friendfhip he fafely confided in his hit hours.
Mr. Hawkins returned to Greece ; while the fubjeft of our
memoir, leaving Zante on the ilt of May, experienced a
moft tedious voyage of twenty-four days to Otranto, though
five days are the moll ufual time for that pafiage. He touched
at the ifland of Cephalonia, and next at Preverfa, on the
Grecian (hore, where being detained by a contrary wind, he
employed the 7th of May in vifiting the ruins of Nicopolis.
The weather was unfavourable, and Dr. Sibthorp here
caught a fevere cold, from which he never recovered. It
feems to have proved the exciting caufe of that difeafe,
which had long been latent in the mefenteric and pulmonary
glands, and which terminated in a confumption. Being
obhged by the weather to put in at the little iiland of Fanno,
May nth, the violent north-well wind" continued," as he
too expreflively fays in his journal, " to nurfe his cough and
fever." He was confined to his bed, in a miferable hovel,
to which, after frequent attempts to fail, he was driven back
fix times by the unfavourable wind. At length, the veflel
was enabled to call anchor in the port of Otranto on the
24th of May. Here he was obliged to fubmit to a qua-
rantine of three weeks, part of which, indeed, was allowed
to be fpent in proceeding to Ancona. From thence he
palled through Germany and Holland to England. Of the
precife time of his arrival we find no mention. It was in the
autumn of 1795, and his few fucceeding months were chiefly
marked by tiie progrefs of an unconquerable difealc, tor
which the climates of Dcvonfliire and Bath were, as ufua],
reforted to in vain. He died at Bath, February 8th, 1796,
in the thirty-eighth year of his age, and lies interred in the
abbey church, where his executors haveeredleda neat monu-
ment to his memory.

We have now to record the pofthumous b:^nefits which
Dr. Sibthorp has rendered to his beloved Iciesoe, and which
are fuificicnl to rank him amongll its mull illuftrious patrons.
By his will, dated Alhburton, January 12, i 796, he gives
a freehold ellate in Oxfordfliirc to the univcrfity of Ox-
ford, for the purpofc of firll publKhing his Flora Grjca, in
10 folio volumes, with lOO coloured plates in cacli, and a
ProJromus of the fame work, in 8vo. without plates. His
executors, the honourable Thomas Wenmaii, John Haw.
kin> and Thomas Piatt, elqrs., wcfc to ajipoint a fuffi-
cieiitly competent editor of thefe works, to whom the ma-
nufcripts, dr.iwiiijL's, and fpccimcns, were to be confided.
They fixed upon tli'- writer of the prefent article, who has
now nearly completed the Prodromus, and the fecond vohimc
of the I'luiii. The plan of the former was drawn out by
Dr. Sibthorp, but nothing of the latter, except the figures,
was pri piled, iior any botanical charafters or dcfcription»
whatever. The final determination of the fpecies, the dif.
tiniStioiis of Inch as were now, and ail critical remarks, have
fallen to the lot of the iditor, who has alfo rcvjfed the re-
4. N ; fcrcncts

S 1 B

ferroces to Diofcorides, and, with Mr. Hawkins's help, cor-
refted the modern Greek names, which laft were necetTarily
taken down but incompletely, from many illiterate and im-
perfcft authorities, on the fpot. When thefe publications
are nnifhed, the annual fum of 208)/. is to be paid to a pro-
fefTor of rural economy, who is, under certain limitations,
to be the Sherardian profeffor of botany, and who is, very
properly, obliged to read leAures, that the appointment
may not become a reproach, inltead of an advantage, to the
univerfity. The remamder of the rents of the ellate above
mentioned is dedined to purchafe books for the profeiibr ;
and the whole of the teftator's collections, with his drawings,
and books of" Natural Hiftory, Botany, and Agriculture,"
are given to the univerfity. This bequeil rivals the munifi-
cence of Sherard and of Sloane, in the fervice of natural
ibience, and has only been exceeded by that of the late
Mr. Robertfon of Stockwell, whofe ill-made will was fet
aCde by the common law of the land.

The only work which profeffor John Sibthorp publifhed
in his life-time is a Flora Oxnnunfis, in one volume 8vo.
printed in 1794. It has the merit of being entirely founded
on his own perfonal obfervation. The fpecies enumerated
amount to 1200, all gathered by himlclf, and difpofed ac-
cording to the Linnaan fyflem, with the alterations of
Thunberg, which were then new, but which are now not
admitted as improvements. The adoption, though imper-
feft, of Hedwig's genera of Moffes in this Flora, mull be
efteenicd a more fortunate meafure. S.

SIBTHORPIA, in Botany, was fo called by Linnaeus,
in compliment to Dr. Humphrey Sibthorp, for about forty
years profeffor of botany at Oxford, and the immediate
fuccetlor of Dillenius. He is faid to have delivered but a
fingle lefture in all that time, which was not a fuccefsful
one, nor do we know of his having enriched the fcience with
any pubhcation. A ffiort letter from this gentleman, an-
nouncing the death of his predeceflor, is extant among the
Epyiolit ad Hallerum. In this he modeitly expreffes a with
that he were equal to the tafe before him. However im-
perfeft his claims to botanical celebrity, his fon has conferred
more honour on the above name than either of them could
derive from it ; fee the preceding article. — Linn. Gen. 320.
Schreb. 418. Willd. Sp. PL v. 3. 340. Mart. Mill.
Dift. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 667. Prodr. Fl. GroEc. Sibth.
V. I. 439. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 51. Juff. 99. La-
marck lUuitr. t. 535. Gxrtn. t. 55 Clafs and order,

Didynamia Ang'tofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonatx, Linn. Pedi-
culares, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, turbinate,
in five deep, ovate, fpreading, flightly unequal, permanent
fegments. Cor. of one petal, bell-diaped, m five deep
rounded fegments ; the three uppermoft largeft, equal to
the calyx ; two lower ones (horter, and lefs coloured.
Stam. Filaments four, awl-(haped, not half the length of
the corolla, fcarce vifibly unequal, fpreading, two at each
fide, oppofite to its lateral fiffures ; anthers roundilh, two-
lobed. Fiji. Germen fuperior, roundifh, compreffed ; ftyle
cylindrical, very fhort, thicker than the filaments ; iligma
peltate. Perk. Capfule compreffed, orbicular, notched,
fwelling at each fide, acute at the margin, of two valves and
two cells, the partitions from the centre of each valve.
Seeds few, roundifli-oblong, convex on one fide, flat on the
other, inferted into a globofe central receptacle.

Ed. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla five-
ckft, irregular. Stamens fpreading laterally in pairs. Cap-
sule compreffed, inverfely heart-lhaped, of two cells, with
tranfverfe partitions.

1. S. niropea. Sibthorpia, or Corniff» Money-wort.

SIB

Linn. Sp. PI. 880. Willd. n. i. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl,
Bot. t. 649. (S. proftrata ; Salilb. Ic. 11. t. 6. Alfine
fpuria pufiUa repens, foliis Saxifrage aurea; ; Raii Syn. 352.
Pluk. Phyt. t. 7. f. 6. Cornwall Penny-wort ;' Petiv.
Herb. Brit. t. 6. f. II.) — Ray obferved this curious little
plant to be plentiful in Cornwall and Devonfhire, on moill
banks, and about the margins of rivulets, flowering from
June to Augull, being accompanied by the elegant Cam-
panula hederacea. There feverai fucceeding botanifts have
gathered both. Loefling found the Sibthorpia in Portugal,
and Mr. Hawkins on the mountains of Crete ; but we
know not of its having been noticed in any other country.
We have feen it completely naturalized on the lawn of
James Vere, efq. in his curious garden at Knight (bridge.
The root is fibrous, perennial. Stems proltrate, creepmg
extenfively, branched, (lender and delicate, leafy, hairy.
Leaves alternate, (laTked, horizontal, kidney-lliaped, with
(hallow diftant notches, hairy, rather fle(hy, about half an
inch broad ; paler and veiny beneath. Flonxiers axillary,
folitary, on fhort hairy (talks. Corolla- of a pale greenilh-
yellow, with a purplifli tinge in the three upper fegments.

The S. evolvulacea of Liiinaeus's Supplementum being a
very diilincl genu!, now known by the name of Dichosdr.*,
fee that article, the above becomes the only fpecies of
Sibthorpia.

SIBU, in Geography, one of the Philippine iflands, about
240 miles in circumference. The principal produftions
are a fpecies of grain called borona, which ferves inilead of
rice ; cotton, tobacco, wax, and civet. This ifland was
difcovered by Magellan in Ij2i. N. lat. 10° 41'. E.
long. 123^ 30'.

SiBU, Zibu, or Sogtu, a town in the above-mentioned
ifland, containing 5000 houfes, the fee of a bilhop, and
refidence of a governor. In this town, as fome fay, Ma-
gellan, the celebrated circumnavigator, died. N. lat. 10°
35'. E. long. 123° 44'.

SIBUCO, a town on the weft coaft of Mindanao. N.
lat. 7° 3'. E. long. 122° 10'.

SIBULTIQUI, a river of Mexico, which runs into the
Pacific ocean, N. lat. 13° 35'. W. long. 89° 16'.

SIBUYAN, one of the Philippine iflands, about 36miles
in circumference. N. lat. 12° 36'. E. long. 122° 22'.

SIBYLS, SiBYLL-E, fuppofed by Laftantius, whofe opi-
nion is generally followed, to be formed of the two
Greek words, a-is, for ©.s, Dei, and paXr, counfel, in yfnti-
quity, virgin-propheteffes, or maids fnppofed to be divinely
infpired ; and who, in the height of their enthufiafm, gave
oracles, and foretold things to come.

Authors do not agree about the number of the Sibyls,
though their exiftence is allowed, as fufficiently eftablifhed
by antiquity. Capella reckons but two, -viz. Erophyle of
Troy, called Sibylla Phrygia ; and Sinuachia of Erythrae,
called Sibylla Erythraa. Sohnus mentions three ; viz..
Cumsa, Delphica, or the Sibyl of Sardis, and Erythrxa ;
and of this opinion is Aufonius, who thus defcribes them ;

" Et tres fatidics nomen commune Sibyllas,
Quarum tergemini fatalia carmine libri."

./Elian makes their number four, viz.. the Erythr^an, the
Egyptian, the Sibyl born at Samos, and another of Sardis
in Lydia ; and Varro increafes it te ten, denominating them
from the places of their birth ; the Perfian, called Sabetha
by the PerCans ; Libyan, according to Euripides, the
daughter of Jupiter and Latona ; Delphic, named Daphne
by Diodorus Siculus, who fays that (he was born at Thebes
in Boeotia ; Cimmerian ; Erythraean, who prophefied to the
Gre«ks, that were going to befiege Troy, the happy fuccefs

of

SIBYLS.

of tlieir enterpnfe, and who lived, according to Eufebius,
not in the time of the Trojan war, as Varro believes, but
under the reign of Romulus ; Samian, called, according to
Suidas, Pitho, or Perfuafion, and according to Eufebius,
Eriphile ; Cumaean, named Amahhasa by fome authors, and
by others Demophile or Hieropliyle, who is faid to have
offered to Tarquin the Elder a coUeftion of Sibylline verfes,
in nine books ; Hellefpontic or Troiad, born at Marpefus,
near the town of Gorgi:, in Troas, who lived, according to
Heraclides, in the time of Cyrus and Solon ; Phrygian,
who gave her oracles at Ancyra, the place of her refidence ;
and Tiburtine, named Albmijea, and honoured as a divinity
in the vicinity of the river Anio. Of thefe, the mod cele-
brated are, the Erythrxan, Delphic, and Cumaean Sibyls.

Some modern authors, without regarding the authority
of Varro, or that of the other ancients, are for uniting all
the Sibyls in one ; fo that, according to them, difterent
names were given to one and the fame Sibyl from the
different places where (he uttered her oracles. She firlt
publilhed her predidions in the city of Erythrsea, the
place of her nativity ; then rambled about the world ;
and clofed her life at Cumx, in Italy. Dr. Hyde (De
Relig. Perfar.), (liocked at the contradiftions and fabu-
lous adventures with which the Pagans filled the hillory
of the Sibyls, accounts for them in the following manner.
He obferves in the conftellation Virgo a bright Itar, which
the Perfians called Sambula, denoting, in their language,
fpica, or an ear of corn ; and remarks, that the Perfians,
who were fond of judiciary aftrology, looked on the fign
of the Virgin as havmg a greater power than all the other
celellial bodies, for difcovering future events. The Greeks,
having learnt the fciences of the eailern nations, foon
adopted thefe trifling opinions, and, agreeably to their
genius, embellifhed them with ther fiflions. Their poets
foon invented a Sibyl virgin, in allufion to the term Sam-
bula, carried her into feveral countries, and made her adl the
part of a prophetefs. So that, according to this eminent
writer, whatever has been faid both by the ancients and
moderns of the Sibyls and their prophecies, is entirely fabu-
lous. This conjedture, though ingenious, is contradidled
by the teftimony of antiquity, which allows that there were,
in different times and countries, fuch extraordinary pcrfons,
who were reputed to have a particular fore-knowledge of
futurity, and whole predictions, carefully coUefted, were
confulted upon important occafions. The Perfian Sibyl
might, indeed, owe her original to the circumltance above-
mentioned, but that is no fufficient argument againll the
exidence of other Sibyls. The Romans had the highcil
poflible veneration for the Sibyls ; and if they did not
always regard them as divinities, they at leaft reputed them
of a middle nature between gods and men ; and fome of
them received divine honours. Laftantius fays, with con-
fidence, that the Tiburtine Sibyl was worfhipped as a
goddefs at Tibur. Some of them alfo had temples. Judin
Martyr mentions that of the Sibyl of Cum^, in Italy,
built over the cave where flie delivered her oracles. Virgil
mention? this temple, or rather he confiders as a temple the
grotto wliere the Sibyl delivered her oracles, becaule in
after-times tliere was one aftually built there. " Vocat alta
in Templa Sacerdos," jEn. 1. 6. We may here add, that
the inhabitants of Gorgis, in the LefTer Phrygia, hadacullom
of reprefenting upon their mtdals the Sibyl who was born
in that city, as being their great divinity. As a farther
proof of the worfliip paid to the Sibyls, they had Itatues
erecled to them, which were placed in the tcmpleii.

The S'ibylliiie oracles were held in great veneration by tlic
more credulous among the ancients ; but thi-y were much

fufpefted by many of the more knowing. The book*;
in which they were written were kept by the Romans
with infinite care ; and nothing of moment was undertaken
without confulting them. Tarquin firll committed them
to the cuftody of two patrician prieils, initituted for that
purpofe. (See Duumviri Sacrorum.) How, when, or
by whom this coUeftion was made, are circumllances which
authentic hiltory has not afcerlained. It is not likely
that the Sibyls prophefied in verfe, far lefs that they them-
felves kept their prediftions, and digelled them into order.
All that we know concerning them is, that a woman came
to Tarquin the Elder, as Varro fays, or, according to
Pliny, to Tarquin the Proud, offering him a coUeAion of
thefe verfes in nine books, or three according to Phny ;
and that fhe demanded for them 300 pieces of gold ; that
when the prince refufed to give that fum, (he threw three
of them into the fire, and afked the fame fum for the re.
maining fix, which being refufed, (he burned three more,
and perfilled in adding the fame fum for thofe that were
left : at length the king, fearing that (he would burn the
other three, gave her the fum which (he demanded. Al-
though this itory has very much the air of a romance, it is
attelted by many authors ; and it is certain that the
Romans had in their poffeffion a coUeAion of the Sibylline
verfes.

Thefe books were carefully kept till the civil wars of
Sylla and Marius : when the Capitol being accidentally
fct on fire, and burnt down to the ground, thefe books
were burnt with it. This happened in the year before
Chrilt 83. But the Capitol being again rebuilt about
feven years after this period, the fenate determined to re-
ilore the Sibylline oracles ; and having procured many that
were faid to be of this kind, laid them up in the Capitol, in
order to fupply the place and office of thofe that were loft.
However, the books thus obtained had been difperfed iu
the hands of many, and were, therefore, by being thus vul-
garly known, unfit for the ufe which the Romans propofed
to make of them. On this account a law was paffed,
which required the furrender of them, and prohibited any
from retaining copies of them, under pain of death.
Augulhis, when he affumed the high-priellhood of Rome,
revived this law, and dellroycd a great multitude of copies
which were brought in. Tiberius caufed m.iny more to be
burnt, and preferved only thofe which were found molt
worthy of approbation for that fervice of the ilate for
which they were originally intended ; and to thefe, as long
as Rome remained heathen, they had conftant recourfe ;
till at length Honorius the emperor, A. D. 399, iilued an
order for dcllroying them ; in purfuance of winch, Stilico
burnt all thefe prophetic writings, and demolilhed the
temple of Apollo, in which they were repofitcd. Never-
thclefs, there is Hill preferved, in eight books of Greek
verfe, a coUeftion of oracles, pretended to be the Sibylline.
Dr. Cave, who is well fatisfied that this colleftion is a
forgery, fuppofes that a large part of it was compofed in
the time of Adrian, about t!ie year 130 ; that others were
added in the time of the Antonines ; and the whole work
completed in the reign of Commodus. Dr. Prideaux fays,
that this collection mull have been made between the year
of our Lord 138, and the year 167. It could not be earlier,
for mention is made of tlie next fuceellor of Adrian, ;'. e.
Antoninus Pius, who did not fucceed hin\ till the year 138;
and it could not be later, beeaufe Jullin M.utyr, in hii
writings, often quotes it, and appeals to it ; and he did not
outlive the year 167. Fabiicius fuppoles that this col-
leAion does not contain all the Sibylline oracles which
were ufed by the ancieut fathers ; and that the molt ancient

Chrillian

S I c

Chriflian writers, who have quoted the Sibylline oracle?,
had only a part of the colleftion which is tranfmitted down
to us. Seme of the fathers, not apprized of the impofilion,
have often cited the books of the Sibyls in favour of the
Chriflian religion ; and hence Celfus takes occafion to call
the Chriftians Sibyllifts. It muft be allowed that St.
Clement, St. Theophilus, and fome other Greek fathers
of the fecond century, had a much greater refpedl for the
Sibyls than they deferved ; for Dr. Lardner fays, that he
is well fatisiied that the SibyUine verfes quoted by them are
the forgery of fome Chriltian. The ancient Sibylline verfes
did not recommend the worfliip of the one God, condemn-
ing all manner of idolatry, as thofe do which are cited by
Juftin, Theophilus, and Clement. It muft be owned, how-
ever, that Clement calls the Sibyl a prophetefs, and feems to
quote her verfes as Scripture, in the Itritleft fenfe of the
word, together with the Scriptures of the Old Tellament ;
fo that if there be any books improperly advanced by him
into the rank of facred Scripture, they are the SibyUine
books ; but Dr. Lardner does not think that he efteemed
them of equal authority with the books of the Jewifh
canon. It is a circumftance that deferves to be mentioned,
that the Heathen people knew nothing of thefe Sibylline
verfes till they were found out, or rather forged, by fome
Chriltian, and then incautioully and imprudently recom-
mended by others. Juilin Martyr feems to have been the
firft Chriltian writer who quoted the colleftion now exift-
ing of Sibylline oracles, or any SibyUine verfes whatever,
containing the peculiar doftrines of Chriftianity. The
more ancient writers preceding hmi, who have mentioned
the Sibyls, have quoted nothing but what might be
found in Sibylline writings among the Heathens. In
the collection above-mentioned, which appears, for the
chief part of it, to have been a work of the fecond cen-
tury, we have many unqueftionable evidences that the
writer, who calls himfelf a Chriftian, was acquainted
With the New Teltament, and that in feverai places
he recites the fame fads in the fame or fimilar lan-
guage. The pretended prophecies of this coUeftion are
undeniably taken from the New Teltament. Whatever
was the particular view of the author in compofing thi:
ivork, fays Dr. Lardner, and however improperly fome
ancient writers have produced tcftimonies from it in their
defences of the Chriltian religion, it is now of ufe to us, as
it affords an argument that our gofpels were extant, and in
much repute, in the author's time. See farther on this
fubjetl, Prideaux's Conn. vol. iv. p. 885, &c. Lardner's
Credib. of the Gofpel Hilt. vol. iv. book i. cap. 29, or
Works, vol. ii.

^^^■'^BA, in Geography, a town on the north-well
coafl of the ifland of Negroes. N. lat. 1 1° 26'. E. Vms.
123° 2'. ^

SIC^, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, caUed
in the time of Steph. Byz. Julliniana^.-Alfo, a town of
Afia, in Cilicia.— Alfo, the name of a place in the vicinity
of the town of Alexandria.

SICAL, or Sisal, in Geography, a town of Mexico,
on the north coail of the province of Yucatan ; 60 miles
N.W. of Merida.

SICAMINUM, m Ancient Geography. See Caipha.

SICAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Khoraffan ;
15 miles S.W. of Zauzan.

SICANDERAB, a town of Hindcoftan, in Dooab ;
36 miles V/.N.W. of Pattiany.

SICANE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain.
Staph. Byz.— Alfo, a river of Sicily, which ran near
Agrigentura,

S I c

SICANUS, a town of Spain, according to Thucy-
dides.

SICAPHA, a town of Africa Proper, being one of
tliofe which were fituated between the two Syrtes. Ptol.

SICARD, Claude, in Biography, a Jefuit miffionary,
was born at Aubergne, near Marfeilles, in 1677. He en-
tered into the fociety of Jefus in tiie year 1699, and for
feverai years taught the claflics and rhetoric in their fchools.
He was at lesigth fent on a miflion to Syria, and thence to
Egypt, where he died at Cairo in 1726. He was a man
of deep as weU as exteniive learning, and an exa£l obferver
of what was remarkable in the countries he vifited. His
firlt publication was " An eafy Method of learning Greek,"
tranflated into French from the Latin of Peter Gras, with
additions. When abroad, he fent home feverai curious
letters, which were publifhed in the " Nouveaux Memoires
des Miffions de la Compagnie de Jefus dans le Levant ;" in
which are likewife publilhed his " Plan of a Work on
Egypt, ancient and modern," and " A Differtation on the
Paiiage of the Red Sea, and Journey of tlie Ifraelitos."

SICARII, in Ancient Nl/lory, allaflins of Judea, who
went about the country for the accomplilhment of their
nefarious purpofes, with fhort fwords concealed under their
clothes. Jofephus has defcribed them in the moll odioiis
colours. Eleazar, he fays, tlie chief man among them,
was a defcendant of Judas, who had perfuadcd not a few of
the Jews not to enrol themlelves, when Cyrenius the cenfor
was fent into Judea. For then the Sicarii conlpired againft
all who were willing to fubmit to the Romans. They treated
all fuch as public enemies. But other pretences were pro-
felled, in order to cover their cruelty and avarice. Thefe
hypocritical villains were hired to murder Jonathan, the high
prielt, at the inlligation of Felix. Accordingly, fome of
the alfaflins, coming up to Jerufalem, with an apparent
purpofe of worfhipping God ; and having fhort fwords
under their coats, mixed themfelves with the multitude, and
killed Jonathan. This murder pafTiiig unpunifhed, the
robbers afterwards attended the fealts without any feeming
concern, and carrying, as before, fwords under their
clothes, and mixing with the multitudes, killed feverai
people, fome whom they reckoned their enemies, and fome
whom they were hired by others to deftroy. This they did,
not only in other parts of the city, but within the bounds
of the temple itfelf. Jofeph. De BeU. Jud. 1. vii. c. 8.
^1.5.

SICASICA, or CiCACiCA, in Geography, a town of
South America, and chief place of a jurildiAion of the fame
name, in the government of Buenos Ayres, 240 miles in
extent ; 40 miles N.N.W. of Oruro.

SICAYAP Point, a cape on the north-well coafl of
Mindanao. N. lat. 8°. E. long. 123° 30'.

SICCA, a town on the north coait of the ifland of Su-
matra. N.lat. i°32'. E. long. iio°4o'.

Sicc A, La, a fmall ifland in the Mediterranean, near the
coaft of Naples. N. lat. 39° 58'. E. long. 13'^ 52'.

SICCACOLLUM, a city of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Condapilly, on the Killnah ; 35 miles S.S.W. of
EOore.

SICCAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in My fore ;
25 miles N.N.W. of Chinna Balabaram.

SICCA-VENEREA, Keff, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Africa, fituated about five leagues S.W. of La-
ribus Colonia, and 25 leagues W.S.W. of Tunis. It was
built upon the declivity of a hill. Valerius Maximus fays,
that it had a temple of Venus, at which young females
proilituted themfelves, in order to obtain a portion that
might enable them to marry.

SICCHASIA,

S I c

SICCHASIA, a word ufed by fome writers to exprefs
tiiat uiieafinefs at the ftomach, and loathing of food, which
women are often afflitlcd with in their pregnancy.

SICCHOS, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the audience of Quito ; 20 miles W. of Latacunga.

SICCINNIS, in /Intiquity, a mixed kind of dance.

SICERA, in the Jeiu'ijh ylntiquities. The Hellenilt
Jews give this name to any inebriating liquor. St. Chry-
foltom, Theodoret, and Theophilus of Antioch, who were
Syrians, and who therefore ought to know the fignification
and nature of ficera, allure us, that it properly fignilies
palm-wine.

Pliny acknowledges, that the wine of the palm-tree was
very well known through all the Ealt, and that it was made
by taking a bufhel of the dates of the palm-tree, and throw-
ing them into three gallons of water ; then fqueezing out
the jnice, it would intoxicate like wine.

The wine of the palm-tree is white ; when it is drank new,
it has the talte of the cocoa, and is fweet as honey ; when
it is kept longer, it grows ilrong, and intoxicates. After
long keeping, it becomes vinegar.

SICHAR, in Ancient Geography. See the next article.

SICHEM, or SliECllii.M, called alfo Neapolis, S'lchar
or Sychar, and Maharlha, a town of .Tudea, in the tribe of
Ephraim, which took up the iouth fide of Samaria. This
town wa"! fituated on the fummit of a mountain, and be-
came one of the itrongelt: and moll celebrated towns of this
tribe. It was at this place that Abraham lodged, on his
way to Canaan (Gen. xii. 6.); and it afterwards became
the abode of Jacob, who bought a field in its vicinity,
which he gave to his fon Jofeph, who was buried here.
(Gen. xlviii. 22.) Near the fame city was Jacob's well or
fountain, at which Jefus difcourfed with the woman of Sa-
maria. (John, iv. J.) .Jofhua gave it to the Levites of
the tribe of Ephraim, who belonged to the family of Ko-
hath, the firft of the Levites ; and it was appointed to be
one of the fix cities of refuge. (Jo(h. xxi. ) It was at
Sichem that Jofhua aflembled the tribes of Ifrael (Jolh.
Xxiv. I.), to renew their engagement of fidelity to God.
Sichem was dellroyed by Abimelcch ; but it appears to
have been afterwards rc-e(lablifhcd, becaufe it is faid
(1 Kings, xii. 2.) that Rehoboam came hither, after the
death of Solomon his father ; and it was fortilied and in-
habited by .leroboam. (i Kings, xii. 25.) After the ruin
of Samaria by Shalmanefer, Sichem was the capital of the
Samaritans; and Jofcphus fays (Antiq. lib. xi. cap. 8.),
that it was fo in the time of Alexander the Great. It was
diftant, according to Eufebius and Jerom, 10 or 12 miles
from Shiloh, 40 from Jcrufalem, and J2 from Jericho.
Jerom fays, that Paula vilited the church built on Jacob's
fountain ; and others, who wrote in ihe eighth century,
fpcak of this building ; but it is not mentioned by Phocas,
who wrote in the twelfth century. Sichem or Sichar is
DOW Naploufe, or Nablous ; which fee.

Sichem, or Siehen, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of tlie Dyle, on tiie Dcmer ; 30 miles N.E.
of Bruiicls.

SICHERFREUTH, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cijiallty of Bay rent h ; 3 miles S.E. of Bayrcuth.

SICHILI. See Snc iiii.i.

SICHLAN, a river of Ruffn, which runs into the
Ochot(l<oi fea, N. lat. 59'" 28'. E. long 152" 14'.

RICHOUI-LO-HOTUN, a town of Corea, in the fea
of Japan. N. lat. 42° 20'. E. long. 130° 29'.

SICHROW, a town of Bohemia, iu the circle of
Boledaw ; 3 miles N.N.W. of Turnau.

SICHTELEN. See Suciitelen.

SIC

SICHU, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mecho-
acan ; 120 miles N.N.E. (jf Mechoacan. — Alfo, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Gualleca ; 150 miles W.S.W.
of Pannco.

SICIGNANO, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra ;
ID miles W. of Cangiano.

SICILIAN Meafures, Sili, and Fefpers. See the
fubftantives.

SICILIANA, in Botany, a name given by Dodoiiosiis,
and fome other authors, to the great androfaemum, called
tut/an, and parL-leavcs.

SiciLiANA, a palloral movement in a (low jig-time of J.
The charaftcr of this movement requires a point to the firlt
note of almoft every triplet. Nothing is more plcafing
than the Sicilian Hrains of great mailers. Handel hardly
ever fails rendering them charafteriltic, touching, and
pleafing ; fuch as, " He fliall feed his Flock like a Shep-
herd ;" " Let me wander not unfeen," &c.

SICILIANE, or Pastouale, a kind of fimple rural
mufic, refounding in Chrillmas time through all quarters of
Naples, and executed by Abruzzefe or Calabrian fliep-
herds, upon a fpecies of bai';-pipes, called in Abruzzo
zampagne, and ciaramelli in Calabria. The tunes vary,
according to the provinces : in the fouth, they have three
different airs ; the northern fliepherds have only two, to
which they add any variations which the boldnefs of their
own genius infpires. The boys learn of their fathers to
play upon this inftrument, as the means of fubfiftence.
The waits, llill kept up in the pay of fome corporations in
England, are counterparts of thefe fliepherds.

SICILICUM, the name of a weight in ufe among the
ancients ; which, fome lay, was equal to three dracluns of
our weight : others fay only to two.

SICILY, in Ancient and Modern Geography, an ifland in
the Mediterranean, the largell of all the illands in this fea,
being about 170 Britifh miles in length, and 70 in medial
breadth. Swinburne reckons its greatclt length at 210
miles, and breadth 133 ; and places it between N. lat. 36°
25' and 38^ 25', and E. long. 12° 50' and 16 5'. Sicily
is feparated from the continent by the llraits ol Mefiina,
which, in fome parts, are about four miles broad. (See
CiiAHViiDi.s, Mes.sina, and Scyi-EA.) At MefTina, and at
the mouth of the llraits between the promontories of Pelorus
in Sicily and the Lode di Volpa, or Foxes' Tail, in Cala-
bria, is nearly a mile. Many of the ancient hillorians and
poets have Hated that this illand was formerly joined to the
continent, and fevered from it, at an unknown period, by
fome extraordinary convulfinn ; nor is this opinion at all im-
probable. Accordingly Pomponius Mela obferves, " Sicilij,
ut fcrnnt, aliquando agro Brutio adnexa." To the fame
piirpol'e Virgil (iEn. 1. iii. v. 414.) fays:

" Hxc loca vi quondam, ct valla convulfa ruina
Dilliluille ferunt, cum protinus utraque Tellus
Una foret. Venit medio vi pontus ct undis
Hefperium ficulo latus abfcidit."

Sllius Italicus details this event more at large (lib. xiv.) :

" Aufonix pars magna jacet Trinacria Tellns
Ut femel expngnante n.ito, et vallantibus undis
Accepit freta cwrules propulfa trulcntc,
Naniquc [ler dccultum cxca vi turbinis olim
Impadum Pelagus lacerata vilcera terrx
Difcidit, ct medio perrimipeiis arva profundo.
Cum populis pariter convullas tranllulit urbcs."

Claudiau aflirms pofitively,

•' Trinacria quondam Italix pars fuit."

Pliny,

SICILY.

Pliny, Strabo, Diodorus, and many others, both hif-
torians and philofophers, are of the fame fentiments, and
pretend that the ftrata on the oppofite fides of the itraits
agree perfediy ; and feme imagine, that this feparation is
recorded in the name given to Rhegium, a town of Brutiura.
With regard to the breadth of the ftrait that feparates
Sicily from Italy, Sihiis fays, ubi fupra :

" Sed fpatium, quod diflbciat confortia terrae,
Latratusfama ell {fie arfta intervenit unda),
Et matutinos volueruin tranfmittere cantus."

And fome perfons have even affirmed, that not only the
crowing of a cock might be heard from one Ihore to another,
but that a llrong voice might be heard through this diftance.
Mariners have aflerted that this canal is not two miles

broad. ■ , r

Sicily, on account of its fomewhat triangular form, has
been called Trinacria, or Trinacia, and Trinquetra. Its
ancient name was Sicania, derived from its inhabitants the
Sicani; but when the Siculi took poffeflion of the greateft
part of the iiland, it afl'umed the name of Sicilia. The in-
terior of Sicily is full of mountains. The ancients, pro-
ceeding from tile welt to the eall, enumerated the following ;
■viz. Eryx, near the fea and Drepanum, celebrated for a
temple of Venus ; Cratas, towards the north, in which are
the fources of the Eleutherus and Himera, and thofe of
Hypfa, which flowed towards the fouth ; the Gemelli colles,
more loutherly than the chain of Cratas, in which is the
fource of the Camicus, and of other rivers ; the Nebrodes,
northwards and eaft of the preceding ; Maro, Hill more to
the eaft ; the Herxi, from fouth to north, between the
fources of the Himera to the weft, and thofe of Simxtlius
to the eaft ; and alfo the famous mount /Etna ; which fee.
Among the rivers of Sicily noticed by the ancients, we
may enumerate, on the eaftern coaft, the Simsethus, which
rifes weft «)f ^tna, and fouth of the town called Engyum,
runs towards the fouth-eaft, receiving in its courfe the
Chryfas, and difcharges itfelf into the fea near to and north
of Murgentium ; and the Mela, fouth of the preceding, and
running in a ftraight direction from welt to eaft ; and on
the fouthern coalb, the Himera, which had its iource in
mount Artefinus, in the environs of Enna, and flowed into
the fea at Phiftia ; and the Hypfa, which proceeding from
the interior of the idand, flowed into the fea near to and
eaft of Selinus.

The principal places in ancient Sicily are enumerated and
briefly defcribed under their appropriate names in different
parts of the Cyclopaedia.

Sicily was celebrated among the ancients for its extraor-
dinary fertility. Its mines of lead, copper, and filver, and
its variety of Itones and volcanic produftions, have been re-
corded by ancient and modern writers ; and it has been ob-
ferved, that the furamits of its higheft mountains have fur-
nifticd a great number of different marine produftions.

This iiland has undergone a variety of revolutions : it has
been denominated, in very remote times, the ifland of the Sun,
and the laud of the Cyclops, and of the Leftrygons. It
was afterwards called Sicania and Sicily, from tlie names of
its poil'cHors. The Phoenicians alfo had eftabhftiment;. in this
ifland, and carried on with it a confiderable commerce, in the
advantages of which the Trojans are faid to have partici-
pated. The Greeks eftabliihcd themfelves in Sicily for
the firft time after the fiege of Troy, and~kept polTefiion of
it for a long period, forming different republics, and tranf-
porting hither their manners and arts, and different opi-
nions, and erecting temples of ftone of the Doric order ; and
jn procefs of time they ftiared the government of it with the

Carthaginians. Thefe new conquerors, who about 510 years
B. C. gained pofleffion of it, brought with them their com-
merce, their arms, and their gods. They occupied the
weftern and northern ftiores, whilft the Siculi retained the
midland country ; and the fouthern and eaftern coaft$ were
inhabited by the Greeks. The Mamertins arriving hither
from Italy took pofleflion of Meffina, and called over the
Romans, who, urged by their ambition, wanted only a pre-
text of taking up arms againft the Carthaginians. After a
variety of fucceflive contefts, they took pofleffion of the
ifland. The Romans occupied themfelves for fome years ia
eftablifliing peace, abundance, and even fplendour ; and thejr
erefted during the time of the republic fuperb edifices of
marble ; their power and ambition fetting no limits to their
magnificence. Under their dominion Sicily became more
flourifhing than it had been in the time of the Greeks, when
it was confidered as free. The Sicilians, under the govern-
ment of the Romans, loft their military genius, and thofe
mutual jealoufies which ferved only to accelerate their own
deftruftion. When the Romans made themfelves mafters
of Sicily, they permitted the inhabitants to retain the
temples, the deities, and the forms of worfliip which the
Greeks and other nations had eftablifticd among them, and
till the divifion of the Roman empire, they maintained a cer-
tain character of elegance and refinement. But at this pe-
riod the monuments of antiquity funk into negleft ; the
arts were no longer held in eftimation ; and talents difap-
peared on the accels of ignorance and barbarifm. To-
wards the end of the fourth century, Syracufe was the firft
town of Sicily that received Chriftianity, and foon after
other towns and the whole country followed its example ;
and this event was followed by a neglect of their temples and
public monuments. The ignorance of the prietts, no lefs
notorious than the fervour of their zeal, induced them to
make war againft the fciences and the arts, that they might
thus the more effectually and fpeedily deftroy Paganifm, which
cultivated thera.

The Sicilians, having relinquiftied all martial ideas during
a long feries of generations, turned their attention folely
to the arts of peace, and the labours of agriculture. Their
pofition in the centre of the empire preferved them from
both civil and foreign foes, except in two inftances of a
fervile war. But the rapacity of their governors was a more
conftant and infupportable evil. In this ftate of apathy
and opulence, Sicily remained till the feventh century of our
era, when the Saracens began to dilturb its tranquillity.
The barbarous nations of the North had previoufly invaded
and ravaged its coafts, but had not long kept poffeffion.
The Saracens, however, were more fortunate. In the year
827 they availed themfelves of quarrels among the Sicihans
to fubdue the country ; and they chofe Palermo for their
capital. The ftandard of Mahomet triumphed about 200
years. In 1038 George Maniares was fent by the Greek
emperor with a great army to attack Sicily. He made good
his landing, and pufhed his oonquells with vigour, and, aided
by the valour of fome Norman troops, with luccefs. Mani-
ares recompenfed them with ingratitude ; and by his con-
duit allowed the Muffulmen an interval of tranquillity, and
the Normans an opportunity and pretext of invading the
imperial dominions in Italy. Robert and Roger of Haute-
ville afterwards conquered Sicily on their own account.
After a ftruggle often years, the Saracens, in 1072, as Swin-
burne fays, furrendered the rich prize ; though others fay, that
they loft the poffeffion of it A.D. 1058. Robert ceded it
to kis brother Roger, who aflumed the title of great earl of
Sicily. This firft fovereign fwayed the fceptre with wifdom
and glory, and defervedly ranks among the greateft charac-
ters

SICILY.

ters in hiftory. He was fucceeded by his fon Simon, who,
after a Ihort reign, made way for a fecond fon called Roger,
the firll king; who, in 1127, joined to his Sicilian domi-
nions the whole inheritance of Robert Guifcard, and aflumcd
the regal title. Roger, it is faid, was named king of Sicily
by the pope, A.D. i [30. During his reign, Sicily enjoyed
profound peace. The reign of his fon William I. who af-
cended the throne in 1154, was a period of war and con-
fufion. During the reign of Frederick I. a German, the
Saracens, who had revolted, were removed to Puglia, 400
years after the conqueft of Sicily, by their ancellors. Tiie
Norman line continued till their kingdom was fubdued by
Henry VI. emperor of Germany. After the battle of
Benevento, Sicily fubmitted to Charles of Anjou, a prince
of the French line, A.D. 1266, and having endured
quietly for a confiderable time opprefiion and wanton cruelty,
at length determined to emancipate itfelf from his tyranny.
Accordingly an infuneftion took place in 1282, and after
the Sicilian vefpers, the infurgents offered their crown to
Peter I. king of Aragon, who accepted and defended it
againd all the efforts of his antagonift, and the thunders of
the Vatican. On the death of Alphonfo the Magnificent,
who fucceeded his father Ferdinand I. of Caftile, Naples
was added to his other dominions ; and after his dcceafe in
1458, the hiftory of Sicily becomes unintereding. At the
peace of Utrecht, Sicily was ceded to Vi£tor, duke of Savoy,
who foon after was compelled by the emperor Charles VI.
to relinquiffi it, and accept Sardinia a'; an equivalent.

For further particulars relating to the hillory of Sicily, we
refer to Naples.

The climate of Sicily is very hot ; the thermometer at
Palermo varying in June and July from 73^° to 80^°, and
when the hrocc wind blows, rifing fuddenly to 112".
March is the only month in which any chilling winds are felt,
and even in the beginning of January the fliade is refrefliing.
The appearance of winter is only feen in the fnow that falls
on the fummit of mount TEtna. (Sec that article.) Al-
though the ifland has, in many parts of it, the afpedl of a
rock, the foil is fingularly fertile, but it is not now cultivated
ae it was formerly, when it was reckoned the granary of
Rome. The crops of wheat arc dill fo abundant, notwith-
ftanding the opprcffion of the government, as not only to
fupply the wants of its own inhabitants, but to afford a large
furplus for exportation ; and if this ifland enjoyed the blefling
of a free government, it might become one of the richell and
mod flourifhing in the world ; for even in its prefcnt wretched
date of cultivation, one good crop, lays Brydone, would be
fufficient to maintain the ifland for leven years ; but when
he vifited the ifland, the exportation of this commodity had
been prohibited forfeveral years pad, or, at lead, to all fuch
as were not able to pay mod exorbitantly for that privi-
lege. The fugar-cane was formerly very much cultivated
in this ifland, but the duties impofed were fo enormous, th.it
it has been almoft totally abandoned. Silk afforded for-
merly a profitable branch of trade, but this lias very much
declined. Befides wheat, which has at ail times con-
ftituted the riches of this ifland, they cultivate many other
branches of commerce, though none that could bear any
proportion to this, were it under a free government, and
exportation allowed. Their granaries are fo contrived,
by excluding the air and keeping the grain dry, as to pre-
lerve it for many years. Large quantities of barley and
pulfe grow in Sicily, but very little oats or millet. Canary-
bird feed is exported to a large amount, and is almofl pc-
i:uliar to this ifland. Large quantities of oil arc exported
from places on the north fide of the ifland. Wine and brandy
in-e exported in great ubuiidance ; and the wines arc very va-

VoL. XXXII.

rious. The fifheries, alfo, are very produftive, and great

quantities of tunny, anchovies, and fardmes, are faked, and
fent from the vicinity of the places where they are caught.
The art of manafafturing fdk, and of the management of
the infefts that produce it, was eftabliflied here by Roger,
king of Sicily, and it was communicated from hence to the
wcdcrn countries of Europe.

Silk is ccniiidered as the fecond great fource of riches to
Sicily, corn being undoubtedly the firfl : a quantity of filk,
equal in value to a million of (iucats (187,50c/.) is annually
exported. Pdermo and Medina alone feud it out ; a con-
fiderable quantity of the materials is manufadlured in both
places ; but Palermo, which employs nine hundred looms,
exports very little, mod of its lilks being ulcd at hom.e.
Medina employs twelve hundred looms, and Catania rather
more. In the Mefhricfe manufaftures a variety of Clks i»
made, hut the filk is feldom well drawn, dyed, or matched,
and the work is apt to prove hard and to rub. Moll of it
goes to the Levant.

A large quantity of barilla is fhipped from the fouthern
coaft. The whiteit and heavied fait is produced at Trapani.
This ifland alfo furnifhes fumach, liare and rabbit-ikins, rags,
fulpliur, &c. for exportation.

Soda is a commodity of which they have !in ample fupply,
and they every year fend great quantities of it to the glais-
houfcs at Venice. They have hkewife a confiderable trade
in liquorice, rice, figs, raifins, and currants, the bell of wiiicii
grow among the extinguifhed volcanoes of the Lipari illands.
Their honey, which is gathered three months in the year,
•y(«. July, Augud, and Oftober, is very highly flavoured,
and in fome parts of tiie ifland fuperior to that of Minorca.
Althouj^h fugar is now no article of Sicilian commerce,
enough is made for home confumption ; and the (ugar-cane
is faid to thrive very much in fevcral parts of the ifland. It
is faid, that towards the north of Sicily they find tlie diell-
fifh that yields a kind of flax, of which gloves and dockings
are made. Their plantations of oranges, of which 2000
cheds are fltipped annually from Mefiina, lemons, bcrga-
mots, almonds, fee. afford no inconfidcrable branch of com-
merce. The pidachio-nut is likewife much cultivated; their
manna and alum are likewife very profitable. The cantha-
rides fly, which is found on fcveral trees of JEtna, is alfo a
Sicilian commodity. Thefe cantharides are faid to be
preferable to thofe of Spain. Sicily abounds with mi-
neral fprings of both hot and cold water ; fome of which
throw up an oil th.it is applicable to various purpofcs. The
marbles of Sicily would afford a great fource of opulence,
if there were any encouragement to work the quarries ;
and they have alfo other doncs that are ferviccable in a va-
riety of ways.

It would, however, be endlefs to give an account of
all the various commodities and curious produttions of
this ifland; iEtna alone affords a greater number than
many of the mod cxtenfive kingdoms, and is no lefs an
epitome of the whole earth in its foil and climate, than
in the variety of its produftions. Bcfides the corn, tiie
wine, the oil, the filk, the fpice, and delicinus fruits of its
lov/er region ; — the beautiful forcds, the docks, the game,
the tar, the cork, the honey, of its fecond ; — the fnow
and ice of its third ; it affords from its caverns a variety ot
mineral and other produAions ; cinnabar, mercury, fulpliur,
alum, nitre, and vitriol ; fo that this wonderful mountain
at the fame time produces every necelfary, and every luxury
ofhfc.

Its firft region covers their t.ibles with all the delicacies

that the earth produces ; its fecond fupplies them witli game,

cheefe, butter, hoaey ; and not only turuilhcs wood of every

4 O kind

SICILY.

kind for building their fhips and houfes, but likewife an
inexhauftible (tore of the moft excellent fuel ; and as the
third region, with its ice and fnow, keeps them frefh and
cool during the heat of fummer, fo this contributes
equally to keep them warm and comfortable during the cold
of winter.

The principal trade of this ifland is carried on at Palermo
and Meflina ; the former conlumes of imports four or live
times more than the latter ; but on account of lighter duties,
Meflina exports a greater quantity of filk, and fupplies the
inland towns with more commodities. The bufinefs of other
places on the coafl confifts folely in fhipping corn, wine,
fait, &c. Trapani, on account of its famous falt-pans and
the fhipping belonging to it, is one of the buCeil commercial
towns in the ifland.

According to the enumerations made in 1714, fays Swin-
burne, Sicily contained 1,133,163 inhabitants, including
40,000 eccleiiallics, and iic,ooq inhabitants of Palermo.
In 1 615 it contained 1,107,234; in 1505, 488,500, with-
out reckoning the inhabitants of Palermo or MefTma.

When Mr. Brydone vifited the ifland in the year I 770, he
fays that the inhabitants, by the laft enumeration, amounted
to 1, 1 23, 1 63, of which number there were about 50,000 that
belonged to the different monaiteries and religious orders: the
inhabitants of Palermo were computed at 150,000. The
number of houfes in the ifland were eftimated at 268,120 ; fo
that allowing the enumeration and the eflimate to be jult, the
number to a houfe appears to have been between five and
fix. The vicifBtudes and commotions that have more re-
cently occurred have not been favourable to an increafe, but
muft rather have contributed to a diminution of the popu-
lation.

The provinces in this ifland are three : viz. Val di Noto,
260 miles in circumference ; Val di Mazara, 302 miles in
circumference; andValDemona, 313 miles in circumference:
they contain 42 towns belonging to the demefne, and 310
baronial.

Sicily is governed by a viceroy, in whofe abfence the
archbifhop of Palermo is regent. The general aflembly
of parliament is compofed of 66 archbifhops, bifhops, ab-
bots and priors, which form the bracchio ecclefiaftico : 58
princes, 27 dukes, 37 marquitfes, 27 counts, I vifcount,
and 79 barons, form the militaire ; and the demaniale con-
fifts of 43 reprefentatives of free towns. Out of each brac-
chio four deputies are chofen to conduft public bufinefs ;
but the viceroy, the prince of Butera, and the prxtor of
Palermo, are always the three firft. N.B. There are many
titled perfons that have no feat in the aflembly, -viz. 62
princes, 55 dukes, 87 marquifl'es, i count, and 282 other
feudatories.

The ccclefiaftical government confifts of three archbi-
flioprics and feven bifhoprics.

The following tables fliew the coins, weights, and mea-
fures of Sicily.

Tables of Sicilian Coins.

Gold Coins.

1. Piece of 6 ducats, or dou-

ble ounce.

2. Piece of three do. or onza.

3. Piece of two ditto.

4. Piece of one ducat and a

half.

Silver Coins.
Scudo, equal to 13 taris.

Ducat
Mezzo fcudo
Terzo di fcudo -
Piece of three tari

10
6
4
3

of two tari, equal to the

tari of Naples.
The tari, equal the carlino of

Naples.

Brafs Coins.

Grano, equal to fix Neapolitan calli, or half a grane,
Mezzo-grano, equal to three calli of Naples.
Other fubdivifions are feldom met with.

The ounce.

or

onza

1 3 f 3 ducats, or 30 taris

The fcudo

\ ^ 12 taris.

The ducat

i> § <{ 10 taris.

The tari

I £ j 20 grano.

The grana

J - L 6 piccioli.

Accompts are kept in onza, tari, and grano. Upon an
average, the ducat is worth forty-five pence Englifh money.

Weights and Measures.

There are two forts of weights ufed in Sicily.

1. Grande.

I Caiilaro contains iiorotoli

I Rotolo - 33 ounces

I Pound - 12 ounces

1 Ounce - 30 trapefi

2. Common. - m,- ^ • , ^
o . . • . 1- I Ihis cantaro is equal to

I Cantaro contains 100 rotoh I „ rl • " ht-

I Rotolo - ^o ounces f ' . ," . 8

avoirdupois.

This cantaro is equal t»
215 pounds avoirdu-
pois weight.

•;

Dnv Measure. — Com.

1 Salma generale contains 16 tomoli — equal to 20 Win-

cheiter bufhels, ufed in meafuring wheat.

2 Salma a la grofTa contains 20 tomoli — equal to 24 Win-

cheflcr bufhels, ufed for barley, beans, &c.

Liquid Measure. — Oil.

1 Caffis weighs 18 pounds avoirdupois.

Wine. — I Salma contains 8 quartari. i Quart contains
12 quartucii.

Lineal Measure.

12 Oncie make i palmo, equal to 10 inches 3 lines.
8 Palmi make i canna, equal to 6 feet 8 inches.

Befides the obligations which the Romans had to the
Etrufcans and Greeks for their tafte and knowledge in the
fine arts, the conqueft of Sicily 200 years before the Chrif-
tian era, contributed greatly to their acquaintance with them.
Indeed, there was no itate of Greece which produced men of
more eminence in all the arts and fciences than Sicily, which
was a part of Magna Grxcia, and which having been peopled
719 years B.C. by a colony of Greeks from Corinth, their
defcendants long after cherifhed ar.d cultivated fcicnce of
all kinds, in which they greatly diftinguilTied themfelves, even
under all the tyranny of government with which they were
opprefled. Fabricius gives a lift of feventy Sicilians who
have been celebrated in antiquity for learning and genius,
among whom we find the well-known names of .£!chylus,
Diodorus Siculus, Empedocles, Gorgias, Euclid, Archi-
medes, Epicharmus, and Theocritus. To the Sicilians is
given not only the invention of pailoral poetry, but of the
wind iuftruments with which the fhepherds and cowherds
ufed to accompany their rural fongs.

After the conquell of Greece, the Romans had the tafte
to admire and adopt the Grecian arts. And the prefident
Montefquieu remarks, with refpecl to the military art, that
one of the chief caufes of the Roman grandeur, was their '

method

SIC

SIC

mtthod of abandoning their ancient cuftoms, and adopting
thofe of tlie people whom they had vanquifhcd, whenever
they found them luperior to their own.

SICIMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in
Samaria, according to Jofephus.

SICINOS, or PnoLEGANDROS, the name of one of the
Cyclades iflands ; lituated S.E. of Sipluios, E. of Mclos,
and W. of Jos, and very near it.

SICION, in Geography, a Imall idand in the Indian fea,
«ear the coaft of Africa. S. lat. i2° 35'.

SICK Herrings. See Herring.

Sick, Iron. See Iron SicL.

SICKHERY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Gohud ; 5 miles N. of Lahaar. — Alfo, a
town of Hindoollan, in the circar of Gohud ; 10 miles S.E.
of Kooch.

SICKLE, in Agriculture, 3 toothed hook, with which
corn is reaped.

There is confiderable variety in the conllruftion of the
tools which are employed for this purpofe in different places ;
and which, in fomc, are denominated Jichles, but in others
hooks. Some of them are alfo ufcd in one part of the
country, and fome in another, being wholly unknown in
others.

The common fickle is a fort of femicircular piece of
wrought iron faced with fteel, which in general is from
•ibout twenty to thirty inches in length, and about half an
inch in breadth, having a fharp toothcd-cdge cut in the
fteeled part, from twenty-fix to thirty teeth being formed
in every inch in length. The teeth all incline towards the
handle of the tool, fo that it only cuts when it is drawn to-
wards the perfon ufing it, and not when introduced through
the Handing corn in the aft of reaping. The Furnefs fickle,
a valuable tool of this kind, made ufe of in a dillrift of that
name in the northern part of Lancafliire, has a blade two
feet fix inches long, edged with fifteen teeth in every incli,
and in the fpan of its curvature, meafurcs two feet from
the heel to the point. It is a powerful tool, and capable
of doing much work in a given time when in good hands,
as feen below.

The fmoolh-edged fickle, or reap-hook, has a fhape and
length wliich are much the fame as thofe in the common
fickle, only a little broader ; but the edge is Imooth or (harp
and without teeth.

The Ladging or lagging fickle or hook is a tool of the
fame kind, but which is a great deal larger and heavier, as
well as broader at tlie point. It can, however, be ufed
with great effeft and expedition by thofe who are accultomed
to this mode of reaping.

The fickle-hook is alfo another tool of this nature, which
js made ufe of in iome diltridts. It is only toothed from
about the middle to the point end, by which the walte of
grain in cutting is faid to be prevented.

By much the molt ancient of thefe tools is the common
fickle, and it is probably, on the whole, the bed of
them, though it is getting much out of ufe in many
parts of the country, being now even fcarcely known or em-
ployed in the counties of Devon, Cornwall, and Somcrfet,
and many other places in the more wellern dillridls of
the kinjrdom, having long fincc given place to the hooks,
the reafon of which (eems to be the greater eafe of perform-
ing the work by them, as is commonly fnppoied, but by
no means proved. The fickle is by far the molt frugal and
economical tool for accomplifliing the work with, as caufiiig
the leall Ids of grain. Trials made with the lickle and the
reap-hook, have indeed fliewn that the latter tool is more
expeditious, but at the fame time that the lof« of grain is far

greater, being eflimated at not lefs than five-fixths of the
whole in fcattered corn.

This difference is fuppofed to be produced by the hook
having a fiiarp fmooth edge, which cuts the Hems, as it is put
into the (landing corn, before it is gathered into the left
hand of the workman ; while the fickle having a fine-toothed
edge inclining towards the heel part, as has been already
feen, does not cut the Itraws as it is put into the (landing
crop. Thus, though the hook will execute the work
with greater facility, where the workman mull have
eafe, the bell mode will probably be to have recourfe to the
fickle-hook, by means of which, from the manner of its
being edged, it will much prevent the above enormous lofs
of corn which is caufed in other ways of doing the bufinefs.

It is neccJary for the farmer to be aware of this difference
in the ufe of the different tools of the fickle kind, as the
hooks are fad introducing themfelves into the eadern and
even the northern parts of the kingdom, as well as into Ire-
land, where they were formerly unknown, and prevail much
in many other places.

In the above dillrift of Furnefs, the reaping is wholly
and mod excellently performed by means of the fickle. At
an eafy rate of working, three men, it is faid, with this tool,
will cut a cudom.ary acre of fix yards and a half to the pole
or perch, of long, light, (lender corn, bind and douk the
fame in the courfe of a day, or lefs than fourteen hours ; and
five men with thefe tools will perform the fame quantity of
work in a field of the ftronged corn, when laid and much
entangled. By hard labour from light to dark, three men
with this fort of tool will reap, bind, and douk above a
cudomary acre of any kind of grain. See Harvesting
and Reaping of Corn.

SlCKLK-Fi/h. See Falx.

SlCKLE-/f^or/, in Botany. See CoROS'lLLA.

SICKLUPEN, in Geography, a town of PrufTia, in th-
province of Samland ; 5 mdes N. of Tilfit.

SICKNESS. See Disease.

Sickness, Palling. See Epilep.sy.

Sickness, Green. See Chlorosis.

Sickness, Sweating. Sec Sweating Sichnefs.

SICKREE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 26 milc»
W.N.W. of Ramgur.

SICLOS, a town of Hungary, having a cadle on a
mountain, in which the emperor Sigifmund was imprifoned;
64 miles S.E. of Canifcha.

SICLYGULLY, a town of Bengal; 15 miles N. of
Rajemal.

. SICON, a town of the ifiand of Cuba; 125 milej
W.S. W. of Havanna.

SICUB, or Sicui', in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
the inhabitants of the Philippine lilands to a fpecies of
hawk, of the bignefs of their common hawk, or bau'iy,
which is fomewhat larger than our fparrow-hawk. This
bird is very elegantly variegated all over its body with yel-
low, white, and black. See Lavin.

SlCULl, in Ancient Geography, a people originally ot
Dalmatia, who edablidied themfelves in Italy about the
l6th century B. C. They formed a numerous nation, and
had podellion of a confiderable extent of country; as they
peopled IJmbria, Sabina, Latium, and all the cantons the
occupiers of which were afterwards known under the name
of Opici. The Sieuli paded into Sicily, and gave it their
name. This event is faid to have taken place, according to
Ilellanicus of Lefbos, 80 yean before the fiege of Troy,
or 1364 years B.C. according to the chronology of Tiiucy-
dides. The name of Sieuli, which comprehended all the
people who difl'ufcd thcmlelvcs from the Tiber to the eadern
4 O 2 cxtrcnnty

SIC

S I c

extremity of Italv, the country occupied by the Libunii ex-
cepted, was gradually abolidied by the feparate leagues and
diftinftions of the Sabines, Latins, Sannnites, Oenotrians,
ancl Italians. Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato, and Arillotle,
mention thefe people.

SICULIANA, in Geography, a town on the S. coafl of
Sicily, containing 5000 perfons, and belonging to the prince
of La Catholica, to whom it yields an annual income of
14,000 crowns. It is remarkable for not having a fingle
convent within its precinfts, owing either to the danger of a
vifit from the Mahometans, or to the recent foundation of
the town. The ignorance of the inhabitants, at lead with
regard to philofophy, is remarkably evinced by an anecdote
mentioned by Swinburne. On the wall of his apartment he
found notice of a thells to be maintained in the fchools of
Girgenti by a native of Siculiana : in which he undertakes
to piove, " that the Copernican fyftera is impious, abfurd,
and contradiftory to Holy Writ, from which it is evident,
that the earth Hands ilill, and the fun moves round it, like
the fails of a windmill round the pivot." Siculiana is plea-
fantly fituated on two hills joined together by a long ilreet ;
the vale below being full of orange and other fruit-trees, and
the view of the fca very extenfive ; 13 miles N.W. of
Girgenti.

SICULONES, in /Indent Geography, a people who in-
habited the CImbric peninfula, according to Ptolemy.

SICULOTiE, a people of Dalmatia, who, according to
Ptolemy, were divided into 24 decurise.

SICUM, a town of lUyria, on the coaft of Dalmatia,
between Scardona and Salone, according to Ptolemy and
Pliny. The latter fays, that the emperor Claudius fent hi-
ther his veteran foldiers.

SICUS, in Ichthyology, a name ufed bv fome authors to
exprefs that fpecies of corecjonus, called by the generality
of authors Albula nob'dis. This, m the Linnsan fyllem, is
it fpecies of Sabno.

SICUT Alias, in Law, a writ fent out in the fecond
place, where the firll was not executed.

It is thus called from its beginning, which is in this form :
" Georgius, D. G. &c. Vicecomiti Hercf. falutem. Prae-
cipimus falutem tibi (ficut alias) prxcipem," &c.
SICYANA. See Gour^WoRM.

SICYEDON, from 5-i>.uo,-, a cucumber, in Surgery, a tranf-
verfe frafture.

SIC YON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, and
capital of a fmall ftate in the gulf of Corinth, and not far
dillant from it. It was anciently called jEgialx, from M'^'\z-
leus, its fuppoied founder and tirll monarch. It is not cer-
tain whether the whole kingdom, or only its metropolis, was
called by that name, but it was exchanged for Apia, from
Apis its fourth king ; and in procefs of time it acquired
that of Sicyon, who was the 19th monarch. He reigned
about 740 years after its fuppofed foundation ; and from
that time not only the kingdom, but the whole peninfula of
Peloponnefus, was called Sicyonia until its dilTolution.

This little kingdom lay on the N. part of the Peloponne-
fus, fmce called the bay of Corinth. On the weft it had the
province of Achaia, and on the eaft the ilthmus, which
joins the peninfula to the continent of Greece. Its extent
has not been afcertained. Its capital is fuppofed to have
been fituated upon the river Afopus, having tile bay of
Corinth on the north, and the reft of the Peloponnefus at
the three other points. Strabo and Livy fay, that it was
parted from the kingdom of Corinth by the river Nemia •
and Ptolemy adds that it was firft called Micone, and after-
wards jEgiali ; he gave it two cities, Platius and Sicyon,
both of which he pkccd at fome diftance from the fea.

The territory of this fmall ftate was rich, abounding with
corn, vine's, olive-trees, and other commodities, befides fome
iron mines. Its metropolis was, in procefs of time, very
much adorned by Sicyon and his fuccedors, with temples,
altars, monuments, and ftatues of all their gods and ancient
monarchs. This would be juftly deemed the moft ancient
monarchy in the world, not excepting thofe of Egypt and
Aflyria, if it were true that its founder lived about 150 years
after the flood, or about 200 years before Noah's death ; as
fome have computed it from Eiifebius, who affirms this mo-
narchy to have been founded 13 1 3 years before the firft
Olympiad, or 20S9 B. C. But other chronologers have
corrected tliis miftake, and made liim contemporary- with
Terah, Abraham's father, and llated the commencement of
his reign about the year of the world 1915, or even later,
about A.M. 1236; by which computation it is brought
foraewhat lower than the year of the flood 900. This
kingdom is faid to have hid, during an interval of 962
years, a fucccfTion of 26 kings, but their reigns are diftin-
guifhed by no memorable aftion or conqueft. The firft king
was iEgialeus, and the laft Zeuxippus or Deuxippus ; but in
Blair's chronology the laft king is Charidemus, with whom
they end, 1089 years B.C. or 15 years after the return of
the Heraclidx into Peloponnefus. In the lift of kings, the
moft remarkable is Sicyon, who gave name to the ftate, and
who is fuppofed to have built, or at leaft enlarged, the me-
tropolis of the kingdom, and to have called it by his own
name. Accordingly it was not only one of the nobleft cities
in Greece, on account both of its magnificent edifices and
ingenious workmen, but it was a confiderable place when the
Venetians were mailers of the Morea, under the new name
of " Bafilica," though it has been for near the two laft cen-
turies reduced to a heap of ruins, containing only three
Turkifli, and about as many Chriftian families. The town
was fituated on the top of a hill, about three miles from the
gulf of Lcpanto ; and has ftill ieveral monuments of its an-
cient as well as modern grandeur, particularly the walls of
its famous citadel, of fome fine churches and mofques, and
a large ancient edifice, called the royal palace, with aque-
dufts to fupply it with water, all which, with other old re-
mains, are defcribed by fir George Wheeler, Voy.

After the death of Zeuxippus, the laft king of Sicyon,
this ftate is faid to have been governed by the priefts of
Apollo Carneus, five of whom held the fovereignty only
during one year each ; after which the Amphiftyons fwayed
the fcoptre nine years fuccefhvely, and Charidemus, the laft
of them, continued in it 18 years. After this hierarchy had
lailed 32 years, the Heraclidos, who were at that time re-
turned from Peloponnefus, became mailers of it, or accord-
ing to Paufanias, the kingdom was incorporated with the
Dores, and became fubjeft to that of Argos, the next king-
dom to that of Sicyon in refpeft of antiquity. Anc. Un.
Hift. vol. V.

SICYONE, a word ufed by Hippocrates to exprefs colo-
cynth, and by others for a fpecies of hard-fhelled gourd, in
the fliape of a pear, and by fome for a cupping-glafs.

SICYONEUM Oleum, a word ufed by the ancients to
exprefs a medicinal oil, of which there were among them
three kinds in ufe. The firft was called ficyonium /implex.
This was compofed of two ounces of the root of the wild
cucumber, boiled feveral hours in a pint of oil. The fecond
fort was called the compound ficyonium, and was made of
the root of the fame plant, with many other ingredients.
The third was another compound kind, made not with an
infufion of the root, but with the juice of the fruit of the
wild cucumber.

SICYONII, among the Romans, were fhoes of a more

delicate

S I c

S I D

Jelicate form, and better ornamented than ordinary, and
chiefly worn by the ladies and the gallants.

SICYOS, in Botany, a name borrowed from the ancient
Greeks, v.hofe s-ikw,- is fuppofed to be our common cucum-
ber, or very near it. The genus before us belonus to the fame
tribe. — Linn. Gen. 509. Schrcb. 664. Willd. Sp. PL
V. 4. 625. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hcrt. Kew. v. 5.
349. Purlh V. 2. 444. Jufl'. 394. Lamarck Illullr. t. 796.
Gaertn. t. 88. (Sicyoides ; Tourn. t. 28.) — Clafs and order,
Monoecia Polyadelph'ia. (LinuKUS and his followers refer it
to Monoec'm Syngcnejla, and Willdenow to M. Monadelphia ;
fee MoMORDiCA.) Nat. Ord. Cucurbilaces, Linn. Julf.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bcll-fliaped,
with five fmall awl-ihaped teeth. Cor. bell-(hapcd, in five
deep ovate fegments, united to the calyx. Slam. Filaments
three, awl-fhaped, fhort, conncdted at thebafe; anthers two
on each of two filaments, one on the third, [Jujf.)

Female on the lame plant. Cal. Perianth as in the male,
fuperior, deciduous. Cor. as in the male. Pi/l. Germen
inferior, ovate ; ityle cylindrical ; iligma tumid, three-cleft.
Perk. Berry ovate, belet with fpines, of one cell. Seed
folitary, nearly ovate.

Efl. Ch. Male, Calyx with five teeth. Corolla in five
deep fegments. Filaments three.

Female, Calyx fuperior, with five teeth. Corolla in five
deep fegments. Style three-cleft. Berry with one feed.

1. S. angulata. Angular Single-feeded Cucumber; or
Chocho Vine. Linn. Sp. PI. 1439. Willd. n. I. Ait.
n. I. Purfli n. i. (Bryonioides llore et fruftu minore ;
Dill. Elth. 58. t. 51. f. 59. Cucumis bryonoidcs bifnagarica,
fruftu parvo, florum calvce rauricato ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 26.
f. 4. C. canadenfis monofpermos, fruftu echinato ; Herm.
Parad. t. 133 ; ibid. p. 108, Bryonioides canadenfis, &c.) —
Leaves five-angled, minutely toothed, rough ; heart-fliapcd,
with an obtufe finus, at the bafe. — On the banks of rivers,
from Canada to Carolina, flowering in .Tune and July. Purjli.
The root is annual. Stiin branched, hairy, weak, climbing
by means of long, fpiral, divided tendrils. Leaves alternate,
on long ftalks, pointed, more or lefs toothed, minutely
rough, three or four inches broad. Floiucrs whitidi, marked
with green lines, axillary ; the male ones racemofe, on a
long Italk ; female on a much fliorter llalk, and capitate.
Fruit ovate, pale, fpinous, half an inch long, about eight
or ten together in a round head. .S'ff^/ large, ovate, fmooth.

2. S. parvtjlora. Small-flowered Single-feeded Cucum-
ber. Wilid. n. 2. — " Leaves five-angled, minutely toothed,
fmooth ; heart-fliapcd, with a roundifli finus, at the bafe."
— Native of Mexico. Communicated to profeflbr Willde-
now, by the celebrated baron Humboldt, from whole feeds
u was raifed at Berlin. Annual, like the lait, and much
-rfembling it, but the leaves are not rough, nor is their finus
; 11 obtufe angle, but round. The mwh flowers are not one-
tiiith io large as in S. angulata; the female ones about a
quarter the lize of that fpccies. '^Fhc/ruit however is but
little fmaller. Wilhleno'w.

3. S. viiifoUa. Vine-leaved Single-feeded Cucumber.
Willd. n. 3. — " Leaves five-lobcd, toothed, hairy and
vifcid ; heart-fhaped, with a roundiflv finus, at the bale." —
Willdenow faw this fpccies in a living Hate, but was unac-
quainted with its native country. He delcribes it as annual,
dillcring widely from both the preceding in having the leaves
divided half way down into five lobes, clothed, like the
whole plant, wiiji fine vifcid hairs, and fmelling like Salvia
coecinea. Male as well as iem^Xe Jlo-wers half the fi/.e of the
lirtt fpecies.

4. S. laciiiiata. Jagged-leaved Single-feeded Cucumber.
Linn. Sp. PI. 1439. Willd. d. 4. (Sicioides frudu echi-

nato, foliis laciniatis ; Plum. Ic. 239. t. 243. f. i.) — Leaves
deeply five-lobed, laciniatcd. — Native of South America. —
By Plumier's figure, this fpecies feems to differ from all the
foregoing in its deeply divided and jagged leaves, which are
very rough on the upper fide. Tiie fruit appears more
rounded and obtufe than in 5'. angulata.

S. Garcini, Linn. Mant. 297. Burm. Ind. t. 57. f. 3,
is rightly, we believe, referred to Bryonia by Willdenow, iu
his Sp. PI. V. 4. 623. Burmann millook ihajlipula for the
fruit, a rare inllancc of the kind!

SID, in Geography, a fmall river of England, which runs
into the Englifh Channel, at Sidmouth.

SIDA, in Bot.iny, a name borrowed from the Greeki,
whofe o-tJu has by fome been thought a kind of marfli mal-
low, nor can we find any other reafon for the prefent appli-
cation of this name. Theophrallus defcribes his T.ir, more
particularly than ufual, and evidently indicates a fpecies of
NymphiZj. Lexicographers call <r.lr. the Pomegranate, and
Diofcoridcs ufes the word o-iiix for the rind of that fruit. —
Linn. Gen. 352. Schrcb. 463. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 734.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 197.
Purfii v. 2. 452. Cavan. Dilf. 6. Julf. 273. Lamarck
Illultr. t. 578. Gssrtn. t. 134. (Abutilon ; Tourn. t. 25.
Anoda ; Cavan. Difl. 38. Julf. 273.) — Clafs and order,
Monadelphia Polyand/ia. Nat. Ord. Columnifera, Linn.
Malvacea, Jul).

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fimple, of one le.af,
angular, cut about half way down into five fegments, per-
manent. Cor. Petals five, dilated upwards, emarginate,
attached by their claws to the tube of the ftamens. Stam.
Filaments numerous, united below into a tube, feparating
at the upper part of the tube into capillary fegments ; an-
thers roundifli. Piji. Germen orbicular ; ftyles five, ten,
or more, more or lefs combined below ; lligmas capitate.
Peric. Capfule roundifli, angular, deprelled, of as many
cells as there are ftigmas, more or lefs combined at the bale,
each with two pointed valves, burfting at the upper part.
Seeds one or more in each cell, roundifli, generally pointed ;
convex at the outer fide ; angular at the inner, by which
they are attached to the central column.

Obf. This genus includes the Malvinda of Dillenius,
which has five cells only, with folitary feeds, as well as his
and Tournefort's Ahutihm, whofe cells, as well as feeds for
the mod part, are more numerous. Anoda of Cavanilles is
very infuificienlly dillinguiflied, by the cells of the capfule
being rather more united than ulual ; but there is no clear
or decided diflerence. For the diiUndlions of N.ap.f.a, re-
ferred to i'/^.i by Cavanilles, Schreber, &c. fee that article.
The fruit of the Linnxan S. periphcifulia feems peculiar,
having two feries of cells, according to Sclirebcr.

Efl. Ch. Calyx fimple, angular. Style in numerous
divifions. Capfule of feveral bivalve celi:^, fpreading from
a centre.

An extenfive genus, iricluding moll of the columni*
ferous or malvaceous order, that have no external calyx.
Cavanilles and L'Heritier liave confiderably added to the
((uantity of fpecies. Their num.ber in the 14th edition of
Linn. Syft. Veg. is only 27 ; from which the lall of all,
being Schreber's P.\i,Avi,\, is to be expunged. (Sec that
article.) Willdenow reckons up 99, but from thefe .-.re to
be dcduded the two Napxa of Liniixuf, which undoubtedly
conllitute a dillind genus, as we have fliewn in its proper
place. In their Head, however, there arc two to add from
North America. Moll of the fpccies arc tropical plants,
natives of the Eall or Weil Indies. Several are found in
Mexico and Peru ; eight in North America ; a few at the
Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius, &c. ; mme truly wild

iu

SIDA.

in Europe, though S. jibutilon is reported to grow in Si-
beria and Switzerland, where it may perhaps have been
naturahzed ; as has happened to various tropical annuals in
colder climates than what is natural to them. Abyffinia
bas afforded one new fpecies to our gardens ; bcfides \vhich,
34, exchifive of the Napciit, are enumerated in Mr. Alton's
valuable work.

The habit of all is more or lefs (hrubby, though feveral
have annual roots. The leaves are alternate, ftalked, Ample ;
either entire, notched, or lobed. Inflorefcence moitly ax-
illary. Flowers yellow, reddifli, or white. The fpecies
are difpofed in fedtions, according to the {hape of the
foliage. We (hall give various examples.

Seft. I. Leaves lanceolate, more or lefs narroiv, oblong,
»r ovate. Seventeen fpecies.

S. anguJlifoUa. Narrow-leaved Sida. Murray in Linn.
Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 621. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. i. L'Herit.
Stirp. 89. t. 52. Cavan. DilT. 14 and 48. t. 2. f. 2.—
Leaves linear-lanceolate, toothed. Stipulas fetaceous, with
axillary fpines. Flower-llalks fimple, moftly folitary.
Capfules with beaked valves. — Native of Brafil. Perennial,
with a fhrubby, branched, downy Jlem, three feet or more
in -height. Leaves pale and downy beneatli, about two or
three inches long, half an inch broad, on fhort Jlalks, ac-
companied at the bafe by two or three minute fpliies, as well
as ered narrow _y?;/iu/aj-. Co7-o//j pale, yellow, oblique.

S.fpinofa. Prickly Sida. Linn. Sp. PI. 960. Willd.
n. 6. Alt. n. 2. Purfh n. I. Cavan. DifT. 11. t. i. f. 9.
(Alcea carpini folio, americana frutefcens, flofcuHs luteis,
femine duplici roitro donato ; Comm. Hort. v. i. 3. t. 2.)
— Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ferrated ; fomewhat heart-fhaped
at the bafe. Stipulas fetaceous, with axillary fpines.
Flower-ftalks fimple, moftly folitary. Capfules with beaked
valves. — Native of the Eaft and Weft Indies, Senegal,
Arabia Felix, and North America. Mr. Purfti fays it is
found among rubbifti, and by road-fides, from Pennfylvania
to Carolina, flowering in July and Auguft. This ivas one
of the earlieft fpecies cultivated in England, but rather for
curiofity than beauty. The broader leaves principally dif-
tinguifh it from the former, for ihm Jlowers are nearly
fimilar. The root is annual or biennial.

S. htfpida. Hifpid Sida. Purfti n. 2. — " Rough with
briftly hairs. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated. Flower-ftalks
axillary, the length of the footftalks. Outer calyx thread-
ftiaped." — Defcribed by the above author, from the her-
barium of Mr. Lyon, who is faid to have met witli this
plant in the fandy plains of Georgia in North America.
Tiie Jloiuers are yellow. If they have really an exte.-nal
ealyx, the plant can be no Sida ; but perhaps a fimple feta-
ceous braclea is all that is meant by the above definition.
We have fecn no fpccimcn.

S. carfmtfolia. Hornbeam-leaved Sida. Linn. Suppl.
307. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 135.
Cavan. Dift. 274. t. 134. f. I. — Leaves ovate-oblong,
fmooth, clofcly lerratcd. Stalks axillary, about four-
flowered. Capfule with beaked Talves. — Mr. Maflbn met
with this ftirub in the garden of a Francifcan convent, in
Madeira, and fent it to Kew garden in 1 774, where it is
treated as a green-houfe plant, flowering moll part of the
fummer. The native country has not been afcertained.
The branches are hairy, fpreading, like the leaves, in two
direftion?. The latter are two or three inches long, and
nearly half as broad, fmooth, with crowded, acute, fome-
what unequal, or doubled, ierratures, each tipped with a
briftle, as in the genus Carpinus. Calyx fmooth. petals
yellow, oblique, and partly notched. Capfule of eight cells,
each Laving two fpinous beaks. j'. planleaulis, Cavan.

Diff. 24. t. 3. f. II, is acknowledged by that writer him-
felf to be the fame plant in a young or imperfeft con-
dition.

S. maculata. Spotted-flowered Sida, Cavan. Difl'. 20.
t. 3. f. 7. Willd. n. 12. — Leaves ovate, obtufe, ferrated,
downy. Flowers axillary, folitary ; racemofe at the ends
of the branches. Capfule with beaked valves. — Native of
Hifpaniola. Ths Jlem is woody and downy. Lower leaves
orbicular; upper ovate, abrupt, with a terminal point.
Stipulas awl-fhaped, ereft, downy. Floiver-Jlalks with a
joint. Calyx villous. Corolla large, yellow, with a reddifh
fpot on the bafe of each petal. Capfule of nine cells.

S. fuberofa. Corky Sida. L'Herit, Stirp. 113. t. 54.
Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 4. — Leaves ovale, ftrongly fer-
rated, hairy. Stalks axillary, fingle-flowered, twice the
length of the footftalks. Capfule with beaked valves. Stem
corky at the bafe. — Native of Hifpaniola. Introduced to
the ftoves at Kew in 1798, by fir Juftly Green, bart., but
it has not yet flowered. The Jiem is one or two feet high,
branched, the bark of the lower part corky, and full of
fiffures ; branches hairy. Leaves more oval than in S. car-
pinifoUa, pale and hairy, Flo-uiers an inch broad, orange-
coloured, with a purple central ring, ihm Jlalis znA calyx
hairy. Capfule fmall, of nine, flightly connected, cells.
The corky bark, which L'Heritier compares to that of
Pajfiflora fuberofa, is fuppoled peculiar to the prefent
fpecies.

Seft. 2. Leaves nvedge-Jhaped at the bafe.

S. rhombifolia. Rhomb-leaved Sida. Linn. Sp. PI. 961.
Willd. n. 18. Ait. u. 5. Purfti u. 3. Cavan. Difl. 23
and 48. t, 3. f, 12. (Malvinda unicornis, folio rhomboide,
perennis ; Dill. Elth. 216. t. 172. f. 212.) — Leaves ob-
long-lanceolate, acute, ferrated ; wedge-lhaped and entire
at the bafe. Flower-ftalks ftiorter than the leaves. Stipulas
fetaceous, with axillary fpines. — Native of both Indies and
of North America. Cultivated in curious ftoves, where it
bloiioms in kimmer ; but the fmall yellow _^owfr.f have lefs
beauty to boaft than moft of the preceding, with which the
plant agrees in habit, except the tapering entire bafe of its
leaves, whofe under fide is a httle glaucous,

S. ciliaris. Ciliated Sida, Linn, Sp, PI. 961. Willd.
n. 22. Ait. n. 7. C.ivan. Difl. 21, t. 3. f. 9, and 275.
t. 127. f. 2. (Malva minor fupina, beconicse folio, flore
coccineo, feminibus afperis ; Sloane Jam. v, i. 217. t. 137.
f. 2.) — Leaves oval, abrupt, ferrated ; entire and fomewhat
wedge-fliaped at the bafe. Stipulas linear, fringed, longer
than the folitary, nearly feflile, flowers. Capfule; prickly,
not beaked. — Native of dry grafly places in Jamaica, and
other parts of the Weft Indies, flowering after rains. A
fmaU, procumbent, rather flirubby fpecies, whofe leaves are
fcarcely an inch in length, and whofe long fringed Jiipulas
are very remarkable. The Jloivers are crimfon. Seeds, at
well as capfules, rough with minute hairs.

Seft, 3. Leaves henrt-Jhaped, entire, or nearly fo.

S. periplocifoUa. Great Bind-weed-leaved Sida. Linn.
Sp. PI. 962. Willd. n. 23. Ait. n. 8. Cavan. Di(f. 26.
t. 5. f. 2. (Abutilon periplocK acutioris foho, fruftu
ftellato ; Dill. Elth. 4. t. 3.) — Leaves heart-ftiaped, en-
tire ; elongated at the point ; downy beneath. Flower-
ftalks axillary and terminal, fomewhat panicled, much
longer than the footftalks. Capfule with five awned cells.
— Native of both Indies ; long known in our gardens,
where it proves annual or biennial only, even in the ftove,
flowering in fummer. Dillenius fufpefts it to be perennial
and ftirubby in its native country. The flem with us is
three or four feet high. The entire pale or hoary leaves
bear fome refemblance to thofe of Cjnanchum acutum,

though

SIDA.

r iiough more elongated. This laft plant being reckoned a
Periphca by Tournefort and Dillenius, caufed the above
fpecific name. The flowers are yellowifh, fmall, and fuga-
cious, opening in brijrht funfhiiie only.

S. nudiflnra. Naked-flowered Sida. L'Herit. Stirp.
123. t. 59, double. WiUd. n. 26. Ait. n. 10. (S. pe-
ripiocifolia B ; Linn. Sp. PI. 963. S. ftcUata ; Cavan.
Diir. 27 and 349. t. 5. f. 4. Abutilon ampliflimo folio,
caule villofo ; Plum. Ic. 2. t. 3.) — Leaves roundifh-heart-
(haped, pointed, obfcurely crenate ; downy beneath. Pa-
nicle terminal, racemofe, leafiefs. Capfulcs without awns.
— Native of Peru and the Weft Indies. Cultivated by
Miller in 1731. Linnasus confounded this with the latt,
from which it differs in being a more handfome plant, with
larger more copious jloivers, rounder leaves, wliofe edges
are fcarcely ever entire, but minutely crenate ; and capfuhs
of five, fix, or feven cells, pointed, but deftitute of awns.

Seft. 4. Leaves heart-Jhaped, indented. Stcdks Jingle-
flowered.

S. triquetra. Triangular-ftalked Sida. Linn. Sp. PI.
9C2. Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 11. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
V. 2. 54. t. 1 18. Cavan. Dili'. 26. t. 5. f. I. — Leaves
hcart-fhaped, pointed, finely ferrated. Flower-ilalks fome-
what racemofe. Capfule abrupt, without awns. Branches
triangular. — Native of the Weft Indies. Sent to Kew by
profedor Jacquin, its original difcoverer, in 1775. This
is confiderably allied to the laft in habit, though differing
cflentially in the charafters here indicated. The primary
flotver-Jlalls are indeed folitary and axillary, but the greater
part are racemofe and leaflels. Floivers fmall, yellow, with
a purple eye. Capfuhs of five clofe, elongated, parallel
lobes, abrupt at tlic fummit, each lobe, or cell, pointed,
but not awned.

S. patens. Spreading Sida. Andr. Repof. t. 571. Ait.
n. 13. — Leaves hcart-fhaped, pointed, deeply ferrated.
Flower-ftalks hairy, folitaivy, much longer than the foot-
flalks. Capfule of five feparate, taper-pointed cells. — The
feeds of this fine new fpecies were brought by Mr. Salt
from Abyflinia, and plants were raifed from them by lord
vilcount Valentia, in 1806. It flowers in the ilove from
July to September, and is biennial. The branches are
round, and flightly hairy, like all the Jlalis, and the large,
flcnder-pointed leaves, whofe margins are deeply and acutely
ferrated. Floivers near two inches wide, yellow fpecklcd
with orange ; xheir petals fpreading and undulated. Cells of
the capfule diftinft almoll to the very bafe, near an inch long,
ovate, tapering gradually to a point, each containing four
or five feeds.

S. crifpa. Bladder Sida. Linn. Sp PI. 964. Willd.
n. 40. Ait. n. 16. Purfli n. 4. Cavan. Dili. 30. t. 7.
f. I. and 275. t. 135, f. 2. (Abutilon americanum,
fruftu lubrotundo pendulo, e capfulis veficariis crifpis con-
flato ; Mart. Cent. 29. t. 29. A. veficarum crifpum, flori-
bus melinis parvis ; Dill. Eltli. 6. t. 5. A. aliud vefiearium,
Jlore lutco, minus; Plum. le. IJ. t. 25*.) — Leaves heart-
Ihaped, pointed, crenate, downy. Flower-ftalks folitary ;
deflcxed when in fruit. Capfule of numerous, inflated,
membranous, undulated cells. — Native of the Bahama
iflands, and the fea-coaft of Carolina, flowering from July
to September. An annual fpecies, otten feeu in curious
gardens, and remarkable for the bladdery peiid ulcus yVu//,
of many tumid cell?, with undulating furrows between.
T\k Jlowcrs are fmall and white, on long, (lender, fimplc,
axillary ftalks.

S. fylvaliccu Tawny-flowered Sida. Cavan. DilT. 56
.and 276. t. 133. f. 2. Willd. n. 42. — Leaves heart-
fliaped, taper-pointed, crenate, finely downy. Flower-

ftalks axillary, aggregate, fingle-flowercd, much longer
tlian the footftalks. Capfules orbicular, of numerous ab-
rupt cells. — Gathered by Dombey, in woods near the river
Maragnon, in Peru. This fine fpecieS, not noticed in the
HortusKewenfis, flowered in Mr. Cooper's ftove at Norwich,
in November, 181 1. We have alfo a Peruvian Ipecimen,
unnamed, from the late M. L'Heritier. The ftem is eight
or ten feet high, with numerous, round, downy, leafy
branches. Leaves ftalked, roundifli-heart-fliaped, with a
long taper point, finely crenate throughout, five or foven-
ribbed, clothed on botii fides with foft, velvet-like, denfc
pubefcence ; rather paler beneath ; the lower ones a fpan or
more in length, and about half as much in breadth ; upper
much fmaller and narrower, with Awrtcrfootjlalh. Flower^
Jlalks two, three, or four together, from the bofoms of the
upper leaves, and about half their length, equal, creft,
fingle-flowered, downy, jointed near the top, but without
Iradeas. Calyx covered with denfe ftarry down. Corolla
fpreading about an inch and a half, of a peculiar pale
brownifh-orange, or bright cinnamon colour, very elegant,
though not gaudy. Capfule, according to Cavanilks, glo-
bofe, concave in the middle, downy, of from thirty to
thirty-fix clofe, comprefled, abrupt, unawned, fingle-feeded
cells.

S. arborea. Great-flowered Sida. Linn. Suppl. 307.
Willd. n. 43. Ait. n. 17. L'Herit. Stirp. 131. t. 63.
(S. peruviana; Cavan. Difl'. 36. t. 7. f. 8, and 276.
t. 130.) — Leaves orbicular, heart-diaped, crenate, finely
downy, with fhort points. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary,
fingle-flowered, longer than the footftalks. Capf^ules orbi-
cular, of numerous abrupt cells. — Native of Peru. A
green-honfe rather than a ftove-plant, both at Paris and
London, flowering in the latter part of fummer. This is
much larger in all its parts than the foregoing, to whicli it
is, in many refpefts, nearly allied. The leaves however
differ in their fliort points, greater breadth, and more orbi-
cular form, the lobes at their bafe folding over each other,
fo as to give the leaf a peltate afpeft. The footjlalks are
fix inches long in the lower leaves, two or three in the
upper. From the bofoms of the latter proceed \\\c Jtower-
Jlalks, twice the length of their correfpondiiig footftalks,
always folitary, as far as we have obferved, though WiU-
denow fays they are in pairs. We fufpeft he confounded
this fpecies and the laft. The Jlowers are full twice tiie
lize of 6'. fylvatica, and of a pale fulphur-colour, or yeU
lowifh-vvhite.

S. /Ibulilon. Broad-leaved Yellow Sida. Linn. Sp.
PI. 963. Willd. n. 47. Ait. n. 21. (Altha;a altera,
five Abutilon; Camcr. Epit. 668. A. lutea ; Ger. Em.
935. Abutilon Avicennsc ; Befl. Hort. Eyft. jcftiv. ord. 6.
t. 10. f. I.) — Leaves roundifll-heart-fliaped, pointed,
tootlied, downy. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary, fliorter
than the footftalks. Caplules orbicular, of numerous', ab-
rupt, double-beaked cells. — Native of both Indies ; long
cultivated in the gardens of Europe, and partly naturali/ed
in the warmer parts, fo that H.iller admits it as a Swifg
plant, undir his n. lO/J. Gerarde raifed it every year,
from Sj)anini or Italian leeds ; for he fays it hardly ripened
any in his garden, not flowering till September. The
root is annual. Stem much branched. Leaves not unlike
the arborea in fliape, but more pointed, more coarfely
notched, often obicurely lobed, and lefs foftly pubefceiit.
Flowers yellow, not an inch wide, folitary, except that
each is frequently accompanied by a young flowering branch.
Capfules downy, with a fliarp, ilouble, incurved beak to eacli
ceil. — 'I'his, like many other old garden plants, of which no
coloured plates exiit, ought to be figured in periodical puh-

licaliuiis,

SID A.

lication?, iiiilcad of the repetitions, fojuftly complained of,
ill the generality of thole vvoiks. Haller records, after
Linder, that the' feeds of S. AbiUilcn, taken to the amount
of an ounce, have been found powerfully foponfic.

SeA. 5. Lea'jes heart-Jhaped, indented. Stalls many-
flcauered or racemofe. „ t.i ^

S. umbelhta. Umbellate Sida. Linn. Sp. PI. 962.
Willd. n. 76. Ait. n. 31. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. I. 22.
t. j6. Cavan. DifT. 28. t. 6. f. 3, and 275. t. 129. f. 2.
— Leaves roundiih-heart-fhaped, tootlied, fomewhat an-
gular, rather downy. Stalks umbellate, axillary and pa-
nicled. Capfules with double-awned cells. — Native of the
Welt Indies. Annual or biennial, flowering in our ftoves
in autumn. The lea'ves are light green, phant, minutely
hairy, and though foft to the touch, yet not of that velvet-
like texture fo remarkable in moil of the preceding feftions.
Flowers fmall, yellow, five or fix in each long-ilalked axillary
folitarv umbel. The upper umbels are, many of them, un-
attended by leaves. The valves of the capfule have each a
fharp, flender, ereft beak.

S. paniculata. Panicled Sida. Linn. Sp. PI. 962.
Willd. n. 78. Ait. n. 32. Cavan. Difl". 16. t. 12. f. 5.
Swartz Obf. 259. (S. atro-fangumea ; Jacq. Coll. v. 1.
49. Ic. Rar. t. 136. S. capillaris ; Cavan. Dili. 10.

t. I. f. 7.) Leaves ovate or heart-fliaped, toothed, downy

on both fides. Flowers panicled, with capillary ftalks.
Capfules rough, with double-beaked cells. — Native of cal-
careous rocks in J.-imaica, as well as Peru and Brazil. Sir
.Tofeph Banks is recorded as having fent it, in 1795, to
Kew, where it flowers in the ilove from July to September.
Mr. Alton marks this fpecies as biennial. Jacquin defcribes
it as an evergreen Jlirub, eighteen feet high, almolt always
in bloom. Our wild Peruvian fpecimens appear woody,
with rough round branches. Tiio leaves are tlalked, of a
roundifli-ovate, partly heart-fliaped figure, various in length
from one to three inches, ftrongly ferrated, clothed on both
fides, but moll denfely beneath, with ftellated pubefcence.
Flowers fmall, crimfon, copious, on long, very flender,
panicled ftalks. Corolla more or lefs reflexed.

S. termir.alis. Terminal-ilalked Sida. Cavan. Dili. 29.
t. 6. f. 6. t. 195. f. 2. Willd. n. 82. — Leaves heart-
fhaped, doubly crenate, fomewhat lobed, very foft and
downy. Clullers fiinple, fomewhat corymbofe, on very
long, lolitary, terminal ftalks. Capfule hairy. — Gathered
at Monte Video, by Commerfon, whofe fpecimen is be-
fore us. The_y?.'m is flirubby, much branched, downy,
apparently of rather humble growth. Leaves dependent,
ftiorter than t\\e\r fooljlalis, heart-fliaped, bluntifh, veiny,
fcarccly an inch long, extremely foft, their notches broad,
round, and very unequal. Floiuer-Jlalks terminal, though
the branches are often fubfequently elongated beyond them,
folitary, fimple, naked, four or five inches in length, round,
downy, each bearing four or five rather large, ftalked,
corymbofe, yellowj?oiy^rj, externally purphfli, with linear
braSeas, which foon fall off. The capfule, twice as long as
the calyx, is thickly clothed with long upright hairs. — The
curious reader m.ay obferve how Willdenow, witliout any
other guide than the defcription and plates of Cavanilles,
has altered his fpecific charadter for the worfe. Willdenow
terms the leaves " ovato-lanceolate" and " toothed," for
neither of which there is any foundation ; but it may ferve
us, in any other doubtful cafe, to underftand his phrafeology,
ior which rcafon, chiefly, we here point it out.

Sefi. 6. Leaves heart-Jhaped, three-pointed, or angular
at the bafe.

S. crajfifolia. Thick-leaved Sida. I/Herit. Stirp. 125.
t, 60. Willd. n. 84. (S. triculpidala J Cavan. Dill". 30.

't

t. 6. f. 5.) — Leaves heart-lhaped, toothed, pointed, ob- '
fcurely lobed, downy on both fides. Stalks folitar)', fingle-
flowered, about equal to the footftalks. Capfules with
double-beaked cells, rather longer than the calyx. — Gather-
ed in Hifpaniola by Thierry de MenonviUe. A fto-e-plant
at Paris, unknown in our coUsftions. The_/7^ff! is fhrubby,
branched, round, downy. Leaves three inches long,
ftrongly fcented, bordered witli tooth-like ferr.itures, and
furnifhed with one or two flight lobes at each fide. Flonuers
yellow, an inch broad, on long, fimple, axillary ftalks.

5. periptera. Shuttlecock Sida. Sims in Curt. Mag.
t. 1644. — Leaves heart-fliaped, ferrated, pointed, downy
on both fides, fomewhat angular ; the upper ones halberd-
fliaped. Panicle racemofe. Petals emarginate, nearly ereft,
fhorter than the ftamens. Capfule without beaks. — Sup-
pofed to be a native of Mexico. It flowers nearly through-
out the year, in the coUettion of John Walker, efq. of
Arno's grove, Southgate ; but we are not informed whe-
ther it is a greenhoufe or ftove-plant. The Jlem is tall and
flirubby, with round hifpid branches. Leaves green, alter-
nate, ftalked, diftant ; the upper ones elongated, and deeply
lobed. Floivers elegant, bright fcarlet, near an inch long,
of a fliuttlecock form, as the inverfely heart-fliaped, oblong
petals I'prcad but very little. The column oi Jlanuns rife*
conliderably above them.

6. hajlata. Halberd-leaved Mexican Sida. Willd. n. 89,
Ait. n. 33. Aiidr. Repof. t. j88. Curt. Mag. t. 1541.
(S. criftata ;S; Linn. Sp. PI. 964. Anodahaftata; Cavan.
Diff. 38. t. II. f. 2.) — Lower leaves heart-fliaped, lobed;
upper hailate. Stalks axillary, folitary, fingle-flowered,
longer than the leaves. Petals obovate, fpreading, entire.
Native of Mexico. Its feeds were brought from Spain by
the late marchionefs of Bute. An annual or biennial ftove
plant, w^hich may be raifed on a hot-bed early in the fpring,
and planted out in the open border. It is fcarcely how-
ever likely to be added to the lift of tropical annuals, gene-
rally fo cultivated, being much inferior in beauty to many
other plants, of the Mallow tribe, that are quite hardy.
Itsjlotuers are light purphfii-blue, about an inch wide, on
long, ftraggling tlalks. The divifions and Ihape of the
leaves vary greatly. The valves of the capfule have no
beaks.

5. cri/lala. Crefted Sida. Linn. Sp. PI. 964. Willd.
n. 90. Curt. Mag. t. 330. (Anona triloba; Cavan.
Difl. 39 and 55. t. 10. f. 3.) — Leaves crer.ate, pointed;
the lower ones angular ; upper haftate. Stalks axillary,
fohtary, fingle-flowered, longer than the leaves. Petals
inverfely heart-lhaped, thrice the length of the calyx. —
Native of Mexico ; long iince known in our gardens. We
have however afcertained the fynonym of Cavanilles, by
feeds received from himfelf, and raifed by the late lady Amelia
Hume, in whofe ftove this plant flowered in July 1806.
It may probably fucceed, as Mr. Curtis obferves, if raifed
on a hot-bed and planted out in a flower-border. This is
diftinguiftied from the lalt by its very large cr'iTr.{on powers,
rendering it far more wortliy of cultivation. Few plants
vary more in the fliape of their fobage, fo that we are
fatisfied of the S. Dilleniuna, Willd. n. 91. Ait. n. 34,
figured in Cavanilles, t. 11. f. 1, and in Dill. Hort. Elth.
t. 2, being a mere variety ; fo little defined indeed, that
we can hardly dillinguifli it as even fuch.

Seft. 7. Leaves lobed, palmate, or compound.

6. triloba. Three-lobed Cape Sida. Cavan. Difl". 11.
t. I. f. II, very bad ; and 274. t. 131. f. I. Willd. n. 92.
Thunb. Prodr. 117. Jacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. 2. 9. t. 142.
— Leaves heart-fliaped, toothed, with three or five lobes ;
the middle one longelt and fliarpell. Stalks axillary, foli-
tarv.

S 1 D

S 1 D

tary, fmgle-flowered, longer than the leaves. Lobes of the
capfule obtufe. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope. The
film is fhrubby, much branched, widely fpreadinjj. Leaves
one and a half or two inches wide. Floiuers fmall, white,
inferior in beauty to thofe of the Malva fragrans or capenfis,
to which this plant is ilriftly aUicd in habit and every cha-
rafter, except the want of an outer calyx.

S. ternata. Ternate-lcaved Cape Sida. Linn. Suppl.
307. Willd. n. 93. Thunb. Prodr. 118. — " Leaves ter-
nate ; leaflets lanceolate, didantly ferrated." — Gathered by
Thunberg at the Cape. We have fcen no fpecimen ; but
by the above fcanty information, this fhould feem to differ
from the lait much as the two Cape Mallows, juft mentioned,
differ from each other.

S. pterofperma. Winej-feeded Jagged Sida. I/Herit.
Stirp. 115. t. 57. WiUd. n. 94. (S. muhifida ; Cavan.
Diir. 25. t. 4. f. 2.) — Leaves with three deep, obtufe,
finuated lobes. Panicle much branched. Cells of the cap-
fule numerous, each crowned with a double membranous
wing — Gathered by Dombey, in fandy ground at Lima.
It was raifed at Paris, but required great heat. The root
is annual. Stem prollrate, much branched, a foot long,
round, befprinkled with (tarry hairs. Leaves on long ftalks,
deeply divided, pinnatifid or waved, with blunt rounded
lobes and fegments. Flowers fmall, white, in terminal,
panicled, rather hairy, clujlers, each flower on a long ftalk,
and turned downwards. Capfule very peculiar, on account
of the numerous, double, membranous, rounded wings,
which form an orbicular crell on its fummit.

S. jatrophoides. Phyfick-nut-leaved Sida. L'Herit.
Stirp. 117. t. 56. Willd. n. 96. Ait. n. gj. (S. pal-
mata ; Cavan. Did". 274. t. 131. f. 3. Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t. 547.) — Leaves palmate, with deep, acute, pinnatifid
lobes. Panicle many-flowered, hairy. Cells of the cap-
fule without awns. — Native of Lima and Peru. Sent to
Kew in 1787 by M. Thouin. An annual ftove-plant,
flowering in Augufl, and diftinguiflied by the deep lobes of
its leaves, feven or more, varioufly and deeply finuated, pin-
natifid and cut, refembling thofe of the Nap^a, to which
genus we fufpedt this fpecies may naturally belong ; for
L'Heritier fpeaks of tha feeds as feparating with difficulty
from their cells. We are puzzled by his account of thefe
cells being awned in the wild plant, but not in the cultivated
one. But this difficulty may be folvcd by his having, like
Cavanilles, originally confounded the prefcnt fpecies with
what he afterwards called j'. riclnoidts, in which the valves
of the cells are ilrongly awned. We have a fpecimen of
jatrophoides from L'Heritier himfclf marked ricinoides.
Yet the two are very diflindl in their foliage as well :3
fruit.

Sida, in Gardening, contains plants of the exotic, tender,
herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies chiefly cul-
tivated are; the rhomb-leaved fida (S. rhombifolia) ; the
great bindweed-leaved fida (S. periplocifolia) ; the triangu-
lar-ttalked fida (S. triquetra) ; the broad-leaved fida (S.
abutilon) ; the white-flowcrcd fida (S. alba) j and the
heart -leaved fida (S. cordifolia).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plant.<> may be increafcd by
feeds, which fhould be fown upon a moderate hot-bed in the
early fpring, or in pots dcpolited in them. In the firfl cafe,
when tlie plants have attained fome growth, they fhould be
removed to another hot-bed, and be fet out four inches ap;irt
each way, or into feparate pots, replunging tlicm in tlie hot-
bed, being fhaded till they have taken new root ; a large
proportion of free air being admitted in fine weather, and
alfo frequent waterings : they (hould afterwards be gra-
dually hardened to bear the open air in the fummer feafon.

Vol. XXXn.

Some of them may alfo be raifed from offsets and cuttings,
planted in pots in the fummer feafon.

It may be noticed that the fourth fort is fufficiently hardy
to bear the open air : the feeds fhould be fown where the
plants are to remain, as they do not bear trar.fplanting well.
It is an annual plant.

As fome of the fpecies do not flower till the fecond year,
of courfe they fhould be pl.i.ccd in the ftove in the autumn,
and be managed during the winter as other terider exotic
plants of the fame nature.

Moft of thefe afford ornament among other potted plants
in the ftove, and the fourth fort in the borders and other
parts of pleafure-grounds.

Sida, in /Indent Geography, a town of Afia, in Pam-
phylia, upon the fea-coaft, near the mouth of the river Eu-
rymedon. Ptolemy. — Alfo, a town of Greece, in the Pe-
loponnefus. which took its name from one of the daughters
of Dan'aus, according to Paufanias.

SIDACA, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia. Steph.
Byz.

SIDALA, a town of Afia, in Armenia Major. Ptol.

SIDAMER, in Geography, a kingdom of the ifland of
Java, on the S. coafl, bounded on the W. by Bantam, on
the N. by Jacatra, on the E. by Kandang Wefee, and on the
S; by the fea.

SiDASIVA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god
Siva, the prefixed epithet being one of reverence. It is not
often ufed, though it frequently occurs in the Siva-purana.

SIDATSCHOW, or Zydaczow, in Geography, 3l town
of Auflrian Poland, in Galicia ; 35 miles S. of Lemberg.
N. lat. 49° 16'. E. long. 24° 19'.

SIDBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Wafa ;
15 miles S. of Chriftinelladt.

SIDDAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 10
miles S.W. of Periapatam.

SIDDINGHAUSEN, a town of Weilphalia, in the
bifhopric of Paderborn ; 3 miles S.S.W. of Buren.

SIDDO, a harbour on the W. coafl of Sumatra. N.
lat. 5° 8'. E. long. 95° 27'.

SIDDOW, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied to
peas that boil foft. It is employed in fome diltridts, as Glou-
cellerlhire, to fignify or denote fuch peas as boil freely, or
in a ready manner, into a foft mafs. Some forts of lands
only have the peculiar property or quality of railing or pro-
ducing this kind, or thofe that poflefs fuch a capability. Upon
them, therefore, thofe of the Chariton fort arc molUy fown or
planted in this intention. Soils of tlic calcareous dcfcription
or quality are commonly capable of affording this boiling fort ;
but thofe that are of the clayey kind do not poflefs the fame
capability. Tlii-. quality in poalc is cxpreflcd by the terms
boiling, making, and fome otliers, in diflerent other diflrifts.
See Pica.

SIDE, in Ancient Geography, a place of Afia Minor, in
the Troade. Strabo.

SiDR, Lotus, in Geometry. The fije of a Jigiire is a line
making part of tlie periphery of any fuperficial figure. See
FiriuuK.

In triangles, the fides are alfo called legs. In a right-
angled triangle, the two fides, including tlic rigiit angle,
are called ratheti ; and tlie third, the hypothenufe.

Si 1)1', of a polygonal number is the number ot the terms of
the rinthmetical progreffion that arc fummed up. See Po-
l,Yf;o\Al, Number,

Si 1)1 of power is what we otlierwife call the root, or
radix.

Smrs of hom-tuorh, croivn-tvorks, double tenailles, and

the like out-works, are the ramparts and parapets which

4 P inclofc

S EI)

indole them on the right and left, from tlie gorge to the
iiead.

Side, Right, in Conks. See Latus ReSum.

Side, Tranfver/e. See Latus Tranfaa-fum.

Sides of a Ship, are diltinguillied into ihe Jlarloard znA
larboard; that is, into the right and left-hand iide, when
Handing with the face towards tlie head of the veflel. See
Starboard and Larboard.

Side, Broad, in Sea Language, is to fire all the guns
on one fide of the fhip.

SiDE-W^;W. See Wind.

SiDE-G rafting. See Engrafting.

Sin^-Lays is a term made ufe of by huntfmen, when
dogs are placed in the way, to be let flip at a deer, as he
palles by.

SiBE-Sadd/e Floivcr. See Holloiu-kaved Sea Lavender.

SiDE-Cu/j-, are the (hort lengths of canal by the fides of
rivers, for condenfing the navigation by mills, fliallows, &c.

SlDE-Laying Ground, is that vvhofe iurface, a=; A E L
(Plate I. Canals, figs. 2 and 3.) is lower on one fide of the
canal than on the other.

SiDE-Loeis, or Side-ponds, are refervoirs or excavations
by the fide of a canal or lock, for retaining water. See
Canal.

SiDE-Puddk is often ufd to exprefs the puddle-ditches,
gullies or gutters thai are formed like a wall within a can.il-
bank, for preventing breaks from the fame.

SIDELING Hills, in Geography, a range of hills in
America, on the N.W. part of the ilate of Maryland.

SIDENA, in y/iicieni Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

SiDENA, or Sidona, a very fertile country of Afia, on the
fea-coail, in the kingdom of Pontus, in which, according to
Strabo, were fome llrong places, befides a town of the
fame name. — Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade,
upon the Grauicus ; which was ruined in the time of
Strabo.

SIDENI, a people of Germany, who occupied the banks
of the Oder. — Alfo, a people of Arabia Felix. Ptol. —
Alfo, a people of the Cappadocian Pontus, who inhabited
the couHtry of Sidena. Pliny.

SiDENi Sinus, a gulf of Afia Minor, upon the Thracian
Bofphorus, near the Euxine fea. This gulf was formed by
the promontory Ancyreum and by that of Pfonion.

SIDEN8I0, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in An-
germanland ; 40 miles N. of Hernofand.

SIDEPATTY, a town of Bengal; 12 miles N.W. of
Midnapour.

SIDERATIO, in Medicine, from fidus, a planet, be-
caufe violent and fndden maladies were afcribed to the in-
fluence of the ilars, a term which has been applied to feve-
ral difeafes of that character. It has been principally ufed
t(j fignify apoplexy, or a ludden palfy ; but it has been applied
by others to murlif cation, or fphacelus of a limb ; and by
fome to eryftpelas of a limb, which is vulgarly called a
blafl.

SIDERATION, the blafting or blighting of trees,
plants, &c. by eatlcrn winds, exceflive heat, drought, or
the like cauf36. See Blioiit.

SIDERIA, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a genus of
cryllal. The word is d^nv:d from the Greek <ni'<;;o;, iron,
and is ufcd to exprefs tiyilals altered in their figure by par-
ticles of that metal, Tlieie are of a rhomboidal form, com-
pofed only of fix planes.

Of this genus there are four known fpecies. I. A co-
lourlefs, pellucid, and thin one, found m confiderablc quanti-
ties aaiong the iron ores of th(,> fortit of Dean, in Gloucef-

12

S I D

terdiire, and in other the like places. 2. A dull, thick, and
brown one, not uncommon in the fame placeg^with the for-
mer. And, 3. A black and very glofly kind, a fofiil of
very great beauty, found in the fame place with the others,
as alfo in Leicellerfhire and Suflex. Hill.

SIDERIAL Year. See Year.

SiDEKiAL Day is the time in which any ftar revolves from
the meridian to the meridian again ; ii/z. 23 hours, 56 mi-
nutes, 4 fcconds, 6 thirds of mean folar time. There are
366 fiderial days in a year, or in the time of 365 diurnal re-
volutions of the fun. The firlt column of the following ta-
ble is the number of revolutions of the ftars ; the others,
next are the times in which thefe revolutions are made, as
lliLwn by a well-ieguhted clock ; and thofe on the right
hand fliew the daily accelerations of the ftars, that is, how
much any liar gains upon the time (hewn by (uch a clock, iu
each revolution.

-R

'Vi

Times in h

liicli t

lefeR

evolutions

.Accelerations of the S

3tars.

es ■

?• -.

are made.

D.

11.

W.

s.

III

nil

H.

M.

.s.

III

Ihl

I

0

23

56

4

6

0

0

3

SS

54

0

2

I

23

52

8

12

I

0

7

51

47

59

3

2

U

48

12

18

I

0

II

47

41

59

4

s

23

44

16

24

2

0

15

43

35

58

5

4

23

40

20

30

2

0

19

39

29

58

6

5

23

36

24

3^

3

0

23

35

23

57

1 7

6

23

32

28

42

3

0

27

3'

17

57

8

7

23

28

32

48

4

0

31

27

II

56

9

8

23

24

36

54

4

0

35

23

5

5^

10

9

23

20

41

0

5

0

39

18

59

55

II

10

23

16

45

6

5

0

43

14

53

55

12

II

23

12

49

12

6

0

47

lO

47

54

'3

12

23

8

53

18

6

0

5'

6

41

54

'4

13

23

4

57

24

7

0

55

2

35

5'^

15

'4

23

I

I

30

7 0

58

58

29

53

16

15

22

57

5

36

8 I

2

54

23

52

17

16

22

53

9

42

8] I

6

50

17

52

18

17

22

49

13

48

9I »

10

46

II

51

'9

18

22

45

17

54

9

'4

42

5

51

20

19

22

41

22

0

10

18

37

59

50

21

20

22

37

26

6

10

22

33

53

50

22

21

22

33

30

12

II

26

29

47

49

23

22

22

29

34

18

11

30

25

41

49

24

23

22

25

38

24

12

34

21

35

48

25

24

22

21

42

30

12

38

17

29

48

26

25

22

17

46

36

13

42

13

23

47

27

26

22

•3

50

42

13

46

9

17

47

28

27

22

9

54

48

14

50

5

II

46

29

28

22

5

58

54

14

54

I

5

46

30

29

22

2

3

0

15

57

56

59

45

40

39

21

22

44

0

19

2

37

15

59

41

50

49

20

43

25

0

24

3

16

34

59

36

100

99

'7

26

50

0

48

6

33

9

59

12

200

'99

10

r:,

40

I

37

13

6

19

58

23

300

299

4

20

30

2

25

'9

39

29

57

35

360

359

0

24

36

2

54

23

35

23

57

6

365

3^4

0

4

56

32

56

23

S5

3

57

4

366

365

0

I

0

38

57

23

58

59

21

3

This table will not differ the 279,936,000,000th part of a
fecond of time.

If the equinoftial points were at reft in the heavens, there
would be exadly 366 revolutions of the ftars from the meri-
dian

SID

dian to the meridian again in 365 days. But the equinoftial
points go backward with refpeft to the Itars, at the rate
of lifty feconds of a degree in a Juhan year ; which caufeth
the ftars to have an apparent progreffive motion eaftward
fifty feconds in that time. And, as the fun's mean motion
in the echptic is o ily 1 1 figns 29 degrees 48 minutes 40 fe-
conds 15 thirds, in 36J days, it is plain, that at the end of
that time he will be 14 minutes 19 feconds 45 thirds (liort of
that point of the ecliptic from whicii he fet out at the be-
ginning ; and the liars will be advanced 50 feconds ol a de-
gree with refpeCt to that point.

Conlequently, if the fun's centre be on the meridian
with any ilar on any given day of the year, that ilar will be
14' 19" 45'" + 50", or 15' 9" 45'" eaft of the fun's centre,
on the 365th day afterward, when the fun's centre is
on the meridian ; and therefore that Itar will not come to
the meridian on that day till the fun's centre has paffed it by
I minute o lecond 38 thirds 57 fourths of mean folar time ;
for the fun takes fo much time to go through an arc of
15' 9" 4j"' ; and then, in 365 days o hour i minute o fecond
38 thirds 57 fourths, the ftar will have jull completed its
366th revolution to the meridian.

This table was calculated by Mr. Fergufon ; and it is
the only table of the kind in which the rcceffion of the cqui-
nodlial points has been taken into the calculation.

SIDERITE, in Mineralogy, a name given by Bergman
to a fuppofed pecuhar metallic fubllance, which is the prin-
cipal caufe of the brittlenefs of certain kinds of bar iron.
It has fince been difcovered to be phofphate of iron.

3IDERITES, a name which fome authors give to tlie
load-ltoiie. See Magnet.

SIDERITIS, in Botany, fuppofed to be the o-iJ»;j;»ti5 of
the Greeks, of which Diofcorides defcribes three fpecies,
all celebrated for ftaunching blood, and healing wounds.
The firit quality they might very well pofTefs, being, ac-
cording to his account, rough herbs, akin to Marrubium,
in which alfo there might be fomewhat of an allringent or
tonic quality. They anfwer indeed to the general idea of
the genus to which modern botanifts have applied the name,
whofe etymology is to be fought in crior^o.;. Iron ; but
whether it alludes to that metal as the caufe ot wounds, to
the rulty colour of the flowers, as De Theis imagines, or to
any other circumftance, nothing but conjcfture can be of-
fered.—Linn. Geti. 290. Schreb. 387. WiUd. Sp. PI.
V. 3. 63. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
384. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grasc. Sibth. v. i. 400. .luil. 113.
Tourn. t. 90. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 505. — Clafs and order,
Diilynamia Gymnnfpermia. Nat. Ord. Ferticillalir, Linn.
I.abiiits, Juif

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
oblong, cut nearly half way down into five acute, almoll
equal, fegments. Cor. of one petal, nearly equal ; tube
cylindrical, oblong ; throat oblong, fomcwhat cylindrical ;
upper lip eredt, narrow, divided ; lower in tiiree fegments,
of which the lateral ones are molt acute, and fcarcely fo
large as the upper lip, the middle one roundifli. Statn. Fila-
ments four, within the tube of the corolla, and fliorter than
the throat, two of them fmaller than the rtll ; anthers
roundifli, two of them with two diitinft lobes. Pifl. Ger-
men four-cleft ; ftyle thread-fhaped, rather longer than the
Itamens ; ftigmas two ; the uppermoil cylindrical, concave,
abrupt ; die lower membranous, fliortcil, fheathing the
other. Piric, none, the feeds being lodged in the bale of
the calyx. Seeds four.

Eli'. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla ringent ; its upper
lip eredt, divided; lower deeply thrcc-cleft. Stamens

S ID

within the tube of the corolla. One ftigma fhorter, em.
bracing the other.

1. S. canarienjis. Canary Iron-wort, or Sage-tree.
Linn. Sp. PI. 801. Ait. n. i. Jacq Hort. Vind. v. 3.
18. t. 30. (Stachys ampHITimis vcrbafci foliis, iloribui

albis, &c. ; Pluk. Almag. 356. Phyt. t. 322. f. 4.)

Shrubby and villous. Leaves oblong-heart-fhaped, acute,
ftalked. Spikes fimple, wlmrled, drooping before flower-
ing. Branches fpreading. Calyx awiied. — Native of Ma-
deira, and the Canary iflands. Cultivated in our green-
houfes I 20 years ago, and itill prefcrved in general collec-
tions, flowering throughout the fummor. The Jlem and

Jlalks are clothed with foft, denfe, white, velvet-like pu-
befcence. Leaves green above, elegantly edged with white,
finely crenate, rather fliaggy ; more thickly clothed be-
neatli. JFhorls denfe, numerous, accompanied by dimi-
nifhed leaves, fo as to form a long fpHe, drooping while
young, but deftitute of proper hraQeas. Flowers very
numerous, white, with a wide orbicular mouth, and fliortilh
limb, whofe upper fegment hardly anfwers to the generic
charafter, being notched, but not cloven in the middle.

2. S. cantllcans. Mullein-leaved Iron-wort. Ait. n. 2.
Willd. n. 2 ; excluding the fynonym. — Shrubby and
downy. Leaves denfely downy, ovato-lanceolate, taper-
pointed ; heart-fhaped at the bafe ; fnow-white beneath.
Spikes compound. Whorls remote, each of about eiglit
flowers. Calyx obtufe, pointlcfs. — Native of Madeira ;
long known in the gardens of England, ae well as Holland ;
flowering from April to July, and flickered in the green-
lioufe in winter, with moderate fupplies of water. Akin to
the preceding, with which Liniixus confounded it ; but dif-
fering in the peculiar denfe fnow-wiiite clotiiing of the leaves,
which almoft refemble thick white leather. The Jloivcrs
are larger, and fewer, with an obtufe, very woolly, calyx,
deftitute of awns, and grow in compound, whorled, leafy

/pikes. The inflorefcence is fo dificrent from Commelin's
figure, cited by Ailon and Willdenow, that we rather
follow Linnaeus in applying that fynonym to the following
fpecies; though not quite without a fufpicion of its really
belonging to S. canarienjis.

3. S. crelica. Cretan Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 801,
excluding the reference to Tournefort. Willd. n. 3.
(Stachys canarienfis frutefcens, verbafci foliis ; Commel.
Hort. V. 2. 197. t. 99?) — Shrubby and downy. Leaves
denfely downy, heart-fllapcd, bluntiih, broadly crenate, on
long lialks ; fnow-white beneath. Spikes fimple, whorled.
Calyx obtufe, pointlefs. — Native of Crete and Greece.
This has the very denfe white pubefcence of the lait ipecies,
but diflers in its larger, blunter, more llrongly crenate
leaves, and efpecially its folitary unbranched leaflefs /pikes.
The whorls confill each ot eight or more Jloiuers, whofe
calyx, though lefs woolly, nearly agrees with the preceding,
being totally unlike the fpinous-pointed calyx of S. canari-
enfis. If Commelin's plate had been executed with any
care, this circumftance would have determined his fynonym,
which certainly belongs either to our firft or third fpecies,
and not to the fecond.

4. S. /yriaca. Syrian Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 8oi.
Willd. a. 7. Ait. n. 6. Sm. Fl. Gnec. Sibth. t. 5^°'
unpubliflied. (S. cretica tomentofa candidiflima, flore
luteo ; Tourn. Cor. 12. Stachys; Ger. Em. 695. S.
lychnoides incana angultifolia, flore aureo, italica ; Barrel.
Ic. t. I 187. ) — Shrubby, clothed with woolly down. Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, nearly entire. Wliorls axillary, many,
flowered. Calyx acute, without awns. — Native of I'aly,
Crete, and various parts of the Levant. The root is pe«

4 P J roanial

SIDERITIS.

rcnnial and woody. Stms erea, moftly fimplc, herbaceous,
a foot hi^h, clothed, like the whole of the herbage, with
long, foft, filky, denfe, wliite wool. The radical and
lower Jlem-leaves are obovate, or elliptic-lanceolate, ob-
fcurely crcnate ; thofe which accompany the flowers are
generally much ftiortcr, ovate, and acute ; fomctimes they
nearly refemble the reft of the foliage, evincing that they
are not Iradeas, as fome etteem them, but real leaves.
I'/horh about eight, a little dilbiit, each of fix bright yel-
low flotuers. Calyx obovate, denfely woolly, with live
(harp teeth, but no awns or points. Corolla twice as long,
contrafted at the mouth, downy externally, its fegments
acute, all entire.

5. S. iaurka. Tartarian Iron-wort. Willd. n. 8.
(" S. fyriaca; Pallas Nov. Aft. Petrop. v. 10. 312.")—
Somewhat (hrubby, downy. Leaves lanceolate, crcnate.
Whorls crowded. Floral leaves heart-fiiaped, pointed, re-
ticulated with elevated veins. — Native of Tartary. The
Iranckes are a foot long, fubdiviJed, clothed with white
down. Radical leaves ^AVit^,Jlem-leaves fefiile, all crenate,
run-n-ed with veins, and covered with fine woollinefs ; the
floral ones roundith-ovate, pointed, ribbed, reticulated,
iliorter than the calycts ; woolly, like the other leaves, till
the flowers are palt, when they become nearly fmooth, ex-
cept the edges. Corolla yellow, ll^illd.

6. S. dyiaiis. Diilant-whorled Iron-wort. WiUd. n, 9.
— <« Somewhat (hrubby, hoary. Leaves lanceolate, acute,
entire. Whorls dillant. Floral leaves heart-fhaped, fliarp-
pointed, reticulated with elevated veins." — Suppofed to be
a native of the Levant. Willdeaow obtained it from fome
old herbarium, with the nanr.e of SiderUts foTiis conjugath
amphxtcaul'ihm rh^ulis. Fie defcribes it as like the former,
but different, having acute, entire, lefs downy leaves-, the

jlem alone being villous. Whorls very diftant, accompanied
by nearly fmooth leaves, with (harp points. Tube of the
corolla longer than the calyx ; the middle fegment of its
lower lip obtufe, but not emarginate. We are unac-
quainted with nny thing anfwering to this defcription.

J. S. perfoliaia. Perfoliate Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 802.
Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 7. Piodr. Fl. Grxc. n. 1330.
(S. orientali"!, phlomidis folio; Tourn, Cor. 12?) — Her-
baceous, rough with briitly hairs. Upper leaves ovato-
lanceolate, obicurely toothed, clafpmg the item ; floral
ones heart-(haped, (harp-pointed, reticulated, fringed. —
Native of the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it in fome
part of Greece, or the neighbouring ifland?, but omitted to
mark the precife fpot. No (igure is extant of this Ipecies.
The herbage is green, hairy, and briftly, not downy. Leaves
reticulated with copious veins ; the floral ones crowded,
(hort, and broad, with fpinous points, their di(k pale, and
femi-pellucid. Flowers fix in a whorl. Calyx tubular,
round, without angles, glandular and hairy ; its teeth long,
ered, ribbed, Ipinous. Linnaeus fays the corolla is white,
with fome reddilh veins.

8. S. ciliata. Fringed Japan Iron-wort. Thunb. Jap.
245. Willd. n. I 1— Herbaceous, villous. Leaves (talked,
ovate, ferrated, dotted ; the floral ones orbicular, ribbed,
fringed. — Native of Japan. Stem a. foot high, or more,
fquare, ereft, branched. Leaves hardly an inch long,
acute ; pale beneath ; marked on the upper fide with de-
prefl'ed dots. Footjlalks rather (horter than the leaves.
Spiks terminal (whorled?) lanceolate, creef, a finger's
length. Floral leaves imbricated, pointed, not fpinous.
Thunb.

9. S. montana. Mountain Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
802. WjUd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Aultr. v. 5, i6.

t. 434. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth. t. 551, uupubliihcd. (S.
montana, parvo florc nigro-purpureo ; Column. Ecphr,
198. t. 196.) — Herbaceous, decumbent, hairy. L-^ave*
deflexed, fpiious-pointed. Calyx-tccth fpreading, fpiiiou?,
nearly uniform. — Native of Italy and the Levant. A
hardy annual, cultivated by Miller in Chelfea garden, where
it (till fprings up fpontaneoufly every year, flowering in
June and July. The Jlem is branched from the bottom,
hairy, rather rigid, a fout long, diffufe, clothed all the
way up with ovate, concave, deflexed, flightly notched,
green, hairy leaves, each accompanied by a whorl of fix
Jlowers. The calyx is tubular, very hairy, except its lip,
which fpreads in two divifions ; the upper three-lobed, with
three fpinous teeth ; the lower deeply divided, rather nar-
rower, with two ; mouth hairy. Corolla with a yellow
(lender tube, the length of the calyx ; limb various, fome-
times very (mall, yellow, bordered with brown on all fides ;
fometimes, as in our garden plants, and in Dr. Sibthorp's
Greek ipecimens, the upper lip only is (mall and brown,
the lower dilated, yellow, obtufely three-lobed. This does
not at all anfuer to the figure and defcription of Columna.
We are not without a fufpicion of two fpecics being here
confounded, and yet we arc r.ot able to ti-ace a permanent
diftindtion between any of the fpeciinens we have feen.

10. S. romana. Simple-beaked Iron-wort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 802. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 5. Cavan. Ic. v, 2. 69.
t. 187. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 552, unp«bli(hed.
(Sideritis genus fpinofis verticiUis ; Bauli. Hift. v. 3. 428.)
— Herbaceous, decumbent, hairy. Calyx-teetb fpinous;
the uppermoft large(l,folitary, ovate. — Gathered by Cherler
firlt near Rome, whence the Ipecitic name. It has however
been found in (ields and walle ground in many other parts
of the fouth of Europe. Dr. bibthorp obferved this plant
to be common in Greece and the iiles of the Archipelago,
and we have fufpefted it might be the real c-.Jr.^i'iif of Diof-
corides, to whofe defcription, as far as any thing can thence
be determined, it anfwers well. The habit of the plant is
much like the lad, but the leaves are more notched, ftiorter
and broader. Tube and upper lip of the corolla pale red ;
lower lip white, dilated as in the larger-flowered variety of
the preceding. The moil ftriking dilTerence is found in
the calyx, wiiofe upper lip is erect, large, and ovate, the
lower of four (lender teeth, Ipreadmg downward.

11. &. lanala. Dark-flowered Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. PL
804. Willd. n. 20. Prodr. Fl. Groec. n. 1333. (S.
elegans ; Murray in Comm. Gott. for 1778. 92. t. 4.
Willd. n. 5. S. nigricans; Lamarck Did. v. 2. 168. 1 —
Herbaceous, diffufe, hairy. Leaves elliptical, obtulc, cre-
nate, without fpines. Calyx-teeth ipreading, fpinous, hairy,
nearly uniform. — Native of Egypt, Caria, and Palelline.
Murray liril defcribed it at Gottingen, from garden fpe-
cimens, without knowing whence they came. Nor was he
blameable for not difcoverir.g his plant to be S. lanala of
Linnaeus, whofe ipecific character, made from a Itarved wild
fpccimen, is calculated to miflead ttofe who had no other
guide. Yet the great Swediili botaniil appears, by his
herbarium, to have rightly underilood the cultivated plant
of Murray, of which he po(le(Ted a very old and luxuriant
moriel, apparently from fome Dutch colletlion. This
fpecies is undoubtedly moll akin to montana and romana,
nor has it any real hraSeas. The -whorls, as in thofe, are
all axillary, fix-flowered. Calyx invelted all over with long
lilky hairs, its teeth tipped with fpines, the upper one rather
longer than the others, but all nearly equal in breadth.
Cordla with a white tube ; the front of the limb dark pur-
plifh-brown, nearly black, of a very Itriking appearance ;

its

S I D

its upper fegmeHt cloven ; lower in three rounded lobes.
The haves vary greatly iu fize, but are rounded, pointlels,
copioufly and dillinftly crenate ; the lower onc;> italked.

12. ^. iiicana. Lavender-leaved Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.
8o2 Willd. n. 12. Alt n. 8. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 69. t. 186.
(HyTopus montana verticillata major ; Barrel. Ic. t. 239.
H. verticillata minor ; Bocc. Muf. 77. t. 67. f. 2, the name
tranfpofed from t. 68. f. 2.) — Somewhat ihrubby, downy,
hoary. Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire. Bracleas ovate,
palmate, with many fpinous teeth. — Native of Spain. Cul-
tivated by Miller in 1752, being tolerably hardy, flowering
in July and Auguft. The habit of the plant is much like
Lavender. IVhorls diftant, four or five in eacli fpike, with
a pair of clofe, firm, ribbed, fhortilh braBeas, cut into
many fpinous fegments, under every whorl. Caly.x clothed
with white cottony down ; its teeth ereft, fpinous, nearly
equal. Ccrolla twice as long as the calyx, yellow, white,
or pate blue ; both its lips dilated and fpreading.

S. -virgata, Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 15, 125. VViUd. n. 13,
feems the very fame plant, not even a variety. We venture
to remove Barrelier's fynonym, cited by Desfontaines, to
the following, as Willdenow has done.

13. S. glauca. Slender Glaucous Iron-wort. Cavan. Ic.
V. 2. 68. t. 185. Willd. n. 14. (HyfFopus montana
verticillata minor ; Barrel. Ic. t. 240.) — Herbaceous, glau-
cous, fomewhat downy. Leaves linear-fpatulate, entire.
Bratteas wedge-lhaped, palmate, fpipous. — Native of Va-
lencia. Very nearly akin to the lalt, but faid to be her-
baceous, and lefs downy. The flrj-wers appear to be fmaller,
and the braSeas are confiderably fo. It may neverthelefs
be merely a variety.

14. ^. hvfnpifoHa. Hyflbp-leaved Iron-wort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 803. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 9. (S. alpina ; ViUars
Dauph. V. 2. 373. S. alpina hyn"opifolia ; Ger. Em. 696.
S. montana, &c. ; Barrel. Ic. t. 171, 172.) — Leaves lan-
ceolate, fmoiith, nearly entire. Brafteas heart-rtiaped, with
fpinous teeth, as long as the calyx. — Native of the moun-
tains of Switzerland, Dauphiny, Italy, and the Pyrenees.
Cultivated by Gerarde in his garden, and Hill prefcrved in
curious or general coUeftions, being a hardy perennial,
flowering throughout the fummer and autumn. The Jlcms
are fomewhat woody, throwing up many It-afy fquarifh
branches, a fpan higii, hairy at the two oppofite fides, in
lines crofling each other at every joint. Leaves numerous,
oppoflte, ilalked, green, elliptic-lanceolate, two or three of
the upper ones only occafionally toothed. Whorls more or
lefs c.owded into an ovate or oblong, folitary, terminal
fpike, eacli whorl accompanied by two broad, reticulated,

hairy hraQeas, with tlrong fpinous fcrraturcs. Calyx-teeth
long, Ipinnus, ereft, nearly equal. Corolla ilraw-coloured,
with ttvo dilated lips, longer than the calyx.

15. S.fcordioides. Scollop-leaved Iron- wort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 803. Willd. n. 16. Alt. n. JO. Villars Dauph. v. 2.
374. Ger. Em. 696. (S. montana fcordioidcs glabra ;
Barrel. Ic. t. 343.) — Leaves lanceolate, fomewhat hairy,
diftantly toothed. Brafteas ovate, with fpinous teeth, as

long as the calyx Native of the mountains of Switzerland

and France. Very nearly refembling the lad in every
eliential character, cfpccially the hairy lines on the Jlem,
though ufually a larger plant, with more conllantly toothed
leaves. The degree of hairincfs on the leaves is fomewhat
variable.

16. S.Jpini/a. Spinous-leaved Iron-wort. Vahl. Symb.
V. I. 41. Willd. n. 17. Lamarck Did. v. 2. 169. (S.
fubfpiiiola ; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 5. t. 209.) — LiMvcs lanceo-
late, pointed, with llrong fpinous teeth, as well as the reti-
culated heart-ihapcd bratteas. Stem equally hairy on all

SID

fides — Native of mountains in Spain, flowering in June,
We received it from the late abbe Cavanilles. The habit
of the plant, as v/ell as its inflorejcence and fowers, all feem
to agree with the two lalt ; but the (harpnels of the leaves,
and their ftiong fpinous teeth, as wll as the more firongly
reticulated, and deeply cut, braSeas, indicate an efl'ential
difference, confirmed perhaps by the pubefcence of the Jlem,
which is generally, thongli fparingly, difi"ufed, not coUefted
into two denfe oppofiie lines. The leaves moreover are
very ftrongly ribbed.

17. S. hir/uta. Hairy Procumbent Iron-wort. Linn.
Sp. PI. 803. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 11. (S. tenia;
Cluf Hilt. V. 2. 40. Tetrahit herbariorum ; Lob. Ic. 523.
Herba judaica Lobelii ; Ger. Em. 690.) — Leaves oblong,
obtufe, Itron^rly toothed. Bratieas with fpinous teeth.
Stems haii7 all round, decumbent at the bafe — Native of
Spain, Italy, and the foutii of France. — Very much akin
to the three la!l in its Jloivers, braHeas, &c. but more hairy.
The form and teeth of the leaves agree with fcnrd'wides, a
hairy variety of which, we fufpeft, is fomctimes taken fol*
the true hirfuta. The latter however appears eilcntir.lly to
differ, in having the copionshairinefs ol'\X%Jlem equally dif-
perfed all round, not collefted into decuffating hnes. The
•whorls vary much in being crowded or remote, and are very
hairy. The wooden cut cited above, which is the fame in
all the three authors, does not well reprcfent the inflorefcencc,
nor dillinguilh the hraBeas from tlie leaves. It feems taken
from an axiUary-whurled Ipecie.";, like montana, romana, &c,

18. S. ovata. Ovate Peruvian Iron-wort. Cavan. Ic.
v. I. 36. t. 48. Willd. n. 19. — Herbaceous, downy.
Leaves Halked, elliptical, obtufe, crenate. Whorls crowded.
Bra6teas ovate, Ipinous-toothed, imbricated in four rows.- —
Native of Peru. It flowered in the gardens of Madrid, in
.Tuly. The root is fibrous and perennial. Stems fcarcely a
foot high, fquare, flightly hairy. Leaves about two inches
long, on ftalks about the fame length ; rough on the
upper fide, with hairs proceeding from minute tubercles ;
fmooth and fiiining beneath Spike folitary, terminal, about
three inches long, quadrangiiLir. Bradeas crowded, in
four rows, ovate, acute, rigid, fpreading, belet with ftrong
fpinous lerratures. Flowers fix in a whorl, three to each
brallea. Calyx with five (lender, iharp, nearly equal teeth.
Corolla yelli)wifh-white ; its upper lip entire, lower three-
lobed, the middle lobe three-cleft.

SiDEiuTis, in C.ir,hiiiiig, contains plants of the under-
flirubby, and Ihrubby exotic kind, of which the fpecies cul-
tivated are, the Canary iron-wort (S. canarienfis) ; the
Cretan iron-wort (S. cretita) ; and the fage-leaved irou-
wort (S. lyriuca). But there are other fpecies that may
be cultivated for the fake of variety.

Methad of Culture. — Tliefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, cuttings, and l.iyer;;. The (eeds tliould be fown in
pots in the fpring, plunging ihein in a moderate hot-bed :
when the phnts have had fome growth, they fhould be re-
moved into leparate fni.ill pots, filled with light mellow
mould, being afterwards treated as other Ihrubby green-
houfc plant -i. The cuttings and layers may be planted
out or l.iid down in tlie fummer feafon, and when fufliciently
rooted managed .is the other forts. Alio, the third fort
may be increafed by pi inting the flipped heads, either in
pots or in a fhady border, to be afterwards removed into
pots for pioteftion in the winter in a frame. -

They afford variety in grcen-houfe coUeftiont, among
other evergreen potted plants of fimilar growths.

SIDERNO, in Geography, .1 town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra ; 4f< miles 6. ol Cataiuaro.

SIDERO.

S I D

SIDERO-CAPSA, a town of European Turkey, in
Macedonia ; 32 miles E.S.E. of Saloniki.

SIDEROCHITA, in Natural Hi/lory, a clafs of cruf-
tated ferruginous bodies, of a moderately firm and compaft
texture, compofed of ferruginous mixed with earthy matter,
and formed of repeated incrultations, making fo many coats
or crults round a fofter or harder nucleus, or round loofe
earths, or an aqueous fluid.

Under this clafs are comprehended the empherepyra, hete-
ropyra, geodes, and enhfdr't.

SIDERODENDRUM, in Botany, from o-.J.;?^-, iron,
and }i\ilfm, a tree, a name given by Schreber to the Sideroxy-
lo'ides of Jacqum, which the latter had fo called for a while
only, till he fliould be more certain of the genus, by afcer-
taining the true nature of the fruit. This Schreber has
determined ; and the name he has chofen alludes to the
hardnefs of the wood, known to the French in Martinico
by the appellation of Bois de fer, or Iron-wood. The
analogy of the neighbouring genus Sideroxylum is alfo thus
kept in mind. — Schreb. Gen. 71. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i.
612. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 245.
(Sideroxyloides ; Jacq. Amer. 19.) — Clafs and order, 7>-
trandrla Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofa, Linn. Sapotti,
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, minute,
with four acute teeth. Cor. of one petal ; tube cylindrical,
incurved, many times longer than the calyx ; limb in four
oblong, obtufe, flat, reflcxed fegments, half the length of
the tube. Stam. Filaments four, very (hort, infcrted under
the divifions of the limb ; anthers oblong, erert. Pijl.
Germen roundifli, inferior ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length
of the tube of the corolla ; ftigma oblong, .ibtufe, thickifh.
Peru. Berry two-lobed, crowned with the calyx, two-celled,
with a tranfverfe partition. Seeds folitary, convex and
rugged at the outer fide, flat on tiie inner, bordered, at-
tached to the partition.

Efl^. Ch. Corolla of one petal, falver-fliaped. Calyx
with four teeth. Berry inferior, two-lobed, two-celled.
Seeds folitary.

I. S. tiiflorum. Three-flowered Iron-tree. Willd. n. i.
Ait. n. I. (Sideroxyloides ferreum ; Jacq. Amer. 19.
t. 175. f. 9. Sideroxylum americanum, five lignum duritie
ferrum aemulans ; Pluk. Almag. 346. Phyt. t. 224 f. 2.)
— Native of mountainous woods, in the iflands of Martinico,
Moiitferrat, Barbadoes, &c. A tail branching tree. Leaves
oppofite, ftalked, ovato-lanceolate, acute, entire, Ihining,
fix inches long. Fhwer-Jlalhs axillary, very (hort, moitly
three-flowered, chiefly on the older and leaflefs branches.
Flowers fmall and flender, about half an inch long, rofe-
coloured at the outfide, white within. — Mr. Ryan obferved
the corolla to be often changed, polTibly by the attack of
feme infeft, into an oblong, hollowr, fle(hy bag, pointed at
the top, half an inch in length, refembling a fruit.

SIDEROMANTIA, Z>}nfojj.ccnux, in Antiquity, a kind
of divination performed with a red-hot iron, upon which
they laid an odd number of draws, and obferved what
figures, bendii gs, fparklings, Sic. they made in burning.

SIDEROXYLUM, in Botany, from o-j^rpo;, iron, and
|v^ov, nvood, alluduig to its hardnefs, was firft correftly ap-
plied to tlu prefent geiuis, (as Dillenius obferves,) in the
Paradifi Batavi Prodromus, 375. fubjoined to Sherard's
Scliola Botanica; fee She:; akd. — ^Linn. Gen. 104. Schreb.
141. Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 1089. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4.
Ait. Hort Kew. v. i 13. Dill. Elth. 357. Jacq. Amer.
55. Juir. 151. L marck lUuftr. t. 120. Gsertn. Fil.
Suppl. t. 202. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia,
Nat. Ord. Dumojii, Linn. Sapott, Jufl.

SID

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fmall, ereA, in five
fegments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, wheel-(haped, in
five concave, ereft, roundi(h fegments, with a little pointed
inflexed fcale, at the bafe of each fegment Stam. Filaments
five, awl fhaped, the length of the corolla, into which they
are inferted alternately with the fcales ; anthers oblong, in-
cumbent. PiJl Germen roundifh, fuperior ; ftyle awl-
fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; lligma Cmple, obtufe.
Peric. Drupa roundifh, pointed, of one cell. Seed Nut
ovate, large, of one cell.

E(r. Ch. Corolla five-cleft. Stamens inferted into the
corolla, with five fcales between. Stigma fimple. Drupa
fuperior.

Obf. Ser.s.'VLIsia of Mr. Brown, fee that article, differs
in having a berry, with from one to five feeds ; but in the
former cafe we know not how to diftinguiQi it from the pre-
fent genus. Sideroxylum fpinofum, Linn. Sp. PI. 279, ac-
cording to Mr. Brown, conllitutes a very diftin£l genus of
the fame natural order.

1. S.mite. Harmlefs Iron-wood. Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 12.
V. 2. 178. Willd. n. I. Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 249. (S. mas
inerme ; Mill. Ic. t. 299.) — Thorns none. Leaves acute. —
Native of Africa. Jacquin defcribes his plant, which ap-
pears to be the fame with Miller's, as an elegant evergreen
tree from the Cape of Good Hope, flowering abroad in
fummer, fheltered in the greenhoufe in winter. The leaves
are fcattered, ftalked, lanceolate, pointed, entire, coria-
ceous, fmooth ; of a fhining deep green above ; paler be-
neath. Footjlalks fliort, purple. Flowers white, on fimple
or branched axillary (talks. — We know nothing of this fpe-
cies but from the above authors. Linnaeus defines his plant
as having feflile Jlomers, but we find no fpecimen in his her-
barium to afcertain «hat he meant.

2. S. inerme. Smooth Iron-wood. Linn. Sp. PI. 278.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. i. Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 250. (Sider-
oxyli primum, dein coriae indorum nomine data arbor ;
Dill. Elth. 357. t. 265. f. 344-) — Thorns none. Leaves
obovate, obtufe. Flower-ltalks fimple, round. — Native
of the Cape of Good Hope. This Jhruh has long been
known in the greenhoufe^ of Europe, but has no beauty
to boaft, at lea(t in W-sJloiuers, which are fmall and incon-
fpicuous, growing on fhort, cylindrical, fimple, axillary,
generally z^gregate Jlalis. The leaves are thick and coria-
ceous ; rounded at the end, and often emarginate ; fomewhat
tapering at the bafe ; two or three inches long.

3. S melanopbleum. Laurel-leaved Iron-wood. Linn.
Mant. 48. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
v. I. 29. t. 71. (Padus foliis oblongis, fruftu folitario :
Burm. Afr. 238. t. 84. f. 2. Laurifolia africana ; Com-
mel. Hort. v. i. 95. t. 100.) — Thorns none. Leaves lanceo-
late. Flower-ftalics fimple, angular. — Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. Communicated to Linnaeus in 1761, by
the late profeffor David Van Roycn ; and fent to Kew in
1783, by Mr. GraefFer. This has dark purplifh branches,
and elliptic-lanceolate /^Tf J, longer and more acute than the
laft. The flowers and their Jlalks are altogether of a palilh
red hue. Linnxus fays the fcales between the Jiamens are
wanting, which Jacquin feems to confirm. The fruit is
blue, the fize of a pea.

4. S. cymofum. Cymofe Iron-wood. Linn. Suppl. 152.
Willd. n. 4. Thuiib. Prodr. 36. — Thorns none. Leaves
oppofite, (talked, ovate. Cymes i.>nce or twice compound.
— Found by Thunberg on the Table Mountain, at the
Cape of Good Hope. A imM. Jhrub. We have leen no
fpecimen.

5. S. fericeum. Silky Iron-wood. Ait. n. 3. Willd.
n. 5. (Serfalifia fericea ; Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i.

530-)—

SID

S I D

^30.) — Thorns none. Leaves ovate, obtufe ; downy, like
the calyx and flower-ftalks, beneath. Corolla villous exter-
nally. Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of
New Holland; atsd by fir Jofeph Banks, who fent it to
Kew in 1772, in New South Wales. The _^/ir is flcnder,
hairy at the bafe.

, 6. S. obevatum. Obovate Iron-wood. (St-rfalifia obo-
vata ; Brown ib.d. n. 2.) — Leaves obovate ; fomtwhat ta-
pering at the bafe ; fcarcely filky beneath. Calyx nearly
fmooth. Corolla fmooth. Style very Ihort. — Gathered by
fir Jofeph Banks, in the tropical part of New Holland. — In
both thefo the fcales between the Jlameiis are lanceolate.

7. S. nr^entcum. Silvery Iron-wood. Thunb. Prodr.
36. Willd. n. 6. — " Thorns none. Leaves ovate, abrupt,
downy. Flowers Italked." — Found by Thuiiberg at the
Cape.

8. S. tomentofum. Downy Iron-wood Roxb. Coro-
riand. V. 1. 28. t. 28. Willd. n. 7. — Thorns none. Leaves
lliptic-obloiig, with a blunt point ; downy vifhen young.

Flower-llalki downy, axillary, aggregate, the length of
the tootllalks. Found chiefly on the tops of the mountains
in Hindoollan, flowering during the hot feafon. This is a
iinall/rf^. Tlie Z?aTi«, three laches long and one broad, are
iniooth when full grown, but in a young Itate are covered
with riiity down. Flowers numerous, of a dirty white.
Fruit yellow, the fize of a fmall cherry. Dr. Roxburgh
i'ays there are the rudiments of five feeds, though only one
• ■■r two come to perfeftion. Hence it feems that the generic
■harafter, n that refpeft, is but precarious.

9. S. lycioides. Willow-leaved Iron-wood. Linn. Sp.
PI. 279. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 4. (S. fpinofum foliis de-
ciduis i Duliam. Arb. v. 2. 260. t. 68. Bumelia lycioidcs ;
Purlh V. I. 155.)

(3. 8. dccandrum. Linn. Mant. 48. Willd. n. 9.

Thorns axillary. Leaves elliptical, deciduous. — Native
of North America. In Ihady woods from Carolina to
Georgia, flowering in July and Augult A fmall tree,
with mmute greenifli Jloiuers. Purfls. The branches are
round, minutely warty, with flrong, fpreading, tapering,
axillary, folitary thorns, three quarters of an inch long, ac-
companying tiie flowers, on the lower part of each branch.
Leaves alternate, ilalkcd, elliptic-oblong, about three inches
in length, and more than one in breadth, entire, fomewhat
pointed, fmooth, light green, finely reticulated with vein--,
deciduous. Fhiver-Jlalhs axillary, fevcral together, fimple,
about the length of the fpines, and rather longer than the
footilalks. Sfgmenls of the calyx deep, oval, concave,
fmooth, obtufe, unequal, folding over each other. Corolla
twice as long as the calyx, but little fpreading. We are
unable to find any diitinftion between S. lycioides and dtcan-
drum. A fpecimen in the Linnian herbai'ium from Kalm,
under the latter name, has a pentapetalnus flower, and is
otherwife totally different from the fpecies in quellioii. Our
defcription is taken from the fptcim-u lent by banm Munch-
haufeii to Linnaeus, and marked lyc'iAdes by the latter,
though defcribed in his M.intiffa under the appellation of
decandrum

10. "A. fpinofum. Thorny Iron-wood, or Arijan. Linn.
Sp. PI. 279, excluding the fynonym. Dryand. in Ait.
Hort. Kew. n. 5. (Elaodendrum Argan ; Willd. Sp.
PI. V. I. 1148. Rhamiuis ficulus ; Linn. Syll. Nat. ed.
12. V. 3. 229.) — Thorns Ijt.ral. Leaves' obovate-oblong,
deciduous. — Native of Morocco. This has llrong, almoll
eoiiicjl, thorns. Leaves aggregate, ftalked, obovate, fim-
ple, entire, fmooth, about an irch lo.ig. Floiuers in axillary
tufts, nearly feflile. Rhamnui ficulus pentaphyllos, Bocc.
iiic. 43. t. 21, mult be a very dlHerenl plant, having really

five leaflets on a common ftalk, as Mr. Dryander obferves in
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 225. This learned writer jullly re-
marks, that many Eail Indian fynonyms have erroneoufly
been referred by Linnaeus to his Sideroxylum fpinofum ; but
he errs refpefting the Ipecimen under this name in the Lin-
nsan herbarium, which is evidently the plant belonging to
thofe fynonyms, though not to the original fpccific charac-
ter, being Flacourtia fepinria, Willd, Sp. PI v. 4. 831.
Roxb. Coromand. v. it. 68.

The reader \vill perceive that there is cunfiderable uncer-
tainty about the fpecies of this genus ; nor is there lefs dif-
ficulty relpefting its generic charaftcr, which is not yet
clearly contralled with that of BuMELlA ; (ee that article.

Sideroxylum., in Gardening, contains plants of the
flirubby, evergreen, exotic kinds, of v.hich the fpecies cul-
tivated are; the fmooth on wood (S. inerme) ; and the
willow-leaved iron-wn..d (S. lycioides).

The wood of thefe fli.ubby plants having great folidity,
hardnefs, and ponderofitv, fo as to fink in water, they have
obtained the appellation of iion-wood.

Method of Culture. — Thjfe plants may be increafed by
feed procured from abroad, which fliould be fown in the
fpring in pots filled with frefh mould, and plunged in the
tan-bed of the Hove : when the plants have fome growth, they
fliould be removed into fcparate pots, and he iTplnngcd in
the bark-bed. They are alfo fometim-.s railed from (lit-
layers and cuttings in the fuminer feafon ; but they are te-
dious in forming roots in this way, and the plants are not fo
good in general.

The firll lort is tender, affording variety in the ftove ;
but the laft is more hardy, and may fometimes be intro-
duced in the flirubbery borders in warm (hcltered fituation?.

SIDERS, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, and
principal place of a dxain in the Valais ; 8 miles E. of
Sion.

SIDES-MEN, properly called fynods-mtn, or quefl-men,
perlons who, in larger pariflies, are appointed to allill the
church-wardens in inquiring into the manners of inordinate
livers, and in prelenting ulfenders at vifitations. In the an-
cient epifcopal fynod-;, the bifliops were wont to fummon
divers creditable pcrfons out of every parifli to give infor-
mation of, and to attclt the diforJcrs of clergy and people.
Thefe were called " tellcs fynodales ;" and in after-times
thoy were a kind of impanelled jury, confilling of two,
three, or mor" perfons in every paiifli, who were upon oath
to prefent all heretics and other irregiilar perlons. Thefe,
in procefs of time, became Handing oinctrs in feveral places,
efpecially in great cities, and hence were called " fynods-
men," and by corruption " fidos-men." They are alfo fome-
times called " queft-men," from the nature of their office, in
making /ny«(/-ji concerning ofleiices. And thele fides-men or
queft-men, by Can. 90, are to be chofen yearly in Eatler-
week, by the miniltcrs ^,nd parifliioners (if they can agree) ;
otherwilc to be appointed by the ordinary of the diocefe.
But for the mod part this whole office is now devolved
upon the church-wardens ; which fee. The fides-man's oath,
agreed upon by the civilians and common lawyers, is as fol-
io ws : " You fliall fwcar that you will be affillant to the
cKiirch-wardens in the execution of their office, fo far as by
law you are bomd : fo help you God." Gibf. lift-

SIDEWAYS, in the Manege. To ride a horfe fide-
ways, is to paflage him, or make him go upon two treads,
one of which is marked by his ftioulders, and the other by
his haniiches.

SIDGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
B.iglana ; 50 miles E.N.K. of Bin"een.

SIDI, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of one of the

two

S I D

two wives of Ganefa or PoUear, the god ot prudence and
policy. (See Pollear.) The name of the other was
Budhi, and both were daughters of Fi/hiuarupa; v/hich
fee. Their names occur but feldom in Hindoo writings.

SiDl Bin Tu/u, in Geography, a town of Algiers ; 30
miles E.S.E. of Meliana. _

SiDi Efa, a town of Algiers ; 30 miles S. of Boujeiah.

SiDi GaaU a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 4
miles N.E. of Kiutaja.

SiDi Ibrahim, a town of Algiers; 30 miles W. ot

Tubnah. . ^ . mm

SiDl Mcdhab, a town of Africa, in Tunis; 20 mUes N.

of Gabs.

SiDi Shehri, a town of Afiatic Turkey, m Caramama, on
a lake ; 6 miles E. of Beifhehri.

SIDIALIEL, a town of Nubia; 55 miles N. of
Sennaar.

SIDIBISCHIR, a town of Africa, in the country of
Fczzan ; i6miles E. of Mourzouk.

SIDIN, or V.\Tis.\, a river of Afiatic Turkey, which
runs into the Black fea, at Vatifa.

SIDLA, S1DL.A.W, or Sudlaiu Hills, a range of moun-
tains in the counties of Perth and Angus, Scotland, which
form the fouthern boundary of the great valley of Strath-
more, whence they derive their name ; Sudlaws fignifying,
in Erff, the fouth hills. This ridge commences on the weft,
in the vicinity of the town of Perth, and extends in a north-
eallern direftion to Redhead, a promontory on the coaft of
the German ocean, between Aberbrothwick and Montrofe.
The mountains which compofe it vary confiderably in eleva-
tion ; fome of them not exceeding 800 feet in height above
the level of the fea, while others are upwards of 1400 feet
high. Tlie following are the heights of fcveral of the prin-
cipal of them, as afcertained by barometrical meafurement :
Sidlaw hill, 1406 feet; Kingfeat, 1238; Kinpurnie hill,
noted for an ancient tower on its fummit, 1151 ; and Dun-
finnan hill, 1024^. The lall mentioned hill is remarkable
for being that on which the ufurper and tyrant, Macbeth,
built a callle, with a view to fecure his life againft any at-
tempt which might be made to murder him. Sinclair's
Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. i. 1791.

SIDMOUTH, a market-town in the hundred of Eall
Budleigh, and county of Devon, England, is feated in a
valley on the banks of the river Sid, between high hills, at
the dillance of 14^ miles S.E. of Exeter, and 158 miles
S.W. of London. Sidmouth was formerly a fea-port of
fome confequence ; but the harbour has been fo clogged
with fand and pebbles, that pleafure-boats and fiftiing
fmacks are the only veffels which can now approach the
fhore. Of late years the buildings and population have in-
creafed, in confequence of the number of perfons who fre-
quent the place in the fummer, for the purpofes of bathing
and recreation. Good accommodations have confequently
been provided, and a ball-room, biUiard-room, and tea-
room, ertfted for the convenience of the vifitors. Ac-
cording to the population report in the year iSii, the
number of houfes in the parifli was 349, inhabited by 1688
perfons. A weekly market is held on Saturdays, and two
fairs annually. Near the beach is an ancient ftone buildmg,
with very thick walls firmly cemented, traditionally faid to
have been a chapel of eafe, when Otterton was the mother-
church ; and in a path leading from Sidmouth to Otterton,
called Go-Church, is an ancient '.lone crofs. At Sidmouth
was formerly an alien prior)', a cell to Mountborrow in
Normandy, or rather to St. Michael in Per culo Maris ; for
to this lait mentioned monaftery the manor was given by
king William the Conqueror. It was fometimes reckoned

SID

as a part of Otterton priory, and, with that, after the dif-
folulion of the foreign houfes, was given to Sion abbey ;
and at the time of the furrender, devolved to the crown. The
fcenery on this coail, between Sidmouth and Seaton, is
grand and romantic ; prefenting a fuccefGon of lofty cliffs,
llooing ridges, and narrow vallies. In fome places the
cliffs are compofed of fand, tinged by a red oxyd of iron,
and is partly calcareous. On the edge of a hill, north-weft
of Sidmouth, is an ancient encampment, called Woodbury
caftle, which is of an irregular form, with deep ditches :
at fome places the fofs is double. Obfervatioiis on the
Weftern Counties, by George Maton, M.D. z vols. 8vo.
The Hiftory of Devonfhire, by the Rev. Richard Pol-
whele, 3 vols. fol. 1797. The Ciiorographical Defcription,
or Survey of the County of Devon, by Triftram Rifdon,
8vo. 1714, zdedit. 1811. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. iv. 1803, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

SIDNA-BINES, a town of Fez, near the fea-coaft.
SIDNEY, Philip, in Biography. See Sydney-
Sidney, Algernon. See Sydntty.
Sidney, in Geography, a town of the ifiand of Cape
Breton ; 20 miles N. of Louifburg. — Alfo, a town of New
York, on the Sufquehanna ; 50 miles W. of Hudfon. —
Alfo, a pofl-town of the province of Maine, on the Kenne-
beck ; 30 miles N.E. of Portland, fituated in the county
of Kennebeck, and containing 1558 inhabitants.
Sidney Cove. See Sydney' Cove.

SIDODONA, in indent Geography, a barren place on
the coaft: of Carmania, in the Perlian gulf, where Near-
chus is faid to have refrefhed himfelf, in his voyage from the
ifle of Oarafta to that of Cara, according to his journal of
the navigation.

SIDOLOUCUM, or Sidoleucum, a town of Gallia
Lyonnenfis, on the route from Lugdunum to GefToriacum,
between Auguftodunum and Abellone, according to the
Itinerary of Antonine.

SIDON, a town of Phoenicia, 30 miles from Berytus,
according to the Itinerary of Antonine. This town was
for a long time the metropolis of Phoenicia, till Tyre became
more powerful, and contefted with it this dignity. Jullia
fays, that the Phoenicians, being obliged to abandon their
country on account of an earthquake, eftablifhed themfelves
in the vicinity of the lake of Affyria, which they after-
wards deferted, and eltablifhed themfelves on the neigh-
bouring coaft of the fea, where they built the town, which
they called Sidon. Mofes informs us that this town had
been built by Sidon, the eideft fon of Canaan, the father
and founder of the Phoenicians. Joftiua (ch. ii. v. 8 ) fays,
that the town of Sidon was rich and powerful when the
Ifraelites took pofleflion of the land of Canaan. St. Jerora
fays, that it fell to the lot of the tnbe of Afher. In the
year 1015, Sidon was dependent on Tyre, for Solomon in-
duced Hiram, king of Tyre, to give orders to the Sidonians
to procure from Libanus the wood which he wanted for the
temple at Jerufalem, which he propofed to build. The Sido-
nians (hoek off the yoke of the Tyrians 720 years B.C. and
furrendcrcd themlelves to Salmanazar, when this prince en-
tered into Phoenicia. Jofephus (Antiq.) relates, that about
150 years afterwards, Apries, king of Egypt, invaded
Phoenicia with powerful armies, took Sidon by force, which
event was followed by the fubmiflion of all the other towns
of Phoenicia to the conqueror. Cyrus conquered this city,
but the Sidonians obtained permiffion of the Perfians to
have their own kings ; and they cook part in all the ex-
peditions of their new mafters, according to Herodotus
(1. iii. ) ; and in the war of Xerxes againft the Greeks, the
king of Sidon, according to Diodorus Siculus (1. xiv.)

commanded

S I D

eommandeJ a fleet of forty-eight fhips, which very much
contributed to the viftory which that prince obtained over
the Lacedccinonians. The city of Sidon was ruined in the
year 351 B.C. under the reign of Ochus, king of Perfia.
When the inhabitants faw the enemy in the city, they fliut
themfelves up in their houfes, with their wives and children,
and were there maflacred by a conflagration. Diodorus
Siculus (1. xvi.) fays, that the Sidonians, who were abfcnt
during tliis mafTacre, and thus efcaped deftruftion, returned
thither and rebuilt it, after Ochus had withdrawn to Perfia.
Arrian (De Exped. Alex.) fays, that the Sidonians offered
to fubmit to Alexander, when that prince eutered into
Phoenicia after the battle of Ilfus, 333 years B.C. This
prince charged Hephsftion to appoint a king for this city ;
accordingly this officer raifed to the throne of Sidon the
hoft with whom he had lodged ; but this perlon declined
the charge, and procured the crown for a perfon of the
royal family, called by Diodorus, Ballonymus. After the
death of Alexander, Sidon was transferred to the kings of
Egypt, and afterwards to thofe of Syria, until at length
it fell under the power of the Romans. This city, accord-
ing to Strabo, fuffercd the elTedls of an earthquake, which
demolifhed half the city. See Saide.
SIDONA. See Si'dena.

SIDONEY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 42 miles W. of Kairabad.

SIDONIUS, Cails, Sollils Apollinaris, in Bio-
graphy, was born at Lyons in or about the year 430, of a
diftinguiflied family, his father and grand-father having ex-
ercifed the office of pretorian-prefeil in Gaul. He was
liberally educated, and obtained great reputation for his
literary talents, and efpecially his (Icill in the poetical art.
Coming to the capital he was raifed to the higheft offices
by feveral fucceflive emperors. He married Papianilla,
daughter of the emperor Avitus, whofe r.cceffion he cele-
brated by along panegyric in verfe, which was rewarded by
a brafs (tatue ot him placed in the portico of Trajan. On
the depofition of that prince, he was made a prifoner at
Lyons by the emperor Majorian ; whofe favour he after-
wards obtained by a new panegyric. He was now cm-
ployed by Majorian to negociate a treaty with Thcodoric,
king of the Vifigoths, of whofe perfon and manners he has
left U9 a curious defcription. For this fervice he was re-
warded with the title of count. Under Severus Ricimcr
he defended with the molt complete fucccfs Auvergnc againll
the incurfions of the barbarians. On the acceffion of An-
themius he was ready with another panegyric, and was in
this requited by the government of Rome, and the dignity
of patrician was conferred upon him. In the year 472 he
renounced all his fecular employment:^, and became a bifhop.
He is faid to have conduced himfclf with fmgular piety in
his new office, to have been exemplary for charity, and all
the epifcopal virtues, and to have fed 4000 Burgundians,
when under the prell'ure of famine. He wa:? a great fuffcrcr
at the ficgc of Clermont, and was forced to fly at its fur-
render, but was very foon reltored to his fee. He after-
wards underwent fome trouble from two fadtious priells,
who coTitellcd with him the government of the church, and
alfo from fome who were deemed by him as heretics; and to
this has been afcribcd his death, in 487, which has been
called a martyrdom. Of the writings of Sidonius, there
are extant twenty-four pieces in verfe, marked with the de-
bafed charafter of the age, and nine books of EpiiUes, con-
taining much curious information relative to the learning
and hiftory of liis times. The bell editions of his works
are thofe by Savaron in 1609, """^ ^1 Sirmond ill l6j2.
Moreri. Gibbon, vol. vi.
Vol. XXXn.

S 1 E

SIDOWLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 10 miles E. of Saferam.

SIDRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 18 miles
N.W. of Palamow.

SiDKA, Cu(f of, a large bay of the Mediterranean, on
the coaft of Iripoli, anciently called " Syrtis," extending
from N. lat. 30"^ 30' to 32° 30', and E. long. 15^ 30' to
19° 30'.

SIDRONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of lUyria,
in the interior of Liburnia. Ptol.

SIDUS, a fmall borough of the territory of Corinth,
E. of Schxnus, which ferved as a port to Megara. Staph.
Byz. — Alfo, a fmall borougli of Afia Minor, in Ionia, in
the vicinity of the town of Clazomene. — Alfo, another in
the vicinity of the Erythraean fea. — Alfo, a place of Afu
Minor, in Pamphyha. Steph. Byz.

SiDU.s, Georgium, in AJlrommy. See GEORGrAN Planet.

SIDUSA, in yliicienl Geography, an iflandof Afia Minor,
upon the coall of Ionia. Pliny.

SIEBELN, or SlEBEKLKiiN", in Geography, a town
of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 4 miles N. of
Freyberg.

SIE13ENKEES, John Philip, in Biography, profeflor
of philofophy and the Oriental languages in the univerfitv
of Altdorf, and member of the Society of Volfci, at Vel-
letri, was born in 1759 at Nurnbcrg, where his father was
organill to one of the churches. Being intended for the
church, he was initiated in the Latin and Greek languages
under very able mailers, and he applied alfo with great dili-
gence to the Hebrew and Chaldee. In the year 1778 he
repaired to the univerlity of Altdorf, where he attended
ledlures on the holy fcriptures, and where, in conjunftion
with fome of the other Undents, he ellablillied a private
literary focicty, the firll-fruit of which was a diflertation
on the religion of the ancient Germans, and other Northern
people. This piece was publiflied in 1781, and it was fo
highly elleemod by Ernefli, that he added it to his tranl-
lation of Tacitus " Dc Moribus Germanorum," which was
printed in 1791. He now became the tutor to fome young
people, and not only performed the duties attached to the
office for fix years with high reputation, but was able by
diligence and affiduity to apply himfelf, at the fame time,
to refcarchcs in the literature, hillory, and arts of the an-
cients. He collefted materials to compofe memoirs of the
life of Bianca Caprllo de Medici, grand duchefs of Tuf-
cany, which was publiflied in one volume oftavo at Gotha,
in the year 1789. But the chief part of his attention wa»
direfted to the MS. treafures contained in the library of
St. Mark, from which fo m.any of the claffic.il authors have
been printed and improved. His rcfearches here were much
facilitated by Morelli, the hbrarian, who affifltd him greatly
in the art of decyphering and reading manufcripts, a buii-
ncfs to which he himfelf had been un.iccu Homed. Here he
examined with great attention the valuable manufcripts of
Strabo ; and lludied with the utmoll care the two celebrated
manufcripts of the Iliad, of which, before the appearance
of Valloifon's edition, he gave a circumllantial account in
the German work entitled " Bibliotluk dor Alten Litcratur
und Kunfl." In the fame work he publiflied an exIraA
from the Chrillomathia of Proelus ; collated fome MSS. of
Heliodorus; and made fclcdlions from the unprinlcd fcholia
on Plato and other authors. With the fame eagerncfs he
examined and lludied the remains of ancient art prelerved in
difiercnt coUetlions at Venice. In 178S he quitted Venice,
and made a tour through many parts of Italy, and at Rome
he remained fifteen months, entirely occupied in furvcying
the works of art, or in lludying the manufcripts in different
4 Q libraries ;

S I E

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libraries ; and licre he was much indebted to Reggio, the
learned librarian of the Vatican, who allowed him the ufe
of all thofe highly valued manulcripts, the greater part of
which has been, fince that, carried to Paris by the French.
From thefe, Siebenkees made copious extrafts for the im-
provement of Strabo and other ancient authors ; and here
he tranfcribed the Vatican MS. of the charaders of Theo-
phraftus, which is reckoned the completell and moll perfeft
in exiftence. He colleAcd likewife from this library a large
mafs of critical matter for the illudration of the claflics, in
extrafts, fragments, and obfervations. Cardinal Borgia
iiiterefted himfelf very much in favour of Siebenkees, and
allowed him the free ufe of his mufseum at Veiletri, where
he wrote an explanation of a " Teffera Hofpitalis," pre-
ferved in it, which was publidied with the following title :
«' Expofitio Tabulx Hofpitahs ex sre antiquillimo in
Mufaeo Borgiano Velitris aflervatse." For this work, which
was confidered as extremely ingenious, he was elefted a
member of the learned fociety of Veiletri. On his return
to his native country, he vifited the moll celebrated libraries
at Augfburg and Memingen, as well as in various monaf-
teries m Swabia, and formed an acquaintance with many of
the German literati. In the year 1790 he returned to
Nurnberg, and in the following year he was appointed ex-
traordinary profefibr of philofophy and of the Oriental
languages at Altdorf; after this he was made regular
profellor of philofophy and hiltory. Between the years
1 79 1 and 1796, befides giving academic le<£lures on the
Oriental as well as the Greek and Latin languages, on
mythology, archxology, geography, univerial hillory,
the hillory of literature and of the German empire, he
found leifure to publifh the following works : " An EfTay
towards a Hillory of the Inquilition in the Venetian States :"
" A Plan for profecuting the Study of Roman Statillics,
for the Ufe of his Leftures ;" " On the Temple and Statues,
of Jupiter at Olympia," an antiquarian eflay. But his
mod important undertaking was his edition of Strabo,
amended and correAed from various readings, and an im-
proved trandation, with the following title ; " Strabonis
Rerum GeographicarumLibri XVII. Gra;ca ad Opt. Codd.
MSS. recenfuit var. left, ad notationibufquc illullravit Xy-
landri Verfionem emendavit I. P. Siebenkees." He contri.
buted to many periodical works, fuch as the " Journal des
Luxus," in which he publilhed a pifture of Venice ;
Harles' edition of " Fabricii Bibliotheca Graeca," &c. He
died in 1796. He was not dillinguilhed by any uncommon
ftrength of genius j but extraordinary diligence, and a mod
ardent attachment to literary purfuits, enabled him to ac-
quire a very extenfive knowledge of languages and litera-
ture in general. He was an excellent draughtlman, and this
talent was of great afiillance to him in his archaeological re-
fearches in Italy. His writing, ia his own language, was
exceedingly elegant, but his latinity is neither pure nor
correft. His fervice to literature would have been more
important had he lived to finifh his Strabo, a great part of
the fecond volume of which was left unprinted at the time
of his death. Some other works, on which he had been
empU)yed, were alfo left incomplete, viz. an edition
of Theophraltus, from a MS. copy in the Vatican, and
his valuable " Anecdota Grxca," felefted from the bell
MSS. in the Italian libraries. Bi-th thefe works were
completed after his death, and publilhed at Nurnbero- in
J 798. Gen. Biog. ^

SIEBER, in Geography, a river of Germany, which
runs into the Oder, 5 milts S. of Olterode.

SIECHAM-HOTUN, a town of Corea, in the fea of
Japan. N-lat 41-24'. E. long. 127^ 24'.

SIEDABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares, on

the Gantres ; 15 miles N.E. of Benares.

SIEDE, a fmall river of Germany, which runs into the
Wefer, 2 mil -s S. of Hoya.

SIEDENBERG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Hoya ; 9 miles S.S. W. of Hoya.

SIEG, a river of Germany, which rifes in the eaft part
of Naffau-Siegen, pafles by Siegen, Blanckenberg, Sieg-
berg, SiC. and runs into the Rhine, two miles below Bonn.

SIEGBERG, a town of the duchy of Berg ; 14 miles
S.E. of Cologne. N. lat. ,-0= jG'. E. long. 7^ 18'.

SlEGBERG. See SVBERG.

SIEGE, in IVar, the encampment of an army around a
place, with defign to take it, either in the way of dillrefs
and famine, by making lines all around it, to prevent any
relief from without ; or by main force, as by digging-
trenches, and making formal attacks.

The word is French, and fignilies, literally, feat ; al-
luding to the army's taking its feat before a town, till the
reduftion of the place.

The moll celebrated fieges of antiquity are thofe of Troy,
Tyre, Alexandria, and Numantium ; and, among the mo-
derns, thofe of Ollend, Candia, Grave, Bergen-op-zoom,
Gibraltar, &c. See Line, in Fortification.

Siege, To raifi a, is to give over the attack of a place,
quit the works thrown up againll it, and the polls formed
about It.

Siege, To turn a, into a blockade, fee Blockade.

SlEGE-Pidfcx, in Coinage, a divifion of modern coins, con-
filling of thofe that have been iffued upon urgent neceffity,
during a fiege, by any city or town Patiu has publilhed
a remarkable one of thick paper or parchment, llruck at
Leyden in 1574, when that place was befieged by the
Spaniards It has a lion rampant, puGxo pro patria ;
and on the reverfe this inicription, lugdunum bata-
VORUM. Various fiege-pieces of gold and lilver were
iliued in the reign of Charles I. ; fome of the latter being
fo laree as to be of -ios. value.

SIEGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, which
gives name to a branch of the houfe of Naffau, in the vici-
nity of which are fome confiderable iron-mines and forges ;
37 miles E. of Bonn. N. lat. 50'' 48'. E. long. 8= 8'.

SIEGENBURG, a town of Bavaria, on the Arabs ^
20 miles E. of Ingoliladt.

SIEGES, Les, a town of France, in the department of
the Yonne ; 24 miles W.S.W. of Troyes.

SIEGSTADT, a town of Norway, in the province of
Aggerhuus ; 58 miles N. of Chrilliana.

SIELE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate e£
Brzefc ; j6 miles N.E. of Brzefc.

SIELUB, a town of Lithuania; 8 miles N. of Novo-
grodek.

SIEMIECZOW, a town of Lithuania ; 15 miles W. of
Sluck.

SIENAGE, a town of South America, in the province
of Tucuman ; 1 ^o miles N. of St. Miguel de Tucuman.

SIENE', in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, fitu-
ated, accordincr to Piiny, in a peninfula, on the weftern
bank of the Nile, in which was a Roman garrifon. See

SVEN'E.

SIENITE, Granitelle of Sauffure, in Geology, a rock
nearly refembling granite, but corapofed of ielfpar and
hornblende, and occafionally containing quartz and mica.
The nam.e is derived from the city of Sienna, in Uppec
Egypt, where iminenle quantities of this ilone were worked
by the Romans, and large blocks and columns were brought
from thence to Rome. The Egyptian lienite is in fac\ a

grarite»

S I E

S 1 E

jfranite, intermixed witli a fmall quantity of hornblende.
Some fienites are coarlely granular, containing large dif-
tintt cryftals of red felfpar ; in other fienites the cryftals
are very minute, and the hornblende greatly predominates :
in the latter cafe, fienite paffes into the rock which the
Germans call grun-ftein, or green-ftone. When the fienite
is finely granular, but contains large cryftals of felfpar im-
bedded, it is then denominated fienite porphyry. This
rock frequently occurs in large continuous malles, lying
over granite and (late rocks. It is fometimes divided into
diltinft layers, which, by the German geologifts, have been
called ftrata ; in other inltances, it adumes the prifmatic or
columnar form. Some mineralogifts clafs all thofe granites
with fienite, which contain a portion of hornblende ; but
this diftinflion appears ufelcfs, for the fame mineralogifts
admit that hornblende is frequently a conllituent part of
gneifs or flaty granite.

In the infancy of fcience, fubftances which are eftentially
diftindt, are apt to be confounded together, if they pollefs
certain points of refemblance ; and in a fomewhat more ad-
vanced ftate of information, fubftances, that are eftentially
the lame, are often feparated, by artificial claffifications,
into diftinft orders or Ipccies, by thofe who are accuftomed
to infpeCt the cabinets of colleftors, and overlook the great
features of nature. Thus much ulelefs difcuflion has arifen
with refpeft to certain rocks, whether they were to be
clafled with granite or fienite, S:c. The operations of na-
ture, in the compofition of the great rock formations, are
not to be limited by the definitions of the mineralogift.
Almoft all rocks, with the exception of the calcareous, pafs
by fuch infenfible gradations into each other, that the moft
experienced eye would find it difficult to clafs them, from
the infpeftion of detached fpecimcns. Nor will tliis appear
furprifing, when we confider that filcx generally compofes
half or more of the fubftance of all rocks not calcareou",
whether fimplcor compound ; and even the diltinft concre-
tions in compound rocks generally contain about the fame
proportion of filex, except quartz, which is almoft entirely
formed of it. Even in common clay, though the properties
of filex are concealed by a portion of alnmine, yet it is llill
the predominating part of tiie mafs. Now whether rocks
vere confolidated from a folution, or from a ftate of igneous
fnfion, the filex, or principal ingredient, as it became va-
rioiifly intermixed with the other earths, would, on confoli-
dation, pafs into a vaft variety of forms. Where the
folution or fufion continued for a longer time uiidilturbed,
the laws of chemical affinity would have freer aftion, ai;d
difpofe the different elementary parts to affume thofe dif-
tinCt cryftalline forms peculiar to certain combinations and
proportions of the earths. Wliere, from change of tem-
perature, or other caufes, the play of chemical affinity was
interrupted, the mafs would become confufedly cryftalline,
and lofe all appearance of cryftallization ; and between thefe
extremes there might be every poffiblc variety of gr.idation,
fuch as we now find to exift.

Hornblende appears to be the fubftance which connefts
granite with rocks that have a very diflerent external ap-
pearance. Wiicn hornblende exifts in (mall quantities in
granite, it does not change the character of the rock, where
the threee eftential fubftance", quartz, fellpar, and mica,
form the prevailing part of the mafs ; for chlorite, fteatite,
and other minerals, arc intermixed in fmall quantities in the
granite of the higher Alp''. When the quantity of horn-
blende is incrcafed, and that of the mica and quartz di-
minifhed, the rock is properly what mineralogifts deno-
minate fienite. When the hornblende and other minerals,
except felfpar, are fo irtimately mixed as to form one

homogeneous palle, in which the cryftals of felfpar are im-
bedded, it then conftitutes a porphyry. When the horn-
blende greatly predominates, and the felfpar is in very fmall
cryftals, it forms green-fti)ne. When the cryftals are no
longer difcernible, it forms rocks to which the name of trap
have been given. (SeeTnAr.) Green-ftone may be con-
fidercd as a cryftalline variety, and bafalt as an earthy
variety, of trap. Thus by an intermixture of hornblende,
we have an infenfible gradation from highly cryftalline gra-
nite and fienite to a compaft earthy rock, in the internal
ftrufture of which fcarcely any trace of cryftallizatioa can
be feen.

Sienite is found in Cornwall, and the weftcrn fide of
Wales, and at Chamwood fjreft in Lciceftcrftiire : from the
latter place it is fent to London, and to Nottingham and
Leicefter, cut into blocks for paving-fto'.es. A beautiful
green and red fienite forms one of the hills called Mark-
field, which is defcribed in Mr. Bakeweli's Geology, as
covered on its fummit with pyramidal blocks of the fame
ftone, which he conceives miglit be emphiyed for durable
ornamental architefture. Sienite occurs in many of the
mountainous parts of Scotland, but is not, we believe, a
metalliferous rock in any part of Great Britain ; nor has it,
we believe, been applied to any other purpofe than for
paving-ftones. Many of the ancient ftatues and columns in
Egypt are formed of this ftone ; and it has been before ob-
ferved, that it was brought in great quantities from that
country by the Romans, on account of the vaft columns, &c.
which could be formed from fint'le blocks. As a proof of
its durability, it is ftated by travellers that colum.ns whicii the
Romans left unfiniftied in the quarries of Sienna, nearly
two tliouland years fince, preferve to the prefent day the
impreffion of the tools as (harp and diftinft as if they had
been recently worked.

SIEN-KU, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Tche-kiang ; i8 miles W.R.W. of Tai-tcheou.

SIENNA, or SiEN'A, a city of Italy, and capital of a
diftridf, in Etruria. This diftrift, called Siennefe, or Ter-
ritorio di Sienna, was once a free republic, conquered by
the emperor Charles V. in the year 1554; whofe fon,
Philip II. king of Spain, ceded all parts, except the Statu
de gli Priefidii, to Cofmo I. duke of Florence. The city
is pleafantly built on three hills, in a healthy fituation.
The houfes are of brick, and the ilrects paved with the
fame. It is nearly five miles in circumference, but not
peopled in proportion to its fize ; the inhabitants fcarcely
exceeding 17,000. It is the fee of an arclibifliop, and the
cathedral is a fine Gothic building, coated with white and
black m.arble within and without. The great portal was
begun in the year 1284, after the defigns of Giovanni da
Pila, and finifticd in 1333, by Auguftino and Agnolo,
Siennefe architefts. The (ront is prodit^ioufly loaded with
ornaments. All the work of the iiifide is moft highly
finiflied, as the carving in wood of the choir ; the fculpture
in marble of the pulpit ; and efpecially the liiitorical en-
graving of the pavement, reprefenting in chiam feuro the
moft remarkable llories of the Old and New Teftamcnt.
From an aperture in the choir pavement may be (een St.
John's church, whicli lies dirertly underneath. Its entrance
is without, on the hill ; and thus one chureli may be laid to
ftand oil another. Near the cathedral is the archhilliop's
palace, and oppofitc to it a large ami well-endowed liolpitui,
founded by a (lioc-maker. Mere are alio many other
churches and convents. The church of the Dominicans is
remarkable (or an ancient pidiire of wood, reprefenting the
Virgin with the infant Jefiis in lirr arms, by Guido Sancfe :
it is dated 1221, and is in the Venturini chapel: though fo
^. Q 2 ancient,

S I E

S f E

ancient, it is in good prefervation. Tlie umverfity was
founded by Charles V. The German ftudents enjoy par-
ticular privilegef', which they derive from the fame emperor.
In the 15th century the academy of the Intronati was here
founded. This city Hill retains fome (liadow of its former
republican liberty, which may appear from the manner of
clcfting its council, which confills of nine perfons, ityled
Excellenzi ; but whofe power the great duke very much
curtailed. The caftle, built at one end of the city, in order
to curb the inhabitants, is of no great ftrength. Near it is
the univerfity's academy for martial exerciles. Many no-
bility refide here, who have a caiino or affcmbly of both
fexes ; and it is generally allowed that the Italian language
is in no pare of Italy fpoken with greater purity ; 54 miles
S. of Bologna. N. lat. 21^. E. long. 11° 16'.

SIENNE, a river of France, which runs into the fea,
near Havre.

SIENNOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Mo-
gilev ; 60 miles N.N.W. of Mogilev. N. lat. 54° 30'.
E. long. 29^ 44'.

SIEN-TCHING, a town of Corea ; 23 miles N. W. of
Liong-kouang.

SIEN-YEOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Fo-kien ; 22 miles N. of Siuen-tcheou.

SIEOU, a city of China, of the fccond rank, in Kiang-
nan ; 381 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 33^ 45'. E. long.
117° 32'.

SlEOU-GIN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Quang-fi ; 15 miles N.W. of Yong-ngan.

SIEOU-OLT, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Ho-nan ; 36 miles S. W. of Vue-kiun.

SIEOU-YUEN-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary ; 330 miles E. of Peking. N. lat. 40° 18'. E. long.
122^ yi'.

SIEPERNOI-PESOK, a fmall fandv ifland of Rullia,
in the Frozen ocean. N. lat. 71° 30'. E. long. io6^ 14'.

SIER, a river of France, which rifes about fix miles
S.E. of Thonnes, and runs into the Rhone, near Seill'el.

SIERAGE, a town of Hindoollan ; 32 miles N.W. of
Benares.

SIERCK, a town of France, in the department of the
Mofelle. In 1792, this town was taken by the duke of
Brunfwick ; 9 miles N.N.E. of Thionville.

SIERMAH, a town of Bengal; 24 miles S. of Pala-
mow.

SIERNDORFF, a town of Auftria ; 7 miles N.W.
of Korn-Neuburg.

SIERNING, a town of Auftria; 12 miles S.W. of
Ebenfurth.

SIERO, a town of Spain, in Afturia ; 9 miles N.E. of
Oviedo.

SIEROCK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; i j miles
N. of Warfaw.

SIERRA, the caftern part of New Callilc, fo called
from Its mountains. The word Sierra is a general name for
mountain in Spain, and thofe diftinftive appellations are
often given from the neighbouring towns.

SiERR.\ d'Adnana, mountains of Spain, in Guipufcoa,
which took their name from the hermit Adrian. The road
leading over it to Alaba and Old Caftile is very difficult to
travellers. At the very beginning of it is a dark fpace, be-
tween 40 and 50 paces in length, cut through a rock ; after
which we afcend up a hill, which is reckoned the higheft
among the Pyrenees. Thefc mountains are but little in-
iiabited, a few ftiepherds' huts only being to be fcen • 18
miles S. of Tolofa.

Sierra de Byar, a mountain of Spain, in the proviuce
of Leon ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Plafencia.

Sierra Cava, a fmall rocky ifland, near the eaft coalt
of Sardinia. N. lat. 39° 46'. E. long. 10°.

Sierra del Cid, a mountain of Spain, in Valencia ; 14
miles N.W. of Alicant.

Sierra dir Coire, a mountain of the ifland of Cuba ; 15
miles W. of St. Jago.

Sierra de Guadarama, a mountain of Spain, in the fouth
part of Old Cailile ; 15 miles S. of Segovia.

Sierra di Gador, a mountain of Spain, in the kingdom
of Grenada ; compofed of marble, of which they make ex-
cellent lime ; 12 miles S. of Almeria.

Sierra de Gredor, a mountain of Spain, in the province
of Leon ; 25 miles N.W. of Plafencia.

Sierr.4 Jahma, a mountain of Spain, in Ellremadura ;
20 miles N.N.W. of Coria.

Sierra Leona, a country of Africa, in Upper Guinea ;
fo called becaufe it is mountainous, and the mountains
abound in lions. It is compofed of feveral ftates or king-
doms, and is well watered by a river of the fame name, at
the mouth of which an alTociation of Englifti gentlemen
eltablifhed a fettlement, on land purchafed of the prince of
the country. This company was incorporated by acl of
parliament, in the year 1 791. A coiifiderable number of
whites and free negroes were conveyed thither from Nova
Scotia, befides many who went from England. At firft
the new fettlers feem to have fiiffered from the want of pro-
per habitations during the rainy leafon, but fubfequent ac-
counts were more favourable. In tho month of December
1793, the natives continued pcrfeftly friendly; the neigh-
bouring chiefs fhevved every defire of b..Mng connefted with
the company : fome had fent their children to be educated
at Sierra Leona, and many others propofed to fend them in
the enfuing dry fcafon. The rainy (eafon had patled over
Without any confiderable mortality ; and the Nuva Scotia
colonills had maintained their health, and appeared to have
become well inured to the climate. The trade was much
more briflc ; the cultivation wa^ advancing, both in the co-
lony and parts adjacent ; and there appears to have been no
diiSculty in procuring the native labourers. The rice,
cotton, and other articles in the company's plantation, had
thrived exceedingly, the fugar-cane excepted, which had
been hurt by the white ants. The fchool of the company-
contained between 300 and 400 children, chiefly Nova
Scotians, who appear to have made full as much improve-
ment as is common in European fchools, under fimilar cir-
cumftances. The colony had gradually improved in order,
and appeared to be advancing in every refpect ; but neither
thefe appearances, nor feveral parhamentary aids, could fup-
port it fufBciently againll new difficulties which continually
occurred; and the company was diflolved in i8o7. Sierra
Leona river abounds in tifli, but is much infeiled with alliga-
tors. The country adjacent produces abundance of millet and
rice ; and the woods are filled with parrots of various kinds,
and other beautiful birds ; ferpents are found, fome of a
very large fize ; and numerous wild beads, fuch as lions,
tigers, elephants, wild boars, and monkies.

The benevolent and laudable exertions of the African
Inftitution, eftabliflied fince the abolition of the flave-tradc,
have very much contributed to the profperity of the cploiiy
of Sierra Leona. The climate is much better for European
conftitulions than that of almoft any other part of the coaft.
There are now 400 houfes within the walls of Freetown,
containing 191 7 inhabitants, befide about 2500 Negroes,
freed by fentences of the admiralty-court, and refiding there
under the protedioa of the government. There is a con-
fiderable

S I E

S I E

fiderable number of European forts on the coatt, apparently
very ufelefs, except for flave-trading purpoles. From
Apollonia to Acra, a diilance of only 64 leagues, there are
r.o fewer than 27 ; and the expence of the Brilifh forts is
about 25,000/. annually. Government, it is faid, iias it in
contemplation to difmantle all thofe, except one or two,
which will be put in a refpeftable ftate of defence. See
Slave-trade.

Amongit the labourers at Sierra Leona there are above
Soo perfons of the tribe of Kroomen ; and they are to be
iound at every fattory and town along the coatt, for the
fpace of 350 miles. They are employed as faiftors or inter-
mediate merchants, boatmen, and iailors ; and wliile the
flave-trade was carried on upon this coaft, they had their
fliare of its occupation. After the age of 40, they return
• iiid fettle at home. Their country, or Kroo country, ex-
tends along the Grain Coatt, between Mount and Cape
Palmas, from 4° 54' to 5° 7' N. lat. The chief town,
Settra Kroo, is ir. W. long. 7° 48'. This diftrift, though
fmall, is populous ; and the natives are of a migratory dif-
pofition. Their country produces grain, particularly fine
rice, pepper, and cattle ; but their ilaple article is their
own labour, with which they purchafe goods, and return
to their home with the produce. Wars are rare among
thefe people, and they never fell one another, nor kill their
raptivcs ; nor do they pumfh any offence by flavery, though
itchcratt is a capital crime, and the only one that is in-
iviably fo among them. While the flave-trade lailed, they
iiid to kidnap the " Buflimen," or natives of the interior,
.aid fell them.

Thefe Kroomen are indolent, but when taflc-work is af-
;igned them, they exert themfelves very much ; as the
ijward, in this cafe, is proportioned to their labour. In
tlieir cxpei<ditiire they are rigid economiils, the only luxury
which thoy allow themfelves being tobacco. Their whole
fubfittence is only from i^lb. to if lb. of rice, clean and
iit fjr ufe, per day ; and of this they will fell one half, when
rice is dear. Though they are fond of rum, they never buy
it ; and fome of tliem will not drink it, when offered to
them. Their clothing does not colt them los. a year.
Tiie refidne of iheir grain they lay out in goods ; and in
18 months, or two years, tiie Krooman returns home with
his wealth. This he dillributes liberally ; and what re-
mains he gives to lii.^ father to buy him 3 wife. Having
had a wife, after a few months of eafe and indulgence, he
lets oft again for Sierra Leona. When his coffers are re-
pteniflied, ho returns home, and difpofes of his riches afe
before ; referving a part, which he gives to his father to
buy him another wife. Thus he proceeds for twelve years
or more, increafing the number of his wives, and ellablifhing
a great charaftcr among his countrymen.

Tlie Kroomen are peculiarly dillinguilhed by their ex-
treme love of their own country, which they think fuperior
to all others. All their exertions are to obtain a fufficicncy,
that they may return and live there. They have not the
nie of letters, and will not permit their children to learn ;
: nd as they live by daily labour, which is paid for itj
European goods, tliey have no occafion for manufadhires
of their own. They have few opportunities of difplaying
peculiar talents ; however, they make their own canoes, fc-
veral of their implements of agriculture, and fomc trifling
mufical inttruments.

Sierra Leona, a river of Africa, called alfo " Ritomba,"
and " Tagrin," about eight miles broad at its mouth,
which runs into the Atlantic ocean, N. lat. 8° 20'. W. long.
12° 30'.

Sierra Morena, a mountain, or rather a chain of moun-
tains, of Spain, between the provnices of Cordova and Jaen
to the fouth, and Ellremadura and La Mancha to the north.
A few years ago, this dittrift was the dread of travellers.
M. le Maur, a Frenchman, who for a long time has been
one of the corps of engineers of Spain, was chofen in the
year 1779, by the count de Florida Blanca, to render prac-
ticable a road the raott frequented of any in the kingdom ;
and he has made it one of the finett in Europe. Several
new fettlements have been formed, and new towns founded
in this barbarous diftrift.

Sierra Madre, a lofty chain of mountains of New
Mexico, crofling the province of Cinaloa.

Sierra de Motin, a headland on the coaft of Mexico.
N. lat. 19° 50'. W. long. 104=36'.

Sierra Nevada, mountains of Spain ; 20 miles E. of
Grenada.

Sierra Nevada, or Iztaeclhnatl, a volcanic mountain of
Mexico, whofe lummit is always covered with fnow ; 30
miles S.E. of Mexico.

Sierra de Nojlra Senora, a range of mountains in South
America, forming the weltern boundary of the province of
Tncuman.

Sierra de St. Mamed, a mountain of Spain, in Ellre-
madura ; 25 miles N. of Badajoz.

SiERR.v de St. Pedro, a mountain of Spain, in Eftre-
madura ; 36 miles S.W. of Truxillo.

Sierra de Torquino, a mountain of the ifland of Cuba ;
25 miles S. of Bayamo.

Sierra Vcrmejo, a range of hills in Spain, which run
wetterly towards Malaga, and aftbrd a fingnlar curiofity :
for though they run parallel, and fo clofe that their bafes
join, yet one is red and the other is white ; fnow will not
remain on the higheil, whilft it conftantly covers the other.
The white hills produce the cork-tree, and the Encina oak ;
the red has no oak, but is covered with firs. The white
has iron-ore in little lumps ; the red has feveral ores, but no
iron. The waters of the white hills are martial and vitriolic ;
thofe of the red fulphurcous, alkaline, and with a ftrong fmell
like thofe of Cotterets, in France.

SIERSBERG,a town of France, in the department of the
Mofelle, near the river Nied ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Sar Louis.

SIERSHAGEN, a town of the duchy of Holllcin ;
2 miles N.W. of Neuftadt.

SIETAMO, a town of Spain, in Aragon ; 5 miles E.
of Huefca.

SIETTREE, a town of Bengal ; 4 miles S. of Burwa.

SIEVE, a river of Etruria, which runs into the Arno.

Sieve, or Searce, an inltrument lerving to fcparatc
the fine from the coarfe parts of powders, liquors, and the
like ; or to cleanfe pulfe from dull, light grains, &c.

It i", made of a rim of wood, the circle or (pace of which
is filled with a plexus of filk, tiffany, hair, linen, wire, or
even thin fliccs of wood.

The fieves which have large holes, are fomctimes alfo
called riddles: fuch is the coal or limc-ficvc, the garden-
fievc, occ.

When drugs apt to evaporate are to be paffed through
the fieve, it is ufual to have it covered with a lid.

SIEVERNIYAGOI, or Ruthem Moun/mns, in Geo-
graphy, mountains of RulTiai extending between the Baltic
and the White lea.

SIEVERNOIPESOK, a fm.ill fandy' ifland in the
Frozen ocean, near the continent of Ruflia. N. lat. 76°
54'. E. long. 105" 14'.

SIEVERO-VOSTOCHNOI, a cape on the north coaft

of

S I F

of Ruffia, called Cape Taimura by captain King. N. lat.
78^. E. lonp. loi'^ 14'.

SIEVERO-ZAPADNOI, a cape on the north coalt
of Ruffia. N lat. -jf. E. long. 94° 14'.

SIEUGUR, a town of Hindooltan, in Malwa ; 9 miles
S. ofTandla.

SIEVI, a town of Sweden, in the government of Ulea ;
45 miles S. of Brahellad.

SI EUR, a title of honour, or quality among the French ;
chiefly ufed among the lawyers, and in public ads, and
other writings of that kind.

The title fieur is alfo given by a fuperior to an inferior,
in his letters and other private writings.

In this fenfe, author* fometimes ufe it, by way of mo-
defty, in fpeaking of themfelves : thus, at the heads of
books, we fee Traduftion du fieur d'Ablancourt ; CEuvres
du fieur d'Efpreaux, &c.

SiEUR is alfo a term exprefiing feigneury, or lordlhip : as
ecuyer or fieur of fuch a place.

SIFACE, GiovAN Francesco, Detto, in Biography, a
celebrated opera finger in the fervice of the court of
Modena, who obtained the title of Siface from his admi-
rable performance of the part of Syphax, in the old opera
of Mitridate, modernized by Metattafio, and fet by Porpora
for Venice in 1730. Algarotti highly praifes the pathetic
manner in which he fung. Though it is confidently alTerted,
in the work of a late hiftorian, that Siface had been in
England as a finger in the chapel of king James II., ytt
we can trace no proof of this affertion.

In travelhng from Ferrara to Modena, he miferably loft
his life in a quarrel with an infolent and brutilh poltilion.

SI-FANS, or Tou-FANs, in Geography, fubjefts of the
Chinefe empire, who inhabit to the welt of China, and the
provinces of Chen-fi and Se-tchuen. Their country is only
a continued ridge of mountains, inclofed by the rivers
Hoang-ho on tlie N., Ya-long on the W., and Yang-tfe-
kiang on the E., between the 30th and 35th degrees of
north latitude. The Si-fans are divided into two kinds of
people ; the one are called by the Chinefe Hack Si-fans,
the other yellow, dillinftions arifmg from the different
colours of their tents. The black are the molt clownifh
and wretched ; they live in fmall bodies, and are governed
by petty chiefs, who all depend upon a greater.

The yellow Si-fans are fubjeCt to families, the oldeft of
•which becomes a lama, and allumes the yellow drefs. Thefe
lama-princes, who command in their refpeftive dillridfs,
have the power of trying caufes, and punilhing criminals ;
but their government is by no means burdenfome : pro-
vided certain honours are paid them, and tliey receive
punctually the dues of the god Fo, which amount to very
little, they molelt none of their fubjefts. The greater part
of the Si-fans live in tents ; but fome of them have houfes
built of earth, and even brick. Their habitations are not
contiguous ; they form at moll but fmall hamlets, confid-
ing of five or fix famihes. They feed a great number of
flock.'!, and are in no want of any of the neceilaries of life.
The principal article of their trade is rhubarb, which their
country produces in great abundance. Their horfes are
fmall ; but they are well-fhaped, lively, and robuft.

Thefe people are of a proud and independent fpirit, and
acknowledge with reluftance the fuperionty of the Chinefe
government, to which they had been fubjected : when they
are fummoned by the mandarins, they rarely appear ; but the
government, for political reafons, winks at this contempt,
and endeavours to keep thefe intradtable fubjedts under
liy nulduefs and moderation : it would, befides, be difficult

S I G

to employ rigorous means in order to reduce them to perfect
obedience — their wild and frightful mountains (the tops of
which are always covered with fnow, even in the month of
July) would afford them places of flielter, from which they
could never be driven by force.

The cuftoms of thefe mountaineers are totally different
from thofe of the Chinefe. It is, for example, an aft of
great politenefs among them to prefent a white handkerchief
of taifcty or hnen, when they accoll any perfon whom they
are dcfirous of honouring. All their religion confills in
their adoration of the god Fo, to whom they have a An-
gular attachment : their fuperftitious veneration extend*
even to his miniilers, on whom they have confidered it a»
their duty to confer fupreme power, and the government
of the nation.

Some of their rivers walh down gold mixed with their
fands : they are acquainted with the art of applying it to
ufe, and form it into vafts and fmall ftatues, of which they
often make offerings to their idol ; it even appears that the
ufe of gold is very ancient among them ; for Chinefe
books relate, that under one of the emperors of the dynafty
of Han, an officer having been fcnt to the Si-fans to com-
plain of the ravages committed by fome of their chiefs,
they endeavoured to appeafe him by making him a prefent
of a piece of gold plate, which the oiBccr refuled, telling
the Si-fans, that rice ferved up in golden didies was to him
infipid food.

Thefe people have loll much of their ancient fplendour ;
for the Si-fans, who at prefent are confined in a wild country,
where they have not a fingle city, eiijoved formerly an ex-
tenfive dominion, and formed a powerful and formidable
empire, the chiefs of which have often given great uiieafinefs
to the emperors of China. They podeflcd towards the
eail feveral trafts qi land, which at prefent make part of
the provinces of Se tchuen and Chen-fi ; they even extended
their conquelts to China, fo as to render themfelves mailers
of feveral cities of the fecond clafs, of which they formed
four principal governments : in the weft, they feized upon
all the countries which lie beyond the river Ya-long, and
reach as far as the boundaries of Cachemir ; but inteftine
divifions infenfibly weakened this great monarchy, and at
length brought it to ruin. The Chinefe annals fix the
epocha of its downfall about the year 1227 : fince that
time, the Si-fans have retired to their native mountains,
where, from being a conquering and polilhed people, they
have again funk into their original barbarity.

SIFEABAD, a town of Hmdoollan, in the province of
Sirhind ; 10 miles S. of Sirhind.

SIFEED Rook, or White River, a river of Perfia, fo
named from the foam occafioned by the rapidity of the
current, that flows in a meandering courfe through Ghilan
to the Cafpian fea.

SIFFLET, Fr. a cat-call. According to M. Laborde,
it was during the reign of Auguftus that clapping of hands
and cat-calls were introduced in the Roman theatres. Eflai
fur la Mufique.

SIFTE, in Geography, a pretty confiderable village of
Egypt, between Cairo and Damietta. It has three mofques,
and a church belonging to the Copts, the congregation of
which confifts of 300 families. See Sedfe.

SIG, in jigriculture, a provincial term applied to urine,
or chamber-ley, as employed by the farmer.

SiG, in Geography, a lake of Ruflia, in the government
of Olonetz, about forty miles in circumference ; 40 miles
W. of Povenetz.

SIGA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, in Mau-
ritania

S I G

S I G

Titania Csfaiienfis. Ptolemy places the moiitli of it be-
tween the town of Sle^a and the mouth of the river Afarath.
— Alfo, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Ca^farienfis. It
had the title of a colony, and was fituated between the
port Gypfaria and the mouth of the river Siga. Ptolemy.
Strabo fays, that this town was dellroyed by the Romans,
nnd that the palace of Syphax was here. — Alfo, a royal
town, fituated in Africa, in Numidia, and on the vveltern
part of the river Mulucha. It was the capital of the
kiriijdom of Syphax.

SIGAGIK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia, on the fea-coall ; 14 miles S.W. of Smyrna.
N. lat. 38^ 18'. E. long. 1 6° 31'.

SIGAH-G;//J, or SlY AH-GhuJh, or Blaci-Ear, in Zoology,
the name of a Perfian animal, ot the felis or cat-kind, and
no way differing from the lynx, but in that it has no fpots ;
it has a lengthened face, and fmall head ; its ears have
the tine velvety black pencil of hairs at the top, which are
the dillinguilhing character of the lynx ; the infide and
bottom of the ears are white ; the nofe white, the eyes fmall,
the upper part of the body of a very pale reddifh-brown,
the tail darker, and about half the length of the body ; the
belly and bread whitilh ; the limbs ftrong, and pretty long,
the hind-part of each marked with black. Tins animal
iniiabits Perfia, India, and Barbary ; and is ufed in the
chace of lefler q\iadrupeds, and the larger fort of birds,
which they artf illy furprife and feize ; it is faid to attend
upon the lion, and to feed on the remains of its prey. It
is fierce when provoked. Pennant's Hift. Quadr. vol. ii,
p. 283. Phil. Tranf. vol. li. part ii. p. 648, &c.

SIGALA, in /Indent Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy, who afligns
it to the Mandrales.

SIGANA, atown of ArachoCa. Ptolemy.

SIGA RAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Golconda ; 12 miles N. of Rachore.

SIGATHA, in /Incienl Geography, a town of Libya.
Strabo.

SIGE, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade. Steph.
Byz.

SIGEAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Aude, near which Charles Martel defeated
the Saracens ; 9 miles S. of Narbonne.

SIGEBERT I., in .Sio^r^i/>/iy, king of Auftrafia, born
about the year 53J, was third fon of Ciiarles I., king of
the Franks. At the death of that fovereign, in 562, his
dominions were divided between his fons ; and Audrafia,
or the kingdom of Metz, fell to the lot of Sigebert.
His territories were invaded, foon after his acceffion, by
the Huns, whom he defeated and drove acrois the Elbe.
Daring his ablence, his brother Chilpcric made an irruption
into AuKrafia, and took feveral places ; but Sigebert re-
turning with a victorious army, took Soidons, Chilperic's
capital, and defeated Chilperic himfelf in battle. He was,
however, induced to grant him favourable terms, and to
rcllore the cotuiULJls made upon him. Sigebert's reputation
was now fo high, that he obtained for a wife the famous
Brunehaut, daughter of the Spani(h king of the Vifigotlis,
■with a rich portion. The dominions of his brother Cari-
bcrt, at his death, were (hnred by the three fnrvivors ; but
it was not pofiible for fuch a divided empire to continue
long at peace. Chilperic had married Gnlfwintha, filter
of Brunehaut, who was afterwards murdered at the iniliga-
tion of his miftrefs, Fredegonde. Brunehaut invited Sige-
bert, in coiijunftion with iiis brother Gontran, king of
Burgundy, to revenge this crime, and they ovcr-raii a

great part of his dominions, and forced him to purchafe
peace by tlie celTion of feveral places. The Avars, or
Huns, foon after made a fecond irruption into Auftrafia,
when Sigebert's troops, terrified at their favage appearance,
refufed to aft, and he was obliged to purchafe a peace, and
fupply them with provifions to return to their own country.
After thi», Sigebert afiembling a numerous army, after
making himfelf mafter of the greatefl part of Chilperic's
territories, invelted him in Tonrnay, and refufed to liftcn to
terms of accommodation. When the ruin of that prince
feenied to be inevitable, Fredegonde, hiring two adanins,
who pretending to have fome important fecret to commu-
nicate to Sigebert, thrult their daggers into his body, in
the midft of his army. This was in the year 57 j, after he
had reigned 14 years, leaving behind him the charafter of
the greatcft and bell of the fons of Ch)taire.

Sigebert, Sigebertl.s, a monk ot Gemblours, in the
diocefe of Namur, in Brabant, who palled in his time for
a man of wit, univerfal learning, and a good poet. In the
younger part of his life he embraced the monallic ftate
in the abbey of Gemblours, under the abbot Olbertus, who
died in 1048. During his noviciate he was invited to
Metz, where he ftudied in the fchool of the monailery of
St. Vincent, and acquired great confidcration by his learn-
ing, in which he was fuperior to moll of tlie other writers
who flourithed at the fame period. He was acquainted
with the Greek and Hebrew languages, and in confequence
of the progress he had made in the latter, was much elteemed
by the Jews at Metz, where he refided a conliderablc time,
and from which he was with difficulty fuifL-red to depart,
in order to return to his former monailery. His celebrity-
accompanied him thither : he gained many fcholars, who
did honour to their inllruftor ; and he was chofen by the
clergy of Liege to manage their defence in a controverfy
which they had with the pope, and whicli he condufted
with great talent and moderation. He took fides in the
quarrel of Gregory VII., Urban II., and Pafcal II., with
the emperor Henry IV. ; and he wrote againtlthefe pontiffs
without the leaft ceremony. Sigebert is author of a Chronicle,
the bell edition of which was publiihed at Antwerp in i6o8,
in 4to. It is carelefsty written, and in a vulgar llyle ; but
contains curious and well authenticated fac^s. And in en-
deavonring to nfcertain to whom the fyllem of lolmifation
by the hexachords belongs, Sigebert in his Chronicle, under
the year 1028, as well as in his account of ecclefiallical
writers, fays, that " he had excelled all his predecelTors ; at
by his method children were taught to ling new melodies,
with more facility than by the voice of the mailer, or the ufe
of an inltrument : for by only alTixing fix letters, or fylla-
bles, to fix founds all that miific adinits of, regularly, and
dillinguilhing thefe lounds by the joints of the lingers of the
left hand, their dillaiices afctnding and defcending through
the whole diapafon, are clearly pielentcd both to the eye
and the ear."

Now as Sigebert was nearly contemporary with Guide,
his teltimony in favour of the difcovericB attributed to him
have more weight than any proofs tiiat can be adduced from
fuch of his own writings as are generally known. The
Chronicle of Sigebert begins at 181, and ia continued la
1112; he died the year alter.

But what entitles Sigeiiert to an article in our depart-
ment, befides his bearing tellimony to the inventions of
Giiido, and his mufical records in leveral other articles of
his Chronicle, is the information which he himfelf gives u»
in liiH life, tliat he had fet to miific the anthems .And relponfc*
of St. Guibert j that i», had tompofcd all llut was necef-

S I G

fary to form an entire office to his honour. And this in-
formation is copied by Fabricius, De Script. Ecckr. Arte
Mufica Antiphonas at refponforia de fanftis.

SIGENBURG, in Geography. See Siegenburg.

SIGENSUS PoRTUS, in Ancient Geography, a port of
Africa, on the coad of Mauritania Caefarienfis, between Siga
and Camarata, according to the Itinerary of Antpnine.

SIGER, in Geography, a river of Silefia, which runs into
the Oder, fix miles below Beuthen.

SIGESBECKIA, in Botany, was fo named by Linnxus
himfelf, in memory of his antagonill Dr. John George Siegef-
beck, fuperintendant of the phyfic-garden at Peterfburgh,
who raifed various objeftions againft the fexes of plants
and the Linna;an fyftem, and who has had the honour of
being anfwercd by Stillingfleet amongll others. — Linn.
Gen. 436. Schreb. 571. Willd. Sp. Pl.V. 3. 2219. Mart.
Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 119. Purfh v. 2.
561. Jufl". 187. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 687. Gsertn. t. 168.
— Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamm-fuperfua. Nat. Ofd.
CompofittE oppofttifoli<s, Linn. Corymbifera, JuiT.

Gen. Ch. Outer Common Calyx of live linear, cylindric.il,
widely fpreading, permanent leaves, longer than the flower :
inner fomewhat five-angled, of feveral ovate, concave, obtufe,
equal leaves. Cor. compound, with a half radius. Florets
of the difli united, feveral, funnel-fhaped, exceeding the
calyx in length, with either five or three teeth ; of the radius
five, or not fo many, all on one fide of the flower, female,
ligulate, broad, fhort, three-cleft. Stam. in the united flo-
rets, Filaments five or three, very (hort ; anthers combined
in a cylindrical tube. Pifl. in the united florets, Germen
oblong, incurved, the fize of the calyx ; fl;yle thread-fliaped,
the length of the ftamens ; ttigma divided : in the females,
Germen oblong, incurved, the fize of the calyx ; ftyle and
ftigma as in the united florets. Perk, none, the calyx re-
maining unchanged. Seeds in the united florets folitary,
oblong, bluntly quadrangular, thickened upwards, obtufe,
Baked ; down noae ; in the female ones the fame. Recept.
chaffy ; fcales very like the fcales of the calyx, concave,
embracing the feeds at one fide, deciduous.

Efl^ Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down none. Outer
common calyx of five leaves ; inner fpreading. Radius all
on one fide.

Obf. S.Jlofculofa of L'Heritier offers a Angular excep-
tion in this great natural clafs, with regard to number,
having the florets of the diilc three-cleft, and triandrous.

I. S. orientalis. Oriental Sigefbeckia. Linn. Sp. PI.
1269. WiUd. n. I. Ait. n. I. (Sigefl)eckia; Linn. Hort.
Cliff. 412. t. 23. S. triangularis; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 27.
t. 253. Cichoreo affinis, Lampfana finica, mentaflri foliis,
calyce fimbriato hifpido, finice h'l-h'im-tfaiu difta ; Pluk.
Amalth. 58. t. 380. f. 2.) — Leaves ftalked, ovate, unequally
toothed ; fomewhat angular at the bafe. Outer calyx twice
as long as the inner. — Native of China and the Eafl; Indies ;
alfo, according to Cavanilles, of Mexico. Thouin informed
the younger Linnceus that he had it from the Cape of Good
Hope, and the flraits of Magellan. The plant has been
known for near a century in the gardens of Holland and
England, and is a tender annual, flowering in July and
Auguft, but with much more Angularity than beauty to re-
commend it. Thejlcm is bufliy, leafy, round, rough, three
or four feet high. Leaves oppofite, rough, two or three
inches long, fomewhat dilated and triangular at the bafe,
tapering down into each footftalk ; the uppermofl: much
fmaller and more oblong. Flowers numerous, terminal,
ftalked, brownifli-yellow, chiefly confpicuous for the fpread-
ing outer leaves of their glandular vifcid calyx, each three-

15

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qtnvters of an inch long. We cannot agree tvith Willdenow
in difcarding Plukenet's fynonym, which furely agrees better
with this than with the following.

2. S. iberica. Georgian Sigelbeckia. Willd. n. 2. (Bi-
denti fimilis, foliis latifTimis ferratis ; Buxb. Cent. 3. 29.
t. 52.) — Leaves ttalked, ovate, bluntly toothed; rounded
at the bafe. Outer calyx the length of the inner. — Obferved
by Buxbaum about villages in Media, flowering in July.
Willdenow, who had feen a dried fpecimen, afferts thi< to
be a very diftinft fpecies from the former, to which Lin-
naeus referred Buxbaura's fynonym. The leaves, it feems,
are neither triangular, nor cut at the bafe, but (hortly
and bluntly toothed. The outer and inner calyces, being
both of an equal length, feem to us a more certain dif.
tinftion.

3. S.Jlofculofa. Small-flowered Sigefbeckia. L'Herit.
Stirp. 37. t. 19. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Purfh n. i.
Ehrh. Exficc. n. 79. — Leaves nearly fefTile, ovate, toothed.
Florets of the diflc three-cleft, triandrous. — Native of Peru,
from whence we believe its feeds were brought or fent by
the unfortunate Dombey. This has the habit of the firil
fpecies, but the^cm is fmoother. The leaves, though taper*
ing at their bafe, are fcarcely ftalked, nor are they at all
dilated, or angular. The greatefl peculiarity is fouid, as
we have already faid, in the Jlowers, which are fmaller and
paler than thofe of S. orientalis, ufually, though we believe
not always, deflitute of a radius, but Angularly remarkable
for the florets of the diflv having only three teeth and three
flamens.

For S. occidenialis, Linn. Sp. PI. 1269, fee Phaetiiusa
and Verbesixa.

SIGET, in Geography, a town of Hungary, on the fron-
tiers of Poland, near the fource of the Theyfle ; 50 mile*
E. of Munkacz. See alfo Ziget.

SIGEUM, in Ancient Geography, a town and port of Afia
Minor, in the Troade, at the dillance of 60 ffadia from the
town of Rhceteum, and 100 fladia from Tenedos. Strabo
reports that this town was ruined in his time. The Myli-
tenians built it ; but foon after the Athenians expelled them,
which occafioned a long war between thefe two people ; but
at length, according to Herodotus (1. v.), having fubmitted
it to the arbitration of Periander, the fon of Cypfiele, this
prince adjudged it to the Athenians, in the year 564 B. C.
or, according to the computation of Ufher, in the year
589. The Athenians kept pofleflion of it till the time of
Alexander. Under his fuccelfors it was deflroyed by neigh-
bouring people. Pliny fpeaks of it as of a town which had
long ago fubfifted : " quondam Sigasum oppido." Sigeum
was re-eftablifhed under the Chriitian emperors, and erected
into a bifhopric dependent upon Cyzicus. A miferable vil-
lage, which has been built upon its ruins, and which prefents
a few veftiges of the ancient town, is called by the Turks
" Yenitcher-Keui," or village of the janizaries, and "Diagur-
Keui," or village of the infidels, as it is no longer occupied
except by Greeks. The curious go thither to admire a
block of marble, eight or nine feet long, placed by the fide
of the door of a church : it bears a G-reek infcription, al-
mofl entirely effaced, the words of which follow one another
without interruption, /. e. that the firft runs, as among us,
from left to right, and the fecond runs back from right to
left, and fo on to the end. (See Boustrophedon.) On the
other fide of the door is feen a bas relief in marble, tolerably
well wrought : it reprefents a woman feated, to whom other
women appear to offer children in fwaddling clothes : behind
thefe is feen another woman, holding a box in one hand and
a vafe in the other.

SiGEUM

I

S I G

S I G

SlGEUM Promantorium, a promontory of the Troade. It
M near to and north of the mouth of the river called Sca-
mander. Strabo calls it the port of the Achxans, bccaufe
the Greeks landed there in going to the fiege of Troy. In
the vicinity was a large lake, which was thought to com-
municate with the fea. This promontory is now called
Yeni-Hifari.

SIGG, or SiKKE, in Geography, a river of Algiers,
which, united with the Habrah, forms the Muckda, or, as
it is firft called, Makerra.

SIGGU, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 65
miles N.E. of Meaco.

SIGHING, an effort of nature, by which the lungs are
put into greater motion, and more dilated, fo that the blood
palles more freely, and in greater quantity, to the left au-
ricle, and thence to the ventricle. Hence we learn, fays
Dr. Hales, how fighing increafes the force of the blood,
and conlequently proportionably chears and relieves nature,
when opprefled by its too flow motion, which is the cafe
of thoft who are dejefted and fad. Hales's Statiltical Efl.
vol. ii. p. 6. See Lungs,

SIGHT, the exercife, or aft of the fenfe of feeing. See
Eyk.

Our fight, the nobleft. and moft ufeful of all our fcnfes,
father Malebranche fhews, deceives us in abundance of in-
ftances ; nay, almoft in all : particularly with regard to the
magnitude and extent of things ; their figures, motions, &c.
Our eyes do not (hew any thing lefs than a mite : half a
mite is nothing, if we believe their report. A mite is only
a mathematical point, with regard to it ; and we cannot di-
vide it, without annihilating it. In effeft, our fight does
not reprefent extenfion, fuch as it is in itfelf ; but only the
relation and proportion it has to our body. Hence, as half
a mite has no relation to our bodies, and that it cannot
either preferve o^ deftroy us, our fight hides it entirely.
Were our eyes made like microfcopes, or were we ourfelves
as fmall as mites, we Ihould judge very differently of the
magnitude of bodies.

It may be added, that our own eyes are really no other
than a kind of natural fpeftacles ; that their humours do
the fame office as the lens in fpeftacles ; and that, accord-
ing to the figure of the cryftalline, and its diftance from
the retina, objefts are feen very differently by us ; infomuch
that we are not fure, that there are any two perfons in the
world who fee them equally big. It is even very rare, that
the fame perfon fees the fame objeft equally big with both
eyes ; as both eyes are very feldom perfcftly alike : on the
contrary, we generally fee things bigger with the left than
the right eye ; of which wc have fome very good obferva-
tions in the journal of the learned at Rome, for the year
1669. See Vision.

The Afta Leipficnfia give us an account of a man, who
received afmart Itroke on the pupil of one of his eyes from
the end of a fiddle-ltring, which broke while he was tuning
the inilrument, and chanced to fly that way. Some cooling
things were applied to the eye, and a bandage ufcd to Ihade
it from the light ; but at midnight the patient, chancing to
wake in the dark, found that he could fee with that eye,
though not with the other : this continued a long time, and
on trial he found that he could read a fmall print at midnight
with this eye, but could fcarcely dillinguilh any thing with
it in a bright and clear day.

We have, in the fame coUoftions, an account of a man,
who, after the cure of a confirmed pox, faw every objcft
double for a long time. Aft. Leipf. 1690.

It is a very common, and a very jull obfcrvation, that
Vol. XXXII.

children do not fee any thing clearly when new-bom ; and
if their eyes be then examined, they are found to want tiiat
brilliancy which they afterwards acquire ; and finally, when
any objeft is prefented to their view, they at firlt turn their
eyes about in (iich a manner, that it is evident they either do
not fee at all, or at be ft but very imperfeftly and obfcurely.

This imperfeftion may either be owing to a fault in fome
one of the humours, or in their capfules ; or, finally, in the
retina, or complexly in them all together. It is impoffible
to difcover whether there be any imperfeftion in the retina
in this ftate of life, that membrane being ever, in new-born
infants, tender and foft like a jelly : if it be m any of the
other parts that the imperfeftion lies, it muft be either in
their nature or extent. M. Petit, of the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, determining to enquire thoroughly into
the caufe of this, was at the pains of difiefting the eyes of
feveral infants which had died foon after their birth, and in
three-fourths of them he found the vitreous, the cryftalline,
and the capfule, all greatly deficient in their tranfparence.
The uvea appeared alfo more opaque than in adults, and the
pupil over-large ; and that there was either none, or, at the
utmolt, very little of the aqueous humour ; and in thofe
eyes where the humours had not this opacity, they were all,
aa were alfo the membranes, of a reddilh colour ; and this
was obferved in fojtufes of fevei\ and nine months old.

T)ie cornea in thefe eyes was alfo remarkably thick,
which is, in general, found to be the cafe in the eyes of all
foetufes. The thicknefs and opacity in thefe corneae gra-
dually dimiriifh in time, and that foon ; fo that the eyes of
children appear much brighter at two or three months old
than when new-born. The aqueous humour feems alfo, in
moft foetufes, to be wholly wanting ; and where it is found,
is ever greatly in an under proportion to the other humours.

It therefore appears, that the dimnels and imperfeftion of
fight, in new-born infants, are owing to the over-thicknefs of
the cornea, and to the too fmall portion of the aqueous or
watery humour. It appears plainly alfo, from experience,
that the eye is not able, in infants, to bear the light, till the
pupil is greatly contrafted ; as is the cafe alfo, though in
a lefs degree, in adults ; and it is very probable, that the
extreme foftncfs of the retina in this ftate may make every
ray of light afleft it much more plainly than when grown
more firm.

M. Petit having continued his examinations of the eyes
of infants, up to the age of five or (w weeks, found in all
his difteftions, that the cornea daily grew more and more
convex and glofTy ; and this may be rationally concluded to
be owing to the daily incrcale of the aqueous humour, which
muft, by that accretion, throw it out into a greater con-
vexity, and make it daily more and more thin and tranfparent.
The uvea alfo acquires a greater extenfion, and its fibres
become more moveable ; wlicnce the pupil acquires a power
of enlarging or contrafting itfelf, at the approach or ab-
fence of light, with much more eafe and rcadinefs tlian it
could before. The humours thus all become capable of
letting in a larger quantity of liglit ; the retina is at the
fame time every day gaining a new firmnefi, and the pupil
becomes capable of an cafy dilatation, or reftriftion, for the
letting in occafionally a greater or lefs number of rays, and
the rcfraftions are perfefted by the augmentation of the
aqueous humour. It is plain, therefore, that the clcarnefs
of vifion muft every day increafc. All this change comes
on in infants only by time ; and it may be judged of, as to
its ftate, l)y infpeftion, by the brilliancy and convexity of
the cornea, and by the manner of their turning their eyes
towards objefti let before them ; and this time is not cer-
4 R tain,

S 1 G

tain, or limited, but diifers greatly in different children,
fome being able to fee clearly at the end of a month, other*
not till after many months.

At the time that this gentleman was diiTefting the eyes
of human foetufes and infants, he alfo curioudy obferved
the eyes of young quadrupeds. The puppy, when newly
brought forth, has always its eyes opaque ; the kitten, on
the contrary, has them clear, and every way like thofe of
adults of the fame fpecies. In fcctufes of other quadru-
peds, the lamb has its cornea a little turbid and opaque ;
the Ciilf and the pig have them more or lefs opaque, but the
calf fo moit of all. Mem. de I'Acad. Par. 1727.

Sight, Defeas of. See Cataract ; Gutta Serena ;
Leucoma; Ophthalmy; Pterygium ; Trichiasis; Eye,
Cancer and Extirpation of ; Epiphora; Y li^rv la Lachry ma-
ils ; Staphyloma; Hypopium; ¥vsGVf> Hiematoe/es; Sec.
Sight, Short. See Myops and Short-sightedness.
Sight, Second. See Second Sigh/.
Sight, Point of. See Point of Viciu.
Sight, Line of . SeeCoLLijMATioN.
Sight. Singing or playing at fight, in Mufic, is the being
prepared by long praftice and experience for every difficulty,
not only of execution, but ilyles and expreflion : as a per-
fon allowed to read well in a book which he has never feen,
muft. not only pronounce the words correftly and dillinftly,
but obferve the punftuation, and enter into the author's de-
fign. We do not always give credit to reports of dilletants,
or even every profeflbr, performing a vi/la, or, as the French
call it, a li-vre ouvert, all kinds of compofition without ftudy
or praftice. See Gretry.

SIGHTS, in Mathematics, denote two thin pieces of brafs,
raifed perpendicularly on the two extremes of an alidade or
index of a theodolite, circumferentor, or other like inftru-
ment ; each of which has an aperture or flit up the middle,
through which the vifual rays pafs to the eye, and diftant
objefts are feen. Their ufe is, for the juft direction of the
index to the line of the objeft.

Sometimes the flits or apertures have glalFes or lenfes
fitted into them ; in which cafe, they are called telefcopic
fights, by way of diftinftion from the former ; which, in
refpeft of the others, are denominated plain fights.

Mr. Flamfteed and Dr. Hooke abfolutely exploded the
ufe of plain fights in aftronomical obfervations. The errors
in Tycho's latitudes of the ftars Mr. Flamfteed afcribes
\yholly to his uling plain fights ; and fufpefts, that Heve-
lius, ufing the lame kind of fights, muft fall into the like
errors. Hevehus, on the contrary, in a paper in the Philo-
fophical Tranfattions, vindicates the ufe ofplain fights, and
prefers them to telefcopic ones ; the main objedion he makes
to the latter is, that no obfervation can be fafely taken with
them, without firft examining and reftifying them ; in which
examination, many and grols miftakcs are likely to be com-
mitted. To which he adds, that in fextants, oaants, azi-
muth quadrants, &;c. he does not fee how fuch examination
can be made, at all times, without much lofs of time.

SIGILLARIA, a folemn feaft held among the ancient
Romans ; thus called from a cuttom which obtained therein,
of fending little prefents from one to another, confitting of
feals, little figures, and fculptures, made of gold, filver,
brafs, or even earthenware, and of devoting them to Saturn,
as in atonement for themfelves and their friends.

The Sigillaria followed immediately after the Saturnalia,
and held two days ; which, with the five days of the Satur-
nalia, made a folemnity of feven days.

Some derive the origin of figils and figures, in this folem-
aity, from the argei, or rulhen figures of men, thrown an-

S I G

nually into the Tiber, from the Pons Sbblicius, by the
Veftals, on the ides of March. Vide Macrob. Saturn, lib. i.
cap. 7. 10. and 11. See alfo Argea.

SIGILLATA Terra, a name given to feveral kinds
of medicinal earths marked with feals, to exprefs their being
genuine. The principal is the Lemnian earth : this is a kind
of earth, or bole, dug in the ifle of Lemnos, and then alfo
called Lemnian earth ; of confiderable ufe in medicine.

It was anciently found in a mountain, in the neighbour-
hood of the city Hepha:ftia, where Diana's priefts went, at
certain times, with great ceremony, to dig it up. After a
Lttle preparation, they made it up into troches, and fealcd
them with Diana's feal ; whence the appellation oi figillata.
fealed.

SIGILLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Umbria ;
1 2 miles N. of Nocera.

SIGILLUM, a feal, or fignet.

SiGiLLU.M Maria, Lady's Seal, in Botany, a name by which
fome authors have called the bryonia nigra, or black bryony,
a climbing plant, common in hedges.

SIGILMESSA, in Geography. See Sugulmessa.

SIGINDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper
Moefia, on the banks of the Danube, according to Ptolemy.
The Itinerary of Antonine marks it on the route from Rimini
to Byzantium, between Taurunura and the mount of Gold.

SIGINNI, a people of Afia, who, according to Strabo.
had the fame manners with the Perfians.

SIGISA, a town of Hifpania, upon the Tader, N.W.
of Vergilia.

SIGISMONDO, in Biography. See India.

SIGISMUND, emperor of Germany, and king of Hun-
gary and Bohemia, was the fon of the emperor Charles IV.
of the houfe of Luxemburg. He was born in the year
1366, and at an early age was fent to the court of Lewis,
king of Hungary, to one of whofe daughters he was be-
trothed, with the intention of making him fucceflfor to the
throne. During his minority, a party of nobles conferred the
crown on Charles, king of Naples, on which event Sigif-
mund retired to Bohemia. Charles being afiafiinated by the
contrivance of the queen-mother, who was put to death for
the crime, Sigifmund aflembled an army, and entering Hun-
gary, liberated his wife Mary, who had been imprifoned,
and was crowned king when he was in the twentieth year
of his age. He feverely revenged the execution of his
mother-in-law ; and getting poffefTion of the perfons of the
nobles who had invited Charles, he caufed them all to be
beheaded, to the number of thirty-two. The bloody aft
occafioned fo m.uch difaffeftion, that the Turkifh em-
peror Bajazet determined upon taking the opportunity of
invading Hungary, which he did with complete fuccefs ;
and Sigifmund was dethroned. He however efcaped, and
retiring to Bohemia, levied troops, with which he recovered
his crown, and being brought to realon by adverfity, he
thenceforth condufted himfelf fo as to obtain the good-
will of his people ; and fuch was the reputation which he
now acquired abroad, that he was elefted emperor of
Germany.

The firft objeft of Sigifmund in his new dignity, was to
put an end to various diforders and diffentions which pre-
vailed in Germany. He held a conference with pope
John XXIII. for the convoking of a council, the principal
objeft of which was the termination of the fchifm in the
papacy which had long divided the church. He engaged with
great zeal in this matter, and at length effefted the affem-
bling of a council at Conftance, in 1414, at which he himfelf
aflifted. As the oppofition of the Huffites to the doftnnes

10 "f

S I G

of Rome was now making great proffrefs, the emperor
granted a fafe-conduft to John Hufs to come to the council,
and defend the articles of his faith ; and it will be to his ever-
lallinsr difgrace, that he fuffered the council to violate the
proteftion he had folemnly given, and to bring this re-
former to the flake. He now endeavoured to re-eitabhfh
peace among tlie Chriltian princes, that they might concur
in a plan for restoring the unity of the church : with this
view he vifited both France and England, then at war with
each other, but with little fuccefs. The council, however,
agreed in depofing the exifting popes, and eledling a new
one. Upon the death of his brother Wenceflaus, in 1419,
Sigifmund fucceeded to the crown of Bohemia, which
country was in a flame, from the revolt of the perfecuted
Huflites, under their leader the famous Ziflva. He marched
with an army into Bohemia, but was entirely defeated by
Zifl<a, and the fame fortune attended him a fecond time.
After the death of that hero, a long feries of bloody wars
fucceeded, which at lall terminated in the fubmiflion of the
Thaboriies, as the infurgents were afterwards called, and Si-
gifmund was crowned at Prague, in the year 1436, and
reduced the whole kingdom to obedience. He had fome years
before this received the imperial crown both at Milan and at
Rome. His bigotry urged him to tyrannical proceedings
againft his Bohemian fubjedts, which excited their animofity
to fuch a degree, that he determined to leave the country.
When he was jutt upon the point of putting this refolution
into execution, he was feized with a mortification in his
toes, which was the prefage to approaching diHolution, and
having publicly declared his fon-in-law, Albert, duke of
Auitria, the heir to his dominions, he died in December
1437, in the 71ft year of his age, and the 27th of his imperial
dignity. Sigifmund is faid to have had a fine perfoii, and
to have pofleifed various accomplilhments, efpecially an un-
common n<ill in the learned languages. He was, moreover, a
patron of learned men, was liberal, brave, and aftive ; but,
on the other hand, he was cruel, vindiftive, and fuperfti-
tioufly devoted to the clergy. He was licentious in his
conduft, the confcioufnefs of which made him indulgent to
the open and abandoned debauchery of his fecond wife,
Barbara de Cilley, denominated the Mell'alina of Germany.
SiGisMUND I. king of Poland, furnamed the Great, was
the fon of Cafimir IV. He fucceeded his brother Alex-
ander in I J07, and immediately applied himfelf to the re-
medying of abufes that had crept into the adminiftration of
public affairs. In this arduous tnflc he was aintled by the
able and faithful minilter John Bonner, whofe name is flill
held in veneration by the Poles. A rebellion in Litiuiania,
abetted by the tzar of Mufcovy, joined to an incurflon of
the Walachians and Moldavians, obliged him to put him-
felf at the head of the troops, and he completely fucceeded
againft his enemies. The next antagonill with whom he
had to coiiteiul, was the marquis of Brandeiiburgh, grand-
malter of the Teutonic order, who had rtfiifed to acKiiow-
ledge the fovereignty of the king of P(Jand over the pro-
vince of PrnlTia : in this difpute he was alfo fuccelsful, and
obliged the marquis to grant him half the province of PrnlTia,
as a barrier againft the Teutonic knii;hts. Sigifmund now
fat down the peaceful fovereign of Poland, Lilliiiania, the
duchies of Smolenflco and Severia, and confiderablc terri-
tories on the Euxinc and Baltic, while his nephew Lewis
was king of Hungary and Bohen.ia. This accumulation of
power gave umbrage to the houfe of Auftria ; which, by
its intriiiues, incited the Walachiaii'!, Tartars, and Mufco-
vites, to make new inroads. Thefe, however, were fion driven
back with great lofs to their own countries, and Sigifmund
left again in peace. He died, after a wife, fortunate, and

S I G

long reign, in the eighty-fourth year of his reign, and in the

year 1548.

SiGisMUND II. named Auguftus, king of Poland, fon of
the preceding, was eledted to the crown before his father's
death. He oft^ended the nobles by manning the widow of
an obfcure perfon ; and it is aflerted, that, in order to re-
cover their favour, he permitted them to fend their font for
education to the Proteftant univcrtities of Germany, which
was the means of introducing their opinions into Poland.
He himfelf remained attached to the old religion, and br
his prudent and moderate conduft kept out of the king-
dom thofe diforders which difturbed the peace of fo many
other European countries. He was extremely diligent ia
promoting the improvement of his ftates by wife laws and
regulations, and the corredtion of abufes, which enabled
him to maintain a powerful Handing army without the ad-
dition of new taxes. This force he had occafion to employ-
as an auxiliary to his kinfman the archbifhop of Riga, againft
an invafion of the Ruflians. He made himfelf mailer of
great part of Livonia, and forced the grand-niafter of the
Teutonic order, who had called in the Ruffians, to renounce
their alliance, and put the order under the protection of Po-
land. From this period Livonia was annexed to Poland, and
the grand-mafter abdicating his dignity, received in com-
penfation the duchies of Courland and Semigallia, which
long remained in his family. The tzar, John Bafilowitz,
made an irruption into Lithuania, which occafioned much
bloodflied and devaftation, and Sigifmund was glad to pro-
pofe an armiitice ; and while this meafure was in difcuflion,
the king of Poland died ia 1572, leaving only two daugh-
ters, and with him terminated the male line of the houfe of
Jagellon. He left a high charafter for courage, ability, and
every princely quality, but he is faid to have been too much
attached to the fair fex.

SiGiSMUND III. king of Poland, furnamed De Vafa,v!i%
the f»n of John III. king of Sweden, and Catharine, daugh-
ter of Sigifmund I. king of Poland. He was born in 1566,
and in 1587 was elefted to the crown of Poland, in compe-
tition with Maximihan of Auftria. Through the exertions
of Zamoflci, the crown-general, after a civil war, in which
Maximilian was defeated and taken prifoner, Sigifmund
was firmly feated on the throne. He governed fuccefsfully
with the afTiflance of Zamoflci, till the death of his father, in
T592, left him heir to the crown of Sweden. As he was
a zealous Catholic, and the Swedes were friendly to the
Reformation, they felt difinclincd to come under Ins autlio-
rity ; befides that, the duties of a king of Sweden, and of a
king of Poland, feemed to be quite incompatible. His uncle,
duke Charles, who had been declared regent during Sigif-
mund's abfence, inflamed thofe difcontents. Sigifmund
having obtained permillion from the Polifti diet to vilit his
other kingdom, arrived in Sweden in 1 5931 accompanied by
the pope's nuncio, and his proceedings foon proved how
much the relloration of the Catholic religion was the objeft;
of hirt willus. Violent diffentions arofe between him ai d llic
ftates, and in 1595 he returned lit Poland, leaving Sweden
in the greatefl difonler. In 1598, Sigifmund again entered
Sweden at the head of a foreign army, and a civil war en-
fiied, which terminated in a pacilication, and the king re-
turned to Poland. Peace did not laft long, and in 1604 the
Swedes formally depofed him, and raifed his uncle Charles
to the throne. War fucceeded between Poland and Swe-
den, which ended in the tonqueit of Livonia by the Polifli
general.

Ruftia, at this time, being thrown into confufion by a re-
volution, Sigifmund took part in its diforders, and entering
that country, in l6io, at the head of a numerous army,
4 R 2 gained

S I G

rained in the outfet fuch advantages, that he was enabled to
place his fon Uladiflaus on the throne. He was, kowever,
foon after dethroned, and all the conquefts made by Sigif-
mund were recovered by the Ruffians. During the remain-
der of his reign, the Poles were involved in wars with the
Turks, and afterwards with the Swedes under Gullavus
Adolphus. To the latter they were obliged to cede Livo-
nia, Finland, and Pruffia ; and the concluding years of Si-
gifmund were clouded with difafters. He fell into a ftate
of melancholy and difeafe, by which he was carried off, in the
year 1669. His charader has been thus drawn in very few
words : " With fome talents for government, his religious
bigotry, and obftinacy of temper, precipitated him into errors
which coll him one crown, and rendered the other a fource
ef perpetual difqiiiet."

SIGIUS, in ^nciait Geography, a town of Italy, on the
coafl of Aufonia, according to Appian.

SiGius Mons, or Sethis, according to Ptolemy, a moun-
tain of GaUia Narbonnenfis, on the coaft of the Mediter-
ranean fea. Strabo.

SIGMA, among the Romans, the fame with ihejlibadium.

SIGMA RINGEN, in Geography, a town and county
of Germany, invelled in the houfe of HohenzoUern, on the
Danube ; 44 miles E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 2'. E.
long. 9° 16'.

jIGMOlD, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to various

S 1 G

Signs, the autumnat, are, Libra, Scorpio, and Sagit.
tariua.

Signs, the brumal, or -winter, are, Capricornus, Aquarius,
and Pifces.

The vernal and fummer figns are alfo called northern ^
figns.

And the autumnal and brumal i\gx\s, fouthern figns.

Signs, Afcendlng. See Ascending.

Signs, Fixed. See Fixed.

Signs, MafcuUne. See Masculine.

Sign Manual, the letting one's hand and feal to a writing.
See Signature.

The expreflion is ufed when any bill or writing is figned
under the hand of the king, &c. Counterfeiting the fign
manual, privy fignet, or privy feal, is treafon. 1 Mar.
ftat. 2. cap. 6. See Patents.

Among the Saxons, before the invention of feals, a -(-
was a common fign, or^^um, prefixed to the names of moll
fubfcribing witneiles in charters, and other deeds : as -f
fignum Roberti Epifcop. Lond. iic. See Seal.

Sign of Reference, in MuJic,Jigna repetitionis. See SeGNO. •

Signs of Difeafe in Horfes, the appearances which (hew
them to be out of order. The firfl fign ot a horfe's indif-
pofition is, his loathing his food, efpccially when he has a
wild and haggard look ; as the eye of a horfe is, as it were,
a glafs, through which may be difcerned the inward difpofi-

parts of the body, from their figure bcins; iimilar to that of tion of his body : it Ihould alfo be obfcrved whether his ears

the Greek letter tr. Thus, we have the figmoid cavities of '---'J >--■ -^ i-- ' .1- u,:. _r u:. fl._i..

the ulna (fee Extremities) ; figmoid flexure of the colon
(fee Intestine) ; and figmoid valves of the aorta and pul-
monary artery. See Heart.

SIGN, SiGNUM, a fenfible mark, or charafter, denoting
fomething abfent or invifible.

Anciently the monks, in all religious houfes, were not al-
lowed to fpeak, nor to exprefs their minds, otherwife than
by figns, which they learned in their noviciate. C. Rhodi-
ginus and Porta have written of the ancient figns and cyphers
ufed in fpeaking and writing.

Sign, in Algebra, denotes a fymbol, or charafter.
Signs, like, negative, and radical. See the adjeftives.
Sign, in Medicine, any appearance in a difeafe which is
cognizable by the fenfes, and from which fome judgment
may be formed refpefting the nature of the difeafe, and its
probable termination. It is now more commonly called a
fymptom ; which fee.

Sign, Antecedent. See Antecedent.
Sign, in AJlronomy, a twelfth part of the ecliptic, or
zodiac ; or a portion, containing thirty degrees of it.

The zodiac was divided, by the ancients, into twelve feg-
ments, called figns ; commencing from the point of interfec-
tion of the ecliptic and equinoftial ; which figns they deno-
minated from the twelve conftellations, which, in Hippar

be cold, his mouth hot or clammy, the hair of his flanks
rough and flaring, and paler than ufual about the ends ;■
his dung hard, black, or grecnifh, and his urine clear like
water. In this cafe his eyes are alfo fubjeft to weep ;
his head is heavy and hanging down ; he is apt to Humble as
he walks ; he is flow and dull, though he was vigorous be-
fore ; he never minds other horfes ; contrary to his former
cuftom, he rifes and lies down often in the ilable, looking
towards his flanks, which are doubled and folded in ; his
heart beats quick ; and he is alfo indifferent and unconcerned
at what is done to him. Thefe and manv other figns are
met with in horfes which are not in a ilate of perfeft health,
and (houlJ be immediately attended to ; and fuitable remedies
be applied. This is of much confequence to be taken care of
in team and other work horfes belonging to farms, &c.

SIGNA, Standards, among the Romans, were of dif-
ferent forts ; on fome of them the image of the emperor was
reprefented, and they that carried them were called imagi-
niferi ; others had a hand ftretched out, as a fymbol of con-
cord; and ihefe enfign-bearers were called ^^^nj/iri ; fome
had a filver eagle, the bearers of which were called aquiliferi ;
others had a dragon with a filver head, and the rcfl of his
body of taffety, which was blown by the wind as if it
had been a real dragon, and the bearers of this enfign were
called draconarii ; laftly, the emperor's enfign was called

chus's time, poffcfied thofe fegments. But the conftella- labarum, and thofe that carried it labariferi, which they car-
tions have fince fo changed their places, by the preceffion of ricd out when he went in perfon to the field ; it was of a

the equinox, that Aries is now got out of the fign called
Aries, into Taurus, Taurus into Gemini, &c.

The names of tlie twelve figns, and their order, are as
follow : Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra,
Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pifces ; each of
which, with the liars thereof, fee under its proper article,
Aries, Taurus, &c.

The figns are dillinguifhed, with regard to the feafon of
the year when the fun is in them, into vernal, ajlival, autum-
nal, and brumal.

Signs, the vernal, or fpring, are, Aries, Taurus, Gemini.

purple colour, befet with gold fringe, and adorned with pre-
cious Hones.

All thefe enfigns were fuftained with a half-pike, fharp
at the end, that it might be the more eafily fixed in the
ground.

SIGNAL, a certain fign agreed upon for tlie conveying
of intelligence to places to which the voice cannot reach.

Signals are given for the beginning of a battle, or an
attack ; ufually with drums and trumpets : at fea, they are
given by cannon ©r mufketfhot, by lights, fails, flags, &c.

All fignals may be reduced into three different kinds ; vi%.

Signs, the aflival, or fummer, are, Cancer, Leo, and thofe which are made by the found of particular inflruments,
Virgo. as the trumpet, horn, or fife ; to which may be added,

ftriking

SIGNALS.

ftriking the bell, or beating the drum ; thofe which are
made by difplaying pendants, enfigns, and flags, of dif-
ferent colours ; or by lowering or altering the pofition of
the fails ; and thofe which are executed by rockets of dif-
/ fcrent kinds ; by firing cannon or fmall arms ; by artificial
fire-works ; and by lanthorns. See Telegraph.

The fignals by the drum, made ufe of in military exercife,
Inllead of the word of command, are as follow : a (hort
roll, q. d. to caution ; a flam, to perform any diftinft ope-
ration ; to arms, to form the line or battalion ; the march,
to advance, except when intended for a lalutc ; the quick
inarch, to advance quick ; the point of war, to march and
charge ; the retreat, to retreat ; drum ceafing, to halt ; two
fhort rolls, to perform the flank-firing ; the dragoon march,
to open the battalion ; the grenadier march, to form the co-
lumn ; the troop, to double divifions ; the long roll, to form
the fquare ; the grenadier march, to reduce the fquarc to the
column ; the preparative, to make ready and tire ; the gene-
ral, to ceafe firing ; two long rolk, to bring or lodge the
colours.

Signals have been in ufe in all ages : the ancients, who had
no regular couriers, or polls, made ufe of them to convey
inteUigence of what palled at a great diltance ; for which
purpofe, they placed fentinels on the eminences, from fpace
to fpace ; fome mention of which we find made by Homer
himfelf, Iliad e. v. 553, &c. OdyflT. s. v. 261. Thofe peo-
ple, thus difpofed, lighted fires, or flambeaux, in the
night-time. In the Agamemnon of iEfchylus, that prince,
at his departure for Troy, promifcs Clytemnellra, that, the
very day the city fliould be taken, he would apprize her of
his viftory by fires, lighted exprefs. He keeps his word,
and tidings are brought tlie princefs, that Troy is taken,
and that Agamemnon's fignals are feen.

Frontinus obferves they were in ufe among the Arabs ;
and Bonaventura Vulcanias, in his fcholia on Ariilotle's
book De Mundo, adds, that, while the Moors were mailers
of the greateft part of Spain, they built on the tops of
the mountains an infinity of turrets, or watch-houfes, called,
in the Arabic, atalayas, a word the Spaniards dill retain ;
whence, by fires, they could immediately alarm tlie whole
kingdom. Indeed the cuflom was much more ancient than
the Moors in Spain. Q. Curtius obferves, it wa^ very fre-
quent among the Afiatics, in the time of Alexander : Livy
and Cxfar, alfo, both mention it as ufed among the Romans.
Polydore Virgil Ihews it of great antiquity in England ;
and Boethius adds, that, in feveral places in England,
there were the remains of huge poles that have fcrved for
this purpofe.

Signals at Sea, are figns made by the admiral, or com-
mander-in-chief of a fquadron of Ihips, either in the day,
or by night, whether for faihng, for fighting, or for the
better fecurity of the merchant-lhips under their convoy.
See Engagement.

Thefe fignals are very numerous, and important ; being
all appointed and determined by order of the lord lugh ad-
miral, and lords of the admiralty, and communicated m the
inllruftions fent to the commander of every fliip of the fleet,
or fquadron, before their putting out to fea. It is by the
combination of fignals, previoufly known, that the admiral
conveys orders to his fleet ; every fquadron, every divilion,
and every (hip of which has its particular fignal. The in-
llrudtion may, therefore, occafionally be given to the whole
fleet, or to any of its fquadrons, to any divifion of thofe
fqu.idrons, or to any (hip of thofe divifions. Hence tlie fig-
jial of command may at the fame time be difplayed for three
divifions, and for three ftiips of each divifion ; or for three
ihips in each fquadron, and for only nine rtiips in the whole

fleet. For, the general fignal of the fleet being fliewn, if a
particular pendant be alfo thrown out from fome remarkable
place on the lame mad with the general fignal, it will commu-
nicate intelligence to nine (hips that wear the fame pendant.

The preparatory lignal given by the admiral to the whole,
or any part of his fleet, is immediately anfvix-red by thofe to
whom it is direAcd ; by (hewing the fame fignal, to tedify
that they are ready to execute his orders. Having obferved
their anfwers, he will (hew the fignal which is to direcl their
operations : as, to chafe, to form the fine, to begin the en-
gagement, to board, to double upon the enemy, to rally or
return to aftion, to difcontinue the fight, to retreat and fave
themf<:lvcs. The dexterity of working the (hips in a fleet
depends on the precife moment of executing thefe orders, and
on the general harmony of their movements ; a circumllance
which evinces the utility of a fignal of preparation.

As the extent of the line of battle, and the fire and fmoke
of the aftion, or other circumdances in navigation, will
often prevent the admiral's fignals from being feen through-
out the fleet, they are always repeated by the officers next
in command ; by diips appointed to repeat fignals ; and,
finally, by the Ihip or (hips for which they are intended.
The diips that repeat the fignal, befides the chiefs of
fquadrons or divifions, are ulually frigates lying to wind-
ward or leeward of the line. Thefe fliould be extremely vi-
gilant to obferve and repeat the fignals, whether they are
to tranfmit the orders of the commanders-in-chief, or his
fcconds, to any part of the fleet ; or to report the fortunate
or didrelsfiil fituation of any part thereof. By this means,
all the (hips from the van to the rear will, uiilefs difabled, be
ready at a moment's warning to put the admiral's defign in
execution. To preferve order in the repetition of fignals,
and to favour their communication, without embarrafi'ment,
from the commander-in-chief to the diip for which they are
defigned, the commanders of the fquadrons repeat after the
admiral; the chiefs of the divifions, according to their order
in the line, after the commanders of the fquadrons ; and the
particular (hips, after the chiefs of the divifions ; and thofe,
in return, after the particular (hips, vice ver/u, when the
objed is to convey any intelligence from the latter CtJ the
admiral. Befides the fignals above-mentioned, th..,'e are
others for different ranks of officers ; as for captains, lieu-
tenants, mailers, &c. or for any of thole officers of a pecu-
liar (hip. Falconer.

Signal-flags are hoided at the mizen-peek, &c. ; night-
fignals are made with lanthorns, and arc hoided by the lame
haliards as the flags. Since November 1805, the red flag
at the main-maft has been the fird in rank after the union
flag. Sec Flag.

Signals by Day. When tlie commander-in-chief would
have them prepare for failing, he lird loofes his forc-topfail,
and then the whole licet is to do the fame. When he
would have them unmoor, he looles his main-topfail, and
fires a gun, which, in the royal navy, is to be anfwered by
every flag-(hip. When he would have them weigh, he
loofes his forc-topfail, and fires a gnn, and fometimes hauls
iiome his (hceta ; the gun is to be anfwered by every flag-
Ihip, and every fliip is to get to (ail as foon a< it can. If
with the keward-fide, the llcrnmod (liip is to weigh firlf.
When he would have the weathcr-inoll and head-moll Ihips
to tack lird, he hoids the union-flag at the fore-topmall-
head, and fires a gun, which each llaglhip anfwers; but if
he would have the dern-moft and leeward mod (liips to tack
fird, he lioills the union-flag at the mizen tO])niad-head, and
fires a gun ; and when he would have all the whole fleet
tack, he hoids an union both on the fore and mi/.eii-lop.
raad-hcads, and fires a gun. Wheu, in liad weather, he

would

SIGNALS.

would haTe them wear, and bring to the other tack, he
hoirts a pendant on the enfign-ftafF, and fires a gun ; and
then the leeward-moft and ftern-molt (hips are to wear firft,
and bring on the other tack, and he by, or go on with an
eafy fail, till he comes a-head : every flag is to anfwer with
the iame fignal. If they are lying by, or failing by a wind,
and the admiral would have them bear up and fail before the
wind, he hoifts his enfign, and fires a gun, which the flags
are to anfwer ; and then the leeward-moil fhips are to bear
up firft, and to give room for the weather-moft to wear,
and fail before the wind, with an eafy tail, tiU the admiral
comes a-head. But if it flionld happen, when the admiral
hath occafion to wear and fail before the wind, that both
jack and enfign be abroad, he will haul down the jack, be-
fore he fires the gun to wear, and keep it down till the fleet
is before the wind. When they are failing before the wind,
and he would have them bring-to, with the llarboard tacks
aboard, he hoifts a red flag at the flag-ftaff, on the mizen-
topmall-head, and fires a gun. But if they are to bring-to,
with the larboard tack, he hoifts a blue flag at the iame
place, and fire? a gun, and every fliip is to anfwer the gun.
When any fhip discovers land, he is to hoift his jack and
enfign, and keep it abroad, till the admiral or commander-
in-chief anfwer him, by hoifting his ; on fight of which, he
is to haul down his enfign. If any difcovers danger, he is
to tack and bear up from it, and to hang his jack abroad
from the main-topmaft crofs-trees, and to lire two guns ;
but if he fliould ftrike or ftick faft, then, befides the fame
fignal with his jack, he is to keep finng, till he fees all the
fleet obferve him, and endeavour to avoid the danger.
When any fees a fhip or (hips more than the fleet, he is to
put abroad his enfign, and there keep it, till the admiral's
is out, and then to lower it, as often as he fees fhips, and
ftand in with them, that fo the admiral may know which
way they are, and how many ; but if he be at fuch a dif-
tance, that the enfign cannot well be difcovered, he is then
to lay his head toward the flup or (hips fo defcried, and to
brail up his low fails, and continue hoifting and lowering
his topfails, and making a waft with his top-gallant fails,
till hCjjis perceived by the admiral. When the admiral
would have the vice-admiral, or him that commands in the
fecond poft of the fleet, to fend out fhips to chafe, he hoifts
a flag, ftriped white and red on the flag-ftaff, at the fore-
topmaft-head, and fires a gun. But if he would have the
rear-admiral do fo, he then hoifts the fame fignal on the flag-
ftaff at the mizen-topmaft-head, and fires a gun. When the
admiral would have any (hip to chafe to windward, he makes
a fignal for fpeaking with the captain, and he hoifts a red
flag in the mizen (hrouds, and fires a gun ; but if to chafe
to leeward, a blue flag ; and the fame fignal is made by the
flag, in whofe divifion that fliip is. When he would have them
give over chafe, he hoills a white flag on his flag-ftaff at the
fore-topmaft-head, and fires a gun ; which fignal is to be
made alfo by that flag-fliip which is neareft the ftiip that
gives chafe, till the cliafing ftiip fees the fignal. In cafe
of fpringing a leak, or any other difafter, that difables their
fliip from keeping company, they are to haul up their
courfcs, and fire two guns. When any ftiip would fpeak
with the admiral, he muft fpread an Engliib enfign, from
the head of his main or fore-topmaft, downwards on the
flirouds, lowering his main or fore-topfail, and continue
firing guns, till the admiral obferve him ; and if any fliip
perceive this, and judgeth the admiral doth not, that fliip
rauft make the fame fignal, and make the beft of his way to
acquaint the admiral therewith, who fhall anfwer by firing
one gun. When the admiral would have the fleet to pre-
pare to anchor, he hoifts an enfign, ftriped red, blue, and

white, on the enfign-ftaff, and fire* a gun ; and cTery flag-
fliip makes the fame fignal. If he would have the fleet
moor, he hoifts his mizen-topfail, with the clew-lines hauled
up, and fires a gun. If he would have the fleet cut or flip,
he loofes both his topfails, and fires two guns ; and theu the
leeward fhips are to cut or flip firft, to give room to the
weather-moft to come to fail. So if he would have any
particular ftiip to cut or flip, and to chafe to windwird, he
makes the fignal for fpeaking with that fliip, hoifts a red
flag in the mizen-(hrouds, and fires a gun ; but if a fhip is
to chafe to leeward, he hoifts a blue flag as before. If he
would have the fleet exercife their fmall arms, he hoifts a
red flag on the enfign-ftafF, and fires a gun ; but if the great
guns, then he puts up the pendant over the red flag.

Signals by Night, to be obferved at an anchor, weighing
anchor, and (ailing, are as follow. When the admiral
would have the fleet to unmoor, and ride fliort, he han js
out three lights, over one another in the main-topmaft-
flirouds, over the conllant light in the main-top, and fires
two guns, which are to be anfwered by the flag-lhips ; and
each private (hip hangs out a light in the mizen- flirouds.
Note, that all guns, fired for fignals in the night, muft be
fired on the fame fide, that they may make no alteration in
the found. When he would have them weigh, he hangs a
light in the main-topmaft-ftirouds, and fires a gun, which is
to be anfwered by all the flags ; and every private ftiip muft
hang out a light in his mizen-(hroud. When he would have
them tack, he hoifts two flags on the cnfign-ftafF, over one
another, above the conftant light in his poop, and fires a
gun, which is to be anfwered by all the flags ; and every
private fliip is to hang out a light extraordinary, which is
not to be taken in, till the admiral takes in his. After the
fignal is made, the leeward-moft and llern-moft (hips mull
tack as faft as they can ; and the ftern-moil flag-ftiip, after
he is about on the other tack, is to lead the fleet, and him
they are to follow, to avoid running through one another in
the dark. When he is upon a wind, and would have the
fleet veer, and bring-to on the other tack, he hoifts up one
light at the mizen-peek, and fires three guns ; which is to
be anfwered by all the flag-lhips ; and every private (hip
muft anfwer, with one light at the mizen-peek. The ftern-
moft and leeward-moft ftiips are to bear up fo foon as the
fignal is made. When he would hare them, in blowing
weather, to lie a-try, (hort, or a-huU, or with the head-
fails braced to the maft, he will form lights of equal height,
and fire five guns, which are to be anfwered by the flag-
fhips, and then every private (hip muil (hew four lights;
and after this, if he would have them to make fail, he then
fires ten guns, which are to be anfwered by all the flags,
and then the head-moft and weather-moft (hips are to make
fail firft. When the fleet is failing large, or before the
wind, and the admiral would have them bring-to, and lie
by, with their ftarboard tacks aboard, he puts out four
lights in the fore-flirouds, and fires fix guns ; b.ut if with
the larboard tacks aboard, he fires eight guns, which are
to be anfwered by the flag-(hips ; and every private (hip
muft fhew four lights. The wind-molt (hips mull bring-to
firft. Whenever the admiral alters his courfe, he fires one
gtin, without altering his lights, which is to be anfwered
by all the fiag-fhips. If any (hip hath occafion to he (hort,
or by, after the ileet hath made fail, he is to fire one gun,
and (hew three lights in his mizen-(hrouds. When any one
firft difcovers land, or danger, he is to (hew as many lights
as he can, to fire one gun, and to tack, or bear away from
it ; and if any one happen to fpring a leak, or any be dif-
abled from keeping company with the fleet, he hangs out
two lights of equal height, and fires guns till he is relieved

by

SIGNALS.

b^y fome (hip of the fleet. If any one difcovers a fleet, he is and fires a gun, all the captains are to come aboard him ;
WKb fire guns, make falfe fires, put one light out on the main- and if, with the fame fignal, there be alfo a waft made with
■^op, three on the poop, to fteer after them, and to con- the enfign, then the lieutenant of each fhip is to come on
tinue firing of guns, unlefs the admiral call him off, by board. If an enlifrn be put abroad in the fame place, all
fleering another courfe, and fire two or three guns, for the mafters of the (hips of war are tn come on board the ad-
then he muft follow the admiral. When the admiral an- miral. If a Itandard on the flag-ftaffbc hoifted at the mizen-
chors, he fires two guns, a fmall fpace of time one from the topmaft-head, and a gun fired, then all the flag-< fficers are
Other, which are to be anfwered by the flag-iliips, and every to come aboard the admiral. If the Engl'(h flags only, thei

private (liip muft (hew two lights. When the admiral
would have the fleet to moor, he puts a hght on each top-
mad-head, and fires a gun, which is to be anfwered by the
jlag-lhips, and every private (liip is to (hew one light. If
he would have them lower their yards and topmaft, he hoifts

a ftandard in the mizen-(hrouds, and fire a gun : if the flags,
and land general officers, then the admiral puts abroad a
ftandard at mizen-topmaft-head, and a pendant at mizen-
peek, and fires a gun. If a red Aug bf hoilted in the
mizen-(hroud5, and a gun fired, then the captains of his

one light upon his enfign-fta(F, and fires one gun, which is own fquadron are to come aboard the admiral ; and if, with

to be anfwered by the flag-(hips ; and every private (hip the fame fignal, there be alfo a waft with the enfign, the

muft (hew one light. And when he would have them hoift lieutenant of each (hip muft come aboard. If he hoilts a

their yards and topmafts, he puts out two lights, one under white flag, as before, then the vice-admiral, or he that

the other, in the mizen-topmaft-(hrouds, and fires one gun, commands in the fecond poft, and all the captains of his

which is to be anfwered by the flag-(hips ; and each private fquadron, are to go on board the admiral; if a blue flag,

(hip muft (hew one light in the niizen-(hrouds. If any &c. then the rear-admiral, and the captains of his fquadron,

ftrange (hip be difcovered coming into the fleet, the next muft come aboard, and if with a waft, as before, the lieu-

Ihip is to endeavour to fpeak with her, and bring her to an tenants. When a ftandard is hoilted on the enfign-ftaiF,

anchor, and not fuffer her to pafs through the fleet. And
if any one difcovers a fleet, and it blows fo hard that he can-
not come to give the admiral timely notice, he is to hang
out a great number of lights, and to continue firing gun
after gun, till the admiral anfwers him with one. When
the admiral would have the fleet to cut or (lip, he hangs out
four lights, one at each main-yard-arm, and at each fore-
yard-arm, and fires two guns, which arc to be anfwered by
the flag-(hips ; and every private (hip is to (hew one light.

Signals uj'eil -when a Ship falls in a Fog. If the admiral
would have tliem weigh, he fires ten guns ; which every flag-
(hip is to anfwcr. To make them tack, he fires four guns,
which are to be anfwered by the flag-(hips ; and then the
leeward-molt and llern-moft (hips mult tack firll, and after
they are about, to go with the fame fail they tacked with,
and not to lie by, expefting the admiral to come a- head ;
and this is to avoid the danger of running through one
another in thick weather.

When the admiral brings-to, and lies with his head-fails
to the maft ; if with the ftarboard lack aboard, he fires fix
guns ; but if with the larboard tack, he fires eight guns,
which the flag-(hips are to anfwer. And after this, if he
makes fail, he fires ten guns, which the flag-(hips muft
anfwcr, and then the head-moft and weather-moft (hips arc
to make fail firft. If it grow thick and foggy weather, the
admiral will continue failing, with the fame fail fi't that he
had before it grew foggy, and will fire a gun every hour,
which the flag-(hips mull anfwer; and the private (liips
muft anfwer, by firing of mufliet;;, beating of drums, and
ringing of bells. But if he be forced to make either more
or lefs fail than he had, when the fog began, he will fire a
gun every half-hour, that the fleet may c'ifcern wliether
they come up with the admiral, or fall aftern of Iiim ; and
the flags and private (hips are to anfwer, as before. If any
one difcovers danger, which he can avoid, by tacking and
(landing from it, he is to make the fignal for tacking in a
fog ; but if he (liould chance to ftrike, and ftick faft, he is
to fire gun after gun, till he thinks the reft have avoided the
danger When the admiral would have the fleet to anchor,
he fires two guns, whicii the flags are to anfwer ; and after
he hath been half a.i hour at an anchor, he will fire two guns
more, to be anlwered by the flags as before, that all the fleet
may know it.

Sign AL.s /or calVwg OJJicers on board the Admiral. When
the admiral puts abroaa an union-flag in the mizcu-ftirouds,

and a gun fired, the vice and rear-admirals muft come oa
board the admiral's (hip. When the admiral would fpeak
with the captains of his own divifion, he will hoift a pen-
dant on the mizen-pcck, and fire a gun ; and if with the
lieutenants, a waft is made with the enfign, and the fame
fignal ; for whenever he would fpeak with the lieutenants of
any particular (hip, he makes the fignal for the captain, and
a waft alfo with the enfign. When the admiral would have
all the tenders in the fleet come under his (tern, and fpeak
witli him, he hoifts a flag, yellow and wliite, at the mizen-
peek, and fires a gun. But if he would fpeak with any
particular (hip's tender, he makes a fignal for fpcaking with
the captain (he tends upon, and a waft with the jack. If
all the pinnaces and barges are to come on board, manned
and armed, the fignal is a pendant on the flag-ftaft, hoifted
on the fore-topmall-liead, and a gun fired ; and if he would
have them chafe any (hip, vcflel, or boat in view, he hoifts
the pendant, and fires two guns. The fignal for the long-
boats to come on board him, manned and armed, is the
pendant hoifted on the flag-ftafF, and the mizen-topmaft-
heads, and a gun fired ; and if he would have them chafe
any (hip, ved'ef, or boat, in open view, without coming on
board him, he hoifts the pendant, as aforelaid, and fires two
guns. When the admiral would iiave all the boats in the
fleet to come on bciard him, manned and armed, he hoifts a
pendant on the flag-ftafF, both on the fore-topmaft and
mizen-topmaft-head, and fires one gun ; but if lie would
have them chafe, he hoifts his pendants, as before, and fires
two guns. When the admir,»l would fpeak with the
vidualler, or his agent, he puts an Eugliih enfign in the
mi/.en-topmaft-lhrouds ; and wlicn witii iiim that hath the
charge of the gunner's ftiires, lie will fpread an enfign at his
main-topfail-yard-arm.

Signals for managing a Sea-Jight. When the admiral
would have the fleet form a line of battle, one (hip a-head
of another, he hoifts an union flag on the mizen-peck, and
fires a gun ; and every flag-fhip does the like. But when
they are to form a line of battle, one a-breaft of another,
he hoilts a pendant with the union-flag, &c. Whm he
would have the admiral of the white, or liim that commands
in the fecond poft, to tack, and endeavour to gain the wind
of the enemy, he fpreads a white flag under tlie flag at the
maintopmail-head, and lires a gun ; and when he would
liave the vice-admiral of the blue do fo, lie doth the fame
with the blue flag. If he would have the riiar-admiral of

the

S I G

the red do fo. he fpreads a red flag from the cap, on the
fore-topmaft-head, downward on the back-ftay ; if the
vice-admiral of the blue, he fpreads a blue flag, &c. and
fires a gun. If he would have the rear-admiral of the red
do fo, he hoifts a red flag at the flag-ftafF, at the mizen-
topmaft-head ; if the rear-admiral of the white, a white
flag ; if the rear-admiral of the blue, a blue flag, and under
it a pendant of the fame colour, with a gun. If he be to
leeward of the fleet, or any part of it, and he would have
them bear down into his wake or grain, he hoifts a blue flag
at the mizen-peck, and fires a gun. If he would be to lee-
ward of the enemy, and his fleet or any part of it be to leeward
of him, in order to bring thefe fhips into the line, he bears
down with a blue flag at the mizen-peek, under the union-
flag, (which is the fignal for battle,) and fires a gun ; and
then thofe fliips that are to leeward of him, mull endeavour
to get into his wake or grain, according to their ftation in
the line of battle. When the fleet is failing before the wind,
and he would have him, who commands in the fecond poft,
and the fliip of the llarboard quarter, to clap by the wind,
and come to the ilarboard tack, he hoills a red flag at the
mizen-topmaft-hcad ; but a blue one, if he would have (hips
of the larboard quarter come to the larboard tack, with a
gun. If the van are to tack firft, he fpreads the union-flag
at the flag-ftaff", on the fore-topmaft-head, and fires a gun,
if the red flag be not on board ; but if it be, then he lowers
the fore-topfails a little, and the union-flag is fpread from
the cap of the fore-topmaft downward ; and every flag-fliip
doth the fame. If the rear be to tack firft, he hoifts the
union-flag on the flag-ftafF, at the mizen-topmaft-head, and
fires a gun ; which all the flag-ftiips are to anfwer. If all
the flag-fliips are to come into his wake or grain, he hoifts
a red flag at iiis mizen-peek, and fires a gun ; and all the
flag-ftiips muft do the fame. If he would have him that
commands in the fecond poll of his fquadron to make more
fail, (though he himfelf ftiorten fail,) he hoifts a white flag
on the enfign-ftaff". But if he that commands in the third
poft be to (do fo, he hoifts a blue flag, and fires a gun, and
all the flag-ftiips muft make the fame fignal. Whenever he
hoifts a red flag on the flag-ftaff^ at the fore-topmaft-head,
and fires a gun, every fliip in the fleet muft ufe their utmoft
endeavour to engage the enemy, in the order prefcribcd
them. When he hoifts a white flag at his mizen-peek, and
fires a gun, then all the fmall frigates of his fquadron, that
are not of the line of battle, are to come under the ftern.
If the fleet be failing by a wind in the line of battle, and the
admiral would have them brace their head-fails to the maft,
he hoifts up a yellow flag, on the flag-ftafl^, at the mizen-
topmaft-head, and fires a gun ; which the flag-ftiips are to
anfwer ; and then the ftiips in the rear mull brace firft.
After this, if he would have them fall their head-fails, and
ttand on, he hoifts a yellow flag on the flag-ftafF of the fore-
topmaft-head, and fires a gun, which the flag-ftiips muft
anfwer; and then the ftiips in the van muft fall firft, and
ftand on. If, when this fignal is made, the red flag at the
fore-topmaft-head be abroad, he fpreads the yellow flag
under the red. If the fleets being near one another, the
admiral would have all the (hips to tack together, the fooner
to lie in a pofture to engage the enemy, he hoiils an union-
flag on the flag-itaves at the fore and mizen-topmaft-heads,
and fires a gun ; and all the flag-fl»ips are to do the fame.
The fleet being in a line of battle, if he would have the fliip
that leads the van hoift, lower, fet, or haul up any of her
fails, he fpreads a yellow flag, under that at his main-top.
maft-head, and fires a gun, which fignal the flag-ftiips are
to anfwer ; and the admiral will hoift, lower, fet, or haul
up the fail, which he would have the Ihip that leads the van
7

S I G

do ; which is to be anfwered by the flag-fhips of the fleet.
When the enemies run, and he would have the whole fleet
follow them, he makes all the fail he can after them himfelf,
takes down the fignal for the line of battle, and fires two
guns out of his fore-chafe, which the flag-ftiips anfwer ; and
then every ftiip is to endeavour to come up with and board
the enemy. When he would have the chafe given over, he
hoifts a white flag at the fore-topmalt-head, and fires a gun.
If he would have the red fquadron draw into a line of battle,
one abreaft of another, he puts abroad a flag, ftriped red
and white, on the flag-ftafF at the main-topmaft-head, with
a pendant under it, and fires a gun ; if the white or fecond
fquadron is to do fo, the flag is ilripcd red, white, and
blue ; if the blue or third fquadron is to do fo, the flag is a
Genoefe enfign and pendant ; but if they are to draw into a
line of battle, one a-head of another, the fame fignals are
made with a pendant. If they are to draw into the line of
battle one a-ftern of another, with a large wind, and he
would have the leaders go with the ftarboard tacks, aboard
by the wind, he hoifts a red and white flag at the mizen-
peek, and fires a gun ; but if they fhould go with the lar-
board tacks aboard, by the wind, he hoifts a Genoefe flag
at the fame place ; which fignals, like others, muft be an-
fwered by the flag-fhips.

SIGNATORES, among the Romans, witnefles who
fealed wills and marriage contraiEls.

SIGNATURE, Signatora, Signing, a fubfcriptton,
or pultijig of one's name at the bottom of an aft, or deed,
in one's own hand-writing.

Anciently, when very few people could write, they dif-
penfed with the ufe of fignatures ; and contented themfelves
with the party's feal. See Deed.

Signature of the Court of Rome, is a fupplication an-
fwered by the pope, by which he grants a favour, difpenfa-
tion, or collation to a benefice, by putting the fat at the
bottom of it, in his ewn hand ; or the conceffum rfl written
in his prefence. This fignature, at the bottom of the fup-
plication, gives name to the whole inftrument.

The fignature contains the claufes, derogations, and dif-
penfations, with which the pope grants the favour, or the
benefice, with a commiffion for the execution of it, cither in
forma dignum, or in gracious form.

A fignature of the pope's own hand, by which he anfwers.
Fiat ut petitur, is preferred to another anfwered by the pr&.
feft, in his prefence, in thefe words, Cmueffum uti petitur
in prafentia D. N. papie. Sometimes in fignatures, with the
felt, tlie pope adds, propria motu ; which claufe gives them
ftill farther force.

There are three kinds of fignatures : one in forma gra-
tiofa, difpatched on an atteftation of the ordinary ; another
in forma dignum antiqua, difpatched for canonicates ; the
thud in forma dignum novifflma, which is a kind of fecond
fignature, or executorial letter, granted where, upon the
ordinary's failing to execute the firft, within thirty days,
the neareil other ordinary is enjoined to execute it.

Signature, in Printing, denotes a mark at the bottom
of each fheet, to regulate the gathering and binding of the
book ; and to (hew the order and number of the fheets, in
collating, to fee if the book is perfeft.

The fignatures confift of the capital letters of the alphabet.
If there be more fheets than letters in the alphabet, to the
capital letter they add a fmall one of the fame fort ; «. e. a
little a after a great A, &c. which they repeat as often as
is neceflary.

Signature, Signatura, is alfo ufed, by fome naturalift«,
for the refemblance a vegetable or mineral bears to any
part of the human body j this is, by fome fantaftical

people.

S I G

s I a

people, fuppofed to afford an indication of its virtues and
ufe.

SIGNAU, in Geography, a tovTn of Switzerland, and
principal place of a diltrift, in the canton of Berne; 12
miles S.E. of Berne.

SIGNES, a town of France, in the department of the
Var ; 12 miles S.W. of Brignoles.

SIGNET, one of the king's feals, ufcd for fealing his
private letters, and figning all grants which pafs his ma-
jefty's hand by bill. Forging it is treafon. See Sign'
Manual.

The fignet is always in the cuftody of the king's fecreta-
ries ; on whom attend four clerks of the fignet-ofSce. See
Sechetary and Clerk.

SIGNIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Latium, at fome diftance to the right of the Latin way,
and towards the S.W. of Anagnia. Livy fays, that Tar-
quin the Proud fent hither a colony. Some remains of
it are ftill vifible. — Alfo, a mountain of Afia Minor, in the
Greater Phrygia. Pliny fays, that the town of Apamxa
\vas built at the foot of this mountain.

SIGNIFER, among the Romans, an enfign-bearer, or
the perfon who carries the ftandard, on which was repre-
fented a hand ftretched out. See Signa.

SIGNIFICATION, the fenfe or meaning of a fign,
word, phrafe, emblem, device, or the like ; that is, the
thing denoted by fuch fign, word, figure, &c.

We are almoil perfectly at a lofs as to the fignification
of the hieroglyphic charafters of the ancients.

Signification, in Law, is the notification of an aft,
!kc. made to the oppofite party, by a copy, &c. of it,
given and attefted by a proper officer.

Some fignifications are to be made to the perfon himfelf ;
or at lealt at his houfe : for others, it is enough that they
be made to the party's attorney, or agent.

SIGNIFICAVIT. See Excommunicato Capiendo.

SIGNING. See Signature, and Covi^TER-Jigning.

SIGNINUM, among tlie Romans, a kind of pavement
much elleemed : it was made of powdered (hells mixed
with lime.

SIGNORELLI, Luca, in Biography, was born at Cor-
tona in 1439, and was a difciple of Pietro della f rancefca.
He was among the firft of the Italian artifts who defigned
the naked figure with fidelity and accuracy ; though ilill im-
peded by the fliackles of iliffneis and formality, and too
much adherence to common nature. His grejteit work is
his celebrated frefco in the chapel of the Virgin in the
cathedral at Orvieto, reprcfenting the final diflolution and
judgment of the world ; a work ot extraordinary qua-
lity, in which variety and originality of ideas are rendered
with force and effeft. Vafari, who was related to Signo-
relli, fays that Michael Angelo adopted, in his Lall Judg-
ment, many of the ideas of this artiit ; of which molt pro-
bably he only took the charafters of aftions, and clothed
them with his own emphatic ilylc of dcfign.

Though grace of form, and harmony of colouring, are not
the moft prominent features in the llyle of Signorclli, yet
one of his works is extolled by Lanzi as pofFoffing thefe
qualities in a fiipcrior degree ; ii;z. his Communion of the
Apoltles, in the church del Gefa at Cortona. He was
invited to Rome to alTill in dccoratnig the apartments of the
Sillina, where he painted the Journey of Mofes and Zip-
porah, and the Promulgation of the old Law ; exiiibiting
a fupcrior arrangement of compofition. He painted at
Urbino, Voltcrra, Arczzo, Sienna, and Florence, and
eftabhlhed a name among the molt eminent of the Florentine
painters. He died in 1521, aged 82.

Vol. XXXII.

SiONORKLLi, Pietro Napoli, of Naples, author of a*
excellent critical Inltory of tlie ttage, " Storia Critica de'
Teatri," 1783. This work is written with great fpirit,
and, in general, exaftitude and genuine information, con-
cerning other theatres, as well as thofe of Italy ; parti-
cularly of Spain, where the author had refided twenty
years, and with whofe hterature and dramatic produftions he
feems perfeftly well acquainted. But having given the
preference to the dramatic works and performance of the
Italians, he provoked a controverfy with a Spanilh writer,
which was not carried on with great patience or urbanity.

Signor Signorelli is likewife author of a work more volu-
minous and important, entitled " Vicende della Coltura
nelle due Sicilie ;" or, " Progrefs in the Culture of Legifla-
tion, Policy, Literature, Commerce, Fine Arts, and Thea-
trical Exhibitions, in the Two Sicihcs," 5 vols. 8vo. Na-
ples, 1786. This work contains much information of the
progrefs of mufic at Naples during the two lalt centuries;
but we were difappointed in finding no mention of the Con-
fervatorios, thofe famous mufical feminaries which have pro-
duced fo many great compofers and fingers, whofe works and
performance have not only dehghted Naples and the reft of
Italy, but all Europe.

SIGNORESSA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Trevifan ; 6 miles N.W. of Trcvigio.

SIGNUM PuGN.s, the fignal of battle among the
Romans, was a coat of arms of a purple colour, fet upon
the general's pavihon.

SIG^Y -k-GrariJ, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrift of Mezieres ; 6 miles S.W. of Charle-
ville. The place contains 2380, and the canton 6699 in-
habitants, on a territory of 210 kiliomctres, in 13 com-
munes.

SlCHY-le-Pelil, a town of France, in the department of
the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrift
of Rocroy ; 9 miles W.S.W. of Rocroy. The place con-
tains 1723, and the canton 5790 inhabitants, on a territory
of 142^ kiliometres, in 10 communes.

SIGONIO, Carlo, in Biography, was born of a good
family at Modena, about the year 1524. At the age of
feventeen he went to Bologna, where he palled three yean
in the ftudy of philofophy and medicine, to which lall pro-
feffion he was dellined by his father. But having no turn
for phyfic, he fpent a year at Pavia, and then entered into
the fervice of cardinal Grimani. At the age of twenty-two
he was taken by invitation from liis native city to occupy
the chair of Greek, vacant by the departure of Porta, the
malter under whom lie had formerly Itudicd. In 1550 he
made himfelf advantageoufly known to the learned world
by publifliing the " Faiti Conlulares," with a commentary,
which quickly went llirough fcveral editions. In 1552 he
was invited to the profefTorfliip of belles-lettres at Venice,
and in that city he publifiied leven dileourfes on important
topics of literature, and liis valuable notes and conjectural
emendations of Livy. In 1560 he was removed to the
chair of eloquence at Padua, then the molt celebrated of
the Italian univerfities, but in 1563 he accepted an invita-
tion to Bologna, wliich was from this time the ufual place
of his refidence. In this fituation he rcndeied himfelf fo
acceptable to tlie city, that he was i)releiited with its free-
dom, together with a large increale of (alary. Here he
employed himfelf in the compofition of learned works,
which have handed down his name to pollerity with
high honour, and lie was fo well latisfied with liis con-
dition, that he refufcd a very flattering propofal from
Stephen, king of Poland, to occupy a profclTorlhip in that
4 S country.

S I G

country. He vifited Rome in 1578, where he was honour-
ably received by pope Gregory XIII., by whom lie was
engaged to compoie an eccleliallical hillory. Of this,
however, he executed ro more than fome learned illuttra-
tions of Sulpicius Severas ; for he died at Modeaa in the
year 1584. He was a moft able and fuccefsful elucidator
of ancient liiitory and antiquities. He was indefatigable
in fearching to the bottom all fnbjefts which he undertook
to examine, fo that in many he left little to be added by
later enquirers, and his works are all carefully compofed in
a pure, and even an elegant, Latin ftyle. Befides the
pieces already mentioned, he publiflied many valuable traAs
on the Roman laws and cuftomp, alfo on the republics of
the Hebrews, Athenians, and Lacedsemonians. He com-
pofed twenty books of a hiftory relating to the wellern
empire, from the time of Dioclelian to its final deltruftion,
and he performed the more arduous tafli of framing irom
the rude and obfcure chronicles of the times, a hiftory of
the kingdom of Italy, from the arrival of the Lombards to
the year 1 286. Sigonio was involved in feveral controver-
fies, in one of which he is fuppofed to have difgraced Jiim-
felf. About twelve months before he died, an intimate
friend of his edited a pretended treatife of Cicero, entitled
*' Confolatie." Its authenticity was immediately impugned
by critics, and there is now no doubt that it was not
genuine ; but Sigonio wrote fo warmly in defence of it, that
he is generally fuppofed to be the author. The works of
this learned man were publilhed coUeftively in 1732-3, by
Argelati, at Milan, in fix vols. fol. with his Life, by Mu-
ratori, prefixed.

SIGORUM, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia,
in Mefopotamia, in the vicinity of the town of Nifibis, ac-
cording to Sozomen.

SIGOULES, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Dordogne ; 7 miles S. of Bergerac.

SIGRI, a town on the N.W. part of the ifland of
Metelin, in the Grecian Archipelago.

SIGRIANA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
in Media, according to Strabo.

SIGRIANI, mountains of Afia Minor, on the coalt
of the Pro])ontide.

SIGRIUM, a promontory of the iile of Letbos, in the
moft wefterly part of the ifland.

•SIGRUM, a port of the ifie of Tenedos, in which was
a ftatue of Diana.

SIGTUNA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Upland, fituated on a creek of the Malar lake,
anciently one of the chief cities of the kingdom. It is
faid to derive its name from the celebrated Odin, whofe
furname was Sigge : he came into the north before the
Chriftian era, and had his refidence, his temple, and his
court of juitice ; others fay the town was built by Odin.
However that be, Sigtuna has undergone many changes ;
in the year ioo8, it was plundered and burnt by Olof the
Pious, king of N )rway ; in 1 188, it was deitroyed by the
Carelians, Eilonians, and Ruffians. It recovered from thefe
calamities, and flouriflud till the vaft increafe of Stockholm
gave it a blow, which it is not likely to recover ; 10 miles
N. of Stockholm.

SIGUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
Greater Armenia. Ptolemy.

SIGUENCA, in Geography, a city of Spain, in Old
Caitile, fituated on the edge of a mountain, near the fource
of the river Henares ; the fee of a bifliop, fuffragan of
Toledo, with an univerfity, founded in tiie year 1441, by
cardinal Ximenes. It contains three churches, three con-
Tents, two bofpitals, a llrong caitle, an arfenal, and be-

S I K

tween 700 and 800 houfes. This town was anciently called
Segontia. A battle was fought here between Pompey and
Sertorius ; and in the beginning of the feventh century,
the Goths were defeated here by the Romans ; 56 milei
N.E. of Madrid. N. lat. 40^ 58'. W. long. 2^ 57'.

SIGUETTE, in the Manege, is a cavefion of iron,
with teeth or notches, that is, a femicircle of hollow and
vaulted iron, with teeth like a faw, confifting of two or
three pieces joined with hinges, and mounted with a head-
(lall and two ropes, as if they were the caveflbns that
in former times were wont to be put upon the nofe of
a fiery ftiff-headed horfe, in order to keep him in fub-
jcftion.

There is a fort of figuette, that is, a round iron all of one
piece, fewed under the nofe-band of the bridle, that it may
not be in view. This figuette we employ with a martingale,
when a horfe beats upon the hand.

SIHASTRIA, in Geography, a town of Moldavia ; 34
miles \V. of Suczava.

SIHAUL, a town on the W. coaft of Sumatra. N.
lat. o^ 23'. E. long. 119- 45'.

SI-HIAM, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Chen-fi ; 37 miles E.S.E. of Han-tchong.

SI-HO, a town of China, of the third rank, in Chen-fi ;
42 miles W. of Oei.

SI-HOA, a town of China, of the third rank, in Ho-nan;
32 miles E.S.E. of Hiu.

SIHON, or GiHON, or Amu. See Jihon and Amu.

SiHON, or Sharokie, a name given to the river Sirr, in
its courfe.

SIHOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 25 miles
W. of Gogo.

SIHUTLA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Mechoacan ; 25 miles W. of Zacatula. N. lat. 18° 45'.
W. long. 103° 26'.

SIKAJOCKI, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia;
8 miles N. of Brahefbd.

SIKE, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied to
a little riil, a water-furrow, and a gutter.

SIKEVI, in Geography, a tovim of Turkifti Circalfia,
on the coall of the Black fea ; 30 miles S.E. of Anapa.

SIKFORD, a town of Sweden, in Welt Bothnia; 18
miles N.W. of Pitea.

SIKHS, or Seiks, an appellation formed of the Sanfcrit
term Sikh, or Sicflja, denoting a difciple or devoted follower,
and in the Panjabi corrupted into Sikh, which is applicable
to any perfon that follows a particular teacher ; and hence
ufed to denominate, in its primary ufe, a religious fcft,
which advanced, by fucceffive gradations, from the humble
condition of religionifts, to the rank of one of the moft
powerful ftates in Hindooftan. The founder of this feft
was Nanac Shah, a native of a fmall village called Talwandi,
in the ditfrift of Bhatti, in the province of Lahore, where
he was born A.D. 1469. It is now become a town, and
denominated Rayapour, and is fituated on the banks of the
Beyah or Hyphafis. Nanac's father, whofe name was Calu,
and who belonged to the Cfhatriya caft and Vtidi tribe of
Hindoos, wifhed to bring him up to trade, but Nanac him-
felf was from his childhood inclined to devotion, and mani-
felted an indifference to all worldly concerns. This difpoC-
tion was cherifhed by his intercourfe with the Fakirs, among
whom and the poor he diftributed a great part of his fub-
ftance. It is needlefs to recite his trances and vifions, and
converfe with the prophet Ehas, and the aufterities which he
praftifed at the commencement and in the progrefs of his
rehgious career. Nor can we accompany him in his travels
which he undertook with a view of reforming the worfliip of

the

SIKHS.

the true God, that had been degraded by the idolatry of the
Hindoos and the ignorance of the Mahometans. It will be
fufficient for us to obferve, that after he had vifited all the
cities of India, and explained to all ranks the great dottrines
of the unity and omniprcfence of God, he went to Mecca
and Medina, where his adlions, his miracles, and his long
difputations with the Mahometan faints and doctors, are
moll circumllantially recorded by his biographers. He is
ftated, on this occation, to have defended his own principles
without offending thofe of others ; always profefling himfelf
the enemy of difcord, and as having no objeft but to recon-
cile the two faiths of the Mahometans and Hindoos in one
religion ; which he endeavoured to do by recaUing them to
that great and original tenet, which both of them believed,
the unity of God ; and by reclaiming them from the nu-
merous errors into which they had fallen. During his tra-
vels, about the year 1526 or 1527, Nanac was introduced
to the emperor Baber, before whom he is faid to have main-
tained his doftrine with great firmnefs and eloquence. Baber
treated him kindly, and offered him an ample maintenance,
which the Sikh priefl refufed, alleging, that he trulted in
him who provided for all men, and from whom alone a man
of virtue and religion would confent to receive favour or re-
ward. The Hindoo zealots violently oppofed him, more
efpecially after he had laid afide the habits of a Fakir ; but
he treated their oppofition and reproaches with great con-
tempt ; and when they required him to exhibit fome proof
of his power, that might ailonifh them, he replied, " I have
nothing to exhibit worthy of you to behold. A holy teacher
has no defence but the purity of his dodlrine ; the world
may change but the creator is unchangeable." Having mi-
grated from Vatala to Multan, and from Multan to Kirtipur,
on the banks of the Ravee or Hydraotis, he there performed
many miracles, as it is reported, threw off his earthly fhape,
and was buried near the bank of the river Ravee, which has
fince overflowed his tomb. Kirtipur continues to be a place
of religious refort and worfliip ; and a fmall piece of Nanac's
garment is exhibited to pilgrims, as a facred relic, at his
Dhsrmafala, or temple. Nanac was unqueftionably a man
of more than common genius, which we may infer from the
diltinguillied eminence to which he attained, and the fuccefs
with which he combattcd the oppofition that encountered
him ; whilll he laboured without intcrmifTion to recall both
Mahometans and Hindoos to an exclufivc attention to that
lublimell of all principles, which inculcates devotion to God
and peace towards men. Although he left two fons, he did
not deem either of them worthy of a fucceffion to his fpi-
ritual functions ; but he devolved them upon a Cfliatriya of
the Trehun tribe, called Lchana, whom he had initiated in the
facred myflcries of his fett, clothed in the holy mantle of a
Fakir, and honoured with the name of Angad. Guru
Angad was born at the village of Khandur, on the bank of
the Beyah or Hyphalis, in the province of Lahore. He
taught the fame dodlrine as Nanac ; and fome of his writings,
as well as thofe of N:inac, are contained in a book entitled
"Grant'h." At his death, which happened A. 1). 1 552, he
was fucceedcd by Amcra Das, a Cfliatriya of the tribe of
B'hale,who had been a menial fervant for twelve years. Amcra
Das was aftive in propagating the tenets of Nanac and fuc-
cefsful in gaining profelytes, by whofe alliltance he clla-
bliflied a degree of temporal power. He had two fons, and
a daughter, named B'haini, who was married to a young
lad, whofe name was Ram Das, a Cfliatriya, of a rclpeftable
fcmily, of the Sondi tribe, and an inhabitant of tlic village
of Gondawal. Upon the death of Amera Das, A.D. 1574,
he was fucceedcd by his fon-in-law, whom he had initiated
in the my lleries of his holy profeffion, :uid who became {jtmous

for his piety, and ftill more on account of the improvements
he made at Amritfar, which was for fome time called Ram-
pur, or Ramdafpur, after him. Some writers have errone.
oufly aicnbed the foundation of this town, anciently and long
before his time denominated Chak, to him; however, he
added much to its population, and built a famous tank, or
refervoir of water, which he called Amritfar, a name figiii-
fying the water of immortality, and which has become fo
facred, that it has given its name, and imparted its fanftity,
to the town of Ramdafpur ; fo that it has become the facred
city of the Sikh nation, and is now only known by the name
of Amritfar. After a life pafFed in the undifturbed propa-
gation of his tenets, in explanation of which he wrote fcveral
books. Ram Das died A.D. 1581, and left two fons, one of
whom, i<iz. Arjunmal, fucceedcd him, and rendered himfelf
famous by compiling the A'di-Grant'h, containing ninety-
two fettions, part of which was compofed by Nanac and his
immediate fuccefiorf, but arranged in its prefent form by
Arjunmal, who blended his own additions with the com-
pofitions of his predeceflors. Arjun, from this circumftance,
is deemed the iirft who gave coniillent form and order to the
rthgion of the Sikhs. Arjun fell a facrifice to tliejealoufy
of the Mahometan government ; and his death excited the
indignation of the Sikhs, who, before this event, had been
an inoflenfive, peaceable feft ; and they took up arms under
Har Govind, the fon of Arjunmal, and wreaked their ven-
geance upon all whom they thought concerned in the murder
of their revered priefl. From all the remaining accounts of
Har Govind's life, it appears to have been his anxious wifh
to infpire his followers with the mofl irreconcileable hatred
of their opprefibrs. Govind, with this view, introduced
lome change in their diet, allowing them to eat the flefh
of animals, that of the cow excepted ; and by other regu-
lations converted a race of peaceable enthufiafts into an in-
trepid band of foldiers. Govind died A.D. 1644, and waj
fucceedcd by his grandfon Har Ray, whofe reign was upon
the whole tranquil, which was probably owing to the vigour
of the Mahometan power in the early part of the reign of
Aurungzcbe. At his death, A.D. 1661, a violent contelt
arofe among the Sikhs, concerning the fucceffion to the
office of fpiritual leader; for the temporal power of their
ruler was, at this time, little more than nomir.al. The dif-
pute was referred for dccifion to Delhi ; and by an im-
perial decree of Aurungzebe, the Sikhs were allowed to
eledl their own priefl. They chofe Har Crilhn, fon (or
grandfon) of Har Ray, who died at Delhi A.D. 1664,
and VN'as fucceeded by his uncle, Tcgh Behadur. During
Ilia life, which terminated prematurely, by the violence of
his rival, A.D. lf>75, and alfo from the period of Govind'*
death, the Mogul empire was in the zenith of its power
under Auriingzebe ; and the Sikhs, who had never attained
any real Itreiigth, were rendered Hill weaker by their own
dillentions. However, after the death of Tegh Behadur,
the liillory of the Sikhs allunicd a new afped. Under Har
Govind the Siklis had birn initiated in arm.", but they ufcd
them only in felf-defcnce ; but the plans of Govind's ambi-
tion were very diflerent from thofe of his predeceflor Nanac;
and he wifely judged, that tlieonly mca>is by which he could
ever hope to oppofc the Mahometan government with luc
eels, were not only to aflmit converts from all tribes, but to
break at once thofe rules by which the Hindoos had bceii fo
long chained ; — to arm, in fhort, tlic whole population of
the country, and to make worldly wealth and rank an objcA
to which Hindoos, of every clafs, might afiiirc. U was the
objett of Govind to make all Sikhs equal, and that their
adranccnient fliould folely depend upon their cxertioni ; and
well aware how neccilary it was to infpire men of a low race.
4 S T and

SIKHS.

and of grovelling mindi, whh pride in themfelves, he changed
the name of his followers from Sikh to Sinh or lion ; thus
giving to all his followers that honourable title which had
been before exclufively afTumcd by the Rajapute, the firll
military clafs of Hindoos ; and every Sikh felt himlelf at
once elevated, by this proud appellation, to a footing with
the firft clafs. The difciples of Govind were required to
devote themfelves to arms ; always to have Heel about them
in one fhape or other ; to wear a blue drefs ; to allow their
hair to grow ; and to exclaim, when they met each other,
" Wa ! Guruji ka khalfalt ! Wa ! Guruji ki futteh !" /. e.
Succefs to the ttate of the Guru ! Viftory attend the Guru !
Guru Govind inculcated his tenets upon his followers by his
preaching, his atlions, and his works. He is faid to have
firft inftituted the Guru-mata, or ftate council, among the
Sikhs, whicli meet at Amritfar ; by which inftitution he
gave that form of a federative republic to the commonwealth
of the Sikhs, which was moft calculated to roufe his fol-
lowers from their indolent habits, and deep-rooted preju-
dices, by afiigning to them a perfonal (hare in the govern-
ment, and placing within the reach of every individual, the
attainment of rank and influence in the ftate. The emperor
Aurungzebe, aided by the rajas who were hoftile to Govind,
purfued him and his followers to Chamkour, and encom-
paUed it on all fides. The fiege was caxricd on with great
vigour ; and though Govind manifefted an invincible fpirit,
and performed prodigies of valour, he was at laft over-
powered by numbers ; and reduced to the neceffity of making
his efcape from Chamkour in a dark night, covering his face,
as it is faid, from ftiame at his own difgrace. After his
flight, a fenfe of his misfortunes, and the lofs of his children,
deprived him of his reafon, and he wandered about for a
confiderable time in the moft deplorable condition. At
length, having obtained from the emperor Behadur Shah a
fmall mihtary command in the Deccan, he was ftabbed by a
Patan foldier's fon, and expired of his wounds, A.D. 1708,
at Naded, a town fituated on the Caveri river, about 100
miles from Haiderabad. Guru Govind was the laft acknow^-
ledged religious ruler of the Sikhs. A prophecy had limited
their fpiritual guides to the number of ten ; and their fuper-
ftition, aided, without doubt, by the aftion of that fpirit of
independence which his inftitutions had introduced, caufed
Its fulfilment. Banda, a devoted follower and friend of
Guru Govind, eftablifhed the union of the Sikhs under his
banners ; and his grief at the misfortune of his prieft, is faid
to have fettled after the death of Govind into a gloomy and
defperate defire to avenge his wrongs. The confufion which
took place on the death of Aurungzebe, which happened
A.p. 1707, was favourable to his wilhes. Having obtained
a viaory over the Mahometans in a bloody aAion, Banda,
encouraging the Sikhs, and hardening them by his leftbns to
deeds of the moft horrid atrocity, fubdued all the country
between the Setlej and the Jumna, and crofling that river,
made inroads into the province of Sharanpour, which hes a
lew miles to the N.E. of Delhi, between the rivers Jumna
and the Ganges. The march of the Sikhs was attended
with the exercife of the moft wanton barbarity ; life was
only granted to thofe who conformed to the religion, and
adopted the habits and drefs of the Sikhs ; and if Behadur
Shah had not quitted the Deccan, which he did A.D. 17 10,
the whole of Hindooftan would probably have been fubdued
by thefe mercilefs invaders. The firft check which the
Sikhs received was from an army under fultan Kuli Khan.
They were afterwards defeated in a very defperate adion by
Abdal Samad Khan, an officer of the emperor Farakhfeir,
after which the Sikhs were never able to make a ftand, but
were hunted like wild beafts from one ftrong hold to another,

4

by the army of the emperor, by whom their leader, Banda,
and his molt devoted followers, were at laft taken, after hav.
ing fuffered every extreme of hunger and fatigue. Great
numbers of the Sikhs were put to death, after the furrender
of Lohgad', a fortrefs 100 miles N.E. of Lahore ; but
Banda was fent, with the principal chiefs of the tribe, to j
Delhi, where, after having been treated with every kind of
obloquy and infult, they were executed.

After the defeat and death of Banda, refentment prompt*
ed to every meafure that could be devifed, not only to de-
ftroy the power, but to extirpate the race of the Sikhs.
From the Mahometans they met with no quarter ; and after
the execution of their chief, a royal edift was ifTued, order-
ing all who profefted the religion of Nanac to be taken and
put to death wherever found ; and by way of giving greater
effeft to this mandate, a reward was offered for the head of
every Sikh. During the interval that elapfed between the
defeat and death of Banda, and the invafion of India by
Nadir Shah, a period of nearly 30 years, we hear nothing
of the Sikhs ; but when that event occurred, they are faid
to have fallen upon the inhabitants of the Panjab, who
fought fhelter in the hills, and to have plundered them of
that property which they were endeavouring to fecure from
the rapacity of the Perfian invader. Enriched with thefe
fpoils, fays the author whofe account of them we are now
citing, the Sikhs left the hills, and built the fort of Dale-
wal, on the Ravi, from whence they made predatory incur-
fions, and are ftated to have added, both to their wealth and
reputation, by harafling and plundering the rear of Nadir
Shah's army, which, when it returned to Perfia, was encum-
bered with fpoil, and marched, from a contempt of its ene-
mies, with a difregard to all order.

The weak ftate to which the empire of Hindooflan was
reduced, and the confufion into which the provinces of La-
hore and Cabul were thrown, by the death of Nadir, were
events of too favourable a nature to the Sikhs to be ne-
glected by that race, who became daily more bold, from their
numbers being greatly increafed by the union of all thofe
who had taken flielter in the mountains ; the re-admiflion into
the feft of thofe who, to fave their lives, had abjured, for a
period, their ufages ; and the converfion of a number of
profelytes, who haftened to join a ftandard under which rob-
bery was made facred, and to plunder was to be pious.

Aided with thefe recruits, the Sikhs now extended their
irruptions over moft of the provinces of the Panjab ; and
though it was fome time before they repoflefled themfelves
of Amritfar, they began, immediately after they quitted
their faftneftes, to flock to that holy city at the periods of
their facred feafts. Some performed this pilgrimage in fe-
cret, and in difguife ; but in general, according to a con-
temporary Mahometan author, the Sikh horfemen were
feen riding, at full gallop, towards " their favourite fhrine
of devotion. They were often llain in making this attempt,
and fometimes taken prifoners ; but they ufed, on fuch oc-
cafions, to feek, inftead of avoiding, the crown of martyr-
dom :" and the fame authority ftates, " that an inttance
was never known of a Sikh, taken in his way to Amritfar,
confenting to abjure bis faith."

Encouraged by the confufion which took place on the firft
Afghan invafion, A.D. 1746, the Sikhs made themfelves
mafters of a confiderable part of the Dooab of Ravi and Ja-
lendra, and the country between the rivers Ravi and Beyah,
and that river and the Setlej, and extended their incurfions
to the neighbouring countries. But though they were fe-
verely and repeatedly checked by Mir Manu, the governor
of Lahore, yet, after his death, they availed themfelves of
all the advantage* which th* local diftraftions of a falling em-
pire

I

SIKHS.

pjre afforded them of extending and eftablifliing their power.
Their bands, under their moll aftive leaders, plundered in
every direAion, and were fuccefsful in obtaining pofleflion
of feveral countries, from which they have never fince been
expelled ; and their fuccefs, at this period, was promoted,
jnftead of being checked, by the appointment of their old
friend, Adina Beg Khan, to Lahore ; as that brave chief,
anxious to defend his own government againtt the Afghans,
immediately entered into a confederacy with the Sikhs, whom
he encouraged to plunder the territories of Ahmed Shah
Abdali.

The Afghan monarch, refenting this predatory warfare,
in which the governor of Lahore was fupported by the
court of Delhi, determined upon invading India. Adina
Beg, unable to oppofe him, fled : and the Sikhs could only
venture to plunder the baggage, and cut off the itragglers
of the Afghan army, by which they fo irritated Ahmed
Shah, that he threatened them with punilhment on his re-
turn ; and when he marched to Cabul, he left his fon Tai-
mur Khan, and his vizir, Jehan Khan, at Lahore, with or-
ders to take vengeance on the Sikhs for all the excefTes which
they had committed. The firft expedition of Taimur Khan
was againil their capital, Amritfar, which he deftroyed,
filling up their facred tank, and polluting all their places of
worlhip ; by which adlion he provoked the whole race to
fuch a degree, that they all affembled at Lahore, and not
only attempted to cut off the communication between the
fort and country, but collefted and divided the revenues of
the towns and villages around it. Taimur Khan, enraged at
this prelumption, made feveral attacks upon them, but was
conltantly defeated ; and, being at laft reduced to the necef-
fity of evacuating Lahore, and retreating to Cabul, the
Sikhs, under one of their celebrated leaders, called Jafa
Sinh Calal, immediately took pofleflion of the vacant foubah
of Lahore, and ordered rupees to be coined, with an im-
preffion to the following import : " Coined by the grace of
Khalfah ji, in the country of Ahmed, conquered by Jafa
Sinh Calal." Although they were afterwards expelled, to-
gether with the Afghans, from Lahore, yet after the death
of Adina Beg Khan, the governor of this province, they
eagerly feized the opportunity that was thus afforded them,
of making themfelves again mailers of Lahore. Their fuc-
cefs was, however, foon checked by Ahmed Shah Abdali,
who, irritated by their unfubdued turbulence and oblUnate
intrepidity, made every effort (after he had gained the viftory
of Panipat'h, which cllabhfticd his fupremacy at Delhi) to
deftroy their power ; and, with this view, he entered the
Panjab early in 1762, and over-ran the whole of that country
with a numerous army, defeating and difperfing the Sikhs
in every direftion. That feft, unable to make any Hand
againil the army of the Abdali, purfued their old plan of re-
treating near the mountains ; and collected a large force in
the northern dillritts of Sirhind, a dillance of above one
hundred miles from Lahore, where the army of Ahmed
Shah was encamped. Here they conceived themfelves to be
in perfedl fafety ; but that prince made one of thofe rapid
movements for which he was fo celebrated, and reaching the
Sikh army on the fecond day, completely furpnled and de-
feated it with great flaughter. In this adlion, which was
fought in February 1762, the Sikhs are faid to have lofl up-
wards of twenty thoufand men ; and tlie remainder fled into
the hills, abandonuig all the lower countries to the Afglians,
who committed every ravage that a barbarous and lavage
enemy could devife. Amritfar was razed to the ground,
and the facred refervoir again choaked with its ruins. Py-
ramids were eredled, and covered with the heads of flaugh-
tcred Sikhs ; and it is mentioned that Ahmed Shah caufcd

the walls of thofe raofques which the Sikhs had polluted to
be waftied with their blood, that the contamination might be
removed, and the infult offered to the religion of Mohamet
expiated.

This fpecies of favage retaliation appears to have animated
inftead of deprefling the courage of the Sikhs, who, though
they could not venture to meet Ahmed Shah's army in aftion,
harafled it with an inceffant predatory warfare ; and when
that fovereign was obliged, by the commotions of Afghan-
iftan, to return to Cabul, they attacked and defeated the
general he had left in Lahore, and made themfelves mailers
of that city, in vi-hich they levelled with the ground thofe
mofques which the Afghans had, a few months before, puri-
fied with the blood of their brethren.

When Ahmed Shah, after retaking Lahore, A. D. 1763,
was obhged, in the enfuing year, to return to his own
country, the Sikhs again expelled his garrifon, and made
themfelves mailers of the Panjab ; and, from that period
until his death, a conftant war was maintained, in which the
enterprize and courage of the Afglvans gradually g.ive way
before the altonifhing adlivity, and invincible perfeverance,
of their enemies ; who, if unable to Hand a general aftion,
retreated to impenetrable mountains, and the moment they
faw an advantage, rufhed again into the plains with renewed
vigour and recruited numbers. Several Sikh authors, treating
of the events of this period, mention a great adlion having
been fought by their countrymen, near Amritfar, againil
the whole Afghan army, commanded by Ahmed Shah in
perfon ; but they diff"er with regard to the date of this
battle, fome fixing it in 1762, and others later. They pre-
tend that the Sikh«, infpired by the facrcdnefs of the ground
on which this adlion was fought, contended for vidlory
againil fuperior numbers with the moll defperate fury, and
that the battle terminated in both parties quitting the field,
without either being able to claim the lead advantage. The
hiftorians of Ahmed Shall are, however, filent regarding this
adlion, which indeed, from all the events of hie long con-
tefts with the Sikhs, appears unlikely to have occurred. It
is poflible the Sikhs fought at Amritfar with a divifion of the
Afglian army, and that might have been commanded by the
prince ; but it is very improbable they had ever force to en-
counter the concentrated army of the Abdalis, before which,
while it remained in a body, tliey appear, from the firll to
the lail of their contefts with that prince, to have always re-
treated, or rather fled.

The Sikhs, when opprefl'cd, became as formidable for
their union, as for their determined courage and unconquer-
able fpirit of refinance : but a ilate of perfecution and dif-
trefs was moil favourable for a contlitution like theirs, which
required conltant and great facrifices of pcrfunal advantage
to the public good : and fuch facrifices can only be cxpedled
from men who acl under the influence of that entliufialm,
which the fervour of a new religion, or a llruggle for inde-
pendence, only imparts, and which are always moll readily
made when it becomes obvious to all, that a complete union
in the general caufe is the only hope of individual fafety.

The Sikhs may be reckoned the molt wcflorn nation of
Hindooltan : for the king of Candahar pollefles but an in-
confiderable extent of territory on the call of the Indus.
Since the complete downfall of the Mogul empire, they have
acquired very extenfive domains. But major Rennell ob-
ferves, that their power ought not to beellimated in the ex-
adl proportion to the extent of tlieir population, fince they
do not form one entire tlate ; but a number of fmall onei,
independent of each other in tlieir internal government, and
only conutdled by a federal union. They have extended
their territories on the fouthe«ll, that ii, into the province

of

SIKHS.

of Delhi, very rapidly of late years ; and perhaps, the Ze-
mindars of that country may have found it convenient to
place themfelves under the protection of the Sikhs, in order
to avoid the more opprelfive government of their former
mailers. It is certain that the eaftern boundary of the Sikhs'
dommions has been advanced to the banks of the Jumnah river,
above Delhi, and to the neighbourhood of that city ; for the
adjoining territory of Schaurunpour is fubjeiS to their depre-
dations, if not adually tributary to them ; and they make
incurfions even to the fide of the Ganges. On the fouth,
they are bounded by the northern extreme of the fandy
defert of Regiftan, and on the fouth-weft their boundary
meets that of Sindy, or Tatta, at the city of Behker
or Bhekr, on the Indus. On the weft the Indus is their ge-
neral boundary, as high up as the city of Attock ; near to
which begin the territories of the- king of Candahar ; and
their northern boundary is the chain of mountains that lies
towards Thibet and Calhmere. As this is the cafe, they
will be found to poflefj the whole foubah or province of
Lahore, the principal part of Moultan, and the wellern part
of Delhi ; the dimeniions of which traCl are about 400
Britilh miles from N.W. to S.E., and from 150 to 200
broad, in general ; although in the part between Attock
and Behker (that is, along the Indus) the extent cannot be
lefs than 320. Their capital city is Lahore.

According to the ftatement of brigadier-general Malcolm,
the country now polTefled by the Sikhs, which reaches from
N. lat. 28^40' to beyond N. lat. 32°, and includes all the
Panjab, a fmall part of Moultan, and moll of that tratl of
country which lies between the Jumnah and the Setlej, is
bounded, to the northward and weftward, by the territories
of the king- of Cabul ; to the eaflward, by the pofleflions of
the mountaineer rajas of Jammu, Nadon, and Srinagar ; and
to the fouthward, by the territories of the Englilh govern-
ment, and the fandy deferts of Jafalmer and Hanfya Hifar.
A general ellimate of the value of the country poffefTed by
the Sikhs may be formed, when it is ftated, that it contains,
befidcs other countries, the whole of the province of La-
hore ; which, according to Mr. Bernier, produced in the
reign of Aurungzebe, 246 lacks and 95,000 rupees ; or
2,469,500/. fterling. The Sikhs who inhabit the country
between the Setlej and the Jumnah, are called Malawa
Sinh, and were alnioll all converted from the Hindoo
tribes of Jats and Gujars. The country of the Malwa
Sinh is in fome parts fruitful ; but thofe dillrids which bor-
der on Hanfya and Carnal are very barren ; being covered
with low wood, and in many places almoft deftitutc of water.
Its former capital was Sirhind, but it is now a complete
ruin. Patiala is now the largell and molt flouriihing town
of tins province, and next to it is T'hanefur, which' is ilill
held in high veneration by the Hindoos, who have alfo a
high reverence for the river Serafweti, which flows through
this province. The country of Jalendra Dooab, which reaches
from the mountains to the junftion of the Setlej and the
Beali, is the moll fruitful of all the poffeffions of the Sikhs,
and is perhaps excelled, in climate and vegetation, by no
province in India. The foil is light, but very produftive ;
the country, which is open and level, abounds in every kind
of grain. The towns of Jalendra and Sultanpour are the
principal in the Dooab. The country between the Beyah
and Ravi rivers is called Bari Dooab, or Manj'ha ; and the
Sikhs inhabiting it are called Manj'ha Sinh. The cities of
Lahore and Amritfar are both in this province, and confe-
quently it becomes the great centre of the power of this na-
tion. The country of Bari is faid to be Itfs fertile, parti-
cularly towards the mountains, than Jalendra, but lying on
the fame level, its chraate and foil mull be nearly the fame.

The inhabitants of the country between Ravi and Chanhab
are called D'harpi Sinh, from D'harpi, the name of the
country : the D'hanigheb Sinh are beyond the Chanhab,
but within the Jehalara river. The Sind Sinh is the term by
which the inhabitants of the diltrifts under the Sikhs bor-
dering on the Sind are known ; and Nakai Sinh is the name
given to the Sikhs who refide in Moultan.

The government of the Sikhs may be termed a theocracy.
Although they obey a temporal chief, that chief preferves
his power and authority by profeding himfelf the lervant of
the khalfa, or government, which can only be faid to aft, in
times of great public emergency, through the means of a
national council, of which every chief is a member, and
which is fuppofed to deliberate and refolve under the imme-
diate infpiration and impulfe of an invifible being ; who, as
they believe, always watches over the interefts of the com-
monwealth. It is natural, however, to imagine that the
power of this aflembly ftiould decline ; and from Col.
Malcolm's account, we may infer, that it is nearly de-
ftroyed. The laft Guru-mata was called in 1805, when the
Britifh army purfued Holkar into the Panjab. The go-
vernment is mild ; but in their mode of making war the
Sikhs are unqueltionably favage and cruel. Among the
Sikhs there is a clafs of devotees, called Acalis, or immortals,
who, under the double charafter of fanatic priells and def-
perate foldiers, have ufurped the fole direftion of all re-
ligious affairs at Amritfar ; and who, of courfe, are leading
men in a national council held at that facred place, and which
deliberates under all the influence of religious enthuCafm.
This order of Sikhs was firll founded by Guru Govind, and
are dillinguilhed by their drefs, as well as by their having al-
moll the fole direftion of the religious ceremonies at Amritfar.
They have a place on the bank of the facred refervoir of Am-
ritfar, where they generally refort, but are individually pof-
fefled of property, though they affeft poverty, and fubfilt
on charity. The principal chiefs of the Sikhs are all de-
fcended from Hindoo tribes. The lower order of Sikhs,
compared with the wretched Mahometans who are doomed
to oppreffion and hard labour, are happy ; they are pro-
tefted from the tyranny and violence of the chiefs under whom
they live by the precepts of their common religion, and by
the condition of their country, which enables them to aban-
don, whenever they chufe, a leader whom they diflike. The
civil ofBcers, to whom the chiefs entruil their accounts, and
the management of their property and revenue concerns, as
well as the conduft of their negociations, were in general
Sikhs of the Khalafa call, who, being followers of Nanac,
and not of Guru Govind, are not devoted to arms, but edu-
cated for peaceful occupations, in which they often become
very expert and intelligent. In the colleftion of the revenue
of the Panjab, it is faid to be a general rule, that the chiefs
to whom the territories belong fhould receive the half of the
produce, grain paying in kind, but fugar, melons, &c.
in calh, and the farmer the other : but the chief never levies
the whole of his (hare ; and in no country, perhaps, is the
ryat, or cultivator, treated with more indulgence. Com-
merce is rather reftrained than encouraged by the heavy du-
ties and the dittrafted ftate of the country. However, a
great part of the fliawl trade now flows through the cities of
Lahore, Amritfar, and Patiala, to Hindooltan. The ad-
miniftration of jullice among the Sikhs is in a very rude and
imperfeft ftate.

Their law is all unwritten. Nothing is conligned to any
exprefs form of words. There is no definition of any
thing. The cultom of the country, the cuftom of the
court, (that is to fay, as far as the judge is pleafed to be
governed by thofe culloms), and the will of the judge, — are

the

SIKHS.

tlie circumllances wliich guide the decifion. Among the
Hindoos fome of the facred books, among the Mahometans
the Koran, are ufed as the books of hiw. Among the Sikhs
there is no fuch reference to any facred books ; and their litna-
tion is, in all probability, fo much the better : for the Ko-
ran or Hindoo books afford fcarcely any rules or principles
of law, whieh are not fo vague as to fpeak any language
which the interpreter chufes to give them ; and while their
authority is fufficient to fuperfede that of the natural dictates
of juflice and equity, which are the only guides of the Sikh
judges, the Hindoo or Mahometan has only to fisd or to feign
a principle of his book, which may enable him to decide as he
pleafes.

Trifling difputes about property are fettled by the heads
of the village, by arbitration, or by the chiefs. The court
of arbitration is csWeA panchayat, or a court of five, the ge-
neral number of arbitrators chofen to adjuft differences and
difputes. It is ufual to aifemble a panchayat, or a court of
arbitration, in every part of India under a native govern-
ment ; and, as they are always chofen from men of the belt
reputation in the place where they meet, this court has a
high charafter for juilice. The decifion obtained by either
of thefe modes is final. If a tlieft occurs, the property
is recovered, and the party punifhed, not with death, by the
perfon from whom it was Itolcn, or by the inhabitants of the
village, or his chief. Murder is fometimes punifhed by the
chief; but more generally by the relatives of the deceafcd,
who, in fuch cafes, rigoroufly retaliate or the murderer, and
fometimes on all who endeavour to prote£l him.

The character of the Sikhs, or rather Sinhs, which is the
, name by which the followers of Guru Govind, who are all
devoted to arms, are dillinguifhed, is very marked. They
have, in general, the Hindoo call of countenance, fomewhat
altered by their long beards, and are to the full as aftive as the
Mahrattas, and much more robufl, from their living fuller,
and enjoying a better and colder climate. Their courage is
equal at all times to that of any natives of India ; and when
wrought upon by prejudice or religion, is quite defperatc.
They are all horfemen, and have no infantry in their own
country, except for the defence of their forts and villages,
though they generally ferve as infantry in foreign armies.
They are bold, and rather rough in their addrefs, which ap-
pears more to a flranger from their invariably fpeaking in a
loud tone of voice : but this is quite a habit, and is alike
ufed by them to exprefs the fcntimcnts of regard and hatred.
The Sikhs have been reputed deceitful and cruel, but fir John
Malcolm knew no grounds upon which they could be con-
fidercd more fo than the other tribes of India : they fcemed to
him, from all the intercourle he had with them, to be more
open and fincere than the Mahrattas, and lefs rude and lavage
than the Afghans. They have, indeed, become, from national
fucccfj, too proud of their own flrcngth, and too irritable in
their tempers, to have patience for the wiles of the former :
and they retain, in fpite of their change of manners and
religion, too much of the orignial charaftcr of their Hindoo
anceftors, (for the great majority are of the Hindoo race,)
to have the conftitutional ferocity of the latter. The Sikh
foldier is, generally fpeaking, brave, aftive, and cheerful ;
without polifh, but delluute neither of fincerity nor attach-
ment ; and, if he often appears wanting in humanity, it is
not fo much to be attributed to his national character, as
to the habits of a life, which, from the condition of the
fociety in which he is born, is generally pall in feenes of
violence and rapine.

The Sikh merchant, or cultivator of the foil, if he is a
Sinh, differs little in charafter from the foldier, except that
bit occupation renders him lefs prefuraing and boilierous.

He alfo wears arms, and is, from education, prompt to ufe
them, whenever his individual intcrell, «r that of the com-
munity in which he lives, reqnires him to do fo. The gene-
ral occupations of the Khalala Sikhs has been before men-
tioned. Their character differs widely from that of the
Sinhs. Full of intrigue, pliant, verfatilc, and inlinuating,
they have all the art of the lower claffes of Hindoos, who
are ufually employed in tranfafting bufinefs ; from whom,
indeed, as they have no diflinclion of drefs, it is very diffi-
cult to dillinguifli them.

The general character of the religious tribes of Acalis,
Shahid, and Nirmala, is formed from their habits of life. The
Acalis are infolent, ignorant, and daring : prefuming upon
thofe rights which their numbers and fanatic courap-e have
ellablifhed, their deportment is hardly tolerant to the other
Sikhs, and infufferable to tlrangers, for whom they enter-
tain a contempt whieh they take little pains to conceal.
The Shahid and the Nirmala, particularly the latter, have
more knowledge and more urbanity ; they are almoll all
men of quiet, peaceable habits ; and many of them are faid
to poffefs learning.

There is another tribe among the Sikhs, called the Na-
nac Pautra, or defcendants of Nanac, who have the charac-
ter of being a mild, inoffenfive race ; and though they do
not acknowledge the inflitutions of Guru Govind, they are
greatly revered by his followers, who hold it facrilege to
injure the race of their founder ; and, under the advantage
which this general veneration affords them, the Nanac Pautra
purfue their occupations ; which, if they are not mendicants,
is generally that of traveUing merchants. They do not carry
arms ; and protefs, agreeably to the doftrine of Nanac, to be
at peace with all mankind.

The Sikh convert? continue, after they have quitted their
original religion, all thofe civil ufages and cufioms of the
tribes to which they belonged, that they can praftife, with-
out infringement of the tenets of Nanac, or the inflitutions of
Guru Govind. They are moft particular with regard to
their intermarriages ; and on this point, Sikhs defccnded
from Hindoos almoll invariably conform to Hindoo culloms,
every tribe intermarrying within itfelf. The Hindoo ulage
regarding diet, is alfo held equally facred; no Sikh de-
feended from a Hindoo family ever violating it, except upon
particular occafions, fuch as a Guru-mata, when they are
obliged, by tiieir tenets and inflitutions, to eat promifcu-
oufly. The ftri£t obfervance of thefe ufages has enabled
many of the Sikhs, particularly of tiie Jat and Gujar tribes,
which include almoll all thofe fettled to the foulh of the
Setlej, to preferve an intimate intercourfe with their original
tribes ; who, confidering the Sikhs not as having loll call,
but as Hindoos that have joined a political allociation, which
obliges them to conform to general rules ellablifhed for its pre-
fervation, neither refufe to intermarry, nor to eat with them.

Wc (liall here add, that the " Jats" are Hindoos of a low
tribe, who, taking advantage of the declining Hate of the
Mogul empire, have, by their courage and enterprile, raifed
themlclver. to lome coiifcquence on the iiorth-wclleni parts of
Hindoollan, and many of the tlrongell forts of that p.irl of
India are iliU in their polklhon. The " Gujars" are alfo
Hindoos, and have railed themfelvcs to power by means rot
dilfimilar to thole ufed by the .Fats. Almoll all the thieves
in Hindoollan are of tiiis tribe.

The iiigher call of Hindoos, fuch as Brahmens and Cflia-
triyas, who liave become Sikhs, continue to intermarry with
emiverts of their own tribes, but not with Hindoos ofllie
call they have abandoned, as they are polluted by eating
animal food, all kinds of winch are lawful to Sikhs, except
the cow, which it is held fscrilege to Hay.

2 Tl«

S I K

The Mahometans, who become Sikhs, intermarry with
each other, but are allowed to preferve none of their ufages,
being obliged to eat hog's flefh, and abftain from circum-
cifion.

The Sikhs are forbidden the ufe of tobacco, but allowed to
indulge in fpirituous liquors, which they almoft all drink to
excefs ; and it is rare to fee a Sinh foldier, after funfet,
quite fober. Their drink is an ardent fpirit, made in the
Pinjab ; but they have no objeftion to either the wine or
fpirits of Europe, when they can obtain them.

The ufe of opium to intoxicate is very common with the
Sikhs, as with mod of the military tribes of India. They
alfo take b'hang (cannabis fativa), another inebriating drug.

The conduft of the Sikhs to their women differs in no
material refpeft from that of the tribes of Hindoos, or Ma-
hometans, from whom they are defcendcd : their moral
charafter, with regard to women, and indeed in moft other
points, may, from the freedom of their habits, generally be
confidered as much more lax than that of their ancettors,
who lived under the reftraint of fevere reftridlions, and whofe
fear of excommunication from their caft, at lead obliged
them to cover their fins with the veil of decency. This the
emancipated Sikhs defpife ; and there is hardly an infamy
which this debauched and diflblute race are not accufed, and
with juftice, as fir John Malcolm believed, of committing
in the moft open and (hameful manner.

The Sikhs are almoft all horfemen, and they take great
delight in riding. Their horfes were formerly famous for
their ftreijgth, temper, and aftivity ; but they are now no
better mounted than the Mahrattas.

Their horfemen ufe fwords and fpears, and moft of them
now carry match-locks, though fome ftill ufe the bow and
arrow, a fpecies of arms for excellence in the ufe of which
their forefathers were celebrated, and which their defcend-
ants appear to abandon with great reluftance.

The education of the Sikhs renders them hardy, and ca-
pable of great fatigue ; and the condition of the fociety in
which they live, affords conftant exercife to that reftlefs
fpirit of aftivity and enterprife which their religion has
generated. Such a race cannot be epicures ; they appear,
indeed, generally to defpife luxury of diet, and pride them-
felves in their coarfe fare. Their drefs is alfo plain, not
unlike the Hindoos, equally light, and diverted of ornament.
Some of the chiefs wear gold bangles, but this is rare ; and
the general charafteriftic of their drefs and mode of living
is fimplicity.

The principal leaders among the Sikhs affeft to be fami-
liar and eafy of intercourfe with their inferiors, and to de-
fpife the pomp and ftate of the Mahometan chiefs ; but
their pride often counterafts this difpofition ; and they ap-
pear to have, in proportion to their rank and confequence,
more ftate, and to maintain equal, if not more referve and
dignity with their followers, than is ufual with the Mah-
ratta chiefs.

It would be difficult, if not imprafticable, to afcertain
the amount of the population of the Sikh territories, or
even to compute the number of the armies which they could
bring into aftion. They boaft that they can raife more
than a hundred thoufand horfe ; and, if it were pofTible to
afTemble every Sikh horfeman, this ftatement might not be
an exaggeration ; but there is, perhaps, no chief among
them, except Ranjit Sinh, of Lahore, that could bring an
effeftive body of four thoufand men into the field ; and the
force of Ranjit Sinh did not, in 1805, aT-ount to eight
thoufand, and part of that was under chiefs who had been
fubdued from a ftate of independence, and whofe turbulent
minds ill-brooked an ufurpation, which they deemed fub-

S I L

verfive of the conftitution of their commonwealth. Hi
army is now more numerous than it was, but it is con
pofed of materials that have no natural cohefion, and th
firft ferious check which it meets will probably caufe its di£
folution.

As for the religion of the Sikhs, it feems, fays fir Job
Malcolm, to have been a fort of pure deifm, grounded (
moft fublime general truths, blended with the belief of
the abfurdities of the Hindoo mythology, and the fables oi
Mahometanifm ; for Nanac profeffed to concihate Hindoo* '
and Mahometans to the belief of his doftrine, by perfuading
them to reject thofe parts of their refpeftive belief and
ufages, which, he contended, were unworthy of that God
whom they both adored. He endeavoured to imprefs both
Hindoos and Mahometans with a love of toleration, and an
abhorrence of war ; and his life was as peaceable as his
dottrine.

We cannot forbear remarking on the inconfiftency and
contradiftion which are involved in the idea of " pure
deifm" blended with the belief of abfurdities. As well
might we call a fyftem of philofophy perfeft, the greater
part of which is nonfenfe. Is it not evident, fays an ano-
nymous writer, that fo far as abfurdities are mixed with a
religious creed, fo far the purity of its deifm is excluded.
— But to proceed ; Guru Govind, as we have already fug-
gefted, gave a new charafter to the religion of his followers^
by eftablifhing inftitutions and ufages, which not only fepa-
rated them from other Hindoos, but which, by a complete
abolition of all diltinftions of cafts, deftroyed a fyftem of
civil polity, which, from being interwoven with the religion
of a weak and bigotted race, fixed the rule of its prieila
upon a bafis that had withftood the Ihock of ages. For
further particulars we muft refer to the author, whofe ela-
borate account of the Sikhs has furnifhed the principal ma-
terials of this article. Malcolm's Sketch of the Sikhs, in
vol. xi. of the Afiatic Refearches ; or Sketch of the Sikht,
&c. London, 1812. Rennell's Memoir, Introd. £din.
Rev. No. 42.

SIKI, in Geography, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania, on the Draganto ; 27 miles W. of Selefkeh.

SI-KIANG, or JVeJl River, a river of China, which
rifes near Fong-tcheou, in Quang-tong, and runs into the
fea, S. of Canton.

SIKIATZKOI, a town of Ruffia, on the Lena; 140
miles N. of Ziganfli. N. lat. 69° 20'. E. long. 121^40'.

SIKINOS, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, which
lies feven or eight miles to the W.S.W. of Nio. This
ifland is lofty and mountainous, of fmall extent, being about
twenty miles in circumference, and contains, according to
Olivier, no more than 200 inhabitants. It has no harbour,
and is now little frequented by Europeans. Its produftions
confift of wheat, barley, wine, cotton, and fruits. It pays
about 2000 piaitres to the captain-pacha. A town of the
fame name with the ifland is fituatcd on a rock, which hangs
over the fea. N. lat. 36^ 43'. E. long. 25° 10'.

SIKKE. See SiGG.

SIKNA, a river of Moldavia, which runs into the Zita,
20 miles S.W. of Batufzani.

SIKOKO. See Xicoco.

SIKOVOE, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea. S.
lat. 7° 12'. E. long. 131° 51'.

SIL, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the Limat,
one mile below Zurich. — Alfo, a river of Spain, in Galicia,
which rifes in the mountains to the weft of Leon, where it
receives the Bseza and the Burvia in Galicia, paiies on to
San-Eftevan and to Torbe, where it receives the Lor, and

in

S I L

in its turn falls into the Mino ; its courfe is thirty-three
leagues.

SiL, in Cmials, the bottom timber of fluices, lock-gates,
Sec.

SiL, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by the ancients to
a red ochre, of which they had three diitinft kinds, the_//
fyr'tcum, Jil afticum, and Ji/ marmorofum ; all of wliich are to
be had at this time, and all very valuable paints.

SiL Syrkuni is a fubrtance well known among the painters
of the prefeHt age, though not by name, being the red
ochre, commonly ufed for a purple colour in their coarfer
works ; though it is capable of yielding, by proper manage-
ment, a colour fit for their fineft. It is very heavy, and of
a fine ftrong red, with fome tendency to purple, of a loofe
friable textare, and very rough and duily furface. It
adheres firmly to the tongue, is fomewhat foft to the touch,
crumbles eafily to pieces between the fingers, and ftains the
hands very much. It melts freely in the mouth, and has
a Itrongly altvingent talte. It burns to a much paler
colour, and makes no efFervcfcence with aqua fortis. Thefe
are the charafters by which this is diilinguifhed from all
the other red earths. It is dug in many parts of England,
and is fent to London in great quantities. Hill.

SiL Atticum is the purple ochre, called in later times
almagra.

SiL Marmurnjum is alfo a fubftance in fomc degree
known in the world at this time. It fometimes falls into
the hands of our painters, who call it Indian ftone-red, but
it has many other valuable qualities extremely worth en-
quiring into. It is the hardell and driell of all the ochres,
and while in the ftratum appears abfolutely ftony, forming
thin, flat, regular lirata, and is fo hard, that it is not to be
dug without the pick-axe ; it is alfo of an obfcurely and
irregularly laminated ftrufture, and naturally breaks into
flat pieces. It is of a fine purplifli-red, and very heavy,
and contains a multitude of fragments of a fine lead-ore,
which are bright and blueilh, and makes a very pretty
appearance, and befide thefe has always among it a fmall
quantity of pure native cinnabar : both thefe fubftances
are fo nicely mixed with it, that it is fcarcely poflible to
break off a piece of an inch fquare from any part of the
Urata that has not more or lefs of both in it. It is of a
dully furface, and rough to the touch, and adheres very
firmly to the tongue, and Itains the hands. It is of a very
auftere and aflringent talle, and makes no effervefcence
with acids. There are confiderable lirata of it on the
borders of China, and it is much ufed as a paint in the
Eall Indies. There is fome of it at times brought over
to us, but not enough to make it a regularly marketable
commodity. Befide its ufe as a paint, it is worth enquiring
into on account of the cinnabar it contains ; three ounces
of it having yielded, on trial, two drachms and a fcruple of
pwre quickfilver. Hill.

SIL A, in Ancient Geography, a forell of Italy, in Brutium,
N. of the town of Rhegium, occupying part of tin- Apen-
nines. Strabo. — Alfo, a town fitualed at a confiderable
dillance from Japygia.

SILACH, a word ufed by medical authors for a dif-
order uf the eye-lid, confilting in a preternatural thicknefs
of it, or a fwelling without inflammation.

.SILADING, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eall
Indian fca, near the N. coait of Celebes. N. lat. i" 21'.
E. long. 124^ 25'.

SILjiE, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in the
interior of Arabia Felix. Ptol.

SILAH-ETCHAUK, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
25 miles N.W. of Ramgur.

Vol. XXXII.

S I L

SILAI, a town of Hungary ; 32 miles S. of Zatmar.

SILAMBOE, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Java. S. lat. 7° 33'. E. long. 107'^ 15'.

SILANDAM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Lycia.

SILARUS*, a river of Italy, which commenced in the
territory of the Hirpini, feparated the Picentini from
Lucania, and difcharged itfelf into the fea near Poellum.
Strabo fays, that this river petrified the plants that were
thrown into it, without dellroying their colour or their
form. — Alfo, a mountain of Italy, in Lucania.

SILAS, a river of India, which fprung from a fountain
of the fame name, and ran into the country of the Silaeans.
according to Arrian.

SILATUM, a word ufed by the ancient Romans to
exprefs a morning's draught of wine. This was ufually of
a wine medicated with the plant fili, or fefeli, and thence
had its name. It has always been the cudom to medicate
the morning draughts of any llrong liquor ; we do it with
wormwood, or the common bitter tinfture ; the Indians
with ginger.

SILAVENGO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Novarefe ; 10 miles N.W. of Novara.

SILAUM, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors for
the faxifraga pratenfis, or common meadow faxifrage.

SILAUNA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Bulgaria ; 40 miles W. of Nicopoli.

SILBACH, a village of Wellphalia, in which is found
lead-ore mixed with filver ; 12 miles S. of Brilon.

SILBE, a town of Africa, in the country of the
Foolahs, on the Senegal. N. lat. 17° 5'.

SILBERBACH, a town of Prullia, in the province of
Obcrland ; 6 miles W. of Liebftadt.

SILBERBERG, a mine-town of Silelia, belonging to
the principality of Brieg, but infulated in that of ^funlter-
berg. N. lat. 50° 24'. E. long. 16^ 26'.

SILBEREGG, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ; 2
miles N.W. of Ebernllein.

SILBERMANN, Johann Andreas, in Biography, the
molt eminent and renowned organ-builder and maker of
keyed-inllruments in Germany. He was born at Stralburg in
17 1 2, and the firit of a numerous and eminent family of tnat
name, who have inherited his profeflional abilities and repu-
tation. There is, in Gerber's Continuation of Walther's
Mufieal Lexicon, a lill of their feveral names and work* ;
but old Silbermanii was the Father Smith of Germany.
His inftruments are prized above all others for workman-
(hip and tone. The Bach family have been always partial,
not only to Silbermaan's organs, but harpfichords and
clavichords. When we heard Emanuel Bach perform at
Hamburgh, it was always on a favourite Silbermann clavi-
chord ; piano fortes were not then brought to great per-
feftion any whore ; but fince that time we find that John
Henry Silbermann is much celebrated for his piano fortes.

SILBERSCHLAG, Joil\ I.sAiah, a German mathe-
matician and mechanilt, was born in 1721. He Itudied at
the college Klolterberge, near Magdeburg, and afterwards
went through a courle of theology at Halle, from which
place he returned to the college at which he had been be-
fore, where he taught natural philofophy and mathematics
for nine years. After this he became paftar of one of the
churches at Berlin, and reAor of the royal fcliool. He
was a member of tin- /Xcademy of Sciences in that city ;
and, befides writing various works on mechanical and ma-
thematical fubjed-., conltnifled a great mauy machines,
iiillruinents, and models, for the ufe of the Undents in the
feminary which had been pLiccd under his care. He died
4T m

S I L

in November 1791. He left behind him a great number
of works, among which are, " A Treatife on the warhke
Machines of the Ancients ;" " Letters on the Northern
Lights ;" " A Treatife on Hydraulic Architedlure ;"
" The Chronology of the World rcdified by the Scriptures."
Gen. Biog.

SILBERSTRASS, in Geography, a town of Saxony,
in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Zwickau.

SILBIUM, in Jncient Geography, a tov/n of Italy, in
Japygia. — Alfo, a town of Ala, in Greater Phrygia.

SILBODAL, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Warmeland ; 35 miles W. of Carlfladt.

SILBOJOCK, a town of Sweden, in the Lapmark of
Pitea ; 12 miles N. of Niarg.

SILBURY Hill, one of the largeft barrows or tu-
muli in England, and probably in the world, is fituated on
the Marlborough Downs, about fix miles weft of the town
of Marlborough, in Wiltlhire. The origin, appropriation,
and hiftory of thi.^ extraordinary mound of earth, are alike
unknown to the topographer and antiquary. In the vicinity
of the immenfe druidical temple at Avebury, (fee AvE-
BURY,) it is rationally fuppcfed to have been originally con-
nefted with that ftrufture ; and as the molt remote anti-
quities of this iiland, and of the civilized world, have given
rife to much fabulous difl'eitation, and fanciful hypothefis,
fo the barrow now called Silbury Hill has been referred to
various tribes of people, applied to different purpofes, and
attributed to the moft remote origin. Dr. Stukeley was of
opinion that its prefent name is of Saxon derivation, and
fignifies " the great or marvellous hill ;" while others con-
tend that it is either a corruption for Sil- barrow, which they
tranflate " the peaceful grave ;" or of Sel-barrow, meaning
" the large or elevated barrow." The moft common fup-
pofition refpefting its nature ranks it among the fepulchral
clafs of monuments. Stukeley calls it the tomb of Cunedha,
whom he charafterizes as a celebrated Britifn king, who
refided at Cunetio (then fuppofed to have been Marlborough),
and gave his name to that town, and to the river Kennet, or
Kunnet. The Rev. Samuel Greathead, in a letter to Mr.
Britton, printed in the account of Wiltlhire, in the 15th
volume of the " Beauties of England and Wales," regards
Silbury as the burial-place of Prydain, a later king of the
Britons, to whom he afcribes the union of the Britifli tribes
under one monarchy, and the conftruftion of Avebury, as
a place of aflembly for the chiefs and people on great na-
tional occafions. Another opinion refpefting this tumulus
is, that it was the mount on which the Dniids lighted up
fires, when they wilhed to give notice to the furrounding
country of fome intended religious ceremonial. This view
of the fubjeft is of courfe confined to thofe who confider
Avebury as having been a druidical temple ; among whom
i.'! the Rev. Edward Davies, author of " Celtic Refearches,"
and of The Mythology and Rites of the Britifii Druids."
To thefe opinions relative to Silbury Hill may be added a
third, which may be regarded as equally probable with any
of the conjefturcs above ftated. It is, that, hke the Tinwald
of the I(le of Man, and the Moote-hill of Scone, it was the
mount of juftice, the eminence from the fummit of which the
king promulgated the laws enafted in the national affemblies,
and on which he and his judges fat to decide all important
caufes, whether of a civil or criminal nature.

Silbury Hill is fituated direftly fouth from Avebury, and
nearly in the centre between the extremities of the two ave-
nues, which extended from the temple to the diftance of a
mile each way. At the bafe the hill is about 560 feet in diame-
ter, or 1680 feet in circumference ; at the top, 105 feet diame-
ter, or 3 15 feet in circumference ; and it rifes 170 feet in per-

SIL

pendicular height. Stukeley eftiinatcs its folid contents at
1 3,558,809 cubic feet, and highly praifed the choice of the
ground, and the fymmetrical proportions of the ftrufture
itfelf. In digging here in 1723, a huidan ilceleton, with the
bit of a bridle, deer's horns, and an iron knife, were difcovered,
which Dr. Stukeley confidently confidered to have belonged
to the perfon for whom he fuppofed the mount was raifed ;
but the pofture of the llteleton near the furface and on a de-
clivity would render fuch a conclufion extremely improbable,
even though it were undoubted that Silbury is of fepulchral
origin. Stukeley's Abury, folio, 1743. Beauties of Eng-
land andWales, by J. Britton, F.S.A. 8vo. 1814.

SILCHESTER, a parifli in Hamplhire, England, at
the northern extremity of that county, bordering on Berk-
(hire, contains the fcitc and ruins of an ancient Roman
Itation. It appears alfo to have been a city of the Belgic
Britons anterior to the Roman colonization of Great
Britain, and was called Caerfeiont, or Segont, as being the
chief city of the Saegontiaci. In the feventh Iter, of
Antoninus it is named Vindomim, and marked xxi mile*
from Venta-Belgarum i^Winchelter), and xv from Callevam
(probably Reading.) That this was a Roman ftation of
importance, appears evident from the various roads, or viae,
branching from it ; from the magnitude and conltruclion
of the walls, valla, and amphitheatre; and from the nume-
rous coins and other relics that have been found here at
different periods. The whole city, or ftation, was fur-
rounded by a fofs, with a vallum on the infide, on which a
wall was railed. This was conltrudled, in the ufual Roman
manner, with alternate layers, or rows of large flat Itones,
rubble ftones, and cement, alfo bricks and flints. In one
place this wall was twenty-four feet thick, and the fofs was
above 100 feet acrofs. The exterior form of this ftation i»
unlike any other Roman work in England, being an irre-
gular oftagon ; whereas thofe of Camalodunum (Colchefter),
Venta-Belgarum (Winchefter), Lindum (Lincoln), Londi-
nium (London), and almoft all others, were conitruAed in
the (hape of a parallelogram, with the corners rounded off.
The in<;lofed area of Silcheller is about one mile and a half
in circumference, and contains nearly one hundred acres,
the whole of which is appropriated to the arable and
pallure lands of a farm. In very dry feafons, it is eafy to
trace the fituation and diredtion of the Roman ftreets, two
of which interfefted the town, and communicated with the
four entrance gates, on the eaft, weft, north, and fouth
fides of the city. Near the centre of the area have been
traced the foundations of a large edifice, fuppofed to have
been the forum. About 150 yards from the north-eaft
corner of the walls, arc the banks of an amphitheatre,
which appears to have cont.iined five rows, or terraces for
fpedlators. A fmall church and a farm-houfe, with its
offices, are all that now remain within the ancient walls ; and
thus prefent an amazing gontrait to the appearance and pur-
fuits of former times. Now the humble and ufeful hufband-
man, with the humane Chriitian paftor, are the chief occu-
pant:; of this peaceful foot, which, in the third century, was
peopled with Roman foldiers, and was often the theatre
of remorfelefs battle.s, favage fports, and fenfelefs Pagan
ceremonies. A particular account of this place will be
found in the 6th volume of " The Beauties of England,"
by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

SILCOLU, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 8 miles
S.E. of Seringapatam.

SILDA, in Ancient Geography^ a town of Africa, in
Mauritania Caefarienfis, according to Ptolemy. The Itine-
rary of Antonine places this town on the route from Toeo-
lofida to Tingis, between Aquae Daciex and Vofpifcanx.

SILDE

S I L

SILDE REVEL, in Geography, a clufter of fmall iflands
belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat ; 6 miles S. of
Leiloe.

SILE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Egypt,
on the route from Serapium to Pelufa, between Magdolum
andThauhafiuni, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.
■ SiLE, in Geography, a river of Italy, which palFes by
Trevigio, and runs into the Adriatic, oppofite to the ifland
<^f Torcello.

SlLE, in Rural Economy, provincially the name of a milk-
ftrainer.

SILEBY, in Geography, a large and populous village
and parifh on the eailem bank of the river Soar, in the
hundred of Ealt-Gofcote, and county of Leicefter, Eng-
land. The lordfhip contains about 2139 acres, the greater
part of which was inclofed, with other contiguous land?,
in conformity to an aft of parliament palled in 1759. The
manor belongs to earl Ferrers. In the parifh were for-
merly two ancient manfions, belonging to the Sherard
and the Pocliin famihes. In 181 1 the parifh contained
240 houfes, and 1 200 mhabitants, moll of whom were
employed in agriculture, and frame-work knitting. Here
is one free-fchool, and three other large fchools. The
church, a handfonie Hone building, confitts of a nave, ailles,
a chancel, a porch, and a tower. The revenues of this
church were formerly appropriated to the abbev of St.
Ebrulph, in Normandy, which was fupprelied by king
Henry V. Afterwards tlie living belonged to the priory
of St. Mary, in the ifle of Axholme, in the county of
Lincoln. Nichols's Hiitory and Antiquities of the County
of Leicefter, folio, vol. iii.

SILEIN, a town of Hungary; 14 miles E.N.E. of
Bolefko.

SILENCE, Fr. in Mujic, equivalent to re/1 ; which fee.

SILENE, in Botany, a name given by Linnaeus to this
genus, the chief of the Catchfly tribe, in allufion to the
vifcid frothy moilture of its Italks, by which flies of the
fmaller kind are numeroufly entrapped. This word is pro-
bably derived from o-ioP'^ov, falma. De Theis deduces it
more direftly from the drunken god Silenus, whole name
he fiippofes to have a' fimilar origin. — Sm. Fl. Brit. 46J.
Prodr. Fl. Groec. Sibth. v. i. 290. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
S3. Girtn. t. 130. (Silcnn; Linn. Gen. 226. Schreb.
!?04. Willd. Sp.'Pl. v. 2. 691. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4.
Purfh3i5. Juif. 302. Lamarck Dift. V. 7. 158. Illuftr.
t. 377. Cucubalus ; Linn. Gen. 22y. Schreb. 303.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 684. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 2. Purfh
315. Jnll. 302. Lamarck Dift. V. 2. 219. lUuRr, t. 377.
f. 2. Vifcago; Dill. Elth. 416.)— Clafs and order, De-
eandria Trtgynla. Nat. Ord. Caryophyllel, Linn. Caryo-
fhyUca, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
fwelling, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. Petals five ; claws
narrow, the length of the calyx, bordered with a mem-
brane ; limb flat, horizontal, obtufe, often divided, and
moftly furniflicd, more or le(s, with a cloven, crcct, tooth-
like creft at its bale, conllituting the crown of the flower.
Stam. Filamentf. ten, awl-fliaped, five idternate ones inferled
into the claws of the petals, and later than the relt ; anthers
oblong. Piji, Germen luperior, cylindrical ; Itylcs three,
firaple, longer than the llamens; fligmas twifted contrary
to the motion of the fuii. Perlc. Capfule cylindrical,
ovate, or fomewhat globofe, covncd by the calyx, more or
lefs pcrfeftly three-celled, burfling at the top into fix teeth.
Se-edt numerous, kidney-fliaped, attached to a central re-
ttptacle.

Elf. Ch. Calyx «f one leaf, fwelhng. Petals five, with

S 1 L

ereft claws. Capfule fuperior, imperfeftly three-ccilcd,
burfling at the top. Seeds numerous.

Obf. The crown of the petals, on which Linnaus de-
pended for his cliarafter of SUene, in contradiilinftion to
Cucubalus, being found not only to feparate fpecies moft
clofely related, but even to vary in the fame fpecies, as La-
marck and many others have noticed ; the authors which
ftand firfl on our lift of references above, have agreed to
remove to Silene all the Linnaean Cucubali, except C.baccifcr,
on \yhich Tournefort originally founded that genus, wliich
has indeed a crown, but is diftinguifhed by having for iti
fruit a real berry, not a capfule. See Cucubalu.s.

Silene, thus confidercd, is a vaft genus, of which new
fpecies are ftill from time to lime difcovered, in the warmer
and drier regions of the fouth of Europe, and north of
Africa ; countries abounding particularly with this tribe
of plants. All the fpecies in general are herbaceous, many
of them annual, vi-ry few flirubby. Their Jlems are
jointed, branched, leafy, frequently glutinous, for a certain
fpace, below each joint. The calyr i.vA Jomier-Jlalh are
alfo, when downy, fomewhat vifcid. Leaves oppofite,
fimple, entire. Petals red or white, rarely greenifli or ycl-
lowifli ; fcarcely ever bine. Some of thcjoivers, efpecially
the greenifh ones, are delicioufly fragrant at night ; and
the reft, if they have any fcent, are fvveeteft at that time,
like the Pink tribe in general. We fliall feleft fuflicient
examples of the genu>, particularly defcribing fuch a.s are
new, or hitherto only mentioned in the Prodr. Fl. Grsecae,
as well as all thofc of Brilifh growth.

Seft. I. Stem racemofe ; occajionally fomewhat forked.
S. anglica. Englifh Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 594.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. 15. Fl. Brit. n. i. EngL Bot.
t. 1 178. Curt. Land. fafc. 4. t. 30. (Vifcago ceraftei
foliis, vafculis pendulis, anglica; Dill. Elth. 417. t. 309.
f. 398.)— Hairy and vifcid. Petals notched. Flowers
lateral, ereft, alternate. Lower fruit fpreading or re-
flexed. — Native of cultivated fields, on a light faiidy foil,
in England and France, flowering in July. The root is
fibrous, fmall and annual. Stem branched, fpreading, weak
and brittle, leafy, round, hairy, fwelling above eacli joint,
ufnally about a foot high. Leaves lanceolate, acute, entire,
green, fomewhat hairy ; the lower ones obovate. Flowert
iblitary, on fhort ftalks, alternate from the bofoms of th«
upper leaves. Calyx with ten ribs, fwelling as the fruit
advances. Petals broadly elliptical, cloven, the claw of
each crowned with a divided fcale ; their colour white,
occafionally marked with a faint rcddifli fpot.

S. quinrjuevulnera. Variegated Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PL
595. Willd. n. 3. Alt. n. 17. Purlli n. I. Fl. Brit,
n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 86. (Lychnis hirta minor, flore
variegato ; Tourn. Inll. 337. Dodart Mem. ed. Amft.
601. t. 23.) — Hairy. Petals roundifli, entire. Flowers
lateral, alternate, creft, as well as the fruit. — Native of dry
or fandy fields in the fouth of Europe and the Levant. Mr.
Hudfon found it near Wrotham in Kent ; and Mr. Purfl)
near Charleftown, Carolina, on the fea-coaft. We prelume
this fpecies to have been carried from Europe to America,
being a common liardy annual in gardens, where it flower*
in .luiic and July. The plant is not vifcid like the preceding,
though hairy. The petals are remarkable for a brilliant
criniloi) (pot in the middle of each. The lowcll capfules arc
lometimes reflexed.

S. noilurna. Spiked Night-flowering Catchfly. Linn.
Sp. PI. 595. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 18. Pnrfli n. 6. Sm.
Fl. Gra:c. Sibth. t. 408, unpublifhed. (Vifcago hirta
noftiflora, floribus obloletis f^picatis ; Dill. Elth. 410.
t. 310. f. 400. Lychuis fylvcllrii hirfuta clatior fpicata,
4T 2 lioi

SILENE.

lini colore; Barrel. Ic. t. 1027. f. i.) — Flowers fpiked,
alternate, nearly feffile, direifted one way. Petals deeply
cloven. Leaves fpatulate, hairy. — Native of Spain, the
fouth of France, vineyards about Conftantinople, and cul-
tivated ground in Greece ; alfo of Virginia ; flowering in
June and July. An annual, upright, (lightly branched
fpecies ; the leaves which accompany the Jloivers narrow,
and much fmaller than the reft. Petals fmall, pale pink, or
white with a green external tinge, minutely crowned. Cap-
fule ovate, ftalked. The Jloiuers are faid to expand at
night only.

S. pendula. Pendulous Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 599.
WiUd. n.-27. Ait. n. 37. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. n. 979.
Curt. Mag. t. 114. (Vifcago hirta ficula, lychnidis aqua-
ticse facie, fupina ; Dill. Elth. 421. t. 312.) — Flowers
racemoie. Calvx of the fruit pendulous, inflated, with ten
rough ribs. Stem decumbent. — Native of Italy, Sicily,
Crete, and Cyprus, flowering in the fpring. Every bank
about Rome is decorated with this elegant plant in the
fpring. Nothing is better calculated for the decoration of
rock-work, or dry parterres, than this hardy annual, whufe
purplifh^^mj fpread in every direftion, and are copioufly
adorned with large yia^.f.o'wers, with a membranous, violet-
ribbed, inflated calyx. The feeds fcatter themfelves with-
out any trouble.

S. vefpertina. Pink Evening Catchfly. Retz. Obf
fafc. 3. 31. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 35. Curt. Mag.
t. 677. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 409, unpublifhed. (S.
bipartita ; Desfont. Atlant. v. i. 352. t. 100. S. ciliata ;
Willd. n. 4, excluding the fynonym. Lychnis marina hir-
futa purpurea, leucoji folio; Barrel. Ic. t. loio.) — Petals
with two deep rounded lobes, and a Iharp cloven crell.

Calyx downy. Leaves fpatulate. Stems difFufe Found

on the fea-fliores of Sicily, Barbary, Crete, Zante, and
Greece, not uncommon. It has been known about twenty
years in our gardens, as a hardy annual, flowering in fum-
mer. Linnsus had fpecimens, but never determined the
fpecies. The Jlems bear riumerous Ipatulate leaves. The
^ayNerrngbyanches are naked below, each terminating in a
fimple clujler of eight or ten handfome brafteated pink
flonuers, all drooping one way, with a reddifh club-fiiaped
calyx. The pubefcence, efpecially of the calyx, is more
flofe and foft than in S. pendula, though more long and
ihaggy in fome fpecimens than others. The Jtevi is very
rarely once forked, being ufually altogether racemofe.

S. difcohr. Pale Spiked Catchfly. Prodr. Fl. Grxc.
n. 981. Fl. Grsc. t. 410, unpubhlhed. — Petals with two
deep narrow fegments, and a notched creft. CrJyx villous.
Leaves obovate. Stem diffufe. — Gathered by Dr. Sib-
thorp, in the ifle of Cyprus. The root is annual, long.
Stems fpreading, fcarcely a fpan in length, not forked,
though molUy once divided, round, leafy, reddifli, rough,
like the reft of the herbage, with long fpreading hairs.
Leaves thick and broad, rather more than'an inch in length ;
the lower ones tapering at the bafe. Flowers fix or eight
in each fpike, erect, on (hort partial ftalks. Calyx rather
flender, hardly an inch long, with ten red hairy ribs. Limb
of each petal nearly as long as the claw ; pale red on the
upper fide ; light green, with darker veins, beneath ; creft
white, divaricated, double-toothed.

S. thymifolia. Thyme-leaved Catchfly. Prodr. Fl.

Gr^c. n. 982. Fl. Grrec. t. 411, unpnbhflied Petals

with two deep narrow fegments, and a notched creft. Calyx
hairy, glutinous. Stems procumbent, woody, much
branched. Found by Dr. Sibthorp on the fandy (hores of
Caria and the ifle of Cyprus. Root perennial. Stems a foot
or two in length, widely fpreading, repeatedly branched,

copioufly jointed, round, hairy, fending up feveral terminal,
afcending, fimple, leafy, hairy, and rather vifcid, flowering
branches, from three to fix inches long. Leaves obovate,
acute, rough, about half an inch long, with axillary tufts
of ftill fmaller ones. Flowers racemofe, three or four at the
top of each branch, ereft, white ; the back of the petalt
greenifh. Calyx an inch long, hairy, pale green, with
pink dots.

S. cerajloides. Ceraftium-leaved Catchfly. Linn. Sp.
PI. 596. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 20. Fl. Grsec. t. 412,
unpubhftied. (Vifcago ceratii fohis, vafculis eredlis feffi-
libus J Dill. Elth. 416. t. 309. f. 397.) — Hairy. Petals
cloven ; creft divided, with a pair of teeth at the bafe.
Stem much branched, fpreading, iomewhat forked. Leaves
linear-lanceolate. — Native of the fouth of Europe, and of
Afia Minor. A hardy annual, flowering in fummer, about
a fpan high. Lea's:s narrow, acute, green, very hairy, an
inch or inch and half long. Flozvers role-coloured, fpiked,
not quite feffile. Calyx very hairy, half an inch long,
white, with live green ribs. Floral leaves the length of the
calyx. Capfule neaily globofe, ftalkcd, with five teeth.
Seeds rugged, black.

S. dichotoma. Forked Long-branched Catchfly. Ehrh.
Beitr. V. 7. 143. PI. Seleft. n. 65. Willd. n. 23. Fl.
Crsc. t. 413, unpubliflied. (S. trinervis ; Soland. ia
Ruflell's Aleppo, ed. 2. 252.) — Petals in two deep narrow
fegments, with fcarcely any crown. Stem forked, race-
mofe, villous as well as the leaves. — Native of Hungary and
the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in Crete, and about
the Bithynian Olympus. We believe this fpecies was
raifed, about 25 years ago, in many gardens about London,
from feeds fent by the late Mr. Davall, fo that it is entitled
to a place in the Hortus Kewenjls. Root biennial, tapering,
as thick as a common radifh. Stems feveral, afcending,
from one to two feet high, round, Ihaggy with long fpread-
ing hairs, once or twice forked, with an intermediate,
nearly feffile, flower, and then extended into long, fimple,
Ipiked or racemofe branches, each bearing five or fix dillant
white fioivers, whofe petals are narrow, with only occafional
rudiments of a creft. Calyx with ten green ribs. Anthers
green. Seeds red-brown. The leaves are chiefly radical,
and very numerous, compofing a denfe, fliaggy, hoary, and
fomewhat glaucous, tuft ; each leaf two inches long, and
nearly one broad, obovate, bluntly pointed, tapering down
into a broad footflalk.

S. divarkata. Forked Spreading-branched Catchfly.
Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. n. 985. Fl. Grjec. t. 414, unpub-
liflied.— Petals in two deep rounded lobes, with a cloven
creft. Stem forked, divaricated, racemofe. Leaves all
lanceolate, hairy, acute. Difcovered by Dr. Sibthorp on
the coall of Afia Minor. In fize and habit this bears fome
affinity to the laft, but is more leafy, and the leaves are
longer, tapering at each end, undulated, of a darker green,
rough with fliorter hairs, not ftiaggy. The flowering
branches fpread at almoft right angles. The fioiwers are
white, but with much broader and rour«ler petals, each
petal bearing a rounded cloven creit.

Seft. 2. Stem forked, ivith pamcled branches.

S. injlata. Common Bladder Campion or Catchfly.
Fl. Brit. n. 5. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. n. 986. Ait. n. I.
(Cucubalus Behen; Linn. Sp. PI. 591. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 2. 684. Engl. Bot. t. 164. Fl. Dan. t. 914. Behen
album; Ger. Em. 678.) — Flowers panicled, drooping.
Petals cloven halfway down, moftly naked. Calyx fmooth,
reticulated with veins. Stem erett. — Common in dry fields,
paftures, and by way-fides throughout Europe, from Nor-
way to Greece, flowering in the middle of fummer. Mi-

chaux

SILENE.

chaux noticed it in Canada. The root is perennial, long,
whitifh, branching at the fummit. Stems ered, a foot and
a half or two feet high, branched, round, glaucous. Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, acute, glaucous, ufually very fmooth, but
occafionally roughifh and fringed ; the radical ones nu-
merous, crowded, fpatulate. Panicle forked, bearing nu-
merous white drooping foivers. Calyx almoit globofe,
membranous, white, elegantly reticulated >vith green or
purplifh veins and ribs. Limb of each petal almoll as long
as its claw, cut half way down into two fpreading, oblong,
fomewhat rounded fegments, generally deltitute of a crelt,
but we have lometimes deteCled the rudiments of one. An-
thers green, occafionally liable to a difeafe, by which they
become enlarged, teeming with ufelefs purple duft, which
ilains the petals. The natives of Zante, who call tliis plant
xaxa^i, eat the boiled leaves, which are faid to partake of
the flavour of green peas.

S. marifima. Sea Campion or Catchflv. With. 414.
Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 957. Willd. n. 29. Ait.
n. 23. (S. amoena ; Hndf. Angl. 188. Ligtitf. Scot. 227.
Cucubalus Beheu /S ; Linn. Sp. PI. 591. Fl. Dan. t. 857.
Lychnis marina anglicana ; Bauh. Hilt. v. 3. p. 2. 357.
Ger. Em. 469. Lob. Ic. 337. ) — Flowers nearly folitary,
terminal. Petals cloven about half way down ; the feg-
ments of their crell entire. Calyx fmooth, reticulated with
veins. Stem decumbent. — Native of the fandy or rocky
fea-fhores of Norway, Britain, Gothland, &c. as well as of
the llony beds of mountain torn-nts in AVales, flowering in
Auguft and September. The apj/earance of the leaves and
jloivers, at firft light, is fo like 5'. injlata, that molt bo-
tanifts, for a long time, confidcred the plant as a mere variety
of that fpecies. They are indeed fo nearly akin, as to be
infeparal)le with refpeft to genus, though injlata is mollly
without a crown to \.\\q Jlonuor, and this is always furnilhed
with one. The root of 6'. maritima is creeping, and the
fiems often quite proltrate, hardly a fpan high, bearing one
Jloiver, for the molt part, rarely two or three, fcarcely con-
itituting a panicle. The leaves are narrmver, linear-lanceo-
late, or nightly fpatulate, very fmooth and glaucous,
minutely toothed at the edges. Calyx much like the laft.
Capfule fhorter, almoll globular. Styles occafionally varying
to four or five.

5. fmhriata. Fringed Campion or Catchfly. Sims in
Curt. Mag. t. 908. Ait. n. 46. — Flowers panicled,
drooping. Petals divided, many-cleft ; the fegments of
their creft cloven. Calyx veined, downy. Stem ere£t. —
Native of mount Caucifus, from whence it was fent to fir
Jofeph Banks and Mr. Loddiges. A hardy perennial,
readily increafed by feeds, and flowering all fummer long.

The whole plant refembles a large roughifli variety of .J.
injlata-, but the deeply fringed />f/a/f, and their evident crejl,
at once diltinguifh it.

6. fabaria. Thick-leaved Campion or Catchfly. Prodr.
Fl. Grsec. n. 987. Fl. Grace. I. 415, impiibliflied. Ait.
II. 2. (Cucubalus fabariu"! ; Linn. Sp. PI. 591. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. 685. Been album, feu Polemonium faxatile,
fabariae folio, ficuliim ; Bocc. Miif 133. t. 92.) — Flowers
cliiltertd, crovvded, drooping. Petals in two deep, rather
narrow, lobes; the fegments of their crelt notched. Leaves
obovate, with a fmall ponit. — Native of rocky places near
the fea, in Sicily, Afia Minor, Mount Athos, and the idc
of Samos. Root perennial. Plant very glaucous and
fmooth, twice as tall as the injlata, with much thicker and
broader leaves. The jlem is once or twice forked, each of
its long upright tranches bearing feveral remote, Ihort,
tufted clujlers of drooping white jloivers, with a reticulated,
purplilh, tumid, angular caly.r ; and jlalls, with pointed

IraBeas, all of the fame hue. The limb of each petal is half
the length of its claw, m two narrow-obovate, fpreading
lobes ; the creft deeply divided, with fliarply crenate feg-
ments. Germen red in the lower half, green above. Cap-
fule nearly globofe. The prefent fpecies is obvioufly, ac-
cording to the Linnaean charafter itfelf, a Silene, and too
clofely related to the three preceding, and the following,
to be feparable from any of them, even in a feftion of a
genus.

S. Behen. Oriental Bladder Campion or Catchfly.
Linn. Sp. PI. 599. Willd. n. 25. Ait. n. 36. Fl. Grsc.
t. 416, unpubhlhed. ( Vifcago veficaria cretica, parvo flore
purpurafcente ; Dill. Elth. 427. t. 317.) — Flowers in a
corymbofe panicle, nearly upright. Petals deeply divided,
rounded ; the fegments of their creit notched. Calyx reti-
culated. Leaves obovato-lanccolate. — Native of Crete,
Alia Minor, and Greece. — The root of this is annual.
Herb lels glaucous than the lalt, and more approaching iu
habit to our common 6\ injlata ; but the floivers are fmaller,
and effentially different. The limb of each petal is but a
quarter the length of its claw, pale pink, in two elliptical,
or almoft orbicular, lobes, with a white creft, of two, quite
feparate, notched fegment;. Germen elevated on a llalk of
its own length, along with tlie^f/u/r and _^am£nj', within the
calyx, as is more or Lfs the cafe with moll of this genus.

S. cxjia. Sea-green Campion or Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gr»c. n. 989. Fl. Grsc. t. 417, unpubliflied. (Lychnis
cretica montis Idx, folio (ubrotundo ca:fio ; Tourn. Cor.
24, by the character.) — Flowers in a corymbofe panicle,
ereft. Petals in two deep hnear divifions ; the fegments of
their crelt entire. Leaves roundifh-obovate. — Native of
mount Parnaflus, and if we are right iu Tournefort's fyno-
nym, of mount Ida. This del'.cate fmooth fpecies has a
very deep perennial root, crowned with a denfe tuft of nu-
merous, branching, leafy, round, jointed_y?fm/, nearly a fpan
high, each terminating in one or two naked flowering
branches, about a finger's length, bearing a forked ^jmV/f,
of from four to eight pale, but elegant, jlciuers. The
leaves are full an inch long, and half as broad, of a deep
glaucous green, tapering down into (hort broad jootjlalls,
which clalp the item. Brafleas under the partial _y/o':tifr-
jlalks fmall, ovate, acute. Calyx obovate, half an inch
long, tipped with pink, and variegated with green and white,
but hardly reticulated. Petals narrow, cream-coloured ;
green underneath ; their lobes almoll dole, or parallel,
above half the length of the claw. Styles and jiamens rofe-
coloured, with greenilh anthers.

S. Uvigata. Smooth.cu])ped Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gric. 11. 990. Fl. Gnc. t. 418, unpubliflied. — Panicle
fpreading. Petals cloven half way down, narrow, without
a crell. Leaves roundilh-elliptical. Calyx very Imootli
and evi-ii, without veins. — Found by Dr. Sibthorp in hilly
|)arts of the ifle of Cyprus. The root is annual. Slemi
leveral, from three to eight inches high, leafy below, fmooth
like every other part ot the ])laiit. Leaves of a deep glau-
cous hue ; the radical ones obovate, llalked ; the rcll ovate,
lefs obtufe, and nearly leflile. Panicles forked ; the partial
Ualki much longer than the <:(;/)■.»■, which is ovale, reddilh,
peculiarly even and pohllu-d. Petals fmall ; their limb pink,
in two oblong, oblule lobes, fepar.ited but hnll way down,
and deltitute of any crell. ,S/y/a vtry downy, rather lliort.

S. rupejlris. White Rock Catehtly. Linn. Sp. PI. 0o2.
Willd. n. 52. Alt. n. 54. Fl. Dan. t. 4. (Auricula
muris alpina gl.ibra ; Bauh. Hill. v. 3. 360.) — I'.iniclc
fpreading. PetaK wedge-lhaped, cmarginaie, with a cloven
crell. Leaves ovato lanceolate. Calyx fmooth, cyhndrical,
with ten ribe Native of dry meiintainous fituatioui in Nor-

WJV,

SILENE.

war, Sweden, Switzerland, and Greece. The root is peren-
nial, tufted, bearing feveral leafy Jienis, four or five inches
high, with a fomewhat corymbofe/an/V/^. Herbage fmooth,
green, fcarcely at all glaucous. Leaves an inch long, acute,
varying in length, /"/owr/ fmall, white. CajS/u/s fphtting
from top to bottom into fix valves.

S. chlorMa. Armenian Catchfly. [Sm. Plant, ex Herb.
Linn. t. 13. Willd.n. 50. Ait. n.52. Curt. Mag. t. 807.
(Lychnis orientaUs vifcofa, centaurei lutei folio, flore longif-
fimo; T0urn.C0r.24.)— Paniclefpi-eading. Petals cloven half
way down, with a two-lobed creft. Leaves glaucous, elhp-
tical, pointed. Calyx nearly cylindrical, very fmoeth, with-
out veins.— Gathered by Tournefort in Armenia. Said to
have been introduced at Kew in 1796, by Mr. John Hunne-
mann. A hardy perennial, twelve or eighteen inches high,
flowering in Auguft, readily known by the general refem-
blance of its foliage to Chlora perfefiata, though the kavet
are not perfoliate. Flotuers large, eredt, in a wide panicle,
virithout fcent, white, turning reddifii as they fade. Calyx
above an inch long, tinged with purple, very fmooth, with-
out ribs or veins, its form flender, cylindrical, or flightly
club-fhaped.

S. longipetala. Long-petalled Catchfly. Vent. Jard. de
Gels, t. 83. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gra;c. Sibth. n. 992. Fl. Grac.
t. 419, unpublifhed. — Flowers pendulous. Petals in two
deep linear fegments ; with a notched creft, and hairy claw.
Leaves lanceolate, rough-edged. — Found by Bruguiere and
Ohvier, in the neighbourhood of Aleppo. Dr. Sibthorp
met with the fame in the ifle of Cyprus. The root is annual.
Stem two feet high, leafy, panicled, fpreading, and many-
flowered. Herbage rather glaucous, fmooth, except the
edge of the leaves, which is rough to the touch. Leaves
about tliree inches long, acute, ilrongly ribbed ; the lower
ones elongated andcontrafted at the bafe, clafping the ftem
at the very bottom. Flotuers green, quite pendulous. Ca-
lyx obovate, ten-ribbed, fmooth, half an inch long. Claws
of the petals hairy below, as well as the Jlamens and Jlyks ;
limb fmooth, very long, involute. Stigmas club-(haped, red
like the anthers.

S. inaperta. Small Greenifh Catchfly. Linn. Sp PI.
600. WiUd. n. 39. Ait. n. 44. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sfbth.
t. 420. unpublifhed. (Vifcago Isvis, inaperto flore ; Dill.
Elth.424. t. 315.) — Paniclelpreading. Flowersereft. Petals
in two deep narrow fegments ; with a double awl-fhaped
crefl:. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth. — Native of Ma-
deira. Alton, Dr. Sibthorp found it on the mountains of
Greece. The root in his fpecimens is creeping, and evidently
perennial. DiUenius defcribes it as annual. Stems feveral,
near a foot high, clothed in the lower part with numerous
fmooth green leaves, about an inch long ; and branching at
the top into a panicle of a few pale delicate Jlonvers, which
feem not to have expanded properly in Sherard's garden,
whence originated the fpecific name. In our Greek fpeci-
mens the calyx is flender, rather club-fliaped, an inch long,
fmooth, with ten green ribs. Petals widely fpreading,
greenifh -white above, light brown beneath ; their creft fmall,
in two fimple awl-fliaped lobes. Capfule ovate, its ilalk,
within the calyx, as long as itfelf.

S. juncea. Rufhy Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsc.
Sibth. 11.994. Fl. Grasc. t.421, unpubliflied Panicle elon-
gated. Flowers treft. Petals in two deep narrow fegments ;
each lobe of their creft three-toothed. Leaves fpatulate,
all over rough.— Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor.
Thi< has a fmall, white, annual root. Stem folitary, ereft,
two or three feet higli ; leafy and rough below ; terminating
in a very long, flender, fmooth, flightly fpreading panicle,
of numerous flowersf which are rather larger than tlie pre-

ceding, but with a (horter calyx. Pttals white, with browM
veins beneath. The leaves are crowded at the root, and
bottom of the ftem, green, an inch and a half long, iomt-
what pointed ; thofe about the panicle are awl-ftiaped and
fmooth.

S. cretica. Cretan Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 601. Willd.
n.42. Ait. n. 47. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 432, unpublifhed.
(Vifcago foliis iiiferioribus bellidis, fuperioribus tunicae,
calice ilriftiore, ct turgidiore ; Dill. Elth. 422. t. 314.
f. 404, 405.) — Panicle fparingly branched. Flowers ereft.
Petals in two deep divaricated fegments; the lobes of their creft
acute, entire. Lower leaves cbovate, undulated, roughifh.—
Found by Dr. Sibthorp on rocks near the fea, in Crete and
Cyprus, as well as on the coall of Caramania. A hardy
annual, fpringingup fpontaneoufly year after year in Chelfea
garden. The^ems are two or three, from one to two feet
high, ereft, flender, vifcid. Leaves green ; the lower ones
obovate, obtufe and rough ; upper linear-lanceolate, acute,
fmooth. Flo'wers few, fmall, but not inelegant, crimibn,
with a fmooth, purplifh, obovate, ten-ribbed calyx. There
is an angular tootli to the claw of the petals, at each fide, be-
low the creft.

S. conica. Corn Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 598. Willdi
n. 21. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 922. Jacq. Auftr.
t. 253. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 243, unpubliflied.
(Lychnis caliculis Itriatis, fecuiida Cluiii ; Ger. Em.
470.) — Stem forked. Petals cloven half way down }
with a rounded cloven creft. Leaves foft and downy.
Calyx of the fruit conical, with thirty ribs. — Native of
fandy corn-fields in the fouth of Europe and the Le-.
vant ; rare in England, though it ftill occurs, as in the time
of Dillenius, in the fandy parts of Kent, flowering about
July. Root annual. Herb downy and vifcid, of a greyiOi-
green. Stems folitary or numerous, fpreading, various in
height, forked and panicled. Leaves linear-lanceolate, acute.
Flotuers ereft, pale rofe-coloured, fragrant, efpecially at
night, with the fcent of a honey-fuckle. Calyx cylindrical,
becoming conical as the capfule fwells, and membranous,
with thirty green ribs, and five long flender teeth. Petah
nearly obcordate, as is alfo the white creft of each. — The
petals appear to be fometimes entire, fo that we fufpcft ^.
conoidea of Linnxus may be a variety of this, with fmoother
broader leaves.

S. no&iflora. Night-flowering Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI.
599. Willd. n. 31. Fl. Brit. n. 9. Engl. Bot. t. 29I.
(Ocymoides noftiflorum ; Camcr. Hort. 109. t. 34.) — Stem
forked. Petals rather deeply cloven ; witii a fhort blunt
creft. Calyx with ten angles, connefted by tranfvcrfe ribs ;
its teeth as long as the tube. — Native of fandy or gravelly
fields, in Sweden, Germany, England, S^vjtzerland, Crete,
and .Afia Minor ; not rare in Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering
in July. Root annual. Herb dark green, foftly hairy or
downy, fpreading, of a coarfe rank habit. Leaves lanceo-
late, three-ribbed ; the lowefl obovate. Flotuers the fize of
our common Lychnis dioica, (their calyx and Jlalks very
vifcid,) unrolling their pale blufh-coloured^rtj/x in an even-
ing only, when they exhale, in warm weather, a powerful and
delicious fcent. The itrong reticulated ribs of the calyie
are remarkable.

S. leucophita. White and Brown Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grxc. Sibth. n. 1000. Fl. Grxc. t. 424, unpubliflied.
— Petals in two deep rather narrow fegments ; with a deeply
cloven creft. Calyx with ten angles. Leaves hnear-oblong,
recurved, glutinous and hairy. Difcovered by Dr. Sib-
thorp, in the ifle of Cyprus. A hairy, glutinous, branching,
annual fpccies, about a fpan high. Leaves an inch or inch
and half long, green, narrow, obtufe, channelled, fome-
what

SILENE.

what revoliite, recurved. Flowers fmaller than the laft,
efpccially their calyx, which is pale, reddifh, deftitute of
tranfverle ribs. Petals cream-coloured abore ; of a cinna-
mon brown beneath ; their creft in two rounded entire lobes.
This is probably a night-fcented flower, like the laft.

S. rawojjfmm. Bufhy Red Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grsec. Sibth. n. looi. Fl. Grxc. t. 425, unpublifhed.
(S. fedoides ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 449 ? Bivon. Cent. 2.
58. Ocymoides, flore rubro, minus, creticum ; Bauh.
Hill. V. 3. 352. cap. 59. Lychnis hirta angultifolia cretica;
Tourn. Init. 337.) — Petals deeply divided; with a four-
cleft crett. Calyx club-fhaped, with ten angle;!. Leaves
fpatulate, recurved. Stem very much branched. — Native of
Crete and Sicily, on rocks near the fea. Root annual.
Whole herb hairy and vifcid, green with a brown tint, re-
peatedly branched from the very bottom, fpreading, four
or five inches high. Leaves about an inch long, obtufe, ra-
ther flefhy* Flowers very abundant, fmall, on long, red,
hairy ftalks, from the forks, fides, and fummits of the
branches, ereft. Calyx fomewhat obovate, hairy, red, with
ten ribs. Petals role-coloured ; their limb divided nearly to
the bottom ; their creil white, in four deep awl-(haped fcg-
ments. Capful: ereft, cylindrical, opening with three
fpreading, obtufe, cloven teeth. Seeds black. That this
is S. fedoides of fignior Bivona Bernardi, in his fecond Cen-
turia Sicularum Plantarum, we haveafcertained by fpecimens
from himielf, fiixe the publication of Prodr. Fl. Grace.
But there is reafon for hefitation rcfpefting the plant of
Desfontames, which is probably VVilldenow's n. 36 ; the
former defcribes it as procumbent, with only two appendages
to C/ich petal, and the latter cites Lychnis cretica maritima
minima, psrtulaca fyhejlris folio, Tourn. Cor. 24, a fpecies
unknown to us,

Seft. 3. Stem forked, corymbofe.

S. rubella. Small-red-fiowered Catchfly. Linn. Sp.
PI. 600. Willd. n. 38. Alt. n. 43. Sm. Fl. Grsec.
Sibth. t. 426, unpubliftied. (Vifcago lufitanica, flore ru-
bello vix confpicuo ; Dill Elth. 423. t. 314. f. 406.) —
Smooth, corymbofe. Calyx obovate. Petals emarginate ;
with a rounded two-lobed creit. Upper leaves ovato-
lanceolate. Capfule thrice as long as its partial ilalk. —
Native of fields and wafte ground, in Portugal, Rhodes,
and Cyprus, flowering in fpring. Root annual. Herb
quite fmooth, of a glaucous green. Stem a foot or more
in height, branched from the bottom, leafy ; all the branches
creft. Lower leaves obovate, recurved, an inch and a half
long : upper rather Ihorter, acute, lanceolate, flightiy ovate,
recurved at the point. Flowers moltly crowded into a

vel-topped panicle, with one or two below, in the forks
A the brandies, pale red, ereft. . Calyx fcarcely more than
half an inch long, ten-ribbed, fmooth, pale, witli purple
teeth. Petals of a dull rofe-colour, fpreading, inverfely
heart-fhaped, but rather oblong ; their creft of two oblong,
rounded, entire lobes. Capfule roundifti-ovatc, on a fhoit
partial ftalk.

S. orchidea. Orchis-flowered Catchfly. Linn. Suppl.
241. WiUd. n. 46. Ait. n. 50. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
t. 427, uiipubliihed. (S. Atocion ; Jacq. Hort. Vind.
V. 3. 19. t. 32. Lychnis graeca, bellidis folio verna, flore
parvo dilute purpurafcente ; Tourn. Cor. 24. ) — Downy,
corymbofe. Calyx cylindrical-club-ftiaped. Petals four-
Uibftd ; with a (harp two-lobed creft. Upper leaves ovate.
Partial ibJk as long as the capfule. — Native of the Levant,
(towering in May. Annual, of the fize and habit of the
tall, but the herbage is of a grafs-grcen, and finely hairy
or downy, particularly the llcm, the upper part of which
IS alfo vifcid. Leaves broader, fomctimes fmooth in the

diflt, though rough-edged. Flowers crowded and Itvel-
topped. Calyx an inch long, downy, often red. Petals
rofe-coloured, four-lobcd like the lip of Orchis mililaris,
having two rounded central fegmenta, and two narrower
(harp lateral ones. The lobes of their cre/l are awl-diaped.
The creft^ is not well diftinguiflied in Jacquin's figure from
the lateral lobes.

S. Armerta. Common, or Lobel's, Catchfly. Linn.
Sp. PI. 601. Willd. n. 46. Fl. Brit. n. ic. Engl. Bot.
t. 1398. Fl. Dan. t. 559. (Mufcipula Lobelii ; Ger.
Em. 601.) — Smooth, corymbofe. Calyx cylindrical club-
fhaped. Petals emarginate ; with a ftiarp two-lobed creft.
Upper leaves heart-fhaped. Partial ftalk as long as the
capfule. — Found in fields, and on banks, in various parti
of Europe, but a doubtful native of England, though fre-
quently cultivated as a hardy ornamental annual, flowering
in fummer. Dr. Sibthorp met with this fpecies in Greece,
and on mount Athos. In habit it agrees very much with
the laft, but is fmooth, more glaucous, with broader leaves,
and the ca/)w is not downy. The /i^^/aA- are fimply obcor-
date, without lateral lobes. There is a brown glutinous
ring under each joint of the Jlem, by which flies are
caught.

S. ilalica. Italian Naked Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grsec. Sibth. n. 1006. Fl. Gixc. t. 429, unpubliftied.
Ait. n. 6. (Cucubalws italicus : Linn. Sp. PI. 591.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 686. Jacq. Obf. fafc. 4. 12. t.-97.
not 79, as in Hort. Kew. and Willd^now.) — Panicle co-
rymbofe, fpreading, fomewhat three-forked. Petals in two
deep narrow fegments, without a creft. Leaves fpatulate,
rough. — Native of Italy and Greece. Cultivated by Miller.
The root is biennial. Herb green, roughlfli w ith fhort rigid
hairs. Stem folitary, herbaceous, ereft, twelve or eighteeu
inches high, leafy, fomewhat branched above, but chiefly
at the bafe, from whence it fends out feveral, decumbent,
leafy, purplifh fhoots, three or four inches long. Lower
leaves (talked, fpatulate or obovate ; upper lanceolate ; all
thin and phant, not flefhy. Panicle creft, rather flender,
divaricated, more or lefs downy. Calyx an inch long,
(lightly fwcliing upward, with ten rough reddifti ribs.
Petals quite naked ; their limb cloven nearly to the bafe,
narrow, obtufe; white above; veined with purple under-
neath. Capfule ovate, on a long ftalk within the calyx.

S. cathotica. Paniclcd Naked Catchfly. Ait. n. 10.
(Cucubaliis catholicus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 593. Willd. Sp.

PI. v. 2. 688. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. i. 23. t. 59.)

Panicle forked, much branched, widely fpreading. Petals
in two deep narrow iegments, without a creft. Calyx obo-
vate, fmooth. Leaves ovato-lar.ceolate, nearly fmooth. —
Native of Italy and Sicily. Mentioned in Ciipani's Hortus
Catholicus, or Garden of the Prince of la Catolica, whence
came the fpecific name ; and not, as many fuppofc, from flie
plant being a native of Roman Catholic countries. The plant
is perennial, of a tall flender habit, green, fmooth, or flightiy
rough, with a large divaricated />rtn;c/.-, of numerous, fmall,
white Jlwwtrs, whofe calyx is one-third of an inch long,
often purple, obfcurely ribbed. Stamens ufually longer
than the petals. Capfule nearly globole, on a long ftalk.
We are not quite fatisfied n-fpedting yifcugo noflurna non
vifcofa, hcrbaceojiore ; Dill. Elth. 425. '..^ifi, confidcred
by Linineiis as a variety of this, but it (etnis to be S.faxa-
tilis. Ait. n. 28. Curt. Mag. t. 6H9.

S. molliffima. Velvet Naked Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grxc. Sibth. n. 1007. Ait. 11. 11. (Cucubahis mollifTi-
mus; Linn. Sp. PI. 595. Willd. Sp. PI. v. =. 6S8.) —
Panicle corymbofe, fomewhat three-forked. Petals roiiiuird,
cloven, without a creft. Stem, kaves, and calyx covered'

with

SILENE.

with foft down.— Native of the fea-coall of Italy. Ga-
thered by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor, between Smyrna
and Prufa. We regret that he had not time to have a
drawing taken of this rare and curious fpecies, of which
there is not, to our knowledge, any figure extant. Rand
mentions the plant as cultivated at Chelfea, in 1739,
and Linnaeus had it at Upfal. Thcjlem is branched, fome-
what (lirubby. Whole herbage clothed with velvet-like
pubefcence. Leaves crowded, fpatulate, an inch and a
half long, acute, (lightly revolute. Panicles denfe, level-
topped. Calyx club-(haped, ten-ribbed. Petals white or
reddifh ; their limb inverfely heart-fhaped. We find this
plant mentioned in Mr. Bonn's Cambridge catalogue, as in-
troduced in 1804. If it exills in any garden, a figure ought
to be publilhi'd

S. frulicofa. Shrubby Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 597.
Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. z6. Sm. Fl. Grjec. Sibth. t, 428,
unpublidied. (Saponaria frutefcens, acutis foliis, ex Sicilia;
Bocc. Sic. 58. t. 30. Ocymoides fruticofum ; Camer.
Hort. 109. t. 33, excellent.) — Panicle corymbofe, clofe,
fomewhat three-forked. Calyx club-(haped, rough. Petals
cloven ; crell of four teeth. Stem (hrubby. Leaves
rough-edged. — Native of rocky fituations, near the fea, in
Sicily and Cyprus. It is fuppofed, on the authority of
Parkinfon'i Paradifus 254. n. 10, to have been cultivated
here in his time. Tiie Jiem is woody, half an inch in
diameter, with numerous tufted leafy branches, whofe
ereft flowering extremities, about a fpan long, are more
diftantly furnilhed with fmaller leaves, and are downy,
vifcid, and coloured in the upper part, each bearing a denfe
level-topped panicle, of ten or fifteen X^xgejlo-wers. Leaves
recurved, fpatulate, pointed, about an inch long, evergreen,
fmooth, and (hining ; the edges only being rough with
minute, reflexed, rigid hairs. Calyx above an inch long,
ten-ribbed. Limb of each petal of a long, inverfely heart-
fhaped, form ; pink above ; veined with green beneath ;
their creft white, of two acute, fomewhat notched, prin-
cipal fegments, and two fharp teeth at the bafe. In the
Prodr, Fl. Grxc. the figure of this plant is, by miftake,
referred to S. paradoxa, which will be correAed in the
Flora itfelf.

Seft. 4. Stem panicled, fcarcely forked.

S. rigidula. Slender Rigid Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Graec. Sibth. n. 1009. Fl. Grsc. t. 430, unpubUlhed. —
Stem alternately branched, fpreading. Petals in two deep
(harpifii lobes ; each fegmcnt of their creft four-toothed.
Leaves lanceolate, fmooth. — Difcovered by Dr. Sibthorp,
on mount Hymettus, near Athens. The root is annual.
Stem ereft, a toot high, copioufly branched from the very
bottom, fpreading, flendcr, purplifh, vifcid, but, like every
other part, dellitute of pubefcence. Leaves green, narrow,
few and remote, about an inch long ; the lowermoft longer
and broader. Petals pale pink, veined with crimfon. Calyx
club-fhaped, pale green, with ten red ribs, fmooth, not an
inch long. Capfule ovate, fhorter than its flalk. A very
pretty Ipecies, whofe copious and delicate Jlowers would
be an acquifition to our gardens.

S. fpinefcens. Tliorny-branched Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grac. Sibth. loio. Fl. Graec. t. 431, unpublilhed.
— Stem Ihrubby, branche.s oppofite, horizontal, becoming
thorns. Petals deeply divided. Leaves fpatulate, downy
all over — Found by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor. The
finn is thick and woody, very denfely branched, leafy,
downy, remarkable for its numerous, long, divaricated,
lateral (hoots, which finally harden into fpines. The flower-
ing branches are ereft, a fpan high, each bearing a race-
mofe, downy panicle, of pale-green Jloiuers, veined under-

neath with brown, and, to judge by their afpeft, doubt-
lefs fragrant at night. Calyx about an inch long, green,
downy. The creft of each petal confifts of two fmall,
rounded, white lobe?. Capfule ovate, twice the length of
its ftalk.

S. gigantea. Gigantic Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 598.
Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 29. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 432.
(Lychnis grzca, fedi arborefcentis folio et facie; Walth.
Hort. 32. t. II.) — Stem ereA, downy, and vifcid. Flowers
tufted. Leaves fpatulate, villous. Petals in two rounded
lobes. Capfule nearly globular. — Native of Crete and the
iflands of the Archipelago ; Linnxus by mi(take fays of
Africa. It has long been known in our more curious
green-houfes, and is efteemed for the fweet nofturnal per-
fume of its pale green flowers. The plant, though a yard
high, and of a (hrubby afpeft, is only biennial. Radical
leaves two inches long, copious, of a broad fpatulate figure,
more or lefs villous, light green, obtule, with or without a
fmall point. Stem ftraight, vifcid ; leafy, with feveral (hort
branches, below ; (lightly branched above, but befet with
denfe, whorl-like, downy panicles, of numerous flo'-Meri.
Calyx three-quarters of an inch long, club-(haped, downy.
Limb of the petals divided more than half way, into two
broad rounded lobes, veined beneath with purple ; their
creft cloven, very (hort. Capfule twice as long as its
ftalk.

S. congifla. Tufted Green Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grsc. Sibth. n. 1012. — Stem fomewhat branched. Pani-
cles terminal, denfe, many-flowered. Petals deeply divided,
without a creit. Leaves fpatulate, downy. — Gathered by
Dr. Sibthorp in Greece ; we believe on hills near Athens.
The root is woody, evidently perennial, bearing many tufts
of copious, fpatulate, obtufe, green leaves, an inch and a
half long, clothed, like the reft of the herbage, with denfe,
very (hort, pubefcence. Stems ereft, from nine mches to
two feet high, fcarcely leafy, bearing a few alternate
branches, fomewhat vifcid at the top, where each termi-
nates in a denfe tufted panicle of greeni(h jloiuers, whofe
calyx is half an inch long, obovate, or club-(haped, and
whofe petals are cloven into two rounded lobes, without
any creft. This fpecies, of which we have no figure, is in
fome points allied to the laft, but more akin, on the whole,
to the following.

S. viridijlora. Panicled Green Catchfly. Linn. Sp.
PI. 597. Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 31. (Lychnis ocymaftri
folio, flore viridi ; Herm. Parad 199, with a plate.) —
Stem branched. Panicles elongated, loofe, drooping, many-
flowered. Petals divided half way ; their creft of two
linear lobes. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute, downy. —
Native of Portugal and Spain. The root is faid, in Hort.
Kew. to be biennial, though Hermann calls it perennial.
Stem one and a half or two feet high, ending in a long loofe
panicle of dro«)ping green Jloiuers. Leaves two or three
inches long, rough, like the reft of the herbage, with ex-
tremely minute tubercle;, and more or lefs of (hort hoary
hairs. Flowers like the laft, but fomewhat larger, and
furniflied with a crown, of which we can perceive no traces
in S. congtjla.

S. nutans. Nottingham Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 596.
Willd. n. II. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 465. Fl.
D.in. t. 242. (Lychnis fylveftris alba nona Clufii ; Ger.
Em. 470.) — Flower-ftalks panicled, drooping one way.
Petals in two deep hnear fegments ; their creft of two acute

lobes. Leaves lanceolate, downy Native of dry lime-

ftone paltures or rocks, in various parts of Europe, flower-
ing in June and July. It was firft, in this kingdom, ob-
ferved at Nottingham caftle, but grows alio at Dover, and
1 1 various

SILENE.

various other places. The root is perennial, rather woody.
Stems feveral, herbaceous, ereft, a foot or more in height,
downy ; leafy below ; racemofe, in the firft inltance, above,
the flower-branches fhortifh, turned to one fide, downy
and vifcid, panicled, or imperfectly foriied, each of tliree
or four drooping vilnte Jlo-wers, which expand in an evening.
Calyx obovatc, near three-quarters of an inch long, ten-
ribbed, fliglitly downy. The loweft. kavts are fpatulate,
on long Italics.

S. paradoxa. Soap-wort Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 1673.
Wilid. n. 13. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 45. t. 84. (Lychnis
vifcofa peregrins noftiflora odorata ; Zanon. Id. 126. t. 50.)
— Panicle racemofe. Petals inverfely heart-fliaped ; their
creft of two acute lobes. Calyx downy Leaves obovato-
lanceolate, fmooth. — Native of the fouth of Europe. Miller
cultivated it for the Dover Catchfly, fo that it requires a
place in the Hortus Ktiven/is, though erroneoufly admitted
into Fl. Brit. 467, as is explained at' 1397 of the fame
work. , What the older botanifts found at Dover, and which
may be (een in Petiver's and Buddie's colleftions in the
Britifli Mufeum, is ftill an undetermined plant. We greatly
fufped, after all the confufion that has attended it, that this
Dover Catchfly may be, as Mr. Hudfon made it, the true
Cucubalvs vifcofus of Linnsus, (fee our next fpccies but one,)
a Swedilh Silene, for which Tournefort's Lychnis orientalis
waxima, buglnJflfoKu undulato, figured in his Voyage, v. 2. 148,
is erroneoufly quoted. Botanills of late have found nothing
at Dover but Silene nutans, varying in fize and hairinefs.
The true S. paradoxa is a nearly fmooth plant, not very un-
like Snponaria rjfficinalis in flowers, but more flender in habit.
The lower leaves are inclining to fpatulate ; the upper are
linear-lanceplate. Calyx above an inch long, downy. Petals
large, pale red.

S. longijlora. Long-fmooth-flowercd Catchfly. Ehrh.
Beitr. V. 7. 144. PI. Seleft. n. 75. Willd. n. 16. Ait.
n. 27. " Waldit. et Kitaib. Hung. v. 1. 1. 8." (S. juncea ;
Roth Catal. V. i. 54. Lychnis p'-a;longis foliis et calyce ;
Barrel. Ic. 63. t. 382.) — Panicle flender, racemofe. Petals
in two deep, rounded, divaricated fegments ; their creft of
two acute lobes. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth, as well
as the flightly ribbed calyx. — Barrelier fays this plant grows
in dry ftony fituations in Tufcany. There can be no dovibt
as to his fynonym, though entirely overlooked by the
German writers, who mention Hungary as the country of
their plant. This is a tall, flender, elegant, perennial fpecics,
quite fmooth, with a purple tinge on x\\z Jlem and caly^.
The latter is above an inch long, flender, nearly cylindrical,
with ten obfolete ribs ; its furfacc even and poliflied, with-
out any pubefccnce. Claws of the petals longer than the
calyx ; their limb white, tinged externally with red. Leaves
three or fo\u- inches long, half an inch broad, flightly glau-
cous ; the radical ones numerous, on long ftalks. This fpecies
bears a confiderablc afiinity to S. paradoxa, but the long
racemofe panicle, and fmooth even calyx, aflbrd clear marks
of diftinftion.

S. infcofa. Clammy Hairy Catchfly. Ait. n. 3. (Cncu-
balus vifcrtfus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 593. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 148.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 685. Lychnis montana vifcofa nodti-
fiora hirluta latifolia alba, floribus ablque appcndicibus ;
Till. Pif. 105?) — Panicle fimply raccmole, hairy. Flowers
oppofite, longer than their llalks, drooping every way,
without a crell. Stem Ample, leafy. Lower leaves lanceo-
late, even, nearly fmooth ; upper downy, vifcid ; dilated
and reflexed at the bafe. — Native of Scania and Finland,
where it was gathered by Linnncus ; and perhaps of Tuf-
cany ; as well as of our cliffs at Dover ; fee the lad fpecics
but one. The Finland fpccimen, in the Linnxan iicrbarium,
Vol. XXXn.

is a foot high, with a rather flout, round, unbranched_^^m,
leafy throughout, molt downy and vifcid in the upper part.
Linn;eus fays the root is biennial. The three or four pair
of lower haves are two or three inches long, pointed, quite
even and entire at the margin, nearly fmooth, half or
three-quarters of an irch wide ; as many pair above them are
gradually fliorter, taper-pointed, even, icarcely wavy, both
their furfaces vifcid and denfely downy, their bafe greatly
dilated, ovate, or almofl heart-lhaped, clafping the ftcm.
The folitary fimple panicle, or rather clujler, about five
inches long, confilts ot eight er ten pair of oppofite folitary
Jloiuers, on fliort fimple^j/Zj, accompanied by fmall hcart-
fhaped hradeas, altogetlier very hairy, and apparently vifcid,
as Linnxus defcribes them. He fays \.\\e Jloivers are white,
fragrant at night, and do not turn to one fide, but droop in
all directions. Calyx hardly an inch long, cyhndrical, hairy,
pale, with ten green ribs. Petals in two rather deep, fome-
what rounded, fegments, without a crell. Capfule ovate,
on a ftiortifli ftalk. V/e do not undcrdand why Linnaeus
dcfcribes ihiijlalks as three-flowered. We have no means of
knowing whether this plant was cultivated by Miller io
'739' ^^' '^y ^'^ having fent S. paradoxa to Linnseus for
the Dover Catchfly, it is moll probable that neither our
vifcofa, nor Tournefort's fpecies next defcribed, was ever in
the Englifli gardens.

5. buglojjifolia. Buglofs-leaved Catchfly. (Lychnis orien-
talis maxima, bugloffi folio undulato ; Tourn. Cor. 23.
Voy. V. 2. 148, with a figure.) — Panicle fimply racemofe,
hairy. Flowers oppofite, much longer than their llalks,
ereft, without a crell. Stem fimple, leafy. Leaves undu-
lated, hairy ; the upper ones lanceolate. — Gathered by
Tournefort at the foot of mount Ararat, flowering in the
middle of Augult. By his dofcription the root fliould fcem
perennial, as being divided at the crown into feveral parts.
Stems feveral, a yard high, Itraight, firm, hollow, leafy,
hairv and clammy, four lines in diameter. Lower Laves
about five inches long, and one broad, ovato-lanccolate,
acute, wavy and crifped at the edges, hairy, with a ftrong
mid-rib and many veins ; upper gradually fmallcr and nar-
rower ; the hraHcas linear-lanceolate, mollly equal in length
to the calyx, vvhich is cylindrical, an inch long. Petals
white, cut half way down, or more, into two rounded lobes,
and apparently deltitute of a creil ; but Tournefort leaves
that important circumllancc unnoticed, while he minutely
dcfcribes the green germen, and white Jlyles. His plant,
though referred by all authors to the preceding, is unquef-
tionably diiluift. We have compared fpecimens.

S. amoena. Tartarian Catchfly. IJiin. Sp. I'l. 596, ex-
cluding all the fynonyms, except Hort. Dpi. 114. n. ii.
Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 25. (S. procumbens ; Murray
Comm. Gotting. v. 7. 81. I. 2 ?) — Panicle turned one way ;
the branches fomewhat forked, hairy. Petals cloven h.-df
way down ; their crells converging. Stem decumbent, al-
ternately branched. Leaves lanceolate, nearly fmooth. —
Native of Tartary and Siberia. We doubt whether this
fpecies has ever been cultivated in England, the plant of
Mr. Blaekburne's catalogue, in 1779, liaving doubtlefs been
our 5. marilinia, then univerfally taken for amoena. The
latter is a fprcading, branching, leafy, pen-nnial fpecics,
with green leaves, an inch or two long, i>f which the upper
ones are minutely downy. The panicle is two or three inches
long, denfe, with leafy lanceolate iraSitis. Calyx pale green,
with ten purplifli ribs, obovatc, finely liairy, rather more
than half an inch long. Petals white.

S.reslj. Splendid Catchfly. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1724.
— Panide ered, downy and vifcid. Petals lanceolate, undi-
vided, their crell of two acute lobes. Calyx angular,
4 U downy.

SILENE.

downy. Leaves ovato-lanceolate. — Found by Mr. Nuttal,
growing wild, in great abundance, in the neighbourhood of
St. Louis, on the Miffifippi, North America, from whence
feeds were communicated to A. B. Lambert, efq. who raifed
this fine plant in his garden at Boyton, Wilts. The Jem is
two or three feet high, fomewhat angular. Herbage green,
finely downy and vifcid ; at leall in the upper part. Panicle
raceniofe, partly forked, compofed of about a dozen large
Jlotvers, confpicuous for the vivid fcarlet of their long lanceo-
late/f/a/r, /amfnj, wAJlyles. The calyx is above an inch
in length, angular, ten-ribbed, (lightly fwelling upwards.
The petals are faid to be fometinics emarginate. We guefs
at their erejl from the figure cited, which is not fufficiently
explicit on this important point.

S. Otites. Spanifh Catchfl}'. Fl. Brit. n. 7. Ait. n. 12.
Prodr. Fl. Grsc. n. 1014. (Cucubalus Otites; Linn. Sp.
PI. 594. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 6S8. Engl. Bot. t. 85. Fl.
Dan. t. 518. Sefamoides falamanticum magnum; Ger.
Em. 493.) — Panicle erect, much branched, tufted. Flowers
dioecious. Petals hnear, undivided, without acred. Leaves
fpatulate, rough. — Native of dry gravelly open paftures
throughout Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. In
England it chiefly occurs in the elevated champaign country
of Cambridgefliire, Suffolk, and fome parts of Norfolk,
where its green panicles may eafily be confounded with thofe
of the accompanying grafles. The >-oot is woody and peren-
nial. Stems ereft, two feet high, flightly leafy, very vifcid
in the middle part of their upper joints. Leaves copious
about the root, about an inch in length, on very lung (talks ;
in Britifh fpecimens they are fpatulate, clothed with minute
curved pubefcence ; in Greek ones obovate, with longer
hairs. The whole plant indeed varies greatly as to luxu-
riance, but we cannot difcern a fpecific difference. Flowers
fmall, with narrow pale yellow /■cteZf, and a purplifh calyx.
Thtjlamens are ufually imperfcft, or obliterated, in all the
flowers of one root, and the pjjlils in thofe of another ; but
occafionally both are perfedl in the fame. Capfule feffile,
hardly bigger than a grain of wheat, fplitting into fix
teeth.

S. lini/olia. Flax-leaved Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsc.
Sibth. n. 1015. Fl. Grsec. t. 433, unpubliflied. — Stems pani-
eled at the top. Flowers ereft. Petals in two deep rounded
lobes ; their creft two-lobed, blunt. Leaves linear-laiKco-
late, rough. — Found by Dr. Sibthorp on mount Parnaffus.
The root is perennial, thick, woody, yellowifh within, much
divided at the fummit. Stems numerous, about a foot high,
ereft, clofe, leafy, roughifh, quite fimple, except in the
flowering part, very vifcid between feveral of the upper
joints. Leaves numerous, narrow, acute, above an inch
long, minutely rough, of a glaucous green. Floiuers ereft,
in clofe, irregular, (lender panicles. Calyx green, fmooth,
not quite an inch in length, ten-ribbed. Limb of the petals
flefli-coloured above ; greenifh, with purple veins, beneath.
Capfule on a ilalk as long as itfelf. Theiejlowers, and thofe
of the following, are probably fragrant at night.

S. Jlaticlfolia. Thrift-leaved Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grac. Sibth. n. 1016. Fl.Grasc. t.434, unpublilhed. — Pani-
cle racemofe, fimple, clofe. Flowers ered. Petals in two deep
rounded lobes ; their creft two-lobed, blunt. Leaves hnear-
fpatulatc, acute, very fmooth. Capfule fllorter than its
ftalk. — Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in Greece. — The root
appears to be perennial, and fomewhat creeping. Stem
folitary, a foot high, flightly leafy, fmooth, hke every other
part of the plant; the middle of its upper joint, below the
inflorefcence, vifcid. Radical leaves numerous, (talked,
narrow, glaucous, two inches long, including the ftalks.
flowers few. Calyx club-fhaped, an inch and a quarter

long, fmooth, with ten purple ribs. Limb of the pelah
inflexed ; white above ; cinnamon-coloured beneath, Tlie
ftali fupporting all the parts of the flower, within the calyx,
is remarkable for its length, which nearly equals the petals,
and exceeds the ripe capfule.

Seft. 5. Stems fingle-jlo'wered.

S. auriculata. Auricled Mountain Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. GrsEC. Sibth. n. 1017. Fl. Grsc. t. 435, unpubliflied.
— Stems fingle-flowered. Leaves lanceolate, fringed. Calyx
bell-fliaped, downy. Petals cloven, auricled on each fide
at the bafe. — Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the precipices
of mount Delphi, in Negropont. The perennial root runs
deep into the earth, and is crowned by numerous, denfe,
rofe-like tufts, of bright green, ovato-lanceolate, (harp-
pointed leaves, an inch long ; fmooth above ; their carti-
laginous edges fringed with white hairs. Stems folitary,
ered, fimple, downy and vifcid, a finger's length, bearing
two or three diltant pairs of fmaller leaves. Flowers ereft,
the fize of 5. maritima. Calyx fwelling upwards ; its veins
and fegments purplilh. Limb of ihe petals deflexed, in two
rather deep, oblong, rounded fegments, furnifhed at tlie
bafe with two very peculiar lateral appendages ; their crell
of two fpreading lobes ; their upper fide white, tipped with
pale purple ; the under reticulated with purple veins. Cap-
fule ovate, nearly thrice the length of its ftalk.

S.falcata. Sickle-leaved Mountain Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fi. Grjec. Sibth. n. 1018. Fl. Grxc. t. 436, unpublifhed. —
Stems fingle-flowered. Leaves awl-fhaped, curved, hairy.
Calyx club-fhaped. Petals cloven ; their claws wedge-
fhaped. — Gsthered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the fummit of the
Bithynian Olympus. An elegant and remarkable fpecies.
The long perennial root refembles the laft, except in being
of a whiter colour. Stems very (hort, tufted, decumbent.
Leaves crowded, fickle-(haped, about an inch long, rigid,
rough with vifcid hairs, three-ribbed, permanent, turning
white with age. Stems afcending, a finger's length, purplifh,
hairy and vifcid, flightly leafy. Flonvers ereft, cream-
coloured, with a flcnder, rough, blood-red calyx, above an
inch long. The Jlalk, bearing the parts of the flower within,
is nearly equal to the calyx itfelf, and much longer than the
ripe capfule. Petals with broad claws, dilated upward, and
a creft of two bluntifh lobes. Germen brownifh below, with
two crimfon bands ; green above.

S. Pumilio. Dwarf Mountain Catchfly or Campion.
Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 126. t. 10. Jacq. Auftr. ap-
pend. 26. t. 2. Willd. n. 55. (Cucubalus Pumilio ; Linn.
Mant. 71. Carj-ophyllus fylveftris oftavus ; Cluf. Kift.
V. I. 285. C. montanus Clufii ; Ger. Em. 593. Betonica
coronaria ; Bauh. Hill. v. 3. ^37.) — Stems fingle-flowered.
Radical leaves Imear-lanceolate, fmooth. Calyx nearly cy-
lindrical, hairy. Petals undivided ; their creft briftle-fhaped.
— Native of the mountains of Carinthia, Moravia, and
Italy, in a micaceous foil. A very handfome fpecies. The
root is perennial, crowned with denfe tufts of graffy, or
thrift-like, rather fucculent leaves, about an inch long;
among which are feveral, folitary, partly decumbent, fimple
Jems, about twice that length, bearing a pair or two of
fmaller fringed leaves. The Jlo-zvers are very large in pro-
portion, rofe-coloured, and, according to Arduino, who
fent fpecimens to Linnseus, very fragrant, though Clufius
and Wulfen defcribe them as without fcent. The calyx is
an inch long, flightly bell-fhaped, reddifh, denfely clothed
with foft whitifh hairs. Limb of the petals rounded, wavy,
but not lobed ; their creft, overlooked by Arduino, of two
ereft flender crimfon teeth, growing pale as the flower fades.
Girmen nearly or quite feffile.

S. acaulis. Mofs Campion, or Catchfly. Linn, Sp.

PI.

S I L

S I L

PI. 603. Willd. n. 56. Fl. Brit. n. 11. Engl. Bot.
t. 1081. Lightf. 227. t. 12. f. I. Fl. Dan. t. 21. Al-
lien. Pedem. v. 2. 83. t. 79. f. i. (S. e.xfcapa ; ibid,
t. 79. f. 2. S. elorigata ; Bellardi Append, ad Fl. Pe-
dem. 23. Cucubalus acaulis ; Hudf. 187. Lychnis alpiiia
.pumila, folio graminco ; Bauh. Pin. 206. Dill. Elth. 206,
with a plate. Caryophyllus Pumilio alpinus ; Ger. Em.
593. Ocimoidc mofcofo alpino ; Pon. Bald. 199.) — Stems
very fiiort. Leaves linear, fmooth ; fringed at the bafe.
Stalks folitary, lingle-flowered, naked. Calyx imooth.
Petals flightly emarginate ; their creib minute, cloven. —
Native of the hij;hcll mountains of Lapland, Scotland,
Wales, Auftria, Switzerland, France, and Italy, flowering
in June and July. The perennial roots bear mimcrous,
denfe, mofs-likc tufts, of fliort leafy Jlems, fo that the
name acaulis is not itriftly correft, when applied to this
and fome other alpine plants. Linnxus was doubtlefs aware
of this, and ufed fuch an cxprcffion merely to contrail the
plants in queftion with other evidently caiilefcent fpecies of
their own genus. The leaves are bright green, crowded,
fpreading, meafuring from half an inch to an inch. Floiver-
Jlalks folitary, fimple, (lender, naked, fmooth, very various
in length, whence AUioni and Bellardi have exalted fome
trifling varieties to the rank of fpecies. Floivers pink, with
a violet calyx, much fmaller than in the preceding, but very
elegant. The crejl is fometimes fo fmall as to be eafily
overlooked. Capfule ovate, nearly feffile in its calyx.

We are perfuaded that the capfule of this whole genus has
properly fix valves, or teeth, and that five are never jullly
attributed to it. We have not indeed had an opportunity
of inveftigating every fpecies, and even the accurate delinea-
tor of the Flora Grieca having moll generally exhibited only
five of thefe parts, we cannot but hefitate, though on ex-
amining many fpecimens from which he made his drawings,
we find fix. A fimilar inaccuracy has crept into the hillory
of the neighbouring genus ylrenaria, upon which we may
take fome other opportunity of commenting.

SiLENE, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy
herbaceous, and of the annual and perennial kinds, of which
the fpecies cultivated are, the common or Lobel's catchfly
(S.armeria); the variegated catchfly (S. quinquevulnera) ;
the pendulous catchfly (S. pcndula); the Spanirtl catchfly
(S. mufcipula) ; the green-flowered catchfly (S. viridiflora);
the Nottingham catchfly (S. nutans); and the flirubby
catchfly (S. fruticofa).

In the firll fort there are varieties with a bright purple
flower, with a pale red, and with a white flower.

Method of Culture. — The annual and biennial forts may
be raifed by feeds, which fliould be 'own in the fpring or
autumn fcafona, where tlie plants are to grow ; but the
latter is the better time. Some fow at both feafoiis, which
may be a good praftice. The feed fliould be put in in
patches in the borders, clumps, &c. When the plants are
up, they fliould be thi[ined to two or three plants in each
clump, and be kept clean from weeds. With the biennial
forts it is fometimes the prafticc to fow them in beds ; and
when the plants are up, to remove them into nurlery-rows
till the autumn, when they are planted out in the bor-
ders, &c.

And the perennial forts may likewife be increafcd from
feeds, in the fame manner ; but the ufual way is by flips of
the heads, and parting the roots, planting them out in (hady
places, in the fpring or early fnminer months. The flirubby
lurt may be incrcaicd by flips and cuttings of the branches
or flioots, which fliould be jilantcu out in fimilar fituations,
in the fpring and lummcr feafuns.

They all afford ornament and variety in the clumpi and
borders of pleafure-grounds.

SILENI, in ^Indent Geography, a people of India,
placed by Pliny in the vicinity of the river Indus.

SiLKN'l, in yinliquily, a fort of heathen demigods, the
fame with fatyrs, which were called Sileni when they came
to be advanced in age.

Yet was there one principal Silenus, elder than any of the
rell. Diod. Siculus fays, he was the mailer or tutor of
Bacchus, whom he difciplined nobly, and followed him to
the wars. He quotes an ar.cient poet, named Thymoctas,
who relates, that the Sileni aflilled Bacchus in the war he
waged againft the Titans ; adding, that the firft Silenus
reigned in an ifland made by the river Triton, in Lybia.

He is reprefented as having a long tail hanging behind,
which is likewife an attribute of all his pollcrity. The
poets always mount him on an als, always drunk, and
hardly able to fupport himfelf; " titubantem annifque
meroque," as Ovid (Met. 1. v.) fpeaks. Upon all the an-
tiques that reprefent him, he has the air of a drunken man
dozing over his wine ; and wiien Virgil, in one of his
Eclogues, defcribes him, it is like a man gorged with wine
as ufual :

" Inflatum hefterno venas ut femper faccho."

Ancient authors, however, who are very worthy of
credit, exprefs more favourable fentiments of him. Silenus,
according to their account, was a profound philofopher,
whofe wildom was equal to his knowledge ; and the drun-
kennefs fo often mentioned was merely myltical, fignifying
that he was profoundly immerfed in fpeculation. Cicero,
Plutarch, and many others, had formed the fame idea of
Silenu.'(, and always regarded him as a very ingenious man,
and a great philofopher. Accordingly Virgil, in his fecond
eclogue, puts into his mouth the principles ot the Epicurean
philofophy, about the formation of the world, and the
beings that compofe it :

" Namque cancbat uti," Sec.

Midas, having heard of the extraordinary talents of Si-
lenus, wiflied for an opportunity of converfing with him.
Silenus, who rambled about the country upon his afs, fre-
quently repofcd near a fountain, which Midas fnpplied with
wine ; and here Midas found him, and treated ium with great
refpeft. In confequence of this intercourfe, Midas availed
himfelf of the couniels of Silenus, in founding his laws and
rehgious ceremonies. See MlDAs.

A pafiage in Diogenes Laertius is faid to explain the
fable of Silenus's riding on an afs ; for in comparing Arif-
totle to Silenus, he lays, the firll was always on horfeback,
and the fecond rode upon an afs : the meaning of which is,
that he made only flow, but furc, advances in philofophy ;
whereas the other moved at a quick pace, and now and then
made a trip. The fable of the als's ears, according to Ter-
tullian (1. ii. de Anima), informs us, that he was endued
with great intelhgcncc. Voflius (dc Idol. 1. li.) explains
that of the fountain of wine, by faying that it fignified only
the dcfire that Midas had to get Silenus into his poflellion,
who, accordnig to him, was king of Caria, and adtially
became a gre.nt friend to Silenus. He ii reprefented as dil-
tinguiflied for his (kill in mufic. He is faid, not only to
have invented mufical inllruments, but to have had the
courage, like Marfyas, to challenge even Apollo himlclf to
a triaf of flcill. Herodotus, fpeaking of M.u f)-i«, calls him
Silenus, 1. vii. c. 26.

Nonnu3 makes Silenus a fon of Tillus ; and gives him
4 U 2 l'"f«

S I L

S I L

three fons, Aftrseus, Maron, and Lenafus. Servius, on
Virgil's Eclogue, makes Silenus the fon of Mercury ;
others, the fon of Pan and a nymph ; others will have him
born of the drops of the blood of Coelus, the father of
Saturn.

^lian (Var. Hift. 1. iii. c. 12.) alleges that Silenus was
born of a nymph, and that though he was not -of the number
of the gods, he was, however, of a nature fuperior to that
of man. Silenus is faid to have been born at Malea, or at
leaft bi-ought up there, according to the teftimony of Pindar,
who thus fpeaks : " Silenus, that incomparable dancer,
when a citizen of Malea, the happy fpoufe of fair Nais had
the good fortune to educate." Lucian defcribes Silenus as
of a middle fize, fat and plump ; and thus he is reprefented
upon medals, and other monuments now remaining.

Bochart, in his " Canaan," will have Silenus to take his
name from n'7JJ'> "r ib'K'' •^'//o, the name of the Mefliah,
whence T'^'ii'i Si/an. He alfo adds, that all that is attri-
buted to this imaginary deity is taken from vthat the pro-
phets have foretold of Jefus Chrift. Thus, whereas it is
(aid, the Mefliah fhall be the inttruftor of the people ; Si-
lenus is made the preceptor of Bacchus. Becaufe it was
faid, that our Saviour (hould bind his afs to the vine, and
his colt to the young vine ; Silenus is made to ride on an
afs. Becaufe our Saviour wafiied his garments in blood, as
thofe that trod the wine-prefs ; Silenus was made to prefide
orer thofe who prefTed the vintage. Becaufe it is added,
his eyes were red by reafon of wine ; Silenus was made al-
ways fuddled. Bochart, however, advances all this with a
great deal of diftruft, as he has reafon, it having no warrant.
He adds, that the devil invented the fable of Silenus, to
turn the myiteries of our religion into ridicule. But the
fenfe which he has given to the words, rubent oculi ex vino,
y Jentes ejus ex lade albefcunt, is very forced and unnatural ;
as if the words fignified any thing more, in the propriety of
the Hebrew tongue, than, his eyes are redder than wine,
his teeth whiter than milk. We may add, that nobody,
before Bochart, neither Chriftian nor idolator, ever faw any
thing of Jefus Chrilt in the fable of Silenus.

Silenus was worfhipped after his death as a demigod, and
received the honours due to heroes, independently even of
Bacchus. Thus Paufanias fpeaks (in Eliac), who, men-
tioning the temple which Silenus had in Elis, exprefles him-
felf in thefe words : <' There you will likewife fee a temple
of Silenus, but a temple which is appropriated and peculiar
to himfelf, while Bacchus has no fhare in the honour of it."

SILENTIARY, Silentiarius, an officer among the
ancient Roman flaves ; being, according to fome authors, a
(lave placed over the reft, to prevent any noife and uproar,
and to keep them filent.

Seneca, in his Epillles, mentioning the great care taken
to keep the flaves mute, has given occafion to Lipfius,
Pompa, and fome others, to fuppofe, that the filentiary
was eftablilhed in his time : but others, as Pignorius, think
no fuch conclufion can be drawn from Seneca's words ; nor
any thing, but that they were, even then, very fevere in
preventing any noife zmong the flaves. As to the name
and office of the filentiary, it was not eftabhflied till about
the time of Salvian, who is the firft: author that men-
tions it.

There were alfo filentiarii eftabliflied in the emperor's
court, called quletts mtnlftri, and fikntiarli palatti ; and
honoured with the farther titles of clarijmi, fpeBablles, de-
votiffimi, and in Greek Saujuao-iiuTaToi, q. d. mojl admirable.

There were a great number of thefe ; but only thirty
ordinarily officiated, who were divided into three bands,

each of which had its decurio; The council of Chalcedoa
call the body of filentiaries, fchola devolijjimorum Jtlentia-
riorum.

SILER, in Botany, a Latin nan^e in Virgil, fuppofed
to belong to fome flender kind of willow, or ofier. It is
ufed vaguely, by the earlier botanifts, for different umbel-
liferous plants, and retained by Girtner, after Rivinus, for
Laferpitium trilobum and aquilegifolium, which thofe writers
place in a genus by themfelves. Linna;us ufes the above
word, as the fpecific appellation of another Laserpitium.
See that article.

SILESIA, Duchy of, in Geography, a country of Eu-
rope, bounded on the N. by the marquilate of Brandenburg,
on the E. by the duchy of Warlaw and Auftrian Poland,
on the S. by Hungary, from which it is feparated by a
chain of mountains, and a wildernefs or thicket, about four
miles broad, and on the W. by Moravia, Lufatia, and Bo-
hernia. To the W. and 8. Silefia is environed by a chain of
hills, being with refpeA to extent and height fome of the
mod remarkable in all Europe. (See Sudetic C^a;n.) For
other mountains of Silefia, and their produftions, fee Prus-
sia. In the mountains of this province, and in that pan of it
that lies towards Moravia and Hungary, the winter is earlier
and of longer continuance, and much more fevere, than in
the more level territories. During thofe months, in which
at the foot of the Riefengebirge and the Gefenk every thing
is covered with ice and fnow, the trees at Breflau are in
full verdure even in winter. The fandy parts of the prin-
cipality of Glogau, and beyond the Oder, towards Poland,
with the mountainous trafts, which are of confiderable ex-
tent, produce but little, nor is their grain fufficient for the .
confumption of the inhabitants. But this deficiency is com-
penfated, in favourable feafons, by the fertility of the other
and larger part of Silefia, which, befides wheat, rj-e, barley,
and oats, yields likewife maize or Turkey-wheat, fpelt,
buck-wheat, millet, linfeed, peafe, and beans. The cu«
linary vegetables about Breflau, Brieg, Neifle, Franken-
ftein, and Lignitz, are excellent : and the vicinity of Grun-
berg and Lower Beuthen affords plenty of fine fruits.
Thofe fpots that are not fit for tillage afford good pafture-
grounds, or are covered with wood. Of flax there is abun-
dance, but hemp in lefs plenty, which is fupplied by im-
portation from Hungary and Poland. Hops principally
abound near Munfterberg. Madder forms one of the
principal articles of export. A yellow dye, called y^-Aar/c, it
plentiful ; nor is this country deficient in tobacco planta-
tions ; but its faffron is of an indifferent quality. The wine
of the country is good, more efpecially after it has been kept
for fome years in the cellar. In the mountains and Upper
Silefia, tar, pitch, and refin, are made from the pine and fir,
and the larch.tree produces turpentine. From thefe re-
finous trees, and the trunks of the coarfer pines, the inha-
bitants of the mountains make a lamp-black. Terra figillata
is found in many places, and particularly near Strigau ; but it
is ufed not as an article of the materia medica, but principally
in the manufacture of earthenware. Cattle are reared
merely for the plough, and for the necefl'ary fupply of milk,
butter, and cheefe ; but the markets are furnifhed, particu-
larly with oxen, from Poland and Hungary. The moll noted
markets are thofe of Brieg, Breflau, and Schweidnitz. Al-
though the fluds in this country afford many fine and ftout
horfes, the number is not fufficient : and therefore, befides
thofe that are purchafed at Frankfort fair, great numbers are
brought hither from Lithuania. The inhabitants of the
hilly diftrifts keep goats, and chcele in great quantity is
made from their milk. The breed of (beep it confiderable

and

S 1 L

S I L

»nd lucrative, on account of the excellent quality of their
wool. The wild beads of this country, whofe fl<ins are
▼aluable, are lynxes, foxcG, weafcls, otters, and beavers.
The Oder furnifhes falmoii and Iturgeon, (Ivate, lampreys,
&c. The other rivers, as well as the lakes and ponds,
abound in various kinds of fi(h, fuch as pike, carp, trout,
mullets, &c. Bees are bred for a lupply of wax and honey,
but their commodities are not in fufficient quantity to fuper-
lede the neceffity of importation from Poland. Silk is in
a ftate of increafing cultivation. The principal manufac-
tures of Silefia are thofe of thread, twine, linen, flax, and
damallv. The chief exports are madder, mill-Hones, thread,
yarn, linen, wool, and woollen cloth, together with ituffs and
paper. Under the dominion of the king of Pruflia the com-
merce of Silelia has been confiderably improved.

The prevalent religion in Silefia, as well as in Pruflia, is
the Proteftant ; and the bifhoprics here, as well as in Poland,
retain their ancient limits, while the power of the prelates is
much abridged.

The manners and cuRoms of the inhabitants of this pro-
vince refemble thofe of their neighbmirs the Bohemians ;
but thofe of both thefe races have been fo much melted
down into that of the Germans, that the peculiar features
are minute and unimportant. Silefia lias fome pretenfions to
literary fame. The capital of Silefia is Breflau ; befidcs
which there are only three towns which contain more than
600 inhabitants, viz. Glogau, Hirfchberg, and Schweidnitz.
For other particulars, fee Prussia.

Silefia affords few materials for hiftory. Its ancient in-
habitants were the Lygii and Quadi ; but about the middle of
the fixth century, the Slavi having overrun the country of the
latter, a part of it was annexed to Poland, and called " ZIc-
zia." Under the Polifh fovereigns, Silefia received the Po-
lifh language, manners, and ufages, with the Chriftian reli-
gion. After having been a Slavonic province of the Polifh
dominion, it was feized, in the 14th century, by John of
Luxemburg, king of Bohemia (February, 1339), and pafTed
with that fovereignty to the houfe of Auftria. On the
death of the emperor Charles VI. in 1740, Frederick II.
king of Priiflla, laid claim to the principalities of Lignitz,
Brieg, and Wohlau ; and his claims were fo effeftually fup-
ported by the march of an army into Silefia, that Maria
Therefa, daughter and heirefs of the emperor Charles VI.
and queen of Hungary and Bohemia, by a preliminary treaty
at Breflau, which was foon followed by a ratification of the
fame at the peace of Berlin, did, on behalf of herfelf, her
heirs and fucceflbrs, of both fexcs, for ever cede to the king
of PrufTia, and his heirs and fucceflbrs, of both fexes, with
entire fovereignty and independency of the crown of Bo-
hemia, the countries of Upper and Lower Silefia, together
with the diftria of Katfcher, formerly belonging to Mo-
ravia, as alfo the county of Glatz ; rcferving, however, to
herfelf the principality of Tefchcn, with the lordlhips an-
nexed thereto, the part of the principalities of Troppau and
Jagerndorf, beyond the Oppa, the part of tiic principality
of Neifl'e bordering on Moravia, and a fmall diltrift belong-
ing to Moravia, with fome frontier towns. Silefia was never
immediately connefted with the empire, having at no time
been an imperial fief, nor obtained a feat or vote in the diet.
Neither has it been ever fubjeft to the fupreme tribunals of
the empire, fo that here the imperial laws are of no force.
This event happened in 1742. The king of Prullia having
obtained the greater part of this country with entire fove-
reignty, and abfolutely independent of the crown of Bohe-
mia, governs it accordingly, as a flate abfolutely free and
diverted of the leaft conneftion with the empire : but in tiie
year 1751, the empire becoming a guarantee to liiiPrulfian

majefty for the fecure pofTefTion of the duchy of Silefia, a pro-
vilo was made for its rights confequential to fuch an engage-
ment. Ever fincc the clofe of the twelfth century, Silefia ha»
been divided into the Upper and Lower, and this divifion if
flill in ufe. Lower Silefia contains thirteen principalities,
the names of which are as follow ; vik. Breflau, Brieg,
Glogau, .lauer. Lignitz, Munllerbcrg, Glatz, Neifle, Oels,
Sagan, Schweidnitz, Wohlau, Trachenberg, and Carolath ;
the free flandefheirfchafts or lordfliips of Wartenberg, Mi-
htfch, and Gofchutz ; and many minderlierrfchaften or in-
ferior loidfiiips. To Upper Silefia belong the fix princi-
palities of Telchen, Troppau, Jagerndorf, Oppeln, Ratibor,
and Bilitz, the free ftandeflicrrfchalts of Plefz and Beuthen,
and certain niinderhcrrfchafts. At preient under two fove-
reigns, the capital divifious mult ntceflarily be into that of
PrulFian and Bohemian. Breflau is the capital of Pruflian
Silefia. The regency of Bohemian Silefia is erefted at
Troppau. The whole country is faid to contain 180 citiei
and towns, 4000 villages, and 1,890,000 inhabitants. For
other accounts of the population, fee Prussia.
SILESIACA Terha. See Terra.
SILEX, Kiefekrde, Germ., in Mineralogy, a fpecies of
earth which is generally found in a ilony ftate, and from
its forming nearly the whole compofition of flint, it has ac-
quired the name of filex, or filiceous earth. It is found in
equal or perhaps greater purity in rock-cryftal and quartz,
and in wiiite fand ; and it is probably an earth that mofl
abounds on the globe. Moil of the ttony combinations of
filex are remarkable for their hardnefs, and will very readily
ffrike fire with ileel. Silex, when pure, is white, and per-
fedly void of talle and fmell ; it is infoluble in water, and
incapable of artificial cryllallization. For its other proper-
ties, fee Flint and Silica.

SILHET, in Geography, a circar of Hindoollan, in the
N.E. part of Bengal, bounded on the N. by Bootan, and o«
the E. by Mecklcy, and elfewhere by a part of Bengal.—
Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, and capital of a circar, to which
it gives name ; 106 miles N.E. of Dacca. N. lat. 24° 52'.
E. long. 91° 57'.

SILI, in Botany, a name given by the old Greeks to a
plant called aUo/rJili.

SILJAN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Dale-
carlia, on a lake to which it gives name } 25 miles N.W. of
Fahlun.

SILICA, in jincient Geography, a town of Africa, in In-
terior Libya, near tlie river Bagradus. Ptolemy.

Silica, in Mineralogy and Chemijlry. In the former
it is an earthy fubilance, exilling abundantly iu the com-
pofition of the globe, and forms a diflinft genus of miueralt
in fuch as it predominates. In chemillry it was formerly
confidered as a fimple body, under tlie clafs of earths. In
the prefent flate of^chemitlry it is regarded as a metal com-
bined with oxygen, and belongs to one of the mofl eiteufive
clafs of compoufids in chemillry.

The minerals in which it is principally found are rock-
cryflal, quartz, agates, and flintn. The firft of thefe almoft
wholly confifls of fihca. In order, however, to obtain it in
pcrfett purity, let the rock-cryllal, or quartz, be heated red-
hot, and then plunged into cold water. This has the efTeft
of leflening its aggregation. To facilitate \\.f. reduclion into
powder, let one part of this powder be fufed in a lilver cru-
cible, with three parts of pure potalh. The fufed mafi
will be found foliible in pure water. To the clear folutiou
add any acid fufTicient to faturate the alkali, but not more.
A gelatinous precipitate will be found, which, when well
walhcd, dried, aud healed to ignition, in a filver crucible, will

be pure filica.

It

S I L

It 19 a fine white powder, harfh to the touch, and defti-
tute of tafte or fmell. Its fpecific gravity is 2.6.

Silica is not afted upon by the air, nor changed by moif-
ture. When ftriftly pure, no ordinary heat will fufe it.
It does however put on appearances of fufion, when heated
by the aid of a blowpipe and oxygen gas. It does not
combine with oxygen, fulphur, phnfphorus, carbon, or
azote.

The two fixed alkalies do not affeft it in the cold, but
■when fufed with it in a filver crucible they combine, forming
compounds, which have all the appearance of glals. Indeed,
when the two bodies are in one proportion, they form the
purell and mod perfeft glafs. When the alkali is to the
filica as three to one, the compound is foluble in water.
This folution has been called the liquor of Jlints. Any of
the acids are capable of combining with the alkali, and pre-
cipitating the filica in a ftate of purity, as v/e have before
obferved in the procefs for obtaining filica.

If an excefs of acid be added to the folution, part of the
filica is diflblved. This is more efpecially the cafe with the
muriatic acid. A very dilute folution of filica in potafh, in
a veilel covered with paper, was left at reft by profeflbr
Seigling for eight years. Cry ftals of iilica were found in the
fluid, and the furface had a tranfparent crull upon it, ftrong
enough to allow the veilel to be inverted without fpilling the
liquid. Some of the cryftals were found to be pure Iilica,
in groups of tetrahedral pyramids. There were alfo cryftals
of fulphate and carbonate of potafh. The former were fo
hard as to ftrike fire with fteel.

When fluoric acid is diftiUed from a glafs veflel, or from
any other fubftance containing filica, this acid aflumes a
complete gafeous form. The moment it is abforbed by
water, a proportion of fihca is precipitated. In this cafe,
the gas which comes over is a compound of filica and the
acid, which may be called fluat of filica. The liquid acid
is alfo found to hold filica in folution. It was from this
folution, after ftanding two years, that Bergman obtained
cryftals of pure filica. They were of a cubic form, with
three angles truncated. They were not fo hard as rock-
cryftal.

The boracic and phofphoric acids have no aftion upon
filica in the cold, but unite with it by fufion, forming tranf-
parent vitreous fubftances.

Silica does not combine with any of the metals, but it
combines with many of their oxyds, forming compounds,
which are called glaffes, enamels, or porcelains, according
to their appearance.

With the oxyd of lead it forms the glazing of common
pottery ; with oxyd of iron, a dark green or black glafs.

We have already fpoken of its combination with the
alkalies which belong to this clafs of compounds.

When a folution of lime or barytes in water is added to
a folution of filicated potafli, or liquor of flint, thofe
earths become precipitated, forming a peculiar compound.

A fimilar combination takes place when a folution of
filica in potafti is added to a folution of alumine in the fame
alkali.

Although the fuCbility of filica is impraaicable at the
heat of our hotteft furnaces, yet its combination with
other earths is fufible, though at a very high temperature.
Equal parts of lime and filica fufe into a mafs between
porcelain and enamel at 150^ of Wedge wood. We hence
fee the ufe of lime in fmelting iron ores which abound with
filex.

Silica appears to be the moft abundant of the earths,
forming the greateft proportion of the primitive rocks, and
the bafis of the terrettrial globe.

I2f

S I L

Although it has not been direftly proved to be a metallic
oxyd, there is the moft prefumptive reafon for thinking it
fo. From the fmall adion which acids had upon it, com-
pared with the other earths, fir Humphrey Davy at firtt
lufpefted it to be an earth already combined with an acid,
and made fome attempts, by the aid of Galvanifm, to verify
this idea, but without fuccefs. He fuled filica with iron
by the Galvanic battery, and obtained a mafs which afforded
filica when diflblved by an acid with water. He alfo heated
filica to whitenels, and on bringing potaflium in contaft, a
compound was formed of filica and potalh, but a number of
black particles were diffufed through the mafs, which
fir Humphrey Davy thought were conductors of elec-
tricity. They did not aft upon water ; but when an acid
was added, an effervefcence took place. They alfo burnt
in a ftrong heat, affording a white fubftance, which had the
charafters of filica.

Little is known of the proportions in which fiUca com-
bines with other bodies. Dalton gives its atom as forty,
five times heavier than hydrogen : and fir Humphrey
Davy ftates the number for filica at fixty-one, which, re-
duced to Dalton's ftandard, would be 30.J. But neither
of thefe is to be depended upon.

SILICEOUS, in Mineralogy^ denotes corapofed princi-
pally of filex.

SiLlCEOL'S Schyius, in Mineralogy and Geology, the hom-
ftone flate of fome geologills ; flinty flate of Jamefon ; a
rock of the nature of (late, but containing a great portion
of filiceous earth. It frequently occurs in beds in clay-flate,
and fometimes forms entire mountains, which are either
homogeneous or porphyritic, containing cryftals of felfpar,
and forming porphyritic flinty flate. The colour confifts
of various ftiades of grey, but it is fometimes red, approach,
ing the nature and colour of jafper. It is generally tra-
verfed by veins of quartz, but rarely, if ever, contains me-
tallic veins. It is extremely hard, and breaks with difficulty ;
the fragments are fttarp.edged, and more or lefs tranflucent
in minute portions. The Lydian ilone, which is ufed as a
teft, or touch-ltone, for determining the purity of metals, i»
nearly allied to filiceous fchiftus. This rock paffes, by
gradation, into clay-flate ; and when the filex predominates,
into hornftone or chert.

Siliceous Earth, in ylgrlculiure, fuch as is conflituted of
filiceous materials.

Siliceous Marie, that which is of a fandy or filiceou.3 {|
nature. See Marle.

SILICERNIUM, among the Romans, a funeral fupper,.
which is otherwife called exequium.

SILICIATE, in Mineralogy, a term lately introduced by
profeffor Berzelius, to denote the combination of filex
with other earths or oxyds, in which the filex is fuppofed ttv
aft as an acid. Thefe fubftances he denominates filiciates.
As this view of the aftion of filex tends to throw confiderable
light OR various procefles in the mineral kingdom, it is but
juftice to our own countryman, Mr. Hume, a refpeftable
fcientific and prafticable chemift in London, to ftate, that
fo early as 1805, he had, in Mr. Park's Chemical Catechifm,
allerted the aftion of filex as an acidifying principle, and
fubfequeutly in the Philofophical Magazine for 1808, he
diftinftly and perfpicuoufly defcribed various proceft'es, both
natural and artificial, in which filex performed the part of
an acid : this he attributed to the great proportion of
oxygen contained in it. As filex is by far the moft abun-
dant fubftance in the compofition of the globe, either pure
or in combination with the other earths, its peculiar pro.
perties, and the part which it performs in the fuccefiive
changes that take place in the mineral kingdom, are a fub-

jeft

S I L

jedl of much intercfl both to the geologift and tlie chemica!
philofopher. The fimilarity of its effefts with thofe of
oxygen and acids, have been pointed out in a very ftriking
manner by Mr. Hume in the paper before referred to.

There is a remarkable fimihtude in the effefts of oxygen
and filex on the metals, particularly in that procefs called
vitrification, which is, in every meaning of the word, a
complete faturation and oxydation. By mc-ans of filex, all
the metals (perhaps without exception), from being the
moil opaque bodies in the univerfe, may be rendered quite
pellucid, affordinfj an endlefs variety of the moft charming
tints. It is chiefly from metallic fubftances that the moft
durable colours are obtained, particularly for tlaining glafs,
and making artificial gems. The bell opaque colours,
fuch as are molt fuitable for enamel, water, oil, crayon, and
all other defcriptions of painting, are derived alfo from the
metals combined either with filex or oxygen. Even the
precious ftones, and the lefs valuable cryllals and pebbles,
with an infinite number of mineral produdlion'', feem to
derive their beauty and value from the aftion of filex on
the metals. Thus, the opacity of lead is effedlually changed
by the fand or filex ufed in the compofition of flint-glafs,
and the compound is rendered not lefs diaphanous, than
when, by means of oxygen, the fame metal is diflblved in
dilute nitric acids.

The power which filex exercifes over potafh and foda,
and a variety of other fubftances which enter into the com-
pofition of glafs, is a ftriking and well-known inftance (fays
Mr. Hume) of its neutralizing efficacy ; for no acid more
completely obtunds the acrimony of alkaline bodies, and
difarms them of their corrofive charadler. The eff'ervefcence
which refults when filex and the alkali enter into fufion and
form this taftclefs compound, is net obfervable till the mate-
rials are on the point of perfeft combination ; hence, as
fomething is apparently evolved, neither oxygen nor any
other aeriform fluid can be fuppofed to enter ; fo that the
acidifying power (if the term may be applied) which appears
to coerce the alkaline matter, is alone due to the fand
which is ufually employed to form glafs. Indeed vitrifica-
tion feems, in all inllances, to be accomplilhed by filex, or
by oxygen, and the glafs of lead, of antimony, of phof-
phorus, borax, or any other body, is due to the one, as
much as the glafs in common ufe is to the other of thefe
oxygenating agents.

The power of filex, as an oxydizing, faturating, and
neutralizing agent, is by no means confined to rocks,
minerals, and the inanimate parts of created matter ; but it
pervades alio, as an efiential element, the ftrufture of
organized beings, and occupies a diftingniflied place both
in the animal and vegetable economy. " Nothing is more
aftonilhing," fays Dr. Smith, " than the fecretion of flinty
earth by plants, a faft which is well afccrtaincd." Ac-
cording to modern experiments, human hair, and probably
the hair of all animals whatever, alfo contains filex as a
conftituent clement.

From numberlefs phenomena that admit of no other in-
terpretation, it may juftly be inferred, fays Mr. Hume,
that nature polftlles means of converting filex into other
forms, and of fo interweaving it into the conftitiition of her
varied works, that it ceafes entirely to appear Ih its original
flate. Every thing conneftcd with the progrcfs of animal
and vegetable cxillence, witli the infcnitahle fecrets of the
aflimilating powers, or with the phyfiology of all organized
matter, fhevvs that tranfmutation is an operation which we
cannot difprove, though we may not be able to trace it
through all its llcps.

According 19 Bcrzelius, filex, or filica, confidcred aa an

S 1 L

acid, pofteffes the property of giving filiciates of many dif-
ferent degrees of faturation. The moft general is that in
which filex contains the fame quantity of oxygen as the
bafe : thefe he denominates (imply Jl/iciatei. The next moft
general are thofe in which filex contains three times theoxygeu
of the bafe ; thefe he calls trijiliciales : it not unfrequently
contains twice the oxygen of the bafe ; thefe combination*
he calls hifdiciata. Silex alfo produces a great number of
combinations with exccfs of bafe of difi'erent degrees, which
he denominates fubfilictales , to which again he applies the
appellations li, tri ; for example, bialummous fubftlielaU, tri-
aluminous, l^c. all announcing that the bafe contains twice
or three times the oxygen of the filex.

Silex, like other acids, gives alfo double filiciates, partly
with and partly without water of cryftallization. We moft
frequently find, that the bafes which have a tendency to
produce double falls with other acids, do the fame thing
here : in the fame manner, as in the double filiciates, we
again find (although with many exceptions) the fame pro-
portion between the bafes as in the other previoudv known
falts with double bafes. Hence, for example, if in com-
mon felfpar we could exchange filex for fulphur, the com-
bination would be alum without water.

But Nature in her rich ftores, fays Berzelius, exhibits 2
number of combinations of filex ftill more various, for which
we have few if any analogous combinations to produce from
the experiments in our laboratories. Thus we find filiciatei
with from three to four bafes, which all form one common
combination, whofe pure cryllalline ftrutture feems to render
it evident that it mull be confidcred as one chemical whole ;
unlefs it fliould hereafter be proved that fuch bodies belong
to the clafs of cryilals that are formed of many different
fubftances lying in juxtapofition, but not chemically com-
bined.

It often happens, alfo, that thefe numerous filiciates are
not of the fame degree of faturation, but that one or more
of the weaker bafes are fubfihciates, or filiciates, while one
or more of the ftronger are bi or /ri-filiciates. That fimilar
combinations are not formed in our laboratories, arifes evi-
dently from the rapid and violent means by which thefe
combinations are eftedled, which will not admit the a^lioii
or influence of thofe weaker affinities which take place in
the fecret and undilturbcd rcceffcs of the mineral kingdom.
As it is of importance to afccrtain the quantity of oxygen
in filex, in order to determine its proportions in the different
combinations of filiciates, Berzelius, from various expe-
riments made by himfelf and others, eftimates the propor*
tion of oxygen to be 49.64. See Silex.

SILICULA, in Botany, the diminutive of SiLlQUA,
(fee that article,) is a Pouch, or pod of a (hort, or rounded,
figure, along both the edges of whofe partition the fcedt
are inferted ; witncfs the Draba verna, or Whitlow-grafs,
fo common on walls in the fpring, and the Thiafpi Burfa-
paflorii. Shepherd's purfe. The partition is always really
parallel to the valves, though the latter are often fo pro-
tuberant, as in the Thiafpi, that their depth is much greater
tlian the real diameter of the fruit. Hence Linnxus ha*
fallen into an error, firll deteftcd by Mr. Brown, in the
charaftcr of SuBUL.MilA. Sec that article.

SILICULOSA, the firft of the two orders of the lyth
clals in the I.,inn;ean fyftem, Tetuadynamia, (fee that
article,) the charaftcr of which order coiifills in the (hort,
or rounded, not oblong, form of the feed-vcllel. Sec Sl-
LICUI.A.

SILIFREY, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Barra.
SILILICON, ID Botany, a uame given by fome of the

old

S I L

old Latin writers to the carob tree, fliqua dulcis. The
Latins borrowed this name from the Greek xyhglycon,
luXofAi-Kor, the fweet, or fweet-fruited tree.

Ifidore mifpels the word Ji/ilicon, and making it onXjfih-
eon, fuppofes it to be a barbarous way of fpelhng the word
filiqua: but the evident derivation of the genuine word from
the Greek, (hews his error both as to the word itfelf, and
the origin of it.

SILIN, or Abu Ait, in Geography, a town of Egypt ;
12 miles S.S.E. of Siut.

SILINDIUM, in Jucknt Geography, a fmall town of
Afia Minor, in the Troade, near mount Ida.

SI-LING, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Quang-ii ; 20 miles S. of Si-long.

SILINO, a fmall idand among the Philippines, near
the north coaft of Mindanao. N. lat. 9° 2'. E. long.
121° 40'.

SILINUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in the Elide, which watered the territory of the
Scillunte, according to Paufanias.

SILIPICA, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Cordova ; 20 miles S. of St. Jago del
Eftero.

SILIQUA, xsf^.r.ov, among the ancients, the third part
of an obolus, or, what comes to the fame, the fixth part of
a fcruple.

SiLlQUA Nabathsa. See Nabath.sa Stliqua.

SiLiQUA, in Botany, a Pod, is a fort of Pericarp.
(See that article.) The Siliqua is a folitary feed-vefiel, of
an elongated form, and dry fubftance, confiiling of two
parallel valves, feparated by a parallel linear partition, or
receptacle, along each of whole edges the feeds are ranged
in alternate order. Examples are found in the Cruciform
plants, conftituting the Linnaean clafs Tetradynamia, fuch
as Cheiranthus, the Stock or Wall-flower ; as alfo in Cheli-
don'ium, the Celandine ; and Bignonla echinata, Gxrtn. t. 52.
f. I. This kind of feed-velTel differs from a Lec;ume, (fee
that article,) in having the feeds inferted along each of its
margins.

Siliqua. See Carob.

SILIQUA STRUM, the appellation of the Judas-tree
in Tournefort and preceding authors, alluding to its partial
refemblance to the fruit of the Carob, which was called
Siliqua, the Pod, by way of eminence. See Ceratonia
and Cercis.

SiLiQUASTRUM, in Natural Hilary, the name given by
Mr. Lhuyd, and others, to the bony palates of fifties, when
found folTile. See Ichthyperia.

SILIQUATICUM, among the Romans, a cuftom or
toll paid for merchandize. This the Greeks called cera-
tifmus.

SILIQUOSA, in Botany, the fecond order of the Lin-
nsan 15th clafs, Tetradynamia ; which order is charaftcrized
by the oblong form of the feed-vellel. See Siliqua and

SiLICULA.

SILIQUOSjE, the 39th natur.1l order, among ihefrag-
mtnta of Linnaeus, exaftly analogous to the Cruciferv-e of
JufGeu. See that article, as well as, hereafter, Tetrady-
namia,

SI LIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in
Venetia, which had its fource in mountains called Tauri-
fani.

SILISTENI, in Geography, a town of Moldavia; 10
miles S.W. of Huff.

SILISTRIA. SeeDEisTRA.

SILIVRIA, or KiLLEEVER, a large and populous
town on the fea of Marmora, once well fortified, and ilill
J3

S I L

in part furrounded by a ftrong wall. Some of its mofqae*
and minarets are very handfome buildings. The lower part
of the town is waftied by the fea. Its bay is capable of ac-
commodating a confiderable number of veffels, and is fo
well fheltered by the high land on each fide of it, that fhips
may, in any weather, ride in fafety.

SILIUS Italicus, Caius, in Biography, an Italian
poet, was born about the year 15 ot the Chriftian era.
He has been fuppofed to have been a native of Itahca in
Spain ; but his not being claimed as a fellow countryman by
Martial, who has bellowed upon him the higheft praiies,
renders the fuppofilion improbable. It is certain that he
lived chiefly in Italy, in which he poflelfed fcveral eftates.
The knowledge of him come down to thefe times is derived
from a letter of Pliny the Younger to Caninius Rufus, an-
nouncing his death. From this it appears that he incurred
fome reproach in the reign of Nero, as having been forward
in accufations, and that he was conful at the time of the
tyrant's death ; that he made a difcreet and humane ufc of
the friendftiip of Vitellius ; and that having acquired much
honour, from his conduft in the proconfulate of Afia, he
thenceforth withdrew from public offices, and maintained
the rank of the principal perfons of the city without power,
and without envy. It appears, likewife, that he pafled his
time chiefly in literary converfations, and in compoCng
verfes, which he fometimes recited in public. He had great
tafte for elegance, and purchafed a number of villas, which,
after enjoying for a time, he deferted for new ones. He
collefted a number of ftatues, books, and butts, to fome of
the latter of which he paid a kind of rehgious veneration.
This was particularly the cafe with rcfpeft to that of Virgil,
whofe birth-day he kept with much more ceremony than his
own, and whofe tomb was included in one of his villas.
He is faid alfo to have poffeffed a villa that had been Ci-
cero's. In his latter years he retired altogether to his feat
in Campania, wliich he did not quit upon any account ; and
the general tide of his profperity did not ceafe to flow, ex-
cept in the inllance of the death of the younger of his two
fons, which was in fome degree compenfated by the confular
dignity of the elder. In his 75th year he was attacked with
an incurable ulcer, and he is faid to have put an end to his
life, by abftaining from food.

The work of Silius, which has come down to the prefent
time, is an epic poem on the fecond Punic war. In this he
fcarcely deviates from Livy, in the narration of tranfaftions ;
but occafionally introduces a machinery, copied from Virgil,
of whofe Ityle and manner he is an imitator. Pliny fays,
that " he writes with more diligence than genius." The
bed editions of this work are thofe of Drakenborch, 1717 ;
and of Lefebvre de Villebrune, 4 vols. i2mo. 1782. ,

SILK, Sericum, a very foft, fine, bright, delicate
thread ; the work of an infeA, called lombyx, or the filk-
vvorm.

The ancients were but little acquainted with the ufe and
manufafture of filk ; they took it for the work of a fort of
fpider, or beetle, who fpun it out of its entrails, and wound
it with its feet about the little branches of trees. This in-
fedl they called fer, from Seres, a people in Scythia, whom
we now call the Chinefe, who, as they thought, bred it ;
whence the filk itfelf they called fericum. But this fer of
theirs has very little affinity with our filk-worm, bombyx :
the former living five years ; but the latter dying annually,
enveloped in a yellowifh bag or ball, which, wound out
into little threads, makes what we call filk.

It was in the ifle of Cos that the art of manufafturing it
was firft invented ; and Pamphila, daughter of Platis, is
honoured as the inventrefs. The difcovery was not long

nnknown

SILK.

Unknown to the Romans, oilk was brought them from
Serica, where the worm was a native. But fo far were
they from profiting by the difcovery, that they could not
be induced to believe fo fine a thread fhould be the work of
a worm ; and thereupon formed a thoufand chimerical con-
jefturea of their own.

Silk was a very fcarce commodity among them for many
•ges : it was even fold weight for weight with gold ; info-
much that Vopifcus tells us, the emperor Aurelian, who
died A.D. 275, rcfufcd the emprefs, his wife, a fuit of
filk, which (he folicited of him with inuch earneftnefs,
merely on account of its dearnefs.

Others, however, with greater probability, alTert that it
was known at Rome fo early as the reign of Tiberius, about
A.D. 17.

Galen, who lived about the year of our I^ord 173, fpeaks
of the rarity of filk, being no where but at Rome, and only
among the rich.

Heliogabalus, the emperor, who died A.D. 220, is faid
by fome to be the firft perfon who wore a holofericum, i. e.
a garment of all filk.

The Greeks of Alexander the Great's army are faid to
have been the firft who brought wrought filk from Perfia
into Greece, about 323 years before Chrift ; but the nianii-
fafture of it was confined to Berytus and Tyre, in Phoenicia,
whence it was difperfed over the Weft.

At length, two monks, coming from the Indies to Con-
llantinople, in ^H, under the encouragement of the em-
peror Juftinian, brought with them great quantities of filk-
worms, with inltruftions for the hatching of their eggs,
rearing and feeding the worms, and drawing out the filk,
and fpinning and working it. Upon this, manufatlures
were fet up at Athens, Thebes, and Corinth. The Ve-
netians, foon after this time, commencing a commerce with
the Greek empire, fupplied all the weftern parts of Europe
with filks for many centuries; though fundry kinds of mo-
dern filk manufactures were unknown in thofe times, fuch
as damaflcs, velvets, fattins, &c.

About the year 1 1 30, Roger II. king of Sicily, efta-
blifhed a filk manufaftory at Palermo, and another in Cala-
bria ; managed by workmen, who were a part of the plunder
brought from Athens, Corinth, &c. of which that prince
made a conqueft in his expedition to the Holy I^and. By
degrees, Mezeray adds, the reft of Italy and Spain learned,
from the Sicilians and Calabrians, the management of the
filk-worms, and the working of filk ; and at length the
French got it by right of neighbourhood, a little before the
reign of Francis I., and began to imitate them. Thnanus,
indeed, in contradiftion to moft other writers, makes this
manufafture of filk to be introduced into Sicily two hinidred
years later, by Robert the Wife, king of Sicily, and count
of Provence.

It appears by 33 Hen. VI. cap. y. that there was a com-
pany of filk-wumen in England fo early as the year 1455 ;
but thcfe were probably employed in needle-works of filk
and thread : and we find that various forts of Imall haber-
dafliery of filk were manufaftured here in 1482 ; but Italy
fupplied England, and all other parts, with the broad manu-
facture, till the year 14B9. In Spain, indeed, the culture
and manufadlure of filk fetfm to have been introduced in an
early period by the Moors, particularly in Murcia, Cor-
dova, and Granada. The filk manufafturcs of this lail
town were very flourifliing, when it was taken by Ferdi-
nand, &c. at the clofe of the fifteenth century.

In 1521, the French, being fupplied with workmen from
Milan, commenced a lilk manufadure ; but it was long
after this time before they could obtain raw filk from the
Vol. XXXII.

worms ; and even in the year 1547, filk was fcarce and dear
in France ; and Henry II. is faid to have been the firft who
wore a pair of filk knit ftockings ; though the firft inven-
tion originally came from Spain, whence filk ftockings were
brought over to Henry VIII. and Edward VI. After the
civil wars in France, the plantations of mulberry-trees were
greatly encouraged by Henry IV. and his (ueeen'ori ; and
the produce of filk is at this day very confiderable.

The great advantage which the new manufatture afforded,
made our king James I. veryearneft for its being introduced
into England : accordingly it was recommended feveral
times from the throne, and in the moft earneft terms, parti-
cularly in the year 1608, to plant mulberry-trees, &c. for
the propagation of filk-worms ; but unhappily without ef-
feft ; though from the various experiments we meet with in
the Philofophical TranfaAions, and other places, it appears
that the filk-worm thrives and works as well, in all relpeftt,
in England, as in any other part of Europe.

However, towards the latter end of this king's reign, t. e.
about the year 1620, the broad filk manufafture was intro-
duced into this country, and profecuted with great vigour
and advantage. In 1629, the filk manufacture was become
fo confiderable in London, that the filk-throwfters of the
city, and parts adjacent, were incorporated under the name
of mafter, wardens, &c. of the filk-throwilers ; and in 166 1,
this company of filk-throwllers employed above forty thou-
fand perlons. The revocation of the edift of Nantes, in
1685, contributed in a great degree to promote the filk
manufafture in this kingdom ; as did alfo the invention of
the filk throwing machine at Derby, in 1719; for an ac-
count of which, fee Silk, Manufallure of.

So high in reputation was the Engliih filk manufafturc,
that even in Italy, as Kcyfler (Travels, vol. i. p. 289.)
informs us, in 1730, the Englifti filks bore a higher price
than the Italian.

The filk-worm is an infeft not more remarkable for the
precious matter it fnrnifhcs for divers ftufls, than for the
many forms it afiumes, before and after its being enveloped
in the rich cod or ball which it weaves for itlelf. From a
fmall egg, about the fize of a pin's head, which is its firft
itate, it becomes a pretty big worm, or caterpillar, of a
whitifh colour, inclining to yellow. In this Hate it feeds
on mulberry-leaves, till, being come to maturity, it winds
itfelf up in a filkcn bag, or cafe, about the fize and (hape
of a pigeon's egg ; and becomes metamorphofed into an
aurelia : in this liate it remains without any figns ot lite, or
motion ; till at length it awakes to become a butterfly, after
making itfelf a paft'agc out of its filkcn fepulchro ; and, at
laft, dying indeed, it prepares itfelf, by an egg wh;ch it
cafts, for a new life ; which the warmtii nt the fummer
weather aflifts it in refumiiig.

As foon as the filk-worm, or caterpillar, is arrived at the
fize and ftrength ncceftary for beginning his cod, he makes
his web ; for it is thus they call that fiiglit tiilue, which is
the beginning and ground of this admirable work. This is
his firft day's employment. On the fecoiid, he forms his
filjiculus, or ball, and covers himfelf ulmofl over witii iilk.
The third day, he is quite hid ; and the following days he
employs himfelf in thickening and ftrongtiicniiig iiis ball ;
always working from one fingle end, which he never breaks
by his own fault ; and which is l"o line, and lo long, that
thole wlio have examined it attentively, think they fpeak
witliin compafs, when they affirm that each b.iU contains
filk enough to reach tiie length of (i\ Engiifli miles.

In ten days' time, the ball is in its perfei'lion ; and it i«

now to be taken down from the branches of the mulbirry-

trces, where the worms have hung it. But this bufinefs

4 X requires

SILK.

requires a great deal of attention ; for there are feme worms
more lazy than others ; and it is very dangerous waiting till
they make themfelves a paffage, which ufually happens
about the fifteenth day.

The firft, fined, and ttrongeft balls are kept for the
breed ; the reft are carefully wound. If there be no more
than can be well wound at once, they lay them for fome
time in an oven, moderately hot, or elfe expofe them, for
feveral days fucceffively, to the greateft heats of the fun, in
order to kill the infeft ; which, without this precaution,
would not fail to open itfelf a way to go and ufe ihofe new
wings abroad, which it has acquired within. Ordinarily,
they only wind the more perfeA balls. Thofe that are
double, er too weak, or too coarfe, are laid afide ; not as
altogether ufelefs, but that, being improper for winding,
they are referved to be drawn out into (lieins. The balls
are of different colours ; the mod common are yellow,
orange-colour, ifabella, or flefh-colour. There are fome
alfo of a fea-green, others of a fulphur-colour, and others
white ; but there is no necelTity for feparating the colours
and Ihades, to wind them apart, as all thefe colours are to
be loft in the future fcouring and preparing of the filk.

Silk, ManufaSure of. In England, where filk is not
produced in any quantities to be employed by the manufac-
turer, he muft commence his operations upon the raw filk,
with no other preparation than that of being wound off into
flceins or hanks from the balls, or cocoons, which the filk-
worms form.

In this ftate the filk is imported from thofe countries
where it is produced, as Italy, Flandel-s, Spain, Portugal,
Turkey, the Eaft Indies, and China. A thread of this
raw filk, drawn from the fl<ein, is found to be compofed
cf an affemblage of feveral of the fine fibres or threads
produced by the worms ; the fibres being united together
by a natural gum, which is in the filk, and which is foluble
in the hot water in which the cocoons are immerfed when
the filk is wound off.

To prepare this raw filk for ufe, it is wound from
the fkeins upon bobbins ; the compound thread is then
twilled, to unite the conitituent fibres more firmly than
they can be by the gum alone ; and afterwards, being
wound again upon frefh bobbins, two or three threads
are twifted together to produce a ftronger thread, fit for
the vireaver, who warps and finally weaves the filk into
various articles of ornaments or utility, by proceffes very
fimilar to the weaving of cotton or linen, but more delicately
condufted.

In the countries where the filk is produced, the manu-
facture may be more properly faid to commence with the
operation of winding or reehng off the threads into flieins
from the cocoons, or balls, in which the worms envelope
themfelves. Thefe balls become an article of trade, as foon
as the infeft within them is killed by expofing them to heat,
either of the fun, or in an oven, or by the fteam of boiling
water ; and, in general, the breeders of filk-worms fell them,
in this ftate, to perfone who make a bufinefs of the opera-
tion of winding. In Piedmont, wiiere capital filk is pro-
duced, it is condufted, as follows, by the aid of the filk
reel rcprefented in Plate Silk Manufacture, Jig. i.

The balls are thrown into hot water, contained in a copper
bafin or boiler, A, which is about eighteen inches in length
and fix deep, fet in brick-work, fo as to admit a fmall char-
coal fire beneath it ; or if a fire of wood is intended to be
made, the fire-place muft have a fmall flue or chimney of
iron plate to carry off the fmoke. At the fide of the boiler
is placed the reel, which is very fimple. B B marks the
wood-framing which futtains its parti ; thefe are, the reel D,

1 6

upon which the filk is wound ; the layer a, which direfts th-
thread upon it ; and the wheel-work b c, which gives motion
to the layer. The reel, D, is nothing more than a wooden
fpindle, turned by a handle at the end ; and within the frame,
at each end, it has four arms mortifed into it, to fupport
the four battens or rails on which the filk is wound. The
rails are parallel to the axis, and at fuch a diftance, that
they will form a proper-fized flvein by the winding of the
filk upon them, (it is ufually a yard for each revolution.)
One of each of the four arms is made to fold in the middle
of its length with hinges, fo as to caufe the rail, which thefe
two arms fupport, to fall in or approach the centre, and
thus diminifh the fize of the reel, and admit the fkeins of
filk to be taken off at the end of the reel when the winding
is finilhed.

Upon the end of the wooden fpindle of the reel, and
within the frame B, is a wheel of twenty-two teeth, to give
motion to another wheel, c, which has about twice the num-
ber of teeth, and is fixed upon the end of an inclined axis,
c h ; this, at the oppofite end, carries a wheel, b, of twenty-
two teeth, which gives motion to an horizontal cog-wheel
of thirty-five teeth. This wheel turns upon a pivot fixed
in the frame, and has a pin fixed in it, at a diftance from
the centre, to form an excentric pin or crank, and give a
backward and forward motion to the flight wooden rail or
layer a-, which guides the threads upon the reel : for this
purpofe, the threads are paffed through wire-loops or eyes,
a, fixed into the layer, and the end thereof oppofite the
wheel and crank, b, is fupported in a mortife or opening
made in the frame, B, fo that the revolution of the crank
will caufe the layer to move, and carry the threads alter-
nately towards the right or left. There is likewife an iron
bar, e, fixed over the centre of the boiler at e, and pierced
with two holes, through which the threads pafs to guide
them.

To defcribe the operation of reeling, it fhould be under-
ftood, that if the thread of each ball or cocoon was reeled
feparately, it would be totally unfit for the purpofes of
the manufafturer ; in the reeling, therefore, the ends or
threads of feveral cocoons are joined, and reeled together
out of warm water, which foftens their natural gum, and
makes the fibres ftick together, fo as to form one Itrong
fmooth thread ; and as often as the thread of any fingle
cocoon breaks or comes to an end, its place is fupplied by
a new one, fo that by continually keeping up the fame
number, the united thread may be wound to any length.
The fingle threads of the newly added cocoons are not
joined by any tie, but fimply laid on the compound thread,
to which they will adhere by their gum ; and their ends are
fo fine, as not to occafion the leaft perceptible unevennefs
in the place on which they are laid.

The woman who condufts the reeling is feated before the
bafin A, and employs a boy or girl to turn the handle of
the reel : a fire is lighted beneath the bafin A ; and when
the water becomes nearly boiling hot, fhe throws into the
bafin two or three handsful of cocoons, and leaves them
fome minutes, to foften that natural gum with which the filk
is impregnated ; then (he ilirs up orbrufhes the cocoons with
a wifli of birch or of rice-ftraw, about fix inches long, cut
ftumpy, like a worn-out broom ; the loofe threads of the co-
coons ftick to the wifli, and are drawn out : fhe then difen-
gages thefe threads from the wiflc, and by drawing the ends
through her fingers, cleans them from that loofe filk which
always furrounds the cocoon, till they come off entirely
clean : this operation is called la battue : and when the threads
are quite clean, fhe paffes four or more of them, if fhe in-
tends to wind fine filk, through each of the hales in the thin

iron

4

SILK.

■on bar e, which is placed horizontally over the centre of
e bafin A ; afterwards fhe twifts the two compound
threads (which confiit of four cocoons each) twenty or
twenty-five times round each other, that the four ends in
each thread may the better join together by crofling each
other, and that the thread of the filk may be round, which
otherwife would be flat.

The threads, after palling through the holes in the iron
bar e, and being twilted together, are palled through the
eyes of the loops, a, of the layer, and thence being condufted
to the reel, are madefafttooneof its rails. The child who turns
the reel, gives it the moft rapid movement poflible, and thus
draws off the threads from the cocoons in the bafin A. The
flow traverfing motion of the layer prevents the threads lying
over each other upon the reel, until it has made fo many
revolutions in the air as to dry the gum of the filk fo far,
that the threads will not adhere together. After the reel is
covered for about the breadth of three inches, by the gradual
progrcflion of the layer, it returns and direfts a fecond
courfeof threads over the firft laid, and foon until the required
length for the ficeins is obtained. The machine winds two
flieins at one time. As it is eflential to the produdlion of
good filk, that the thread (hould have loft part of its heat ar.d
gumminefs before it touches the bars of the reel, the Pied-
montefe are by law obliged to have a diltance of thirty-eight
French inches between the guides, a, and the centre of the
reel ; and the layer muit alfo, under a penalty, be moved
by cog-wheels inftead of an endlefs cord, which is fometimcs
ufed in Italy, and which, if fuffered to grow flack, will caufe
the layer to ftop and not lay the threads diftindtly, and that
part of the fliein will be glued together, whereas the cog-
wheels cannot fail.

When the ficeins are quite dry the reel is removed from
the frame, and by the folding of two of its arms the (kcins
are taken off. A tie is made with fome of the rcfufe filk
on that part of each fliein where it bore upon the bars of
the reel, and another tie on the oppofite part of the flcein ;
after which it is doubled into a hank, and ulually tied round
near each extremity, when it is laid by for ufe or iale.

This operation appears very fimple, but to produce a good
thread requires much attention. The reeler muft not wait
until the thread of a cocoon is entirely exhaulled before Ihe
joins on another, becaufe the threads near the end have not
above a quarter of their full thicknefs. The cocoons pro-
duce a very unequal length ; fome may be met with which
yield 1 2C0 ells, whilll others will fcarcely afford 200 eUs. In
general, the produftion of a cocoon may be eitimatcd from
500 to 600 ells in length. As often as the cocoons fhe
winds are exhaulled, or break, or only diminifh, file joins
frelh ones to keep up the requifite number, or the propor-
tion ; becaufe, as the cocoons wind off, and the thread becomes
finer, fhe mull join two cocoons half wound to replace a new
one. Thus Ihc can wind three new ones and two half wound,
and the filk will be equal to that piodiiced from four to five
cocoons. When fhe would join a frelh thread fhe muft lay
one end on her finger, throw it lightly on the other threads
which are winding, and the gum will join it immediately,
and it will continue to go up with the reft. She muft not wind
oft her cocoons to the laft, becaufe when they are near at an
end the hufl< of the worm joins in with the other threads, and
makes the filk foul and gouty. The filk may be wound of
any fize from one cocoon to 100, but it is difficult to wind
more than thirty in a thread.

The nicety of the operation, and that part in which lies
the greateft difliculty, is to wind an even tliread, becaufe as
the cocoon winds oft the end is finer, and other cocoons
muft be joined on to keep up the fame fize. This difficulty

of keeping the filk always even is fo gieal, that (excepting a
thread of two cocoons, wliich is called fuch) they do not fay
a filk of three, four, or fix cocoons ; but a filk of three to
four, four to five, or fix to fevcn cocoons. In a coarfer filk
it cannot be calculated even fo nearly as to four cocoons more
orlefs; they fay, for example, from 12 to 15, from 15 to
20, and fo on.

During the operation of winding, the woman muft always
have a bowl of cold water by her, to dip her fingers in,
and to fprinkle frequently upon the iron bar e, that the
heat of the bafin may not burn the threads, alfo to cool her
fingers every time file dips them in the hot water, and to
pour into the bafin when neceflary, that is, when the water
begins to boil. The water muft be juft in a proper degree
of heat ; for when it is too hot, the thread is dead, and has
no body ; and when too cold, the ends which form the
thread do not join well, and form a harfh filk. The heat
of the water from wliich the cocoons, are wound, caufes
that adhefion of the fibres which compofe the filk ; a thread
can with difficulty be wound off when cold water is em-
ployed ; but in this manner the adhefion is verj' flight, and
the thread breaks with a flight force, or the leaft moifture
will feparate the fibres ; but the filk wound from hot water
cannot be feparated except by hot water.

The old cocoons require the water to be very hot : if
the threads break very frequently, it may be concluded that
the water is too cold ; or, on the other hand, if the filk
comes off entangled, and in the ilate of wool, the water is
too hot. When the firft parcel of cocoons is finifhed, the
bafin, A, is cleaned, taking out all the flriped worms, as
well as the cocoons, on which there remains a little filk :
thefe are thrown into a baflcet, into which the loofe filk
that comes off in making the battue is likewife put as wafte
filk, to be carded and fpun into tlireads. The water in the
bafin muft be changed four times a day for coarfe filk, and
twice only for good cocoons of fine lllk : if the water is
not changed, the filk will not be fo bright and glofly, be.
caufe the worms contained in the cocoons foul it very con-
fiderably. The reeler muft endeavour to wind as much as
poflible with clear water, for if there are too many worms
in it, the filk will be covered with a kind of duft, which
afterwards attrafts moths, which dettroys the filk.

From the gummy or vifcid material which filk gives out
to water when the cocoons are infufed in it, Chappe found
that he was able to blow up the water into bubbles, or
fmall balloons, far more permanent than thofe of foap and
water, and offering all the colours of the rainbow. So
clofe, indeed, is the texture of thefe filky bl.idders, that
even the moft fubtile gas docs not penetrate them. Chappe
filled many of them, the diameter of each not exceeding
three inches, with hydrogen gas, and found feveral of them
continued in a ftate of fufpcnfion, in an apartment, for con-
fiderably more than twenty-four hours. It is not all filk,
however, that is fufficiently glutinous for this purpofc ;
that whicii is of a very deep yellow will not anfwer the
fame purpofe. This filk, from its colour, is hippoled to
be produced by the worm in a peculiar dif.afc, yet thio
is a ftate by no means uncommon.

All kind of filk wiiicli is fimply drawn from the cocoons
by the reeling, is called raw filk, but is denominated fine
or coarfe according to the number of fibres of wliich the
thread is compofed. In general, the raw filk requires dyeing;
to prepare for which the tluead is very flightly twifted, to
render it (Iroiig, and more al)le to bear the adioii of the
hot liquor, without feparating tlie fibres or furring up.
Silk-yarn, which is employed by the weavers for the woof
or weft of the ftufl's wliicli they fabricate, is compofed of
4X2 two

SILK.

two or more threads of the raw filk, (lightly twifted in a
machine ; and the thread employed by the ftocking weaver
is of the fame quality, but compofed of a greater number
of threads, accordmg to the thicknefs defired. Organzine
filk is compofed of two, three, or four threads of raw filk
twifted, and fo combined as to obtain the greateft ftrength :
fur this purpofe, each thread of raw filk is twifted feparately
upon itfelf by a mill : the twift is given in a right-handed
diredion, and extremely tight. By a fecond operation of
twitting, two of thefe threads are combined together, the
twift being given in a contrary direftion, and not above
half as tight : this forms a thread fimilar to a rope. This
defcription of filk, ufed for the warp of ft;uffs, is of
the utmoft importance to the manufafturer, for none of
the principal articles can be fabricated without it. The
Italians, from whom we formerly imported the filk in
the ftate of organzine, for a long time kept the art of
throwing it a profound fecret. It was introduced into this
country by the enterprife and (l-cill of Meffrs. Thomas and
John Lombe, the latter having, at the ri(l< of his life, and
■with wonderful ingenuity, taken a plan of one of thefe
complicated machines in the king of Sardinia's dominions,
from which, on his return, they cftablifhed a fimilar fet of
mills in the town of Derby. (See Derby.) In confider-
ation of the great hazard and expence attending the under-
taking, a patent was granted to fir Thomas Lombe in 17 18,
for fecuring to him the privilege of working organzine for
the term of fourteen years ; but the conftruftion of build-
ings and engines, and the inftruftion of the workmen, took
up fo much time, that die fourteen years were nearly ex-
pired before he could derive any advantage from it ; in
confequence of which, he petitioned parliament, in 173 1,
to grant him a further term : but parliament, confidering
it an objeft of national importance, granted him the fum ot
14,000/. on condition that he fiiould allow a perfecl model
of the machinery to be taken, and depofited in the Tower
of London for public infpeftion. Similar mills were, in
courfe of time, eretled in different parts of the country ;
but owing to the difficulties that were experienced in pro-
curing raw Italian filk of the proper fize for organzine (the
exportation of which was prohibited by the Italians), and
to the milk having fubfequently found employment for
other purpofes, the quantities worked into organzine, for
many years, bore fcarcely any proportion to the imports
from Italy ; it has however been fince revived and im-
proved, in confequence of which it is now carried on to a
very confiderable extent, as well in other parts of England
as at Derby.

The procefs which the filk undergoes to bring it into
this ftate, confifts of fix different operations, i. The filk
is wound from the fi^ein upon bobbins in the winding ma-
chines. 2. It is then forted into different qualities. 3. It
it fpun or twifted on a mill in the fingle thread, the twill
being in the direftion of from right to left, and very tight.

4. Two or more threads thus fpun are doubled or drawn
together through the fingers of a woman, who at the fame
time cleans them, by taking out the flubs which may have
been left in the filk by the negligence of the foreign reeler.

5. It is then thrown by a mill, that is, the two threads are
twifted together, either flack or hard, as the manufafture
may require ; but the twilt is in an oppofite direclion to
the firft twift, and it is wound at the fame time in (keins upon
a reel. 6. The fkeins are forted according to their different
degrees of finenefs, and then the procefs is complete.

The firft operation whicli the raw filk undergoes is wind-
ing, that is, drawing it off from the fkeins in which it is
imported, and winding it upon wooden bobbins, in which

ftate it can go to the other machines. The winding-frame
is fhewn at Jig. 2. of the plate, or rather a part of it,
which will wind fix threads at once, and by increafing
the length it may be made to receive any number. Each
of the fkeins is extended upon a flight reel A A, called a
fwift ; it is compofed of four fmall rods, fixed into an axis,
and fmall bands of firing are ftretched between the arms to
receive the fuein, bnt at the fame time the bands admit of
Aiding to a greater or lefs diftance from the centre, fo as to
increafe the effeftive diameter of the reel, according to the
fize of the fkein, becaufe the fkeins, which come from dif-
ferent countries, vary in fize, being generally an exaft yard,
or other fimilar meafure, of the country where the filks are
produced. The fwifts are fupported upon wire pivots, upon
which they turn freely when the filk is drawn off from
them ; but in order to caufe the thread to draw with
a gentle force, a looped piece of firing, or wire, is hung
upon the axis withinfide the reel, and a fmall leaden weight,
c, being attached to it, will caufe a fufficient friftion. B, B,
are the bobbins which draw off the threads ; they are re-
ceived in the frame, and are turned by means of a wheel be-
neath each, the bobbin having a fmall roller upon the end of
it, which bears by its weight upon the circumference of the
wheel, and the bobbin is thereby put in motion to draw off
the filk from the fwift. D is the layer, a fmall light rod of
wood, which has a wire-eye fixed into it, oppofite to each
bobbin, fo as to conduft the thread thereupon ; and as the
layer moves contlantly backwards and forwards, the thread it
regularly fpread upon the length of the bobbin. The mo-
tion of the layer is produced by a crank fixed upon the end
of a crofs-fpindle, E, which is turned by means of a pair of
bevelled wheels from the end of the horizontal axle, upon
which the wheels for turning all the bobbins are fixed.

Thefe winding-machines are ufually fituated in the top
building of the mill, the frames being made of great length,
and alfo double, to contain a row of bobbins and fwifts at
the back as well as in front. Two of thefe double frames
are put in motion by cog-wheels from the vertical fhaft, F,
which afcends from the lower apartments of the mill, where
the twifting-machines are placed. The winding-machines
require a cor.ftant attendance of children to mend the ends
or threads which are broken ; or when they are exhaufted,
they replace them by putting new fkeins upon the fwifts.
When the bobbins are filled they are taken away, by only
lifting them up out of their frame, and frefh ones are put in
their places.

A patent has been lately taken out by Meffrs. Gent and
Clarke, for a new conftruAion of the fwifts for winding-
machines : they are made with fix fingle arms inftead of four
double ones ; and the arms are fmall flat tubes, made to
contain the ftems of wire forks, which receive the fl<ein in-
ftead of the bands of firing in the common fwifts. Thefe
forks admit of drawing out from the tubes until the fwift
is fufficiently enlarged to extend it ; but as they extend the
fiiein at fix points inftead of four, as in the common one,
the motion is more regular. Inftead of the weight which
caufes the friftion, a fpring is ufed to prefs upon the end
pivot of the axis, and make the requifite refiftance.

The twiiling of the filk is always performed by a fpindle
and bobbin, with a flyer, but the conftruftion of the machine
which puts the fpindle in motion is frequently varied. The
limits of our plate do not admit a reprefentation of the great
machines, or throwfting-mill?, fuch as are ufed at Derby, and
at almoil all ths other great filk-milk in England. In^ff- 3-
we have given a drawing of a fmall machine, which is fimi-
lar in the parts which atl upon the filk ; and indeed many
mills employ fuch machines conftrufted on a large fcale.

The

SILK.

The one in our plate contains only thirteen fpindles, and is in-
tended to be turned by hand, a method which is too ex-
penfive for this country, but is common in the fouth of
France, where many artifans purchafe their filk in the raw
ftate, and employ their wives or children to prepare it by
thele machines, which they call ovals, bccaufe the fpindles
B, 6, are arranged in an oval frame, G H. B is the handle
by which the motion is given ; it is fixed on the end of a
fpindle, R, which carries a wheel, D, to give motion to a
pinion upon the upper end of a vertical axle, E : this, at the
lower end, has a drum or wheel F, to receive an endlefs ilrap
or band, a a, which encompafles the oval frame G, and
gives motion to all the fpindles at once. The fpindles i, b,
ire placed perpendicularly in the frame G H, their points
relting in fmall holes in pieces of glafs, which are let into
the oval plank G ; and the fpindles are alfo received in col-
lars affixed to an oval frame H, which is fupported from the
plank, G, by blocks of wood ; {I and a are fmall rollers, fup-
ported ill the frame G H, in a fimilar manner to the fpindles :
their ufe is to confine the ftrap, a, to prefs againft the
rollers of the fpindles with fufficient force to keep them all
in motion.

The tliread is taken up as fall as it is twiiled by a reel, K,
which is turned by a wheel, /;, and a pinion, i, upen the end
of the principal fpindle, R. The threads are guided by
pafling through wire-eyes, fixed in an oval frame, L, which
is fupported in the frame of the machine by a fingle bar or
rail, / /, and this has a regular traverfing motion backwards
and forwards, by means of a crank, or cxcentric pin, i,
fixed in a fmall cog-wheel, which is turned by a pinion upon
the vertical axis E ; the oppofite end of the rail, /, is fupported
upon a roller, to make it move eafily. By this means the
guides are in conitant motion, and lay the threads regularly
upon the. reel K, when it turns round, and gathers up the filk
upon it, as fhevi-n in the figure.

One of the fpindles is lliewn at r without a bobbin, but
all the others are reprcfented as being mounted and in aftion.
A bobbin, e, is fitted upon each fpindle, by the hole through
it being adapted to the conical form of the fpindle, but in
fuch manner, that the bobbin is at liberty to turn freely round
upon the fpindle : a piece of hard wood is ftuck fall upon
each fpindle, jufl above the bobbin, and has a fmall pin enter-
ing into a hole in the top of the fpindle, fo as to oblige it to
revolve with the fpindle ; this piece of wood has the wire-
flyer, i, fixed to it : the flyer is formed into eyes at the two
extremities ; one is turned down, fo as to Hand oppofite the
middle of the bobbin e ; and the other arm, l, is bent upward^,
fo that tlie eye is exaftly over the centre of tlie fpindle,
and at a height of fome inches above the top of the fpindle.
The thread from the bobbin, e, is palled through both the eyes
of this wire, and mull evidently receive a twill when the fpin-
dle is turned ; and at the fame time, bv drawing up the thread
through the upper eye, l>, of the flyer, it will turn the bobbin
round and unwmd therefrom. The rate at which the thread
is drawn oft from the bobbin, compared with the number of
revolutions which the flyers make in the fame time, deter-
mines the twin to be hard or foil ; and this circumllance is
regulated by the proportion of the wheel, />, to the pinion
f, from which it receives motion ; and thefe can be changed
when it is required to fpin dillerent kinds of filk. The
operation of the machine is very fimple ; the bobbins filled
v.ith filk in the winding-machine,^^. I, are put loofe upon
the fpindles at e, and the flyers are lluck fall upon the top of
the fpindles : the threads are condutled through the eyes of
the flyers b, and of the layers L, and are tiien made fall to the
reel K, upon which it will be leen that tlierc are double the
number of Ikeins to that of the fpindk'8 reprcfented, bccaufe

one half of the number of the fpindles is on the oppofite fide
of the oval frame, fo that they are hidden. With this prepara-
tion the machine is put in motion, and continues to fpin the
threads by the motion of the flyers, and to draw them oft
gradually from the bobbins, until the flieins upon the reel are
made up to the requifite lengths. This is known by a train of
H'heel-work at ti o p, confilting of a pinion, n, fixed upon the
principal fpindle R, turning a wheel o, which has a pinion
fixed to it, and turning a larger wheel p ; this has another
wheel upon its fpindle, with a pin fixed in it, whicli at every
revolution raifes a hammer, and ftrikes upon a bell, j, to in-
form the attendant that the flceins are made up to a proper
length. When this machine is employed for the firll opera-
tion of twilling the organzine, the wheel, /j, mult be larger,
and the pinion, i, fmaller than reprcfented, in urdur that the
reel, K, may be turned flowly, and the threads will therefore
receive a Itronger and clofer twill. Alfo, the handle C is
turned in an oppofite direction to that in which it mult move
for the final throwing oft' the two or three twilled threads to-
gether ; and as it mull alfo move for twilling the raw threads
together for the warp of filk-lluff^s, and for weaving flock-
ings, this reverfe movement makes no alteration in tiie ma-
chine, except that it will give twill in a contrary direction ;
for it is always nccelfary, when two or more twilled threads
are combined by twiRing, that the twill of the original threads
Ihall be in the oppofite direction to that twill which unites
them into one thread, in the fame manner as for making
ropes, organzine filk being in facl fmall repe, and llocking-
filk or warp being only yarn. The filk which is intended
to be dyed, is previoufly twilled very flightly in this machine,
and of courfe in that diredlion which will fuit the purpofe for
which it is ultimately intended ; viz. whether for yarn or
organzine.

The great mills for twilling filk, originally introduced by
Mellrs. Lombe, though very complicated, are fiir.ple in their
operation, becaufe the complexity arifes from the great
number of fpindles which are afluated by the fame U'.ovc-
ment, every one of which produces its efledil independent of
the others, and in the fame manner as the oval which we
have dffcribed. A maciiine is contained in a circular frame,
of which the diameter varies from ll to 13, 15, and even
17 feet ; but 15 feet is the general fize of the original Pied-
montefe machines. In the centre of the frame is a perpen-
dicular axis or fpindle, coining up through the floor of the
chamber, andrifing to the cieling ; it is put i;i motion by a
communication of wheel-work from a water-wheel, or other-
wife from a horfe-vvheel. The axis has upon it two, tlirec,
or four horizontal wheels, according to the height of the
machine, which revolve with it, and are of a lulficicnt fize
to fill nearly all tlie interior of the circular frame, and aft
upon the pulleys or rollers of the fpindles, wliicli are fup-
ported vertically in the frame, and arranged round the ma-
chine, at equal dillanccs, in a circle, the number being pro-
portioned to the dimenfions of the machine. The Ipindlcs
are alfo arranged in as many diftcrent Itages of height as there
are wheels upon the vertical fpindle ; (or the circumference of
each wheel prelles againll the roller."! of the Ipindles which
are arranged round it ; and thus, when the wheel revolves, it
gives a very rapid motion to all the Ipindles at once, by the
contaft of the edge of the wheel, but without any Ilrap,
as in the oval. Each fpindle has a bobbui, filled with filk,
fitted upon the top of it, and from this the filk is carried
up to a horizontal reel, which is turned round (lowly by the
machine, and draws oil the thread gradually lr<nn the bob-
bin : the flyer, being all the while in rapid motion, Ivvillg
the thread upon itlelf, or, if two or three threads are pre.
yioufly wound togcilier upon the bobbin, they will bo
' ^ twilled

SILK.

twitted round each other. Each reel ferves to take up the
thread from feveral fpindles which are fituated beneath it :
thus, in a mill of fifteen feet diameter, there will be fis
fpindles beneath each reel.

To explain this machine more clearly, we will give a de-
fcription of one of thirteen feet diameter, which has four
large wheels and ilages of fpindles, two of which are for
giving the fir'l preparation to the organzine : the fpindles
revolve in a direftion from right to left. The fpindles of
the other two ftages are for the finithing the twilt, and alfo
for twilling the fingle threads vs'hich are to be ufed for
warp or for itocking-weaving : they revolve in a contrary
direftion to the former. The frame of the machine confifts
of two wooden circles of thirteen feet diameter, one placed
upon the floor of the mill, and the other at a height of
fifteen feet above, the two being united by fourteen upright
pillars of wood, which altogether compofe a large cylin-
drical frame or lantern. Each ftage contains eighty-four iron
fpindles, placed vertically, and fupported in the ftage,
which is formed of two wooden circles, extended round
between the fourteen uprights of the lantern, and fixed one
above the other, at about a diftance of four inches afunder,
fo as to fupport the fpindles between them, in the fame man-
ner as the pieces, G, H, of the oval laft defcribed.

The circles of the ftage are of a rather lefs diameter than
the two circles which compofe the top and bottom of the
lantern ; fo that the fpindles will be rather within the circle
of the frame of the lantern, and admit the wheels of the
central axis to aft upon them. For this purpofe, each of the
circles of the ftage is made up by fourteen fegments fixed
between the uprights, and each fegment fupports fix fpin-
dles, making up the number of eighty-four in the whole
circle. The fpindles, like thofe of the oval, are fliarp-
pointed at the lower end, and the points reft in fmall holes
made in pieces of glafs, which are let into the lower circle of
the ftage, whilft the upper circle fuftains the fpindle at a
height of four or five inches above the point, leaving full
one-third of the length of the fpindle projefting above, for
the purpofe of fitting the bobbin upon it. The upper circle
of the ftage is rather fmaller than the lower, becaufe the
fpindles do not pafs through it, but through holes in
fmall pieces of hard wood, which projeft from it, fo as
to be exaftly above the pieces of glafs which fuftain the
points of the fpindles. Each fpindle has a fmall roller
fixed upon it in the fpace between the two cu'cles of the
ftage, and it is the contaft of the rim of the great wheel
upon thefe that caufes the revolution of the fpindles when
the wheel revolves. In order to make the contaft certain,
the exterior rim of the great central wheel is made in feve-
ral fegments, and each fegment has a conftant tendency to
recede from the central axis by the aftion of a weight, and
thus prefs againft the rollers of the fpindles. In order to
give the reverfe movement of the fpindles, which we have
before fpoken of in the defcription of the oval, the great
wheels for two of the ftages are made differently from thofe
which we have juft defcribed, fo that the fegments of the
rim will aft upon the outfides of the rollers of the fpindles,
inftead of the infides : for this purpofe the wheels are made
larger than the ftages in which the fpindles are placed, and
from the rim of the wheel fmall pillars rife up to fupport the
fegments, which aft upon the rollers of the fpindles in front
or withoutfide of the circles, inftead of the infide, as is the cafe
with the other ftages, in confequence of which the fpindles of
thefe ftages turn in oppofite direftions. The reels are placed
over the bobbins, to take up the threads when twitted ; and
the rollers of the different fpindles are made fmaller or
larger, as is required, to give more or lefs twift to the filk

operated upon by them ; for the velocity with which the
fpindles revolve, compared with the rate at which the reels
take up the thread, determines the degree of twift which
the thread will have ; and to render this equable, the reels
which draw off the filk from the bobbins of the fpindles are
turned regularly with the motion of the machine by means of
wheel- work, which is more eafily conceived than defcribed :
it is fuflicient to ftate that it receives its motion from the
central vertical axis. There is alfo a layer adapted to each
reel, with a wire-eye to receive each thread ; and the layers
having a flowly reciprocating motion, diftribute the threads
regularly upon the reels, in a fimilar manner to that firft de-
fcribed for the oval. One of thefe reels is placed between
each of the uprights of the machine, fo as to make fourteen
reels in the whole circle of each ftage, and every reel ferves
to take the filk from the bobbins of fix fpindles. The
whole machine in the four ftages contains 336 fpindles.

A machine of four ftages is fo high, as to reach through
two floors of the mill, and for this purpofe the upper floor
is made with a large round opening, to admit the machine :
this floor ferves the people who attend the machine, and
change the bobbins when exhaufted, and alfo remove the
finifhed filk from the reels.

The fpindles in the upper ftages are ufually devoted to
the firft twifting of the fingle threads for the organzine,
and therefore turn the reverfe way, as before mentioned ;
and as the filk is afterwards to be thrown, or re-twifted,
they are drawn off from the bobbins by large bobbins of
three inches diameter, and four inches long, inftead of the
reels. Thefe bobbins are ftuck fix together upon a long
fpindle, fituated horizontally, and turned by fimilar wheel-
work to that which aftuated the reels ; they have fimilar
layers to conduft the filk regularly upon the bobbins fronv
one end to the other, fo that the operation is not at all
different.

In many of the beft filk-mills, they have abandoned the
original method of turning the fpindles, for the preparation:
of organzine, the reverfe way, by making the aftion of the
wheels upon the outfide, inftead of the infide, of the circle
of fpindles. Inftead of them they employ two different
machines, one for the firft operation on organzine, and the
other for the fecond operation, both of them conftrufted
with the vpheels withinfide : but the motion of the two
machines is reverfed to each other.

Fig. 5. reprefents a fingle fpindle of a throwfting ma-
chine, which, though the fame in its aftion as the great
mill, is different in its conftruftion. G and H reprefent
portions of the rails or circles of the ftage which fupport
the fpindle, and a a is a. part of the rim of the great wheel
of the central axle. This wheel is not made in fegments,
as before defcribed, but is made very truly circular, and
covered with leather on the edge, that it may aft with
more force to turn the roller, I, of the fpindle. The point
of the fpindle refts in a glafs cap, fupported by the rail G,
and the roller, i, is always made to prefs againft the rim
of the great wheel, a a, by a fmall lever, d, and a ftring,
which, after turning over a pulley, has the weight, c, made
faft to it, to prefs the fpindle always towards the wheel.
In this machine, inftead of the reel, the thread is taken up
by a bobbin, K, is put into a frame, m, which moves on
pivots, and by a weight, n, is preffed down fo as to make
the bobbin bear upon the edge of a wheel, h, which is kept
in conftant and regular motion, by the fame kind of move-
ment which turns the reels of the great machine. The
intention of this is, that the aftion of the wheel, />, to
turn the bobbin, being communicated by preffure againft
the part upon which the Jilk is to wint^ will be con-
ftant.

SILK.

flant, and will not draw nsore when the bobbin is large
and full, or lefs when it is empty, as muft be the cafe when
the motion is given to the axis of the bobbm.

After the filk is twilled in a right-hand direftion, if it
is intended for yarn, or for dyeing ; or in a lett-hand direc-
tion, if it is prepared for organzine ; it muft be wound on
frerti bobbins, with two or three threads together, prepara-
tory to twilling them into one thread. In tlie original
machines at Derby this was done by women, who, with
hand-wheels, wound the threads from two or three of the
large bobbins, upon which the filk is gathered inftead of
the reel?, and ailembled them two or three together upon
another bobbin, of a proper fr/c to be returned to the twill-
ing mill. We have feen an attempt for a machine to per-
form the doubling, which is (lightly reprefented injrg. 4.
The whole machine itfelf is very fimilar to the winding-
machine, ^g. 2, but inftead of t!ie fwift, the bobbins from
the throwfting-mill are placed in front at A, Jig. 4, two or
three in a row. The threads from thefe are palled over the
rail m, and beneath a piece of wood, n, both whith, being
covered with cloth, have the fame eifcCl to clean the filk by
drawing through them, as the fingers of the winder. B is
the bobbin upon which the two or three threads are to be
wound together ; it is turned by a wheel, F, upon which
it refts, the fame as the bobbins of the winding-machine ;
and D is the laver, which, for convenience, is in this cafe
placed behind the bobbin, B ; and the wire-eye, </, which
receives the three threads, is made to reach over to the
front. The additional apparatus confills of a fmall piece
of wood, e, which Aides freely up and down, in a hole,
through a fixed board, f. On the top of the Aider, c, is
an eye of wire, through which one of the finglc threads of
filk pafles in its pallage from between the pieces m, n, to the
bobbin B : there is one of thefe Aiders, e, to each of the
three threads ; t -v is a lever moving on the centre lu ; the
end t is immediately beneath the fmall Aiders e, and the
end V is formed to a hook, to catch into the notches
which are made in the end of the bobbin B. A fmall
counter weight, x, always caufes the hook, v, of this lever
to recede from the bobbin ; but if any one of the three
threads break, it fuffers the Aider r, which belongs to it,
to defcend upon the end, /, of the lever, and deprcfles the
end of the lever, fo as to bring the hook, v, in a fituation to
catch a tooth of the bobbin B, and ftop its motion. By
this means the winding of three threads together is rendered
equally certain with the wiiiditig of one ; for when any one
breaks, the operation of winding on that bobbin flops,
until the attendant repairs tlie broken thread, and puts the
machine again in motion. We have lately been informed,
that a machine for winding two and three threads together
is becoming common in the filk-mills, but we do not know
if it is the fame with this one, which however is not evi-
dently imprafticable.

The bobbins, being thus filled with double or triple threads,
are carried back to the throwftiiig machine, and are there
fpun or twilled together, the manner of doing which does
not differ from the operation which we have before deieribed.
In this ft'cond operation the filk is taken up by reels inftead
of bobbins, and is thus made up into fl<eins. The degree of
twiil varies with the purpofc for which the filk is intended;
and the wheels which give motion to the reels are for this pur-
pofe adapted to the degree of twill which the filk is delired
to have. The filk, being now fpun, requires only the pre-
paration of boiling to difchargc tlie gum, and render the filk
fit to receive the dye, and alfo to render it folt and glolly.
The filk is boiled for about four hours, in a boiler filled with
water, into which a fmall quantity of foap is put ; tliis opera-

tion diflblvcs the gum, which before could be felt upon the
filk, and rendered it harfh. After the boiling, it is well
wafhed in a current of clear water, and when dried, will be
found to have loft about one-fourth of its weight : at the
fame time the volume of the filk is fcnfibly increafed, and it
has acquired that loft texture and gloffinefs, which are the
principal beauties of filk. This change is produced by the
dillolution of the gum, which, in the firft inftance, was the
only adherence of the fibre to form a thread, but by the
operation of the twifting the fibres are firmly united, and no
longer require the gum. It is alfo necelTary, in order to give
a fine dye to the filk, that the gum fliould be removed, be-
caufe it would prevent the entrance of the dyeing matter to
the centre of the thread, and thus impair the beauty of the
colour. If the filk was tiius boiled before the twifting, no-
thing but a fine entangled down or wool would be obtained,
and it would require fpinning, by a fimilar proccfs to that of
cotton, before a thread could be obtained. This, indeed, is
neceflary for that portion of wafle filk which is drawn from
the cocoons in the firft operation of reeling ; alfo for thofe
cocoons which are referved for breeding, and from which
the moths eat their way out by holes, which render it im-
prafticable to wind (^ft the filk. This walle filk, when care-
fully fpun by a fpinniiig-wheel, is called fpun filk, and the
thread is not inferior to the regular (ilk which is wound off:
indeed, the winding off the filk into a thread united by
its gum, is of no advantage farther than as a preparation
for (pinning, from which procefs the thread obtains its
ftrength.

The filk is now in a ftate for ufe : if it is for (locking-
weaving, or fewing, or if intended for weaving into (luff, it
only requires warping to be put into theluom. The opera-
tion of warping is to put together all the threads which are
to compofe the warp of the intended piece of (luff, and lay
them parallel, fo that the warp, being put into the loom, will
have no Aack threads, nor any which are ftrained too tight.
Formerly, this operation was performed by ftrctching the
threads out at length in a field, or by extending them in a
frame, and windii.g them backwards and forwards over pegs.
The warping machine now univerfally employed is Aiewn in
fig. 6, where A A is a treAel or ftool, which fupports the
fmall bobbins l,i, upon which the filk is wound. The num-
ber of thefe is equal to the number of threads which the warp
of the intended piece of (luft is to have in its breadth. The
threads from all tiafe bobbins are drawn over wires {f,J,
which are in front of the bobbins, and are then all brought
together, and palfed thronjjh an opening in a piece of wood
D ; this coiidudls the thrciids all together upon a large reel
E E, which is fupported in i frame F F F, and turned round
by means of a pulley at the lower end of its axle, from
which an endlels band is continued to a iecond wheel G,
mounted on a fpindle, and turned by a handle. This latter
fpindle is fupported in a fortofllool H, upon which a child
fits down, and at the fame time turns the handle and puts the
reel in motion, fo as to draw tiie warp or ademblagc of
threads off from the leveral bobbins, and lay it upon the
reel E. The piece of wood D is fitted upon one of the up.
right pieces, F, of the fr.ime, to Aide fiecly up and down
upon it, and is fufpended by a cord, which, after patHng
over a pulley y", is wrapped round the Ipindleof the machine
at f : by this means, the motion of the reel, E, draws the
cord, and railes up the piece D, fo as to lay the warp upon
the circumference of the reel, in a regular ipiral, from one
end to the other, and pivvent the coiU lapping one upon an-
other. When the required length u( warp is wound upon the
reel, the ends of all tlie threads are cut off, tied together, and
thus drawn ofl from the reel and rolled up into a large ball,

in

SILK.

Ill which .-. ' • the weaver takes it, and mounts it in his
loom.

For the fubfequent operations of weaving we ftiall refer
to the article Weaving, becaufe the weaving of filk
goods is the fame as for any other, except that finer and
more beautiful articles are produced in this fublfance than
in any other. Some information on the details of weaving
mechanifm will be found under our articles Dkal'GHT of
Looms, Draw-Z,(3oot, Diaper, Dimity, and Dornock ;
and though thefe are rather the weaving of hnen and cotton
than filk, the fame principles apply to filk, as will be more
fully explained under Weaving ; where a defcription of
weaving ribbands and figured filks will be given.

Silk is dillinguifiicd by different names according to its
different ftates. Thus,

Silk, Spun, is that taken from the ball, without fire, and
fpun into thread without any coftion : fnch as is mod, if not
all, that is brought into England from the Levant ; i. e. from
Perfia by the way of Turkey, from Bengal in India, and from
China. The raw fpun filk is commonly worked up into two
forts, called organize and tram : the former is made by
giving a throw or t wift to each thread of raw fpun filk fingly,
and then doubling two of thefe twifted threads together,
and twifting them fmartly together ; this forms the warp
or length of a piece when mauufaftured. The tram, or
flioot, which makes the breadth of the piece, is formed by
twifting two ormore threads of raw filk flack. The wafte raw
filk, or refufe in reeling, &c. is coUeded, carded, and fpun,
and called_y?o/} filk ; this is doubled and thrown, and often
made into a cheap fort of filk-ftockings, which are very
ftrong and durable.

In the French filk-works, the greateft part of this raw
filk pades for httle better than a kind of fine floretta ; yet,
when fpun, it makes a bright thread, and ferves for the
manufafture of ftuffs of moderate value and luftre. But the
fpun filks of the Levant, whence moll of our's come, are ex-
ceedingly fine and beautiful. The difference arifes hence,'
that in France, the bed balls are reeled off in boiling
water, and only the refufe made into fpun filk ; whereas, in
the Levant, there is no fuch thing as reeling or winding on
the fire, but the filks are all fent in bales, or packs, as they
are drawn from off the balls ; fa that they are only dif-
tinguifhed by their quality of fine, middhng, and coarfe.

Silk, Boiled, is that which has been boiled in water, to
facilitate the fpinnmg and winding. This is the fineft of all
the forts of filk manufaftured in France, and is feldom
ufed but in the richeft Huffs ; as velvets, taffeties, damaflcs,
brocades, &c.

There is alfo another kind of boiled filk, which is prepared
by boiling, to be milled ; and which cannot receive that
preparation, without being firft palled through hot water.
By the laws of France, it has been prohibited to mix raw with
boiled filk ; both as fuch a praftice fpoils the dyeing, and as
the raw filk corrupts and cuts the boiled.

SlLK.s, throwed or tififttd, are fuch as, befides their fpin-
ning and winding, have received their nulling or throwing.

This they receive in a different degree, as they are palled
oftener or feldomcr over the mill ; properly, however,
throwed filks are thofe in which the threads ar^ pretty thick-
throwed, and twifted feveral times.

The thrown filk cnmes to us chiefly from Leghorn, Ge-
uoa, Naples, and Meflina.

Silks, Slack, arc fuch as are not twifted, but are prepared,
and d\cd for tapcftry, and other works with the needle.

SiLK. Eajlern or Eiijl Indian. That popularly thus called
is not llie w(j;k of the filk-worm, but comes from a plant
that produces it> in pods, much like thole of the cotton-

lot

tree. The matter this pod contains is extremely whit^V
fine, and moderately gloffy ; it fpins eafily, and is made into
a kind of filk, that enters the manufafture of feveral Indian
and Chinefe ftuffs.

Silks, French. It is only in the moft fouthem provinces
of France that filk is cultivated, mulberry-trees planted,
and worms bred. The principal places are Languedoc,
Dauphine, Provence, Avignon, Savoy, and Lyons. This
latt place, indeed, furnifties very few filks of its own growth ;
but it is the great Itaple whence the merchants of Paris, and
the other cities, are to fetch them. At leaft, they are
obliged to have them pafs through Lyons, if they bring
them from other places, either by land or fea. There
have been computed to enter Lyons, communilus annis, fix
thoufand bales ; the hale valued at one hundred and fixty
pounds weight ; of which fix thoufand bales, there are one
thoufand four hundred from the Levant, one thoufand fix
hundred from Sicily, one thoufand five hundred from Italy,
three hundred from Spain, and one thoufand two hundred
from Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphine.

At the time when the manufaftures of Lyons were in
their profperity, there were reckoned to be eighteen thou-
fand looms employed in the filk manufafture ; but in 1698,
there were not reckoned four thoufand. However, this
manufafture afterwards revived, and a great part of Europe
has been fupplied from hence with brocade and rich filks.
The decay has not been lefs notable at Tours ; they had
formerly there eight hundred mills for winding and prepar-
ing the filks ; eight thoufand looms to weave them ; and
forty thoufand perfons employed in the preparation and
manufafturing of them ; but thefe have been reduced to
feventy mills, twelve hundred looms, and about four thou-
fand perfons. The revolution has, however, made fuch art
alteration in the manufaftures and trade of France, and they
are ftill (1816) in fo unfettled a ftate, that no correft efti-
mate of them can be obtained.

Silks, Sicilian. The commerce of the filks of Sicily ha«
been very confiderable ; and the Florentines, Genoefc, and
Luccefe, are the people who have chiefly availed themfelves
of it. Great quantities were yearly brought thence, efpe-
cially from Meflina ; part of winch they uled in their own
manufaftures, and fold the reft to their neighbours the
French, &c. with profit. The Italians had this advantage,
efpecially the Genoefe, over other people, that, having large
eftabliftiments in the ifland, they were reputed as natives, and
paid no duty for the export.

Part of the Sicilian filks is raw, the reft are fpun and
milled ; of which laft kind, thofe of St. Lucia and Meffina
are the moft valued. The raw unwroucfht filks were always
fold for ready money ; the others, fometimes, in exchange
for other goods. See Sicily.

Silks, Italian. The filks brought from Italy are partly-
wrought, and partly raw ar.d unwrcught. Milan, Parma,
Lucca, and Modena, furnifti none but the latter kind ;
Genoa moft of the former ; Bologna affords both kinds.
The fineft Italian wrought filk comes from Piedmont, Novi,
Bergamo, and Bologna ; and is imported into England from
the ports of Nice, Genoa, and Leghorn.

Tiie filk we have from Italy is generally thrown, and
ferves for warp for our manufactures.

Silks, Spanijli, are all raw ; and are fpun, milled, &c.
in Eiigland, according to the feveral works in which they
are to be ufed.

Silks, Turkey, are all raw. One advantage we have in
the ccmni.Tcc- of the Levant, in filks, wanting in thofe of
Sicily, is, that the latter are confined to a particular fea-
foB of the year : whereas the former are bought at all times.

They

SILK.

They are broutjht from Aleppo, Tripoli, Sayda, and from
the ifle of Cyprus, Candia, &c. But thf principal place
of commerce, efpecially for the filiis of Pcrfia, is Smyrna.
The filks are brought hitlier in caravans, from the month
of Jamjary to September. Tiie caravans in January are
loaden with the finell filks ; thofe of February and Marcli
being indifferent ones ; the reft, the coarfclt. They all
come from the ieveral provinces of Perfia, cluefly thofe of
Ghilan and Shirvan, and the city of Schamachia, fituate
near the edge of the Cafpian fea ; from which three places,
a Dutch author aflures us, there have not come lefs than
tlurty thoufand bales of (ilk in a year. Ghilan produces
the bell and greateft quantities of filk ; next to this are
Shirvan and Erivan, then Mazanderan, and laltly Aftrabad ;
but the latter is much inferior, ferving only for a manufac-
ture mixed with cotton ; that of Mazanderan and Allrabad
is feldom or ever exported.

Ardeuil, or Ardcbil, another city of Perfia, not far dif-
tant from thcfe iilk countries, is the place where filks are
laid up, and whence the caravans fet out for Smyrna,
Aleppo, Scanderoon, and Conitantinople ; and it is this
city, with Schamachia, that have always been cileemed the
centre of the filk trade ; which has been feveral time? at-
tempted to be removed from Smyrna, and the Mediter-
rai>ean, in favour of Archangel, and the White fea, by
carrying them acrofs MufccTy, by the Volga and Dwina,
two rivers that traverfe the principal provinces of that vail
ejnpire.

This new courfe of the Perfian filks into Europe was firft
propofed by Paolo Centurio, a Genoefe, to the tzar Bazil,
under the pontificate of Leo X. The French had the fame
deii^n in 1628. The duke of Holftein, in 1633, fent am-
badadors to the court of Perfia, purely with the lame view.
And in 1668, the f/ar Alexis Michael attempted the thing
himfelf ; but lie was difappointed by the rebellion of the
Coflacks, and the furprife of Aftrakhan.

In 1688, the commerce of Perfian filks had nearly
been removed from Smyrna by an earthquake, whicli almoit
overturned the whole city ; and, doubtlefs, the removal had
been effedlcd, but for the vigorous means ufed by the Turks
to prevent it. Smyrna, however, dill remains in lier an-
cient polfclTion ; and the feveral nations of Europe continue
every year to fend their fleets, to fetch away the filks.

Silks, China, Japan, and Indian. Several provinces of
China are fo fertile in mulberry-trees, and their climate is fo
agreeable to the nature of filk-worms, tliat the quantity of
filks there produced is incredible ; the fingle province of
Tcliehiang might fupply ail China, and even a great part of
Europe, with this commodity. The filks of this province
are the mod eftcemcd, though thofe of Nankin and China
be excellent.

The filk-trade is the principal in China, and that which
employs the moll hands ; but the European merchants who
deal in it, efpecially in wrought filks, are to be careful of
the Ipinning, &c. the waile being ufually very great, as tlie
French Eall India company have found to their coll.

Japan would not afford fewer filks than China ; but that
the Japanefc, a barbarous and didruflful people, have iii-
terdifted all commerce with itrangcrs, elpecialiy with
Europeans, excepting with the Dutch ; who are faid to be
admitted on certain impious terms, related by Taveniicr,
but which, we mull own, we cannot credit. The Dutch
have endeavoured to vindicate themlelves from thefe by
the pens of feveral famous writers.

Great quantities of both raw and wrouglit filk arc fur-
iiifhed by other parts of Bengal, and by feveral provinces of

Vol. XXXII.

Hindooftan, which partly fupply the natives, and afford a
very confiderable exportation to Europe. Several thoufand
bales of raw filk are annually imported from Bengal and
China ; fome of which is, in this ftatc, ufed for making
princes' fluffs, but the greater part is prepared for the manu-
fafturers by the filk-throwtlers.

Silk, Laivs relating to. The duties on filks and callicoci
being under the fame regulations with thofe on printed
linens, the law refpeCling them is inferted under the article
Linen. By the 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 15. f. 2. no perfon
fhall cxercife the trade of a filk-throwfler, unlefs he hath
ferved feven years' apprenticefhip, on pain of 40J. a month,
half to the king, and half to him that fhall fue in any court
of record, or at the alTizes, or quarter-feffions of the peace.
By 9 & 10 W. c. 43. no foreign filks, called alamodes or
lutellrings, (hall be imported but in the port of London,
on notice firfl given to the commifTioners of the cufloms, and
licence had from them, on pain of forfeiture, or the value ;
and they fhall be fold, and exported again ; and the offender
fo importing, and alfo the receiver and perfon offering to
fell the fame, fhall forfeit 500/. Being marked and fealed
by order of the commifTioners, any perfon who (hall coun-
terfeit the cuflom-houfc leal, or that of the luteilring com-
pany, fhall forfeit 500/., and be fet in the pillory for two
hours. And any perfon who fhall buy and fell, and have
in his cuflody, any alamodes or luteflrings, fealed or
marked with a counterfeit feal or mark, fhall forfeit the
fame and 100/.

However, none but cullom-houfe officers, or perfons de-
puted by the luteilring company, and having writs of
affillance under the feal of the exchequer, fhall feize lute-
firings or alamodes within the bills of mortality. (5 Ann.
c. 20. ) The penalties fhall be two-thirds to the king, and
one-third to iiim that fliall feize or fue in any court of
record.

By 3 Geo. III. c. 21. and 5 Geo. III. c. 48. if any
perfon fhall import any ribbands, laces, or girdles, not
made in Great Britain, whether the fame fhall be wrought
oi filk alone, or mixed with other material-, the fame
fhall be forfeited, and may be feized by any officer of
the cuflomF, in whatever importers', venders', or retailers'
hands they may be found ; and the importer, and every per-
fon affifling therein, and the venders and retailers in whofe
cuflody they fhall be found, or who fhall fell or cxpofe the
fame to fale, or conceal with intent to prevent the for-
fciture, fhall forfeit refpeftivcly 200/., with cofls. Half
the faid penalties to be to the king, and half to the officer
who fhall inform and profccutc.

But if any officer of the cufloms fhall neglefl or rcfufe,
for one month after condemnation, to profccutc to effedi any
perfon for any of the faid pecuniary forfeitures, any other
perfon may fue for and recover the fame; half thereof to go
to the king in like manner, and half to him who fliall fue.

And when the goods feized (being out ot the limits of
the billn of mortality ) fhall not exceed the value of 20/., two
juiticfs, on information before them that inch goods were
feized, as unduly imported, may hear and determine the
fame, and proceed to condemnation or dilch.irge.

After feizure, until condemnation or difcharge, the faid
goods fliall be depollted in one of the king's wareiioufes, if
the feizure be within the bills of mortality ; elfewhcrc, in the
hands of the chief magiilrate or conflabie | and the fame
(h;ill be free to infpcdtion, witii ie.ive of the court, judge, or
jufliccs, before whom the profeculion fhall be.

And after condemnation, the faid gooda fl.all tie publicly

fold by the candle for exportation ; half of the produce by

4 Y fuch

SILK.

fuch fale to be to the king, and Iialf to the officer wlio fhall
feize and feciire the fame ; and the fame goods (hall not be
dehvered out of the warehoufe, till fecurity fhall be given
for exportation, and that the fame fhall not be landed again
in any part of his majefty's dominions.

By 5 Geo. III. c. 48, if any foreign manufaftured filk-
ftocking?, filk-mitts, or iilk-gloves, Ihall be imported into
this kingdom, or any part of the Britifh dominions, the
fame (liall be forfeited, and liable to be fcarched for and
feized as other uncuflomed goods ; and every perfon who
fhall import the fame, or be affiiling therein, and the ven-
ders and retailers in whofe cuilody they fhall be found, or
who (hall fell or expofe the fame to fale, or conceal with
intent to prevent the forfeiture, fhall, over and above the
forfeiture of the goods, forfeit 200/., with cofls ; half to
the king, and half to the officer who fhall inform and pro-
fecute.

And when the goods feized (being out of the limits of
the bills of mortality) fliall not exceed the value of 20/.,
two juftices may proceed to the condemnation thereof.
And the proceedings, in all other refpeft-, fliall be in like
manner as in the cafe of ribbands and laces above men-
tioned.

Silk, in Chemiflry, deferves notice on account of a pe-
culiar fait, or cryltalline fubllance, obtained from it by the
nitric acid. In its natural ftate, or before it is bleached, it
contains a yellow refinous matter, from which it derives its
fine golden colour. When raw lilk is infufed in water, a
portion of gummy matter is dillolved, and a light amber-
coloured liquor is produced. Pure alcohol extrafts a much
deeper yellow colour, and makes a tincture, that lofes none
cf its colour by long expofure to the fun, which bleaches
the filk itfelf. Nitrous acid aifts powerfully on iilk, in
proportion to its concentration. If two drachms of this
acid are mixed with a pint of alcohol, and filk, either raw
or bleached, be immerfed in it, and kept in digeftion, in a
moderate warmth, for twenty-four hours, the hlk becomes
of a dull yellowifh-brown, which, after rinfing and wafliing
with foap, and drying, turns to a fine golden yellow, which
is very permanent. But when concentrated nitric acid is
diftiUed off filk, and the remaining liquor duly evaporated,
much oxalic acid is obtained ; and the refidue, if evaporated
ftill further, yields, together with a little remaining oxahc
acid, a quantity of yellow granular cryftals, very bitter,
not acid, and ftaining the faliva and hands of 1 very deep
yellow, not eafily removed. If the liquor is previoufly
laturated with pctafh, and evaporated, another yellow
filky fait evaporates, which detonates on coals like common
nitre, and appears to be a triple combination of the former
bitter fubllance with nitrate of potafh. The firit mentioned
granular cryftals, examined with a magnifier, appear to be
compofed of truncated odlohedrons.

The above curious fubftance was difcovered by Welter,
and called by him the " bitter priliciple." He fuppofes it
to be generally produced by tlie adtion of nitric acid on
animal matters ; and it is perhaps the fame fubftance which
caufes the bitterr.cfs of bile. Aikin.

The fpirit of raw filk, rc-flified with fome efTential oil, is
the medicine commcidy known by the name of Guttit An^li-
cane, or Englifh drops.

Silk, Spider. Within about a century the fecret has been
found in France, of procuring and preparing filk from the
webs of fpiders ; and the ufing it in leveral manufaftures has
been attempted. This difcovery is owing to M. Bon, in
1 7 10, who publlfhed a diflertatioQ on the fubjeft, whence
what follows is extrafted.

Spiders are ufually diftinguifhed, either \vith regard to
their colour, as into black, brown, yellow, white, &c. or
with regard to the number, or arrangement, of their eyes ;
fome having fix, others eight, others ten. But with regard
to the filk-fpiders, M. Bon reduces tiiem all to two kinds ;
thofe with long legs, and thofe with Hiurt : which laft are
thofe which fumilh the finefl raw filk. The filk-fpider
makes a filk every whit as beautiful, gloffy, and ftrong, as
the filk-worm : it fpins it from the anus ; around which are
five papillae, or fmall nipples ; and behind thefe, two others,
all mufculous, and furnifhed with fphinftcrs. Thefe nipples
ferve as fo many wire-drawing irons, to form and mould a
vifcous liquor, which, when dried in the air, after being
drawn through them, makes tlie filk. Each of thefe nipples,
M. Reaumur obferves, confitts of a number of lefs and in-
fentible ones ; which one may be convinced of by prcfiing
a fpider's belly between the fingers, to oblige the hquor to
flow into the nipples ; for by this means, applying the finger
?.gainft the anus, feveral diliindl threads will be drawn out
through the feveral perforations of each nipple. The
threads are too fine to be counted with any certainty ; but
M. Reaumur reckons each larger nipple may fend forth a
great many.

Hence we fee how the fpiders make their threads biggei*
or fmaller : for as, before they begin to fpin, they always
apply more or fewer of thefe nipples againft the body
whence the web is begun ; or, as they apply each more or
lefs ftrongly ; fo, as more or fewer of the minuter nipples
come to take, the thread thus fpun will be a compound of
more or fewer of the finglc threads. Indeed, as the threads
come from the anus all joined together, they appear to be
fingle ; but M. Ben has diftinguifhed one of the fingle ones
to confiil of fifteen or twenty diftinft threads.

The threads are of two kinds : the firft is weak, and only
ferves for that kind of web with which they catch flies.
The fecond is much flronger, and ferves to wrap up therr
eggs in ; which, by this means, are fheltered from the cold,
as well as from infccls, which might otherwife gnaw and
dellroy them. Thefe threads they wind very loofely round
the eggs, refcmbliiig the balls or bags of iilk-worms, that
have been prepared and loofened for the diftaff.

The fpider-bags are of a grey colour, when new ; but
they turn blackifh, when long expofed to the air: indeed,
one might find other fpiders' bags of other colours, and
which would afford a better filk ; but the'r fcarcity would
render the experimei.t difficult : for which reafon, we con-
fine ourfelves to the bags of the m.ofl common fpiders, which
are the fhort-legged kind. Thefe always find out fom«
place, fecure from the wind and rain, to make their bags ;
as hollow trees, the corners of windows, or vaults, or under
the eaves of houfes.

By coUefting a quantity of thefe bags, a new filk is made,
inferior in nothing to the common filk. It takes all kinds
of dyes, and may be made into all kinds of ftuffs. M. Bon
had ilockings and gloves made of it, which he prefented to
the Academy, and others to our Royal Society.

For the manner of preparing the bags to get the filk, it
is thus: after having gathered twelve or thivteen ounces
of thefe bag?, M. Bon had them well beaten for fome time,
with the hand, and a flick, to get out all the dull ; he then
wafhed them in lukewarm water, till they left the water
very clean : after this, he laid them to fleep, in a large
veffel, with foap, and faltpetre, and gum arabic. The
whole was left to boil, over a gentle fire, for three hours.
The bags were next wafhed in warm water, to get out
the foap J and after all, laid to dry fome days, to fit then>

for

S I L

S I L

for cardinp ; which was pe-rformcd by the common filk-
carders, but with cards much tiner than ordinary. By tins
means, he had a filk, of a very particular afh-colour, which
was cafily fpun ; and the thread fpun fro:yi it was both
ftrongier and finer than that of common filk ; which ftiews,
that all forts of works may be made of it : nor is there any
reafon to fear, but it will Hand any trials of the loom, after
having patTcd that of the (locking-weavers.

The only difHculty, now, is in procuring; a fufiicient
quantity of fpider-bags to make any confiderable work of
it ; which, M. Bon nbferves, would be no difficulty at all,
had we-but the art of breeding them, as we do filk-worms ;
for they multiply much more ; every fpider laying fix or
feven hundred egg?, whereas the filk-worms do not ky
above one hundred : yet are thcfe lad fo tender, &c. that
one half die without making any bags, or are hindered, by
fome little accident, from making them ; whereas the fpiders
hatch of themfelves, without any care, in the months of
Augull and September, in fifteen or fixteen days after they
are laid ; the old fpiders that lay them dying foon after.
The young ones thus bred live ten or twelve months with-
out eating, and continue in their bags without growing,
till the hot weather, putting their vifcid juices in motion,
induces them to come forth, fpin, and run about to fcek
food. Were a method, therefore, found of breeding young
fpiders in rooms, they would, doubtlefs, furnifh a much
greater quantity of bags than filk-worms do. For of feven
or eight hundred young fpiders, which M. Bon kept, hardly
one died in a year ; whereas of one hundred filk-worms, not
forty lived to make their bags. M. Bon, having ordered
all the fhort-legged fpiders that could be found in the
months of Augull and September to be brought to him,
fliut them up in paper coffins, and pots ; covering the pots
with papers, which he pricked full of pin-holes, as well as
the coffins, to give them air. He fed them with flies, and
found, fome time afterwards, that the greatefl part of them
had made their bags. The fame ingenious perfon found,
that fpiders' bags, with regard to their weight, afford
much more filk than thofe of the filk-worms : as a proof
of which, he obferves, that thirteen ounces yield near four
ounces of clear filk, two ounces of which will make a pair
of (lockings ; whereas (lockings of common filk weigh feven
or eight ounces.

Nor is there any venom in the filk, or even in the fpider,
as many have imagined. M. Bon has been bit by them le-
vcral timeR, without any manner of harm ; and as for the
filk, it is ufed with very good fuccefs to (lop bleeding, and
cure wounds, the natural gluten of it afting as a kind of
balfam. It likewife yields, by dillillation, feveral fpecific
medicines, particularly great quantities of fpirit, and vola-
tile fait, which being prepared after the fame manner as
that drawn from the bags of filk-worms, in making the
gutto! Anglicanac, or Englifh drops, at one time fo famous
all over Europe, may ferve to make other drops of greater
efficacy, which M. Bon calle drop; of Montpelier, and ad-
vifes to be ufed in all (leepy difeafes.*

M. Reaumur, being appointed by the Royal Academy
to make a farther inquiry into this new filk work, ha^ railed
feveral objections and difficulties againil it ; which are found
in the Memoirs of the Academy for the year 1710. The
fum of what he has urged amounts to this. The natural
fiercenefti of the fpiders renders them unfit to be bred and
be kept together : four or five thouf.md being diitributed
into cells, fifty in fome, one or two hundred in others, the
big ones foon killed and eat the lefs, fo that, in a (hort time,
there were fcarcely left one or two in each cell ; and to this

inclination of mutually eating one another, M. Reaumur
alcribcs the fcarcity of fpiders, confidering the vatl number
of eggs they lay.

But this is not all : he even affirms, th»t the fpider's bag
is inferior to that of the filk-worm, both in ludre and
(trcngth ; ard that it produces lefs matter to be manufac-
tured. The thread of the ipider's web, he fays, only bears
a weight of two grains without breaking; and that of the bag
bears tliirty-fix. The latter, therefore, in all probability,
is eighteen times thicker than the former ; yet it is weaker
than that of the filk-worm, which bears a weight of two
drachms and a half : fo that five threads of the fpider's bag
mull be put together, to equal one thread of the filk-worm's
bag.

Now it is impoffible thefe (hould be applied fo judly over
one another, as not to leave little vacant fpaces between
them, whence the light will not be leflefted ; and of con-
fequence, a thread, thus compounded, mud fall (hort of
the ludre of a folid thread. Add to this, that the fpider's
thread cannot be wound o(F, as that of the filk-worm may,
but mud of neceffity be carded ; by which means, being
torn in pieces, its evennefs, which contributes much to its
ludre, is dedroyed. In effedl, this want of ludre was taken
notice of by M. de la Hire, when the dockings were pre-
fented to the Academy.

Again : fpiders furnidi much lefs filk than the worm? ;
the largcll bags of thefe latter weigh four grains ; the
fn-.aller, three grains ; fo that 2304 worms produce a pound
of filk. The fpider-bags do not weigh above one grain ;
yet when cleared of their dud and filth, they lofe two-
thirds of their weight. The work of twelve fpiders, there-
fore, only equals that of one filk-worm ; and a pound of filk
will require at lead 27,648 fpiders. But as the bags are
wholly the work of the females, who (pin them to depofit
their eggs in, there mud be kept 55,296 fpiders to yield a
pound of filk. Yet will this only hold of the bell fpiders ;
tho(e large ones ordinarily feen in gardens, &c. fcarcely
yielding a twelfth part of the filk of the others : 280 of
thefe, he (hews, would not yield more than one filk-worm ;
663,552 of them would fcarcely yield a pound.

Su.K-Gra/s, in Botany, a name ufed for two very dif-
ferent genera of plants, the aloe, and dog's bane.

SlLK-'Inil, or Bohemian Chatterer, in Oi .lithology. See
RoLl.Eli.

Sli.K, Virginian, in Botany. Sec Peiuploca.
SlI.K- /form, Bombyx. This infedl, which is a fpecies of
the phalxna, (fee Bo.mbvx,) coiifids of eleven rings, and
each of thefe of a great number of other (mailer ones, joined
to each other ; and the head, which terminates thcfe rings,
is furnifhed with two jaws, wliich work and cut the food, not
by a perpendicular but a lateral aftion.

Tlie humours found in the body of this creature all fcem
approaching to the nature of the filk which it fpins ; for
on being rubbed in the hands, they leave a hard or (olid
crud behind them. Under the Ikiii there is always found a
mucous roly-coloured membrane, enveloping the animal,
and fuppofed to be the new flcin in which it i.s to appear, on
throwing oil the old one. The heart of this creature reaches
from the head to the tail, running the whole length of the
body ; it is, indeed, rather a feries of many hearts tonncded
together, than one : the motion of fydole and diadole is very-
evident in this whole chain of hearts ; and it is an elegant
fight to obferve the manner of the vital fluid's palling from
one of them to the other. The domach of this animal is at
long as the heart, reaching, like it, from one end of the body
to tlie other, This large receptacle for food, and the fnd-
4Y 2 den

S I L

S I L

den paflage of it through the animal, ai'e very good rearon»
for its great voracity.

In the fide^i cf the belly, all ahout the ventricle, there is
depofited a vaft number of veffels, which contain the filky
juice : thefe run with various windings and meanders to the
mouth, and are fo difpofed, that the creatures can difcharge
their contents at pleafure at the mouth ; and accordiu'r to
the nature of the juices that tliey are fupplied with, furnifh
different forts of filk from them, all the fluid contents of
thefe vedels hardening in the air into that fort of thread,
of which we find the web or balls of this creature confift.

Thefe creatures never are offended at any flench, of what-
ever kind ; but they always feel a fouthern wind, and an
extremely hot air always makes them fick. Malpighi de
Bombyce.

SILKEBURG, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in
North Jutland, with a caflle, which was formerly very
ftrong ; 1 8 miles W. of Aarhuus.

SILLA, in j4ncifnt Geoqrap/jy, a river of India, which
rofe in a mountain of the fame name, and loft itfelf in the
ground, without receiving any other river.

SiLLA, in Geography, a large town of Africa, in Bam-
barra, on the right bank of the Niger, within two fhort
days' journey of Jenne, which is fituated on an ifland in the
river. This place was the boundary of Mr. Park's journey,
and from hence he began his return homeward ; 75 miles
N.E. of Sego. N. lat. 14' 48'. W. long. 1° 34'.

SiLLA Point, a cape on the north-weft coaft of the ifland
ef Mindanao. N. lat. 9°. E. long. 125° 51'.

SILLABAR, or Cellkbar, a fea-port town on the
weft coaft of the ifland of Sumatra, with a good and fafe
harbour ; 30 miles S.S-E. of Bencoolen.

SILLAH-MEW, a handfome town of the Birman
empire, fituated on the Irawaddy. It is fhaded by wide-
fpreading trees, and embellifhed with feveral temples. A
fmooth bank floping to the river, and clothed with the iineft
verdure, adds much to its beauty. The foil around in
general is but poor. Some fields are regularly fenced, and
cattle in large herds graze in the neighbourhood.

SILLANGER, a town of Sweden, in Angermanland ;
4 miles W. of Hernofand.

SILLANO, a town of Etruria; 8 miles S.S.E. of
Voltcrra.

SILLEE, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the north by
Ramgiu", on the eaft by Pachete, on the fouth by Tomar,
and on the weft by Nagpour ; its form is fqiiare, and each
fide is about 16 miles. — Alfo, the capital of the above
circar; 25 miles S.E. of Ramgur. N. lat. 23° 22'. E.
long. 85'' 56'.

SILLEIS, in Anclenl Geography, a river of the Troade.

SILLE-LE-GUILLAUME, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftriA of Le Mans ; 18 miles N. of Le
Mans. The place contains 21 21, and the canton 11,835
inhabitants, on a territory of 247^ kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes. N. lat. 48' 12'. W. long. 0° 3'.

SILLEWOOD, a fn.all ifland in the North fea, near
the coaft of Norway ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Bergen.

SILLINGA, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles S. of Doefa.

SILLON, in Fortification, an elevation of earth, made
in the middle of the moat, to fortify it, when too broad.

The fillon is more ufually denominated an envelope.

SILLS, in Agriculture, a term fignifying the fhafts of a
eart, waggon, &c.

SILLY, in Geography, a rock on the fouth coaft of the
ifland of Jerfey ; 2 miles S. of Noirmont Point.

SILLYUS, in Ancient Geography, a towil of Afi» Micar,
in Ionia, in the vicinity of Smyrna.

SILM, or CiLM MoNou, in Geography, a country of
Africa, near the river Schcrbro.

SILNO, a town of Lithuania; 4 miles N.N.W. of
Grodno.

SILO, in Ancient Geography. See Smiloh.

SILOE, SiLOA, or Siloam, a fountain at thp foot of
the walls of Jerufalem, eaft, between the city and the
brook Kidron, or Cedron. Jofcphus (De Bell. 1. v. c. 26.)
fays, that when Nebuchadnezzar befieged .Jerufalem, the
waters of this fountain increafed ; and that the cafe was the
fame, when Titus befieged the city ; fo that, during the
fieee, it abundantly fupplied the Roman army, and furnifhed
alio a fufficiency for watering the gardens ; though, before
this event, water could hardly be bought for money. The
prophet Ifaiah (ch. viii. 6.) infinuates, that its waters flowed
gently and without noife. St. John fpeaks of the pool of
Siloam. (John, ix. 7.) The tower of Siloam, mentioned
Luke, xiii. 4. is thought to have been near the fountain

SI-LONG, in Geography, a city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in Quang-fi. N. lat. 24° 34'. E. long.
105° 18'.

SILOOR, a town on the north-caft coaft of Sumatra.
S.lat. i°8'. E. long. 103° 51'.

SILOXERUS, in Botany, fo named by Labillardiere,
from -i/Xo-, thejlyle, and 07x11^0,-, fiueUir.g, on account of the
tumid bafe of that part. It would have been difficult to
trace this derivation, without authentic information from
the author himfelf. — Lahill. Nov. HoU. v. 2. 57. — Claf»
and order, Syngencjla P olygamia-frgregata. Nat. Ord. Cam-
plfila nucamentacex, Linn. Corymliferx, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx fcarcely any, except the leaves
furrounding the common compound receptacle ; partial in-
ferior, of from five to feven equal, obovatc-oblong, con-
cave, membranous leaves, containing feveral florets. Cor.
compound uniform, difcoid, of from two to five tubular,
monopetalous, regular, pitcher-fhaped, five-toothed, perfect
florets. Stam. Filaments in each floret five, very fhort ;
anthers linear, united into a tube. Pijl. Germen in each
floret inverfely pyramidal, tuberculated ; ityle awl-fiiaped,
fwelling very much at the bafe ; ftigmas two, obtufe,
fpreading. Peric. none, except the permanent partial
calyx. Seeds folitary to each floret, inverfely pyramidal,
befet with rows of tubercles, and crowned with about twelve
little teeth ; down of one leaf, membranous, pellucid, in
five ovate, acute, fringed lobes. Common Receptacle ob-
long, fomewhat club-fhaped, hairy, many-flowered ; partial
fmall, fcaly, the fcales membranous, oblong, fcarcely longer
than the florets.

Efl. Ch. Common receptacle hairy ; partial chaffy.
Partial calyx with from two to five perfedl, equal, regular
florets. Seed-down membranous, five-lobed, fringed.

I. S. humifufus. Labill. Nov. HoU. v. 2. 58. t. 209. —
Native of Lewm's land, on the fouth coaft of New Hol-
land. A fmall, diffufe, herbaceous plant, with a tapering,
apparently annual, root. Stems feveral, fpreading, fimple,
leafy, an inch or two long. Leaves moftly oppofite, fimple,
linear, obtufe, fmooth, near an inch in length ; feveral of
them crowded under the heads of powers, which are
terminal, folitary, ovate or nearly globular, fcarcely an
inch long. Nothing is rnentioned concerning the colour,
fcent, or properties of this little inconfpicuous, but Angular,
plant.

SILPERRY, m Geography, a tovni of Bengal ; 2 miles
S.S.E. of Ghidore.

SILPHA,

SILPHA.

SILPHA, in Entomology, 7i ^enui of infefts of the order
Coleoptera, of which the ijeneric charaAer is, Antennae cla-
vate, the club perfoliate ; fliells margined ; head prominent ;
thorax fomewhat flattened and margined. This genus of
infefts, from its habits, is known by the trivial name of the
CarrioH-beetk. The feveral fpecies are commonly found
among decayed animal or vegetable fubllances, frequenting
alfo dung-hills, carrion, and other offcnfivc matter : they
lay their eggs chiefly in the dead and putrid carcafes of ani-
mals. The larvi are of a lengthened fhape, and of an un-
pleafant appearance, being generally roughened with minute
fpines and protuberances. There are about 120 fpecies, in
eight feparate divifions or feftions. The following arc moft
worthy of notice.

SeSion A is charaderij'ed by a dilated and bijid Lip, and a oiie-
toothed Jaiv ; in which, among others, are the follotuing

Species.

SuRiNAMENsis. Black ; {hells with a yellow band be-
hind ; hind-thighs toothed. It is found in South America.

* LiTTORALis. This is a black infcdl ; the fliells are
naked, with three raifed lines ; thorax rounded and poliflied.
This is an European infeft, and found in our own country.

LiviDA. This is brown ; thorax, fliells, and legs livid.
It is found in Germany.

IxDiCA. This, as its name imports, is an Indian infeft ;
it is black ; the fliells are marked with two ferruginous
bands ; thorax one-toothed before.

MlCANS. Black, with a green polifli ; fliells ftriate, trun-
cate, one-toothed. This is an inhabitant of the Cape of
Good Hope. Tail rufous ; fliells black, with three elevated
ftrise, one-toothed at the future.

Americana. This, as its name fliews, ir found in
divers parts of America. It is deprefled and black ; tho-
rax is yellow and black in the centre. The fliells are rugged
and immaculate.

* TiiORACicA. This is black ; the fliells are marked
with a liugle elevated line ; the thorax is teftaceous. Tliis
and the following are Englifli infedts. According to Mr.
Donovan's figure and defcription, the fliells of this fpecies
have three railed lines. It is didinguifliable by its red tho-
rax, every other part being black.

* RuaesA. Blackifli ; the fliells are ridged with three
raifed lines, the thorax is ridged and finuate behind. This
infeft confumes dead carcafes, fifli, and flefli of all kinds :
when caught it emits a very fetid humour.

* AsTRATA. This is of a fize fimilar to the thoracici,
but is totally black, and has the wing-flieaths marked by
three rifiiig lines ; its larva, which may be found in gardens,
is of a lengthened fliape, and of a black colour.

♦Lr.viGATA. Black; fliells fmooth and fub-punftured.
The fliells are without railed lines.

* Obscuka. Black ; the fliells arc punftured, with
three railed lines ; the thorax is truncate before. This fpe-
cies is figured by Donovan. The thorax has a blueifli
glofs.

* Opaca. This is brown ; the fliells have three raifed
lines ; the thorax is truncate before.

•SiNUATA. The thorax of this fpecies is emarginate
-ind rough ; the flielk have three raifed lines, finuate at the
tip. This is a beautiful fpecies : the thorax is brown, with
a filvery glofs ; it is rough, with railed dots.

* 4-PuNCTATA. The thorax is yellow, with a large
black Ipot ; the fliells are yellow, with four black fpots.

* Gkisea. Grey; the fliells arc fmooth ; the thorax is
emarginate.

Se3ioH B u diflinguiflied by an entirely rounded Lip, and a
t/ne-loothid Jaiv.

4-Maculata. Thorax and fliells black, the latter with
two rufous fpots ; the body is rufous : the antennx are
ferruginous, brown before the tip, fliells Itriate.

MuLTiPuxcTATA. Rufous; fli'.lls fubllriatc, with nu-
merous rufous dots. This is found chiefly in Sweden.

PiCEA. Pitchy; fliellf (triate, black, the bafe and band
behind are ferruginous. This is a very finall infeCt, and is
found in Germany.

Metallica. This is of a braily colour ; the legs are
ferruginous. It is found in divers parts of Saxony.

C. Lip horny, entire; the Jaiv is Vifid.

4-N0TATA. Black ; the fliells are truncate, with two
rufous fpots. It is found in fome parti of Germany.
The antennce are long ; the five lafl joints are perfoliate ;
the Ihells are a little (horter than the body ; the abdomen is
acute.

4-PusTULOSA. Black, poliflied ; edge of the thorax
and fpots on the fliells are fanguineous. It is found in
New Holland ; the fliells are truncate, fliorter than the
abdomen.

Agahicina. This alfo is black and poliflied ; the an-
tenna: and legs are yellow. It is found in many parts of
Europe, but not in our own country. The fliells are trun-
cate, fliorter than the abdomen ; the body is black and im-
maculate ; the abdomen pointed.

D. Lip emarginate, conic; Jaw bifid.

Fasciat.v. Black ; the fliells are marked with two
rufous bands, the fore one fpotted with black. It inhabits
North America, and is a rather large infcdl ; though lef«
than the

Grandls, which is an African infeft, and fo named on
account of its fize. This is black, and the flicUs are marked
with two rufous fpots.

*4-Pu.sTULArA. Black; the fliells are marked with two
ferruginous dots. This is found in England, and in many
other parts of Europe. The larva is long, hairy, and
grey.

* 6-Pl'stulata. Black ; fliells ftriate, with three rufous
fpots. This is found chiefly in the northern parts of Eu-
rope. It is reckoned a very beautiful fpecies ; the antennx
are pitchy ; the thorax is ferruginous at the edge ; fpot at
the bafe of the fliells finuate, the middle one is uniform ; -
that at the tip is fmall and round ; the body beneatli is
rufous.

* NiGRiPENNis. Rufous ; the antenna:, fliells, and breaft
are black. This is found chiefly on trees.

* RuFiPF.s. This is a black infeft; the head, thorax,
and legs, are ferruginous. The abdomen is black.

* iliNEA. This is of a fine fcarlet colour ; the fliells are
brafl'y and immaculate.

* Rum- RONS. Black ; but tlie front, two fpots on the
fliells, and legs, are ferruginous. This is found in divert
parts of England, and is reckoned a fmall inleft.

E. The Infclls of this Scliion are charaQtrifed by a hiart-
Jhaped Lip, emarginate and crenate,

'Ger.manica. Black; front and edge of the fliells are
ferruginous. SVmctimes the fliells arc marked with a fer-
ruginou.s fpoi or two. It depofits its eggs in the carcafes
of other infefts, and buries them under ground. It is very
like the

* VjisPiLLO. This infeft, which is not uncommon in our

own

S I L

S I L

own country, is the moil remarkable of the European fpe-
cies. It is diftingiiilhed by having the wing-fheaths confi-
derably fliorter than the abdomen, or as if cut off at the
tips ; they are alfo marked by two waved, orange-coloured
tranfvcrfe bars, the reft of the infecl being black ; the ge-
neral length of the animal is about tiiree-quarters of an inch.
The vefpillo feeks out fome decaying animal fubftnnce in
which it may depofit its eggs, and in order to their greater
fecurity, contrives to bury it under ground. Three or four
of thefe infedls, working in concert, have been known to
drag under the furface the body of a mole in the fpace of
an hour, fo that not a trace of it ha? appeared above ground.
The eggs are white, and of an oval (hape : from thefe are
hatched the larva;, which, when full grown, are about an
inch long, of a ycllowifh-white colour, with a fcaly orange-
coloured Hiield, or bar, acrofs the middle of each divifion of
the body. Each of thefe larva; forms for itfelf an oval cell
in the ground, in which it changes to a yellowilh chryfalis,
refembling that of a beetle ; out of which, in the fpace of
three weeks, proceeds the perfeft infeft. This fpecies is
reckoned very elegant in form, but it generally diffufes a
very ftrong and unpleafant fmell ; it flies with ftrength and
rapidity, and is ufually feen on the wing during the hottelt
part of the day.

MoRTUORUM. Black ; (hells marked with two ferru-
ginous bands ; the club of the antennae is black ; the hind-
thighs are unarmed. This is found in many parts of Ger-
many, preying on carcafes and fungi.

F. Lip fquare and emargtnate.

* Scarad-t:oides. Oval, black ; the (hells are marked
with two ferruginous fpots.

LuNATA. Oval, black ; (hells with a lunate yellow fpot
at the tip. It is about the fize of the latt, and is found in
Germany.

Colon. Yellow ; the fpots on the thorax, and marginal
ipot on the (hells, black. It is found in Sweden. The head
is black ; the antennx are yellow ; the club is black ; the
thorax is downy, with fix fpots difpofed in a ftreak ; the
abdomen is black, edged with yellow.

* Atomaria. This infedl is fmooth and black ; the (hells
have crenate ilria: ; the legs are pale.

* Melanocephala. This is black and fmooth ; the
fliells are grey, with a common black fpot at the bafe.

* Unipuncta. This is black ; lliells yellowilh, with a
common black fpot. The (hells are fometimes immaculate.

* F1.METARIA. Black, immaculate ; the (hells are very
fmooth. It is found chiefly in dung.

* Minuta. This is black and fmall ; the (hells are
ftriate ; legs of the fame colour. It is found in many parts
of England.

* Pulicvria. This is oblong and black ; the (liells are
abbreviated ; the abdomen pointed. This is found chiefly
among flowers.

G. Tbc InfeSs of this SeUion have a long and entire Lip; the
y^ntentm are ferrate.

* Saxicornis. Smooth, pohfhed, and of a chefnut co-
lour ; the antennae are black.

Depressa. Smooth, ferruginous ; the rtiells are fub-
ftriate, and the body is deprefled. It is found under the
bark of oak-trees,

H. Lip and Jaw unknown.

Of this feftion there are no Englifh fpecies ; it will be i'uf-
ficient to iriention the following.

I.vsiGN'lTA. Black ; (hells obfoletely ftriate, with two
large fcarlet fpots. Common at Berlin ; as is the next.

Nigricans. Blackifh ; the (hells are fmooth, with four
yellow fpots.

HiSTEROiDE?, Black ; the antennx and legs are red ; the
fiielLs are abbreviated with a red fpot. It inhabits Upfal,
and is the fize of a loufe.

SILPHIUM, in Botany, an old Latin name adopted
from the Greeks, whofe inXUv.-, according to the defcrip-
tion in Diofcorides, is evidently one of the umbelliferous
family, with a broad or flat feed. (See La.ser.) Linnaeus
takes a great liberty, in transferring this name to a fynge-
nefious genus, altogether American, in his Corollarium
Gen. PI. 16 ; nor does he, in his Hortus Chffortianus, give
any reafon for this meafure. — Linn. Gen. 444. Schreb. 580.
Willd. Sp. PL V. 3. 2330. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 5. 163. Purfti 577. Jud. 118. Lamarck
lUullr. t. 707. Gaertn. t. 171. (Aiteiifcus ; Dill. Elth.
32. t. 47.) — Clafs and order, Syngenefia Folygamia-necef-
faria. Nat. Ord. Compoftta oppnfitifolix , Linn. Corymbifera,
Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, imbricated, fquarrofe ;
its fcales ovate-oblong, reflexed for about half their length,
projefting on all fides, permanent. Cor. compound, ra-
diant. Perfetl florets in the diflc feveral, of one petal,
funnel-lhaped, tive-toothcd ; their tube fcarcely more flender
than the limb ; female one?, in the radius, fewer, lanceolate,
very long, often three-toothed. Stam. in the florets of the
diflc only. Filaments five, capillary, very (hort ; anthers
united into a cylindrical tube. Pifl. in the florets of the
difli imperfeft, Germen thread-ihaped, very flender ; llylc
thread-lhaped, very long, villous ; ftigma fimple : in the
females, Germen inverfely heart-fhaped ; ftyle fimple, (hort ;
ftigmas two, briftle-lhaped, the length of the ityle. Peric.
none, except the unaltered calyx. Seeds in the diflc none j
in the radius fohtary to each floret, fomewhat membranous,
inverfely heart-(haped, with a membranous, two-horned,
emarginate border. Recept. chafl^y, with linear fcales.

Eil. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seeds compreffed, in-
verfely heart-(haped, bordered ; their down bordered, with
two horns. Calyx fquarrofe.

Fifteen fpecies are defined by authors, hardy herbaceous
perennial plants, generally rather large, with the afpeft of
Sunflowers ; their leaves oppofite, whorled, or alternate ;
the flowers yellow. The horns of the feed are wanting in
fome of the fpecies.

1. S. laciniatum. Jagged-leaved Silphium. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1301. Ait. n. I. Pur(h n. i. Linn. fil. fafc. I. 5.
t. 3. — Stem hifpid. Radical as well as ftem-leaves pinna-
tifid ; their fegments deeply toothed, — On the banks of
rivers, in the weftern territories of North America, parti-
cularly on the Miflifippi, flowering from Auguft to Oftober.
Purjh. Colhnfon fent the feeds to Linnaeus. Thi ftem is
from eight to twelve feet high, fimple, leafy, round, an
inch thick, rough in the upper part with briftly hairs.
Leaves alternate, ftalked, two feet long, and one broad,
with four or five repiote lobes at each fide ; llrongly ribbed,
rough. Flowers four inches wide ; the ten fcales of their
rough calyx armed with Itrong taper points.

2. S. compofttum. Panicled Silphium. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. v. z. 145. Willd. n. 2. Purfli n. 2. (S. laci-
niatr.m ; Walt. Carol. 217.) — "Stem fmooth. Stem-
leaves pinnatifid ; radical ones ternate, with many feg-
ments. Flowers panicled." — In gravelly woods, near the
fca-coaft of Virginia and Carolina, flowering from AuguA
to Odlober, Not above two feet high. Flowers froall.
Pu,fh.

3-S.

SILPHIUM.

3. S. terclinfhhMceum. Broad-leaved Silphium. Linn.
Suppl. j^Rj. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Purfli n. 3. Jacq.
Hurt. Vind. v. i. 16. t. 43. — Stem fmootli. Radical
leaves heart-fliaped ; thofe of the ttcm alternate, ovate, fer-
rated, rough. — In Lnuifiana, and the weftcrn mountains of
North America, flowering from Augud to October. Furjh.
The Jlem is about five feet high, paniclcd at the top, with
bright yellow, rather droopmg, Jlowcrs, three inches in dia-
meter. The radical leaves are a foot lonp;, and nearly as
broad, coriaceouo, rough, fliarply toothed, with very long
footftalks.

4. S. pcrfuUalum. Square-tlalked Silphium. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1301. Ait. n. 3. Purfli n. 4. — Leaves oppofite, tri-
angular, ftalked, perfoliate. Stem fciuare, fmooth. — Na-
tive of the Allegany mountains, from Pennfylvania to Caro-
lina, flowering from .July to October, according to Mr.
Purfh, wlio confiders as a variety of this the conjunclum,
Willd. Enum. 933. The prefent is a robull plant, fre-
quent in large gardens or plantations, taller than a man.
Leaves rough like a file, with bordered rough-edged _/W-

jlalks, clafping the item with their compound bafes.
Floiucrs about two inches wide, with a Imooth calyx.

5. S. connatum. Round-ltalked Perfoliate Silphium.
Linn. Mant. 574. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 4. Purfh n. 5.
— Stem round, hifpid. Leaves oppolite, diltantly ferrated,
rough ; combined at the bafe — Found on the high moun-
tains of Virginia and Carolina, flowering in Auguft and
September. Purlh, as well a^ Willdenow, jullly infills on
this being a very dillinft fpecies from the laft, of which
Michaux thought it a variety. The Jlem is round, covered
in the upper part with deflexed brillly liairs. Upper leaves
nearly entire, broad and perfoliate at the bafe. The
flowers refemble thofe of the preceding.

6. S. AJler'ifcus. Hairy-ltalked Silphium. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1302. Ait. n. 5. Purfli n. 6. (Ailerifcus corona;
folis folio et facie; Dill. Elth. 42. t. 37.) — Stem round,
hifpid. Leaves oppofite or alternate, oblong, acute, fer-
rated, rough. Calyx fringed. — In mountain meadows of
Virginia and Carolina, flowering from .Tuly to September.
Purjh. Stem about two feet high, fpottcd with purple.
Lower leaves alternate, coarfcly toothed ; upper nearly op-
pofite, and more entire. Flowers nearly three inches
broad.

7. S. pumilum. Dwarf Silphium. Michaux Boreali-
Amer. v. 2. 146. Willd. n. 7. Purfli n. 7. — " Stem
finely downy. Leaves oval, flightly ferrated, obtufe, ra-
ther downy. Scales of the c.ilyx obovate, obtufe. Seeds
vi'ithout horns." — Gathered in llorida, by Bartram and
Michaux. We have fcen no fpecimin.

8. S. iKtfgnfalium. Entire-leaved Silphium. Michaux
ibid. Willd. n. 8. Purfli n. S. — " Stem quadrangular,
harfli. Leaves oppofite, felfile, oblong, entire, rough.
Flowers on Ihort llalks." — On the moll weftern of the Al-
legany and Illinois mountains, flowering from Augull to
OiSober. About four feet higii. Leaves all uniform,
ereft ; extremely rough on the upper fide. Floiuers few.
Purjb, Michaux.

9. S. Uvi^r.lum. Puliflicd Silphium. Purlh n. 9. —
" Stem fimple, fquare, furrowed, fmootli. Leaves oppo-
fite, fcflile, ovate, pointed, minutely ferrated, fmootli on
both fides ; fomewhat heart-fliaped at tlie bafe. Scales of
the calyx ovate, fringed." — Gathered by Mr. Enflen, in
Georgia, North America, about two fest high. Flowers
denfely corymbofe. PurJh.

10. S. Irifolhitum. Rough Three-leaved Silphium.
Linn. Sp. PI. 1302. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 6. Purfli
n. 10. (S. tcrnifolium; Michaux Borcal-Amcr. v. 2. J46.

Chryfanthemum virginianum, foliis afpcris, tribus ad geni-
cula fitis; Morif. led. G. t. 3. f. 68.) — Stem with fix
angles, fmooth. Leaves three in a whorl, ovato-lanceolate,
rough, with unequal tooth-like ferratures. Panicle three-
forked. — On the high mountains of Virginia and Carolina,
flowering in September and OAober. Purjl.\ Stem about
fix feet high, leafy, purplilh, fmooth to the" touch. Leaves
more or lefs accurately whorled, about three inches long
and one broad, on fliort llalks ; the floral ones entire.
Flowers two inches in diameter. Caly.x-fcales broad, mi-
nutely fringed, fmooth.

11. 5. lernatum. Fringed Three-leaved Silphium. Willd.
n. 10. Purfli n. 11. — «' Stem cylindrical, fmooth. LeavM
three in a whorl, ilalkcd, lanceolate, flightly and minutely
toothed, roughifli ; fringed at the bale : the upper ones
fcattered and feflile. Panicle forked. Calyx fringed." —
Retzius communicated to Willdenow a defcription of this,
as a new fpecies from North vVmerica, and Purfli faw a
fpecimen in Mr. Lambert's polleiiion. T\\e Jlem is laid to
be four feet high. Lowell, as well as the uppermoit, leaves
fcattered ; thofe of the panicle feffile, two together. Caly.x-
fcales in four rows. Florets of the radius broader than in

the lall ; but thofe of the diflc are Jhorter. Retzius.

1 2. S. atro-purpureum. Violet-llalked Silphium. Willd.
n. II. Purfli n. 12. — " Stem cylindrical, fmooth. Leaves
about four in a whorl, lanceolate, rough, nearly entire, al-
moll feihle ; fringed at the bafe : the upper ones fcattered.
Panicle forked." — Willdenow was indebted to Retzius for
this likewife, but Mr. Lyon is faid to have met with it in
Carolina and Georgia, flowering in Augull and September.
Mr. Purfli, who had feen this plant alive, fays it refembles
the preceding, but is at firft. fight dillinguiflied by the
purple ivnoo\.\\ Jlem. By the deicription of Retzius, the
fpecimen of S. trifoUatum in the Linnxan iierbarium fliould
leem rather to belong to the prefent fpecies. See its de-
fcription above.

13. S. lomeniofum. Downy Silphium. Purfli n. 13. —
" Stem and footllalks downy. Branches fingle-flowered.
Leaves alternate, heart-fliaped, ovate, ferrated, fliaggy.
Seeds without horns." — Gathered in Georgia, by John
Bartrain, whole fpecimens are in fir Jolcph Banks's her-
barium. Purfli.

14. S. datum. T.ill Silphium. Purfli n. 14. — "Leave*
alternate, Italked, heartlhaped, finuated. Calyx-fcalcs
obtufe." Native of Carolina. Herb. Banks.

I J. S. reliculiilum. Reticulated Silphium. Purlh n. 15.
— " Leaves alternate, ovato-lanceolate, heart-fliaped, fer-
rated, bluntifli, fomewhat villous." — Native of Florida.
Herb. Banks,

S. foUiliiginoieles, Linn. Sp. PI. 1302, proves the fame
plant as RuJbechia opptjuifdia, Sp. PI. I 2S0, under each of
which names it lies in tiie Linnxan herbarium. It is alio
Helianthus Uvis, Sp. PI. 1278, adopted from Gronovius ;
and is ^VilldellOw's Buphlhalmum inliantlmiJes, n. 19, to
which lall genus it had originally been referred by Linnxus
in his Hortus Upfalienfis. Finally this plant is now called
Heliijpfis liivis ir. Purlh, p. 563, after Perfoon. See Ri:d-

liKCKIA.

S. Irilobatum, Linn. Sp. PI. 1 302, is Buphlhalmum re-
pens, Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 2233. n. 13. Lamarck Did.
V. 1.515.

Sli.i'iill'M, ill Gartlening, contains plants of the tall-
growing, iierbaceous, pcreimial kind, of which the fpecies
cultivated are, the jagged-leaved lilphium (S. laciniatiim) ;
the broad-leaved filphiuiu (S. terebinlhinaceum) ; the hairy-
ltalked filphium (S. ailerifcus) ; and the thrcc-leavcd fil-
phium (S. trifoliatum).

Mtlbod

S I L

S I L

Method of Culture, — They are all readily increafed by
parting the roots, and planting them out in the autumn or
fpring, where they are to remain in the borders and clumps.
They may alfo be raifed by planting the flips in the fame
manner : they (hould be afterwards managed as the perennial
fun-flower. They are durable in the root, but decay an-
nually in the flalk.

They afford a good variety and effeft among other pe-
rennial plants in the fummer feafon, when put out in a
proper manner.

SiLPHiuM, in Ancient Geography, a country of Libya,
which took its name from the plant. It commenced eaft-
ward towards Aziris and the ifle of Platxa, and extended
weftward as far as the Syrtis.

SILSTADT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
eounty of Wernigerode ; 3 miles N.E. of Wernigerode.

SILVA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Kama,
near the town of Silva, in the government of Perm. — Alfo,
a river of RufTia, which runs into the Tchufovaia, 16 miles
N.E. of Perm. — Alfo, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Perm ; 12 miles N.W. of Solikainfk.

Silva Plana, a town of Switzerland, in the bifhopric
of Coire ; 16 miles W.N.W. of Bormio.

SILVANEZ, a town of France, in the department of
the Aveiron ; 9 miles S. of St. Afrique.

SILVELLA, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Upper Po ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Cremona.

SILVER, a river of the King's county, Ireland, which
rifes on the north-weil fide of the Sliebh-Bloom mountains,
and takes a northerly direftion. It has this name in Beau-
fort's and Arrowfmith's maps, but is called the Frankford
river by Mr. Longfield, in Jiis report to the Bog commif-
fioners, from the fmall town of Frankford, which it paffes.
Mr. Longfield reprefents it as capable of being eafily made
navigable for canal boats, and alfo of being made to contri-
bute to the drainage of the vafl bogs between which it flows.
In one part of its courfe, a little before it joins the Brufna,
the Macartney aqueduft, a part of the Grand Canal, paffes
over it.

Silver, in the Arts, ManufaEiares and Commerce, and
in Domejiic Economy, is a white malleable metal, fufceptiblc
of a fine polifh. In Chemifiry, it is a fimple inflammable
body.

It is fometimes found in the native ftate, but more fre-
quently combined with antimony, arfenic, or fulphur ;
forming the varieties of filver-ores ; with which we Ihall
begin, and then proceed to the aflay and analyfis, phyfical
properties, and chemical properties of filver.

Silver-ores contain that metal either native, or alloyed
■with other metals, or mineralized by fulphur, and fome-
times with the muriatic acid, the fulphuric acid, and in one
rare inflaiice v/ith the carbonic acid.

Silver-ores principally occur in the rocks which have been
denomiiialed primary and tranfition rocks, and rarely in
fecondary rocks ; but many rich argentiferous lead-ores
occur in alpine hme ftone and fecondary ftrata. The ores
of filver are accompanied by calcareous fpar and fulphate of
barytes, and fometimes with quartz, horn-llone, jafper, and
fluor fpar. It has been remarked, that the warmer regions
of the globe afford the greatelt quantity of gold, but the
richetl repolitories of filver are fituated either in high lati-
tudes or in elevated regions. The moft celebrated filver-
mines of Europe are in Sweden and Norway, at no great
diftance from the polar regions ; and thofe which are in
warmer latitudes, are almoft all fituated near the furamits
of alpine mountains commonly covered with fnow, as at
AUeraont in France, and the mines of Mexico and Peru, in

the centre of the Cordilleras. Silver never oecuri, like
gold, in alluvial foil, or the fands of rivers. After the
mineralogical defcription of the ores, we fhall give a (hort
account of the principal repofitories of filver at prefent
known.

Native Jiher, Argent natlf of Haiiy, pofleffes the charac-
ters of filver extrafted from other filver-ores, but is gene-
rally lefs malleable. The colour is pure white, but the
furface is commonly tarnifhed, and is of a yellowifh-brown
or greyifh-black. Native filver occurs cryftallized in
cubes and oAohedrons ; the cryftals are fmall, and 3re often
aggregated, forming beautiful ramifications ; the branches
fometimes crofs each other in a redangular direction, and
are reticulated. It is fometimes in leaves and fometimes
capillary, and when the filaments are much entangled, it
becomes nearly compatl. Native filver is alfo found ia
fhapelefs malles of confiderable fize. In the )'ear 1750,
there was found in the famous mine of Hemraels Furfl, near
Freyberg, in Saxony, a mafs of native filver, which
weighed one hundred weight and a quarter; in 1771 an
equally large mafs was found. It is alfo mentioned by
Albini, in his " MeifTnifche Berg Arconicke," p. 30, " that
at Schneeberg, in 1478, a rich filver vein was difcovered ;
and fo large a block of native filver cut out, that duke
Albert of Saxony defcended into the mine, and ufed this
large block as a table to dine upon. It was fmelted into
four hundred centners of filver: a centner is 1 10 lbs."
( Jamefon's Mineralogy. ) Native filver is fufible into a
globule, which is not altered by a continuance of the heat ;
it is fcarcely ever pure : the metals with which it is alloyed
are commonly gold, copper or arfenic, and iron. Native
filver alloyed with gold is rare ; its colour is intermediate
between filver-white and brafs-yellow ; it often contains a
confiderable proportion of gold. The ftones which form
the matrix of native filver in the mine are very numerous ;
it fometimes appears to be infiltrated into the fiflurcs, fome-
times to vegetate on the furface, and in other inftancea to
be intimately combined with the fubllance of the ftone.
It is found in almoft all the filver-mines that are worked
in Europe or America ; but the mafies difcovered in
America are not fo large as fome which have been found
in Europe. The pacos, a moil abundant ore in Peru and
Mexico, confiits of minute particles of native filver, inter-
mixed with brown oxyd of iron ; but the particles are too
fmall to be feen without a lens, and bear but a very fmall
proportion to the mafs. Silver rarely occurs in detached
grains, like gold or platina.

Antlmonlal fdver-ore is compofcd of filver combined with
antimony, without any other iubilancc. Its colour is tin-
white ; It has a Ihining metallic lultre, which is often tar-
nifhed fuperficially reddifh or yellowifh. It is diftinguifhed
from native filver by its biittlenefs, being fcarcely malleable:
the ftrufture is lamellar. It is commonly found cryftalhzed
in four-fidcd and fix-iidcd prifm?, having the fides deeply
ftriated : its fpecific gravity is from 9.4 to 9.8. It melta
eafily before the blowpipe, giving a white fmoke from the
oxyd of antimony, and leaving a globule of filver. Its
conftituent parts arc from .76 to .84 filver, and from 16 to
24 of antimony. Antimonial filver is rare, particularly
the regular cryllallizations of it. It occurs in veins with
calcareous fpar and fulphate of barytes, and is accompanied
by galena and native filver. The foliated llrufture of anti-
monial filver diftinguifhes it from white cobalt-ore, which
has a granular itrudture j it differs alfo from arfenical pyrite.s,
both by its if rufture and foftnefs ; the latter is extremely
hard. Antimonial filver yields to the knife.

Arfenical Jiher-ore is harder than the former fpecies ; ita

ftrufture

SILVER.

ftruAure is lefs perfeftly lamellar, the fraftiire more even,
and the luflre weaker. It occurs in fmall, globular, and
kidney-ftiaped mafl'es ; before the blowpipe it yields the"
fmell of garlic, peculiar to arfenic ; a globule of filvcr more
or lefs pure remains. The conftituent parts of thi? ore are
given by Klaprolh as under ;

Silver • - 1 6

Arfenic - - 35

Iron - - 44

Antimony - - 4

Arfenical fiWer-ore ufually occurs with native arfirnic ;
dark red filver-ore, brittle filver-glance, lead-glance, and
brown blende, in calcareous fpar. It is a fcarce mineral.

Corneous JSlnier-ore, or Horn-ore ; Argent muriate, Fr.
This mineral is dillinguifhed by its tranilucency ; it has a
waxy or gliftening lultre, is foft and tenacious, and yields
to the nail. From thefe charafters it is fuppofcd to bear
fome refemblance to horn, whence its name. The mod
common colours of this mineral are pcarl-jrrey, pafTinir into
greemfli or reddifh-blue or brown ; it acquires a brownifti
tarnifh. Horn-filver occurs cryitallized in fmall cubes, and
is fometimes, though rarely, acicular and capillary : it is
more commonly in laminx or fmall mafles, or forms a coat-
ing on native filver. It is fufible in the flame of a candle.
Under the blowpipe, on charcoal, it yields a globule of
filver, and gives out a difagreeable odour, from the efcape
of the muriatic acid. Its fpecific gravity is from 4.75 to
4.80. Horn filver-ore is accompanied with native filver,
black lilver-ore, brown oyxd of iron, quartz, and lulphate of
barytes. It is fuppofed by fome mineralogifts to be the
moft- recent formation of filver-ore. It occurs in veins in
the filver-mines of Europe and America, and in Siberia,
and is obferved generally to occupy the upper part of the
vein. According to Klaproth, it confiils of 68 parts filver,
21 muriatic acid, a fmall quantity of fulphuric acid, with
a portion of iron and earthy fubftanccs ; but the latter
may be confidered as accidental. Horn-filver is rather a
fcarce mineral.

Vitreous Jilver-ore ; Silver-glwce, or fulphuretled ftlver ;
Glnjerz, Werner ; Ardent fulfure, Haiiy. Iti colour is
a dark lead-grey ; it is malleable, and may be cut with a
knife ; t!ie furface, when cut, is (hinint;, and has a metallic
luftre ; in itn natural (tate it has often an iridefcent tarnifli.
It occurs in a variety of forms, in branches, fibres, fmall
irregular mafl'es, and lamina:, and is alfo frequently cryftal-
lizcd : the cryltals are commonly the cube or oftohedron,
and tlie dodecahedron, with rhomboidal faces : the frac-
ture is flatly conchoidal. The fpecific gravity of this ore
is from 7.0 to 7.2 : its conftituent parts are from 73 to 8y
filver, and from 15 to 25 of fulphur. When raifed to a
red heat, the fulphur is gradually fublimed, and the filver
appears in filaments, dcndritical or reticulated. Many
minerulogills fuppofe that capillary native filver owes its
formation very frequently to a fimilar kind of dccompofition
of vitreous filver-ore. This mineral occurs in veins, and is
always accompanied with other ores of filver, and with
galena, iron pyrites, brown blende, fulphate of barytes, cal-
careous fpar, and quartz. It is found in almoll all filver-
mines in various p.irts of the globe.

Brittle vitreous Jilver-ore ; Shrod ^Inferz, Werner ; Ar-
gent noir, Haiiy ; differs from the former by its brittlenefs,
fplendour, and colour. The colour is intermediate between
iron-black and dark lead-grey ; it is brightly fplendent ex-
ternally ; intornallv it alternates from fhiiiing to gliflening ;
the lultre is metallic. It occurs mafTive and diffcminated,
nnd ill thin fmall plates, and frequently cryitallized in fix-
fided prifms, variouily terminated, and in reftangular four-

VoL. XXXII.

fided tabid : the latter cryftals frequently interfeA eack
other, forming the cellular itruaure. The tabular cryftaU
are generally minute. The fra£lure of the maffive ritreoui
ore is uneven ; that of the cryltals imperfcdly conchoidal.
This ore is foft, brittle, and fufible by the blowpipe ; the
fulphur, arfenic, and antimony, are partly volatilized, and
a globule of imperfeftly malleable filver, accompanied with
a brown fcoria, remains. According to Klaproth, the
brittle vitreous filver-ore, from a mine near Freyberg,
contained

Silver

Sulphur

Antimony

Iron

Copper and arfenic

Earthy matter -

66.50

12

10

5

0.50

Jilaei fulphuretted filver-ore ; Silber fchwarx,, Werner ;
differs from vitreous filver-ore by its want of luftre : it
occurs maffive, corroded, and in powder : the frafture of
the former is uneven ; the ftreak (hining and metallic. It
yields to the knife, and is fufible into a flag, containing
globules of filver.

Redftlver-ore, or Ruby ftlver ; Rotk giltigerz, Werner;
Argent rouge, and Argent anlimonie fulfure, Fr. The co-
lours of this mineral are various fliades of red, palling from
a bright-red to dark-red, andreddifti-grey or black. When
fcraped, the powder is of a crimfon colour. The cryftal-
lized varieties are tranflucent, or fcmi-tranfparent, and the
tranfmitted light is a carmine, light blood, or cochineal-red.
It occurs maffive, dilleminated, and in thin plates, and
cryftalHzed in hexahedral prifms, varioufly terminated, and
in dodecahedrons, with triangular faces, nearly fimilar to
the cryftallization of calcareous fpar, called dog-tooth fpar.
The primitive form of the cryftal, according to Haiiy, it
an obtufe rhomboid, whofe plane angles are 104° 28' and
73° 22', and the inclination of the faces 100'' 28' and
70° 32'. The frafturc is ulually uneven, and imperfeftly
conchoidal ; its luftre externally is fhiniog and metallic,
internally glimmering, fometimes metallic. It is brittle,
foft, yielding eafily to the knife. Before the blowpipe
it gives out a copious fmoke, with an arfenical fmell, and
leaves a globule of filver. Its fpecific gravity is about 5.6.
There are feveral minerals which have a red colour, and
may at firit fight be confounded with red filver, as the ful-
plinrct of arfenic, or realgar ; but this mineral become*
yellow when powdered. Cinn.ib3r has a greater refem-
blance, but the fpecific gravity is 7, and it is entirely vola-
tilized by the blowpipe. Red oxyd of copper has a
fpecific gravity of 3.9, and is ufually accompanied with
native copper, malachite, and brown iron oc!a-e ; it alfn
effervefces with nitric acid, and communicates to a folu-
tioii of ammonia a blue colour. By thelc charafters it
may be known from red filvcr-Krc. Werner has divided
red filver-ore into two fub-lpecies, the light and the dark.
Klaproth analyfed this mineral, ind fcupd it to contain,
only filvcr, fulphur, antimony, and oxygen. Prouil has
fiiewn that there are two kinds of red I'llver-ore, the one
containing arfenic, and the other at'iimony. The confti-
tuent parts, as given by Klaproth and Vauquelin, are

Klaprolh.

Vnui|vlfl;ii

Silver - 60

54-27

Antimony 203

i6.ij

•Sulphur - 11.7

i:-7s

Oxygen -

ii.«5

itulphuric acid 8

47.

A

Accordiu^

SILVER.

According to the analyfis of Prouft, a variety of this ore
contained pearly .75 parts of metallic filver, and .25 ef
metallic arfenic. Red filver-ore occurs in veins, but is
always intermixed with other minerals, particularly with
compaft galena, cobalt, fulphuret of arfenic, native arfenic,
grey copper-ore, and fparry iron-ore ; and has a matrix
of calcareous fpar, fulphate of barytes, fluor fpar, or quartz.
It is a common ore in filver-mines, both in Europe and
America : the dark-red ore is confiderably more productive
than the light-red.

S'thei- amalgam confilts of pure filver combined with mer-
cury. It has been found in the filver-mine of Salberg, in
the province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden, in the mines of
Deux-Ponts, in the Palatinate, and in fome other places,
either in thin plates or grains, or cryftalhzed into oftohe-
drons and dodecahedrons. It is fometimes femi-fluid. Its
colour is filvery-white or grey, the frafture conchoidal, and
the luftre metallic. It is foft, breaks when cut, and whitens
the furfaco of gold or of copper ; when rubbed upon them
warm before the blowpipe the mercury evaporates, and
leaves the filver pure. The conftituent parts, given by
Klaproth, are

Silver 36

Mercury ... - 64

White Jilvtr- ore has a near refemblance to compaft galena.
The colour is a light lead-grey, pafTmg to fteel-grey : it
occurs maifive and dilTeminated, and is generally intermixed
with cubic galena. The frafture is mod commonly even,
but fometimes fine-grained and uneven, and alfo fibrous ;
the internaj luftre is glillening and metallic; the llreak
(hining. It is foft and brittle. The fpecific gravity is 5.3.
Some mineralogifts think this ore fhould be clafl'ed with the
argentiferous ores of lead. According to Klaproth, dif-
ferent fpecimens from Hemmels Furft, near Freyberg,
contain, of the

Dark-white filver-ore. Light-white fiiver-ore.

Lead - 41 48

Silver - 9.25 20.40

Antimony - 21.50 7.88

Iron - 1.75 2.25

Sulphur - 22.0 12.25

Alumine - i.o 7

Silex - 0.75 0.25

Carbonate of Silver. — This ore has hitherto been only dif-
covered in the filver-mine of Winceflaus, in Swabia : it
occurs fometimes in maffes, and fometimes difleminated
through other minerals. Its colour is a greyifh-black ;
its fraclure uneven, with a glillening metallic luftre % it
is brittle and heavy, and effervefces with acids ; it melts
eafily under the blowpipe. According to Mr. Selb, who
firft defcribed this mineral, it contains

of bifmuthic filver. Its colour is a light lead-grey : it oc-
curs difieminated, but rarely ever in mafies ; the frafture is
fine-grained, uneven, with a gliitening metallic luftre ; it is
loft and rather brittle ; before the blowpipe metallic glo-
bules appear on the addition of borax, which unite ; the
button is brittle, and of a tin-white colour : the flux ac-
quires an amber colour. According to Klaproth this ore
contains

Silver

Carbonate of antimony

Carbonic acid

72-5
17-5
12

It contains alfo a flight trace of copper.

Befides the above ores of filver, there are ores of other
metals which contain a portion of filver, and have been
claffed by fome mineralogifts with filver-ores. An argenti-
ferous variety of grey copper-ore, of an iron-black or fteel-
grey colour, has received the name of black filver-ore. It
occurs maflive, difieminated and cryftalhzed in tetrahe-
drons ; the frafture is fmall conchoidal, with a fhining me-
tallic luftre ; it is feftile and brittle. An ore which is a com-
bination of lead, bifmuth, aad filver, has received the name
I

Lead

Bifmuth

Silver

Iron

Sulphur

Copper

33
27
15

4-3
16.3

0.9

Argentiferous lead-ores are common in Great Britain and
in various parts of Europe. Many of thefe ores are not
fufficiently rich to repay the expence of extracting the filver.
It is procured in confiderable quantities in North Wales,
the north-weft parts of Yorkftiire, and in the counties of
Durham and Northumberland. Indeed, many lead-ores in
thefe counties contain a much larger portion of filver than
the average proportion of that metal in the ores of Mexico
and Peru ; but mineralogifts do not clafs them with filver-
ores.

Silver Mines in Great Britain. — Silver-ores, properly fi>
called, are of rare occurrence in our ifland. A few years fince,
a vein of filver was worked with great profit in the parifh of
Alva, in the county of Stirling, in Scotland. The ores were
native filver, and vitreous filver-ore. From forty to fifty thou-
fand pounds fterling value was extrafted before the ore was
exhaufted, after which the fearch to recover the vein proved
fruitlefs, and fince that time no filver-mines have been worked
in that country. The filver-ores at Alva were accompanied
with copper, lead, and cobalt-ores, with a matrix of calca-
reous fpar, and fulphate of barytes. It is fuppofed by Dr.
Millar that the veins traverfe rocks of argillaceous por-
phyry.

Cornwall and DevonlTiire yield the richeft argentiferous
lead-ores of any part of Great Britain ; but the quantity
of thefe ores is fmall. In the former county a fmall quan-
tity of native filver, with other filver-ores, have been occa-
fionally found. We have been favoured with the following
account of the prefent ilate of the filver-mines in thcle
counties from Mr. Mawe, author of Travels in Brazil, who
vifited them in the fummer of 18 15.

From the lead-mines of Ben-Alften, in Devonftiire, 3
large quantity of filver has been extrafted. The vein is
fituated in killas, (fee Slate,) and is filled chiefly with
fluor fpar and galena. It has been worked to the depth of
1 10 fathoms : the filver extracted from the north and fouth
vein averages about 70 ounces to the ton of lead. Another
vein, running in a more eafterly and wefterly diredtion,
fituated in the fame killas, produces 170 ounces of filver in
the ton of lead. The vein is worked under the river Tamar.
Thefe mines are of confiderable importance ; during the laft
fix weeks, the filver extrafted from the lead procured here ■
exceeded fix thoiifand ounces. The works are extenfive,
and faid to be well conducted.

About four miles to the fouth-eaft of Callington is a
filver-mine of another defcription : the vein is fituated in a
fimilar rock of killas or chlorite Hate. The vein was firft
worked for copper, but native filver and lead-ore were difco-
vered in it. The mine is called Huel Jewel : the thicknefs
of the vein rarely exceeds three or four inches. In many of
the cavities were found a confiderable quantity of capillary
native filver, with galena, red filver-ore, and fulphuret of

filvsr.

SILVER.

filter. The ores were exceedingly rich, and promifed at one
time an ample recompence to the adventurers.

The Hurland copper-mine, near Redruth, lias produced
a confiderable quantity of native filvcr in a fmall vein,
branching from the principal vein. Some of the fibres cf
filver were more than four inches long.

There is a lead-mine near Truro worked at this time,
and a confiderable quantity of filver is extradlcd from the
lead, as it yields loo ounces /i^r ton.

Near Peranzabuia, on the north coaft of Cornwall, there
was a mine formerly worked clofe to the lea, which produced
lead-ores in various Hates, and a portion of horn-filver, fine
fpecimens of which are in various cabinets. Mr. Mawe
found fome fpecimens of this rare mineral among the refufe
of the mine.

At Comb-Martin, in North Devon, arc fome lead-mines,
1 which were formerly celebrated for the filver, but at pre-
fent they are not produftive.

Argentiferous lead-ores are the common lead-ores of the
northern counties and of Wales ; they vary in t'le quantity
of filver they contain, from a few ounces to 40, 60, or 80
ounces of filver per ton. Some few rare inllanccs have oc-
curred in the north-welt part of Yorkfhire, of their ex-
ceeding the latter amount. On the average, the argenti-
ferous lead that is calcined to extraft the filver does not
contain 20 ounces per ton : by fome it has been Hated at
17 ounces.

According to Lehman, there are no known lead-ores in
the world but what contain filver, except that of Villoch, in
Carinthia. (Lehman iur k-s Mines.) But according to Dr.
Watfon, the quantity of filver necedary to defray the expence
of extrafting, and the lofs of lead, was nine ounces per ton,
when lead was at the price of 15/. per Ion. The price of
lead is now 26/. per ton, and though filver be alfo advanced,
yet the difference in the relative prices of each, taking the
above as a Itandard, is fuch, that to repay the expence of ex-
traftion, the lead (hould contain about fifteen ounces of filver
in every ton.

It is not to be expefted that the proprietor of any lead-
mines rich in filver Ihould be forward in declaring to the
world the quantity of filver they contain. The proprietor
of the lead-mine containing filver may indeed work the fame
without any apprciienfion of its being taken from him under
the pretence of its being a royal mine ; yet the crown, and
perfons claiming imder it, have the right of pre-emption
of all the ore which may be raifcd. There was an art of
parliament paffed in the fixth year of William and Mary,
entitled. An aft to prevent difputes and controverfies concern-
ing royal mines. This aft declared, that every proprietor of
a mine of copper, tin, iron, or lead, (hould continue in pof-
fellion of the fame, notwithllanding its being claimed as a
royal mine, from its containing filver or gold ; but it is fur-
ther enafted, that the crown, or perfons claiming under it,
lliould have the privilege of purchafing all the ore which
fhould be raifed out of fuch mine, at the following prices,
when made clean and merchantable : for copper-ore, at the
rate of idl. per ton ; for tin-ore, except that of Devonfliirc
and Cornwall, \os.; for iron-ore, 40^.; and for lead-ore, 9/.
The ftandard price then fixed, particularly for lead, was
much higher than the ordinary price of the ore in which
there was no filver. Owing to the exillence of this aft, it
is probable that we are not acquainted with the quantity of
filver at prefent extrafted annually. We are informed, tliat
the value of filvcr produced by the lead-mines of colonel
Beaumont, in Northumberland and Durliam, is not lels than
4000/. Ilerling per annum ; and other large proprietors alfo
extraft a confiderable quantity of filver from the lead-ores in

the northern counties. At prefent we believe that there ir
no filver extraftcd from the Derby (hire lead-ores.

It appears from Hollinglhed's Clironicle, that filver was
formerly extrafted from lead in various parts of the ifland.
In the reign of Edward I. 1600 pounds weight of filver was
obtained in the courfe of three years, from a mine in Dovon-
fhire, which had been difcovered towards the beginning of
his reign : this mine is called a filver-mine by the old writers,
but it appears to have been a mine of lead that contained
filver. The lead-mines in Cardiganfliire have at dilfc-renl
periods afforded great quantities of filvcr : fir Hugh Mid-
dleton is faid to have cleared from them two thoufand pounds
per month, and to have been enabled thereby to undertake
the great work of bringing the New River from Ware to
London. The lame mines yielded, in the time of Charles 1.
eighty ounces of filver in every ton of lead, and part of the
king's army was paid with this filver, which was minted at
Shrewfbury. Sir J. Pettie's Eday on Metal. Works.

A mint for the coinage of Welfli filver had been previoufly
e(tabli(lied at Aberyftwith ; the indenture was granted to
Thomas Bufhel, for the coinage of half-crowns, (luUings,
lixpences, twopences, and pennies, and the monies were to
be (lamped with the ollrich feathers on both fides. In 1604
nearly 3000 ounces of this Welfh bullion were minted at one
time at the Tower. Webfter, in his Hiltory of Metals,
publilhed in 1671, makes mention, from his own knowledge,
of two places in Craven, in the Welt Riding of Yorklhire,
where formerly good argentiferous lead-ore had been pro-
cured. One of the places was Bionghile Moor, in the parilh
of Slaidburn ; the ore held about the value of 67 pounds of
filver in a ton : the other was at Skelkhornfield, in the parilh
of Gifburn ; it had formerly belonged to a perfon of the
name of Pudfey, who is fuppofed to have coined it, as there
were many (liiilings in that country wliich the common peo-
ple called Pudfey (hillings. There are fevtral fmelting-
houfes at Holywell, in Flintfhire, where filver is extrafted
from lead. According to Mr. Pennant, at one of the
largelt of thefe houfes in the year 1 754, more than l2,OO0
ounces of filver were produced, but in the fubfequent years
the quantity of filver appears to have confiderably diminilhed.
The filver extrafted from lead is fold principally to the ma-
nufafturers at Sheffield and Birmingham.

The filver is extrafted from the lead by the oxydation of
the latter metal in a reverberatory furnace of a particular
conitruftion, for the admifiion of air on the furface of the
lead in a (tate of fufion.

A (hallow ved'el or cupel is filled with prepared fern-aflies
rammed down, and a concavity cut out for the reception of
the lead, with an opening on one fide for the mouth of the
bellows, through which the air i; forcibly driven during the
procefs. The FreJich fmelters cover the furface of the afhei
with hay, and arrange fymmetrically the pieces of lead upon
it. when the fire is lighted, and the lead is in a (tate of
fufion from the reverberation of the (lame, the blalt from
the bellows is made to play forcibly on the furface, and in a
(hort time a cru(l of yellow oxyd of lead, or litharge, ii
formed, and driven to tlie fide of the cupel oppofite to the
mouth of the bellows, where a ihallow fide or aperture u
made for it to pafs over ; another crull of litharge is formed
and driven oil, and this is repeated in fucccflirfii till nearly
all tlie lead has been converted into litharge and driven olf.
The operation continues about forty hours, when the com-
plete feparatioii of the lead is indicated by a brilliant lu(lre
on the convex furface of the inelled mafs in the cupel, which
is occafioned by the removal of the lad crull of litharge that
covered the filvcr. The French introduce water ihrongh
a tube into the cupel, to cool the filver rapidly jnd prevci.i
4 Z 2 Its

.SILVER.

its fpirting out, which it does when the refrigeration is gra-
dual, owing probably to its tendency to cryltallize. In
England the filver is left to cool in the cupel, and fome in-
convenience is caufed by the fpirting, which might be avoided
by the former mode.

The filver thus extrafted is not fufEciently pure ; it is
again refined in a reverberatory furnace, being placed in a
cupel lined with bone-a(hes and expofed to a greater heat :
the lead which had efcaped oxydation by the firft procefs is
converted into litharge, and abforbed by the afhes of the
cupel.

The lad portions of litharge in the firft procefs are again
refined for filver, of which it contains a part that was driven
off with it. The litharge is converted into lead again, by
heating it with charcoal ; part is fometimes fold for a pig-
ment, or converted into red lead. The lofs of lead by this
procefs differs confidcrably, according to the quality of the
lead. The litharge commonly obtained from three tons of
lead amounts to 58 hundred weight ; but when it is again
reduced to a metallic ftate it fcldom contains more than 52
hundred weight of lead, the lofs on three tons being about
eight hundred weight. The Dutch are faid to extraft the
filver from the fame quantity of lead, with a lofs of only fix
hundred weight.

Silver- Mines of France — The mine of AUemont, ten leagues
from Grenoble, in the department of I fere, is fituated near
the fummit of a mountain, compofed of thin beds of mica-
Hate and hornblende, curioufly contorted and broken. Its
elevation is about 3000 yards above the level of the fea.
The veins are numerous, and run in all direftions: the mine-
ral appears to have filled alfo numerous fiii'ure?; in the rock.
The ores are native filver, vitreous filver, red lilver-ore, and
horn-filver. Silver appears alfo dilieminated m a kind of
ferruginous clay, and is accompanied with various ores of
cobalt, antimony, arfenic, and nickel. The matrix was
ferruginous clay and carbonate of lime, mixed with afbeftus,
epidote, and calcareous fpar. The veins were much richer
near the furface than at a great depth, and the working of
this remarkable mine is at prefent nearly abandoned. Red
filver-ore has alfo been found in the Vofges, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine, in a vein of argentiferous copper-
ore. Indications of filver have been traced in other diftricts
of France. The lead-ores of fome parts of France are alfo
fufficiently rich in filver to repay the expence of extradtion.

The Jlhvr-mines of Spain are the moft ancient known in
Europe. It appears, as well from the accounts of hiftorians,
as from the numerous veftiges of ancient workings, that the
operations were carried on to a confiderable extent. The
molt remarkable mine was that at Guadalianel, in Andalufia,
in the Sierra Morena, five leagues to the north of Seville ;
the ore which it contains is the red or ruby filver, in a matrix
of compaft galena. Smce the difcovery of South America
no attention has been paid to the mines of Spain, though
formerly fo productive both of filver and gold.

Germany. — The minmg diftrift of Freyberg, in Saxony,
contains numerous veins that yield filver. The veins that
traverfe rocks of gneifs are generally compoled of quartz,
calcareous fpar, and fluor fpar ; they inclofe argentiferous
lead, vitreous filver-ores, ruby filver, and grey argentiferous
copper-ore. The mine at Annaberg, according to Klaproth,
contains muriate of filver (horn-ore) mixed with much clay,
which is imbedded in compaft lime-ftone. The mines of
Schneeberg, in Mifnia, and of Hartz, in Hanover, contain
argentiferous lead, accompanied with proper filver-ores.

Hungary. — The mines of Schemnitz and Cremnitz, in
Hungary, have been long celebrated, both for the richnefs
of their productions and the immenfe extent of the opera-

tions. The rocks in which the mining operations are car-
ried on, are defcribed as being compofed of an argillaceous
grey-ftone, mixed with quartz or fchorl, or particles of cal-
careous fpar. To this rock baron Born has given the name
of the metalliferous rock, faxum metalliferum : it is defcribed
by him as containing three principal veins, running from
north to fouth, and parallel with the river Gran, following
even the windnigs of the river. From this circumftance we
fhould infer, that the river itfelf had originally taken the
courfe of a frafture by another vein. The dip or inclina-
tion of all the veins is from well to eaft, varying from 30
to 70 degrees. In one part of the vein, called the fpitaler
vein, it is joined with an argillaceous white vein, which runs
along with it on the hanging fide, and from the place of
junftion the vein is found to contain filver. In this white
clay are occafionally found nodules of fpar and mafies of
quartz, which yield from four to five ounces of filver in the
hundred weight. The fecond great vein at Schemnitz has
nearly the fame charafters as the firft. The third great vein
is more irregular in its inclination, and the ores are not fo
rich in filver, but in fome parts it contains a confiderable
quantity of gold.

Some notion may be formed of the extent of the mining
operations at Schemnitz, from the gallery or level called the
Emperor Francis' Gallery, by which the whole of the
royal mine is drained and cleared of water. This gallery,
which forms a very confiderable excavation, and is carried
through hard rock, was a work of immenfe labour and dif-
ficulty ; it is five Englifti miles in length : it was befun in
1748, and finifhed in 1765.

The mountains round Kremnitz, according to baron Born,
are compofed of the fame metallic rock already defcribed ;
but according to Patrin, they confift of primitive trap. At
this place very extenfive operations, which were begun at
leaft a thoufand years ago, have been eltablilhed on a large
and rich gold vein, and fome of its branches. The rock is a
white folid quartz, mixed with fine auriferous red and white
filver-ore, and with auriferous pyrites. At the depth of 160
fathoms, the vein continued rich and produdtive.

Konigft)erg is another mining-town of Hungary, fome
miles to the north-welt of Schemnitz. The valley in which
this place is fituated i; bounded on one fide by the fame kind
of metallic rock, and on the other, towards the north, by
granite mountains. In the royal mine, at the time it was
vifited by baron Born, the vein was obferved to run between
the metallic rock, which formed its hanging fide, and the gra-
nite, which was its hading or lower fide. The vein is grey
quartz, mixed with auriterous pvrites. The firft fteam or
fire-engine eftabhfiied in the Lower Hungarian mines was
erected at Konigfberg, in 1725, by Ifaac Porter, an Eng-
lifti engineer, wlio was then in the imperial iervice.

Bohemia. — The circle of Saatz, in Bohemia, abounds in
various metallic ores, among which the ores of filver occa-
fionally predominate. The prevailing rocks are gneifs and
argillaceous fciiiftus. The veins at Catharineherg traverfe
gneifs, and generally run in a north and fouth direction, and
parallel to the mountain in which they are fituated. But
there are alfo fome powerful veins which crofs the mountain.
One of this nature i* defcribed, which feems to be irfenfibly
blended with the mountain rock. The vein-ftone is alfo of
the fame kind of rock, but occafionally afluming the cha-
rafters of a variety of granite. It is obferved, that the
vein, which feldom exceeds a foot in width, diminifhes in
thicknefs when the containing rocks become harder ; and
when the fides are found incrufted with a ferruginous clay,
it appears to be richer in ores. Fiflures from the fides of
the vein are found to improve it : a fine white clay, with
12 quartz

SILVER.

quartz imbedded in it, indicates rich ore ; but a coarfe clay,

deftitute of quartz, efpecially when it increafes in quantity,
and occupies the whole vein, renders it unproduftive, or
entirely barren. The ores of the vein now deicribed are
rich filver and copper pyritc?, with fluor fpar, blende, various
copper-ores, and lomctimes native filver and copper.

Joachimjlhal, a place in the fame circle, has been long
celebrated on account of its valuable mine?. The prevailing
rocks are defcribed as grey micaceous and quartzofe clay-
flate, which at a great depth became more of an argillaceous
nature, foft, foliated, and of a blaclt colour. The mountains
around this place have a gentle decHvity towards the fouth,
but run in lofty ridges to the call, north, and well, and are
interfered by deep vallies. This inequahty of lurface af-
fords great accommodation to the miners to open numerous
galleries, which converge to the fouth, and to the valley in
which (lands the town of .loachimlthal. All the galleries
and works of this dillrift are divided into fix different fields,
belonging to tl e iame number of companies, and they are
drained by two deep drifts or levels ; the one of which riins
in a direct line 1600 fathoms; but including its feveral
branches, its whole length is 4500 fathoms. The depth un-
der the highelt tops of the mountain is 170 fathoms : the fe-
cond great level, which runs through the fpace of 5600
fathoms, and in a direct line 1500 fathoms, is 20 fathoms
deeper than the firft ; but the operations in the mines have
been carried to a much greater depth ; for at the time in
which they were vitited by Ferber, before 1774, the perpen-
dicular depth under the furface was from zoo to 3J0 faihoms,
and, excepting the mines in the Tyrol, were then confidered
as the deeped in the world.

The thicknefs of the veins varies from one inch to two
feet ; and the vein-iloncs are a whitifh or blueilh clay, ar-
gillaceous flatc, and reddilh horn-itone, or petro-filex, which
is the matrix of the ricliell ores. The filver-ores which are
found in this mining diltrift are, native filver, which is at-
tached to different vein-ftones, and affumes various forms ;
vitreous filver-ore, which is dug out fometimes in very large
malies, and is confidered as a very rich ore ; one hundred
weight being commonly valued at 180 marks of filver : red
filver-ore, fumetimcs beautifully cryitalli/cd and tranfparent,
is attached to red horn-ltone or calcareous fpar ; and white
tilver-ore has fcmetimes but rarely appeared.

The filver-mines of Berejliult, in the circle of Tabor, are
in hills of a gentle, declivity, and compofed of grey or blueiih
clay-flate, in which appear figures of greenilh lithomarge,
or femi-indurated pot-(tonc. Thefe mines were forn>erly rich
in native filver, and other ores of that metal. A vein to the
welt of this place, which traverfed a hard rock, contained
reddifli-coloured felfpar, with galena, blende, and a little
(ilver ; but from the part where a vein containing white ar-
fenical pyrites came into the hanging fide, the vein produced
native filver, vitreous, red, and white filver-ore. Another
vein in the fame place, which is from two inches to one foot
in width, is obferved to be rieheft where it is thinneft. It is
chiefly enriched by an undulating black clay fidure, which
appears fometimes in the iianging fide, and then it produces
red and white filver-ore. When crolled by veins running
from e.ilt to weft, it appears to be cut off and barren, till
beyond the place of Junftioii it again becomes produiftive
in Its former courfe.

Sweden. — The filver-iniiies of Salberg, in Wellmania, are
about 28 Englifh miles from Upfai. Tlic ore i~ an argen-
tiferous galena, yielding from one marc to a marc and a half
of filver per quintal ; it is in compaft lime-ftone, and has been
worked to the depth of i jo fathoms. The average profits

amount to about 4C00/. and one-eighth is paid to the June
Porter's Travels. 01- g.

Norivay.—Thc filver-minesof Konigfberg, in Norway, are
fituated in mountains of moderate height, compofed of
nearly vertical beds of mica-flate with garnets, and of grey
quartz mixed with fine black mica, and a little lime-ftone
and red horn-ftone. Other beds are compofed of a ferru-
ginous rock, which, in the upper part of the mine, is 33
feet thick, but in the lower not more than 6 feet thick.

The veins are from half an inch to two feet or more iij
thicknefs, and cut the ftrata tranfverfely. The matrix of
the ore is granular lime-ftone, fometimes intermixed with
fluor fpar. Enormous maffes of native filver have fometimes
been found in this mine ; one is mentioned as weighing 2 2olbs.
The common ores arc native filver and vitreous filver. The
veins arc molt produftive in the ferruginous rock. The an-
nual produce is about jooolbs. weight of filver.

/Ifta. — The filver-mints of Zmeof are fituated in thai
part of the Altaian chain of mountains which lies between
the Oby and Irtifch, from 50^ to 52- north latitude. The
annual produce has been ftated at 60,000 marcs of filver,
which is alloyed witii about 3 per cent, of gold. The mines
of Nertfchink in Daouria, near the river Amur, yield ar-
gentiferous galena, producing about 30,000 marcs of filver,
and containing l\per cent, of gold. The Ruflian merchants
who trade to China bring back ingots of filver, from feve-
ral ounces to a pound weight, in exchange for their commo-
dities ; hence it may be inferred, fays Patrin, that there are
filver-mines on the frontiers of China. Patrin, Hift. des
Mines.

America. — The molt produdtive filver-mines in the world
are thofe of South America and New Spain. Thofc of
Peru, for many years after its conqueft by the Spaniards,
yielded the greateft quantity of filver ; but at prefent the
mines of Mexico are the rieheft. The mines of America
furnifli both filver and gold ; and in making an eftimate of
their lichnefs, we mull take an account of each of thefe
metals. The following table, given by M. Humboldt, will
ftiew the diftribution of thefe mineral trcafures in the dif-
ferent parts of the new world ; the kilogramme being
2 lbs. 3 oz. 5 dr. avoirdupois, or rather more than 2 lbs.
8 oz. troy.

C<p|(l. Silver.

Viceroyalty of Peru - - 782 140,478

V'iceroyalty of New Spain - 1,609 S37iS'2

Capitania of Chili - - 2,807 6,827

Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres - 506 1 10,764

Viceroyalty of Grenada - - 4>7'4

Viceroyalty of Bralil - - 6,873

Kilogrammes 17,291

995,581

The above was the annual produce of the different dif-
trids, at the beginning of the 19th century ; from which it
appears, that the total weight of the precious melal^^ from
all the mines in America, reduced to Englifii pounds troy,
is 45,580 lbs. of gold, and the enormous quantity of
145,000 lbs. of filver ; equal in weight to one-third of the (in
produced by the mines in Europe. Dr. Adam Smith, in his
" Wealth of Nations," values the gold and filver aiunially
exported into C':idiz and Lilbon at o[ily fix million* licrling,
including not only the regiftered gold and filver, but that
winch may be fnppoled to lie fmuggled. This eftimate i(>
only two-fitths of the real annual amount.

The- mountain of Potofi has (urniftied, fince its difcovcry
in 1545, a maf'j of filver equal in value to 234,093,840/.

llerling.

SILVER.

fterling. The mountain is 1 8 miles in circumference: it is
compofed of flate, but has a conical covering of porphyry,
which gives it the form of a fugar-loaf, or bafaltic hill ; it
rifes 697 toifes, or 480 yards, above the furrounding plain.
The richnefs of the veins has diminifliL-d, as they have been
worked to greater depths. At the furface of the earth, the
veins of Rica, Centeiio, and Mendifta, which traverfe primi-
tive flate, were filled with native filver, and filver-ores
throughout their whole extent. Thcfe metallic mafles rofe
in ridges or crefts above the furface, the fides of the vein
having been deitroyed either by water or by fome other
caufe. In I545> minerals containing from 80 to 90 marcs
of fiherpfr quintal were common. In the year 1574, ac-
cording to Acotta, the average richnefs of the ore was eight
or nine marcs per quintal. In 1607, the mean wealth of
the ores was not more than an ounce and a half to the
quintal. The ores are now extremely poor, and it is on
account of their abundance alone that the works are Hill m
a flourifliing Rate: for from 1574 to the year 1789, the
mean quantity of fdver in the ores has diminiflied in the pro-
portion of 170 to I ; while the abfolute quantity of filver
extracted from the mineb of Potofi has only dimmifhed in
the proportion of 4 to i.

About fix miles from Pafco is the mountain Jauvichora :
it is diftinguilhed by the name of the Silver mountain. It
is about half a mile in diameter, and only about 30 yards in
depth : it is compofed of brown iron-ftone, which is inter-
fperfed with pure filver. This ftone does not yield more
than nine marcs of filver in 500 lbs. ; but there is a friable
white clay met with in the middle of this mals of ore, which
yields from 200 to 1000 marcs of filver in every 50 cwt.
The mountain is penetrated in all diredlions, without any
attention to fecurity ; fo that it is expefted it may fall in,
in the courfe of a few years. According to Helms, this
mountain yields annually 200,000 marcs of filver.

The veins of filver at Potofi are in flate, which Hum-
boldt confiders as primitive : this flate is covered with a clay
porphyry, containing garnets. The mines of Gualgayoc,
in Peru, are in the Alpine lime-ftone. The veins which
furniih nearly all the filver exported from Vera Cruz are
in flate, porphyry, grauwacke, and Alpine lime-ftone :
the principal of thefc veins are thofe of Guanaxto, Zaca-
tecas, and Catoree. The vein of Guanaxto yields more
than one-fourth of the filver of Mexico, and a fixth part of
the total produce of America. This vein is, in fome parte,
from 147 to 150 feet in width, including the branches, and
has been wrought from Santa Ifabella and San Bruno to
Buena-Veila, a length of 42,000 feet. The moll cele-
brated mines in Mexico are elevated from 6000 to 9000
feet above the level of the fea. In the Andes, the mines
of Potofi, Ocuro, Pas, Pafco, and Gualgayoc, are in re-
gions higher than the loftiell fummits of the Pyrenees. A
mafs of rich filver-ore has been difcovercd near the fraall
town of Micuicampa, at the abfolute height of 13,450 feet.
The great elevation of the Mexican mines is peculiarly ad-
vantageous to the working of them, as the climate is tem-
perate, and favourable to vegetation and cultivation.

The part of the Mexican mountains which at prefent
contains the greateft quantity of filver, lies beween the
twenty-firll and twenty-fourth degrees of latitude ; and it
is not a little remarkable, that the metallic wealth of Peru
fhould be placed at an almoft equal latitude, on the other
fide of the equator. In the vait extent which feparates the
mines of La Pas and Potofi from thofe ot Mexico, there
are no others which throw into circulation a great mafs of
the prccwus metals, but thofe of Pafco and Chota. The

ifthmusof Panama and the mountains of Guatimala contain,
for a length of 600 leagues, vaft trafts of ground, in which
no vein has hitherto been worked with fuccefs.

The province of Quito, and the eallern part of the king-
dom of New Granada, from the eighth degree of fouth
latitude to the feventh degree of north, are equally poor in
metallic wealth. It would not, however, fays Humboldt,
be correft to infer that thefe countries, which have been
convulfed and torn by volcanoes, are deftitute of the pre-
cious metals. Numerous metallic repofitories may be con-
cealed by beds of bafalt, and other rocks of fuppofed
volcanic origin. It fliould, however, be remarked, that
fome of the rocks, which Humboldt enumerates as very
mctalhferous, are by other geologifts confidered of volcanic
origin, particularly chnk-iione-porphyry, and other por-
phyries containing hornblende, but diltinguiftied by the ab-
fence of quartz and common fellpar.

The mines of Huantajya are celebrated for the great
quantities of native filver they formerly produced. They
are fituatcd in an arid defert, and furrounded by rock-falt,
near the (liores of the Pacific ocean, at no great diftance
from the Imall port of Yquique, in the audience of Lima.
Thefe mines are a remarkable exception to the great eleva-
tion of filver-mines in Spanifh America, being placed on a
low and gentle declivity. Their produce is native filver,
vitreous filver, and horn filver; the annual amount is about
50,000 lbs. troy of filver, or 80,00c marcs.

The filver-mining operations of Chili, according to Hum-
boldt, are in general not produdlive ; but the vein at Ufpalata
contains pacos fo rich, that the produce is from 2000 to
3000 marks in every 5000 lbs., or from 40 to 60 marc*
per quintal. Molina, in his Hiitory of Chili, dcfcribes the
vein at Ufpalata, on the Andes, as being nine feet in thick-
nefs. It has been traced 90 miles, and is fuppofed to extend
300 miles. From the main vein there are branches on each
lide, which extend to the neighbouring mountains : fome
of thefe branches are 30 miles in length. This is the largeil
metallic vein which is at prefent known in the world.

According to Humboldt, the greateft part of the filver
extracted from the bowels of the earth in Peru is furniftied
by a fpecies of ore called the pacos, of an earthy appearance,
which M. Klaproth analyfcd, and was found to confift of
almoft imperceptible particles of native filver with the
brown oxyd of iron. In Mexico, on the contrary, the
greateft quantity of filver annually brought into circulation
is derived from vitreous filver-ore, grey filver-ore, horn-ore,
and black and red filver-ores. Native filver is not extracted
in fufficient quantity to form any confiderable proportion
of the total produce of the mines of New Spain. It is,
fays this traveller, a very common prejudice in Europe,
that great mafles of native filver are very common in the
mines of Mexico and Peru, and that in general the mines
of mineralized filver, deftined to amalgamation, or to fmelt-
ing, contain more ounces, or marcs of filver, to the quintal,
than the filver-ores of Saxony or Hungary ; but he adds,
I was furprifed to find that the number of poor mines
greatly exceeds thofe of the mines which, in Europe, would
be efteemed rich. It is at firft difficult to conceive how the
famous mine of Valenciana, in Mexico, can regularly fupply
30,000 marcs of filver per month, as the vein confifts of
fulphuretted filver, difl'eminatcd in almoit imperceptible
particles through the matrix. In the formation of thefe
veins, it (hould appear that the diftribution of filver has
been very unequal, being fometimes concentrated at one
point, and at other times dilleminated in the vein through
the matrix or gangue ; for, in the midft of the pooreft ore?

are

SILVER,

ire found confiderable maffes of native filver. Although
the new continent has not hitherto produced fiiigle mafles
of native filver equal to what have been found in the old,
the metal is more abundant in a Hate of perfeft purity in
- Mexico and P?ru than in any other quarter of the globe,
not in malies, but in particles difleminated through the
enormous quantity of the ore called pacos. The refult of
a general invettigation of the richnefs of different mines is,
that the mean richnefs of the different ores is not more than
from three to four ounces of filver in every fixteen hundred
pounds of ore. According to this refult, the ore contains,
on the average, two ounces and two-fifths per quintal.
It had formerly been aflcrted, that no ores were worked in
Mexico that did not contain one-third part of filver. The
filver-ores of Peru are not richer on the average than thofe
of Mexico. The diftrift of Guanaxlo has before been
mentioned as furnifhing more than one-fourth of the filver
annually extradled in America, the riches of the mines here
being fuperior to the celebrated repofitory at Potofi : they
are all worked in one extcnfive vein. Among thefe mines,
that of the count Valenciana is one of the richelt : the
average produce of filver is four ounces of filver from a
quintal of ore.

The whole weight of filver from the vein of Guanaxto,
on an annual average from 1786 to the year 1803, has
been 556,000 marcs, or 364,911 lbs. troy; and in thirty-
eight years the weight of gold and filver, from the fame
vein, has been 12,700,000 pounds troy. In average years
it yields from 500,000 to 600,000 marcs of filver, and
from 1500 to 1600 marcs of gold. It has been doubted by
fomeperfons whether this be really a vein, or a metallic bed, as
in fome parts of its cnurfe it is parallel between the beds, or
ftrata of the rock. It pafies through both flate and por-
phyry, and is metalliferous in both. Thou^-h it has been
before ftated that the extent of this vein is more than
42,000 feet ; yet the enormous mafs of filver which it
has fupplied for the lail hundred years, fufficient alone to
change the price of commodities in Europe, has been ex-
trafted from an extent of lefs than 2000 feet ; for where
this vein is not widened by branches, its general width
may be Hated at from 38 to 48 feet. It is for the mofl
part feparated into three malfes, divided by banks of mine-
ral matter, or by part of the matrix deltitutc of ore.

At Valenciana the vein cQntinues undivided to the depth
of 557 feet, and then divides into three branches ; and its
width, from the floor to the roof, is from 164 to 196 feet.
Of thefe three branches of the vein, there is in general only
one which is rich in metals. Sometimes, when thefe three
branches unite, the mine is uncommonly rich. In this cele-
brated vein there is a certain middle region, which may be
confidfred as a repofitory of greater riches, for above and
below this region the ores are poor in filver.

At Valenciana the rich minerals have been in the grcateft
abundance, 300 and 1 100 feet below the mouth of the
gallery.

The labour of the miner is entirely free throughout the
whole kingdom of Spain, and no Indian or Meltizoe can be
fined to work in the mines. The Mexican miner gains
from i/. to i/. 4^. fterling per week of fix days. The men
employed in agriculture do not gain more than a third of
that fum. The miners work nearly naked, and are fearched
in the mod indelicate manner on leaving the mine. They
frequently conceal fragments of native filver and filver-ores
in their hair, under their arm-pits, in their mouths, and even
m the anus, into which they force cylinders of clay contain-
ing the metal. Thefe cylinders are called longanas. A
regifter is kept of the filver found in different parts of tiie

body. In the mine of Valenciana, the value of thefe itolen
minerals, a great part inclofed in the longanas, amounted,
from the year 1774 to 1787, to 30,000/. iferhng.

The filver is extrafted from its ores in New Spain by
amalgamation with mercury, and by fmelting : the propor-
tion of filver extrafted by mercury is 3^ to i of that extrafted
by fmelting ; and as fuel is becoming fcarce, the quantity
of filver extracted by amalgamation increafts, the fmelting
being very imperfeftly condufted.

The Mexican miners do not appear to follow any fixed
principle in the feleftion of minerals dellined to fmelting or
amalgamation ; for in one diftricl they fmelt the fame ores,
which in another they believe can only be managed with
mercury ; and it is frequently the abundance or fcarcity of
mercury which determines the miner in the choice of his
method. In general they fmelt the argentiferous galena,
and the mixed minerals of blende and vitreous copper.
The pacos, the vitreous, red, and corneous filver-ores, the
grey copper-ore rich in filver, and the meagre ores, dilfemi-
nated in fmall quantities in the matrix, they find it more
profitable to amalgamate.

All the metallic wealth of the Spanifh colonies is in the
hands of individuals. The government pofleiTes no other
mine than that of Huanca Velica in Peru, which has been
long abandoned. The individual receives from the king a
grant of a certain number of meafures, on the direftion of a
vein or bed ; and they are only held to pay very moderate
duties on the minerals cxtracfed. Thefe duties have been
valued on the average throughout all Spanifii America at
1 1^ per cent, of the filver, and three per cent, for the gold.
In the fpace of a hundred years, the annual produce of the
Mexican mines has increafed from twenty-five to one hun-
dred and ten millions of francs. The produce of the mines
in Peru has of late years been rather decreafing, which Hum-
boldt attributes to its being worfe governed than Mexico.
The procefs of extradlion feems alfo to be condufted upon
worle principles than in New Spain, though in neither of
thefe diltrifks is fmelting, or amalgamation, performed with
much (kill ; for, according to M. Humboldt,- the quantity
of mercury annually confumed in New Spain exceeds two
million one hundred thoufand pounds troy. The mercury
is feparated from the amalgam by diliillation ; but in the
whole procefs, the Mexicans wafte eight times more than
would be neceffary, were the procefs conducted in tlie fame
manner as at Freyberg.

The following table will fhew the annual produce of gold
and filver in the mines of Europe, northern Alia, and Ame-
rica, as given by M. Humboldt, in kilogrammes. It may
be regarded rather as an approximation to the real amount,
than as a very accurate ilatement, the amount of Englifli
filver not being included ; perhaps this may be eflimated at
4000 lbs. troy.

Gold.

Silver.

Europe

- '.297

52,670

Northern Afia

- 538

21,709

America

- 17.29'

795.581

The kilogramme, it has been before ftated, is rather more
than 2 lb. 8 o/.. troy. It is impofiible to value the quantity
of gold and filver annually extrafted on the whole globe ;
for we are unacquainted with the amount of what is pro-
cured in the interior of Africa, and the central parts of Afia,
Tonquiu, Cliina, and .Japan. The quantity of gold and
filver formerly brought by the Dutch from the latter coun-
try proves tiiat it is rich in tlie precious metals. We may
draw the fame conclufion refpetting the northern frontiers
of China and other parts of Afia ; and the quantity 'f

gold.

SILVER.

«old-duft brought to the wellern coall of Africa, leads us
to believe, that the countries fouth of the Niger contain
large quantities of this metal, though ve have httle inform-
ation refpcfting the filver of the African continent.

A^ay and Analytis of Silver-Ores. — Pure native filver re-
quires no other allay than fiifion, with a little potalh to free
it from its earthy matter. In the humid way the filver may
be diffolved in nitric acid, and precipitated by common fait.
The precipitate may then be fufed with ioda in a crucible,
by which the filver is obtained pure, and the muriate of
foda fublimed. The auriferous filver-ores may be treated
with potafh, by fufion in a crucible : the alloy of filver and
gold is firft obtained, and the two metals may be fepa-
rated by the procefs of parting. See RefinIiS'g and As-
saying.

Thofe ores which confift of filver combined with anti-
mony or arfenic, or both, are firft roafted, to drive off the
arfenic and antimony, the filver remaining pure. The pro-
cefs is much facilitated by the ufe of nitre, for the pur-
pofe of oxydating the metals to be dilTipated.

The humid analyfis of this ore requires more particular
treatment.

The ore commonly called arfenical is firft to be coarfely
powdered, and then diftilled vinegar poured upon it, to dii-
folve the lime of the calcareous fpar adhering to it.

A given quantity of the ore fo waftied \i now to be finely
powdered, and nitric acid poured upon it : this oxy-
dates the metals, diflolving the greatcft part, and leaving a
yellowifh refiduum. To the part diffolved muriate of foda
is to be added, which precipitates the filver. This precipi-
tate being waftied and dried, will give 77 per cent, of pure
filver. To the liquid from which the laft was precipitated
add a folution of potafti ; a lightifti red precipitate is now
formed, which, on drying, becomes of a deep brown, and by
ignition afTumes the form of powder of a whitilh-grey co-
lour : this is the arfeniate of iron. This fiibftance contains
iron and arfenic, in the proportions of 50 to 43 or 44. This
is ftiewn by treating the arfeniate of iron with charcoal ex-
pofed to a red heat ; the arfenic is reduced, and fublimes,
while the black oxyd of iron remains.

The yellowifh refiduum left in the firft folution is to be
digefted with muriatic acid : if a white powder remains un-
dinolvfed, it will be found to be muriate of filver, and muft
be added to that firft obtained. To the muriatic folution
add a folution of carbonate of potafti, and a yellowifti-gi een
precipitate is formed : to this precipitate, when waftied and
dried, add muriatic acid by a little at once, till the powder
is diflblved ; add a large quantity of water to this folution,
which will produce awhile precipitate ; this being feparated
and dried will be pure oxyd of antimony, affording ^^ of
pure antimony. What remains in folution, after the laft
fubftance is feparated by the water, may be precipitated
by pure potafti, and will be found to be oxyd of iron ;
which, when treated with charcoal, like the firft obtained,
may be added to the fame to make the whole of the iron
afforded by the mineral. In this way the arfenical filver-
ore afforded, according to Klaproth, the following ana-
Jyfis :

Silver
Iron
Arfenic
Antimony

The fiilphuretted ores in the large way fometimes merely
require to be roafted to drive off the fulphur : the heat being

urged affords a button of pure filver. This is the cafe with
the variety called Silver-glance.

The brittle filver-ore contains a very fmall portion of an-
timony and copper. The metallic button obtained by heat
will require to be cupelled with lead, in order to get the
filver pure ; it may, however, be made tolerably pure by
treating the button with nitre, by which the bafe metals
are feparated.

To effeft the humid analyfis of brittle filver-ore, the
powder is dilTolved in dilute nitric acid with a gentle heat.
By this treatment a refiduum is left equal to ^% of the
whole. The folution is to be treated with muriate of foda,
like the laft.

If the prefence of an alkaline fulphate does not form any-
precipitate with the remaining folution, the mineral does not
contain lead : add to the folution an excefs of ammonia, and
a greyifti-white precipitate will be left, which is the oxyd of
iron, often containing a little arfenic. If copper be prefent,
ammonia will give to the remaining folution a fine blue co-
lour, and that metal may be feparated by a rod of clean
iron.

It now remains to examine the firft refiduum which was
unaffcftcd by the nitric acid ; this is to be digefted with
nitro-muriatic acid : the refiduum left after this treatment
will be found to be pure fulphur. The nitro-muriatic fo-
lution is now to be diluted with a large quantity of water ;
a white precipitate fall; down, which, when waftied, dried,
and ignited, will be found to he oxyd of antimony, of a
brown colour.

Klaproth found 100 grains of this ore to yield as follows ;

Silver

Antimony

Iron - - .

Sulphur . - .

Copper and arfenic

Extraneous matter from the mine

66.5
10

5
12

95

The white filver-ores afford nearly the fame ingredients
with the laft ; and the mode of analyfis will be fimilar in the
dry way. -

The linhl-iuhile and clark-iuhite filver-ores contain lead
and alumine, and ivquire a different treatment. After
the filver is precipitated by common fait, a quantity of
muriate of lead is formed at the time, which, on concentra-
tion, affords the muriate of lead in bright filky cryftals.
When thefe are coUeded till the liquid will afford no more,
a folution of fulphate of foda is to be added, which precipi-
tates the remainder of the lead in the ftate of fulphate of
lead. This powder, being waftied and dried, contains iths its
weight of metallic lead. The remaining liquid being fuper-
faturated with ammonia, as in the analyfis of the brittle
filver-ore, a light-brown precipitate is formed : this precipi-
tate is oxyd of iron and alumine. To feparate the latter,
diflolve the precipitate in nitric acid : feparate the iron by
pruffiat of potafti, or pruffiat of lime, and afterwards the
alumine with foda. The pruffiat of iron, heated to a red heat,
is decompofed, leaving the black oxyd of iron, which con-
tains i-J of metallic iron.

The firft refiduum left by the nitric acid, befides anti-
mony and fulphur, which conftituted the refiduum of the
brittle filver-ore, alfo contains lead. By the frequent
addition of muriatic acid with the application of heat, the
lead is feparated in cryftals of muriate of lead ; obtaining,
by this means, a folution of the muriates of lead and anti-
mony.

SILVER.

mony. The refiduum is fulphur. The muriatic folution de-
pofits cryftals of muriate of lead on cooling. When no more
cryitals fail down, thefe cryftals are to be added to thofe
obtained before. Thefe, being heated in an aflay crucible with
twice their weight of black flux, afford metallic lead. This
lead, however, treated in the ufual way on the cupel, affords
a fmall portion of filver. The folution Hill contains a fmall
portion of muriate of lead and the antimony. By adding a
folution of Glauber's fait, the lead is precipitated in the
Itate of fulphate, affording Aths its weight of metallic lead.
The antimony, which is the laft, may be precipitated by af-
fufion of water. The precipitate, being wafhed, dried, and
ignited, is the pure oxyd of antimony, yielding on its re-
du£tion -J-f of the metal. The analytis of the light white
filver-ore, by Klaproth, gives of

Silver

,

20.4

Lead

-

48.06

Antimony - . .

-

7.88

Iron . . -

.

2.25

Sulphur

.

12.25

Alumine

.

7

Silex

0.25

98.09

The dark filver-ore, by the fame.

is

Silver

9.25

Lead . - -

41

Antimony

21.5

Iron

'•75

Sulphur

22

Alumine

I

Silex

-

•75

97.25

The corneous filver-ore, which is muriate of filver, is
eafily reduced in the dry way by fufing it with foda, ina
crucible capable of fufing the metallic filver. The foda
takes the muriatic acid, forming muriate of foda, which
efcapes in white fumes, and the filver is left pure.

In the humid way, it is firft fufed in a glafs retort with
carbonate of potaffi. The mafs is then diflolved in hot
water, and the folution filtered. The refiduum is then dif-
folved in nitric acid, leaving behind a red powder. This
powder, being treated with nitromuriatic acid, leaves be-
hind a fmall portion of muriate of filver, which mull be
accounted for in metallic filver, as before direfted. Am-
monia, being added to the nitromuriatic folution, precipi-
tates a red powder, which is oxyd of iron. To the nitric
folution, from the mafs firft treated with carbonate of
potafh, muriate of foda is now to be added ; which pre-
cipitates the filver in the form of muriate, from which the
metallic filver may be either calculated, or obtained by
fufion with foda. The aqueous folution from the fufed
mafs is now to be faturated with acetic acid. If alumine
be prefent, it will be precipitated. The liquid part is now
to be evaporated to drynefs. If alcohol be added to the
dry mafs, it diffolves the acetate of potafh. The refiduum
is then diflolved in water. To thio, muriate of barytcs is
to be added, which, if fulphiiric acid be prefent, will caufe
a precipitation of fulphate of barytcs, the fulpiuiric acid
of which is to be confidercd as a produA of the ore, and
will be equal to one-third of the weight of this precipitate,
vshen waflied and dried. The remainder of the falinc mafs

Vol. XXXII.

which was diffolved in water may be confidered as muriate
of potalh, the acid of which is another ingredient of the
anaiyfis, and will be equal to ; i- of the fait.

P/}^cal and Chemkal Properties of Silver. — Silver, when
pure and newly polifhed, is of a fplendid white colour, and
becomes more white when the polifli is deadened. Its hard-
nefs is nearly that of copper. Its malleability is nearly
equal to that of gold. At a heat vifibly red in the darky
it can be worked with great facility by the hammer into
various articles, in the manner of working iron. After
being rolled into very thin (heets, it can be beaten into leaves
of -nroVinjth of an inch in thicknefs, and can be drawn
into wire finer than a human hair. A wire of -ryth of an
inch will require 336 lbs. to break it, when exerted in the
direftion of its length. At a temperature fhort of red-
nefs, thefe pieces can be united either by the hammer,
"or by preffing them together with friftion by a fteel
bumifher.

It melts at the temperature of 28^ of Wedgewood, or
4717° of Fahrenheit. If the heat be raifed the metal be-
comes more liquid, and boils. This is occafioned by its
affuming the elaftic form, in which Hate it riles, and is con-
denfible on the furface of bodies held over it, as has been
obferved with gold.

In purifying filver on the cupel-, it is obferved, that when
it is removed from the furnace, and juft at the point of con-
gelation, a fmallexplofion enfues, giving to the furface of
the button an appearance as if fome elaftic fluid had been
difengaged from it. It has been difcOvered by Mr. Samuel
Lucas, of Sheffield, that the elaftic fluid which is fepa-
rated, producing the phenomenon in queftion, is pure oxy-
gen gas.

By keepinir filver long in a ftatc of fufion, at a very high
temperature, it becomes oxydated.

Macquer converted filver into a vitreous oxyd by ex-
pofing it to the heat of a porcelain furnace.

Silver is readily inflamed by eleAricity, and converted
into an oxyd of a greenilh-yellow colour.

The moft direft way to obtain the oxyd of filver is by
diffolving the filver in nitric acid, and precipitating it with
lime-water. The precipitate is at firft white, in which
ftate it may be confidered a hydrate of the oxyd. When
heated, the water efcapes, and it afl'umes a grecnifh-yellow
colour, inclining to grey. If the heat be raifed, the air
being excluded, the oxygen is drawn off, leaving the metal
in a ftate of purity : 100 parts of filver have been found to
contain 7.5 of oxygen ; hence, if the atom of hydrogen
be I, that of filver will b- 100. No combination of filver
with azote or carbon has as yet been difcovered.

It combines with fulphur with great facility : the mere
contaft of the metal with flour of fulphur is fufficient to
give the furface a yellow colour. If the filver be in thin
plates, and ftratified in a crucible with the fame, at a red
heat the combination foon takes place, and ihe mafs fufcs,
forming a fulphuret of filver of a violet colour, fometimes
in cryftals of the (hape of a needle.

This fubftance is brittle, but fufficiently foft to be cut
with a knife. It is decompofablc by heat. The fulphur
efcapes, leaving the metal in a ftatc of purity. This
compound is an atom of filver equal to 100, united to an
atom of (ulphur 15.

Sulphurct of filver is alfo formed by expofing llie metal
to fulphuretted hydrogen gas. The fmall quantity of the
httcr exifting in the atmofphere is capable of foon com-
municiting a yellow, and ultimately a purple colour to
polifhcd filver.

5 A Mr. .

SILVER.

Mr. Prouft found this tarnifhing matter to be a fulphuret
of filver. The thinneft coat of gum, or of varnifh, com-
pletely defends the furface of filver from tarnifhing.

Silver combines vnth phofphorus, forming a phofphurct
of filver. This combination is effefted by heating in a
crucible equal parts of filver and phofphoric glals, with
one-fourth their weight of charcoal powder, or, what is
better, faw-duft. This compound is of a white colour. It
is brittle, but may be cut with a knife. It is, like the ful-
phuiet, decompofable by heat.

Silver combines with f;veral metals, forming alloys.
The alloy of filver with gold, wlien the former is in a very
fmall quantity, is of a much paler colour than gold. Thefe,
like all other compounds, are doubtlcfs definite, and hence
we ftio«ld expeft, that when thefe metals combine in the
ratio of the weights of their atoms, which will be loo filver
to 140 of gold, the alloy would be the mod perfeft. And
the next perfedl would be two atoms of one to one of the
other. It is ftated by Mufchenbroeck, that the hardeil
alloy of thefe two metals is with two parts of gold to one of
filver.

Silver, as well as rendering gold much paler, gives it a
greenifh tinge. This alloy is more fufible than gold, and
hence is employed as a folder for that metal.

Silver does not form any linking alloy with platinum.
Indeed it rather appears to be a mixture than a combination.
As is the cafe with lead and zinc, the two metal? feparate,
when kept fome time in a ttate of fufion. This faft is cor-
roborated by the circumftance, that filver can fcarcely be
made to unite two pieces of platinum together, when ufed
as a folder, while gold can be employed for tliat purpofe
with the greateft fuccefs. For the other alloys of filver,
fee the relpeftive metals.

Salts of Silver. — Thefe confift of the oxyd of filver com-
bined with an acid, fome of which only are foluble in water.
The prefence of the foluble falts of filver is eafily de-
tefted by muriatic acid, or any foluble faline compound
with that acid, by occafioning a denfe white precipitate,
which foon changes to a purple colour when expofed to
the fun's light.

The infoluble falts of filver have the property of coating
bright copper with filver, when rubbed upon it with a little
moifture. Salts of mercury would give the fame white ap-
pearance, but this would be diftinguifhed from filver by
being capable of diflipation by heat. Salts of filver be-
come black with the hydro-fulphurets of the alkalies. And
gallic acid gives a brown precipitate.

Sulphate of Silver. — Sulphuric acid has no aftion upon
filver at the common temperature. When, however, this
metal is boiled with the acid, the filver becomes oxydated,
fiUphurous acid gas is difengaged, and fulphate of filver is
formed, which is a white mafs, fparingly foluble in water,
except an excefs of fulphuric acid be prefent. The latter,
on evaporation, affords cryllals of a brilliant filvery while-
nefs, in the form of needles or tine prifms.

This fait is foluble in nitric acid.

When heated, it firft fufes, and if the heat be raifed, it
is decompofed, fulphuric acid and oxygen efcaping, leav-
ing the filver in its metallic form.

This fait is decompofed by the alkalies and earths, and all
thofe foluble falts, the acids of which form infoluble com-
pounds with filver. Bergman has ilated, that 100 parts of
metallic filver, precipitated from nitric acid by fulphuric acid,
give 134 of the fulphate. Allowing the 100 of filver to
have taken 7 of oxygen, there will remain 28 for the ful-
phuric acid. This, in 100, will give fulphuric acid 22,

and 78 of oxyd of filver. If this fait be compofed of
one atom each of acid and bafe, then, by Dr. Wol-
lalton's fcale, the proportions would be 25.5 acid, and
74.5 oxyd of filver. Dalton's numbers would give very
nearly the fame refult.

Sulphate of Silver. — This fait, like the latt, is fparingly
foluble in water. In other refpcds, it is but httle known.

Nitrate of Silver. — The nitric acid afts with confiderable
violence on filver, affording red lufFocating fumes, occafioned
by the copious difengagemcnt of nitric oxyd. If the acid
and the filver be pure, the folution becomes clear and co-
lourlefs, without refiduum : if the acid contains muriatic
acid, which is often the cafe with the acid of the (hops,
then a denfe white powder will fall down, which becomes
purple in the fun-(hine, and is the muriate of filver : if the
filver contains gold, a purple powder will be left at the hot-
torn of the velfel : if it contains copper, the folution will be
of a green colour, of greater or lefs intenfity, depending
upon the quantity of that metal.

The folution of filver affords cryftals on evaporation :
they are of a prifmatic form, but differ in their number of
fides ; they do not change by expofure to the air, but are
very foluble in water. Thefe cryftals, when heated, firll
melt ; the heat being raifed, the water of cryftallization
efcapes, but the mafs ftill remains liquid : in this ftate it is
frequently caft into moulds, in which it aflumes a folid form
on cooling. Thefe (ticks, which are employed in furgery
under the name of lunar catiflic, are of a grey colour, and
when broken exhibit a cryflalline appearance.

A more violent heat than that required for its fufion
decompofes it, nitrous gas and oxygen being difengaged.

This decompofition is much more rapid when it is heated
in contaA with inflammable matter. If thrown upon burn-
ing coah, it detonates.

If filk, cotton, leather, ivory, and many other bodies, be
moiftened with nitrate of filver, and the part be afterwards
moiftened, when a ftream of hydrogen gas is applied to it the
filver becomes reduced, and appears with its metallic lullrc.
A (lick of phofphorus dipped in nitrate of filver foon becomes
coated with metallic filver.

This fait has the property of detonating with fulphur or
phofphorus, by being (truck fmartly with a hammer.

Nitrate of filver is decompofed by all the earths which
form falts, and by the alkalies, by combining with the acid.
Ammonia, however, does not only precipitate the oxyd, but
afterwards combines with it, forming a compound having
alarming fulminating properties. The following is the pro-
cefs recommended for its preparation.

From the nitrate of filver precipitate the oxyd by means
of lime-water : feparate the oxyd, and dry it upon blotting-
paper : upon this oxyd pour pure cauitic ammonia : let this
remain for twelve hours. If a pellicle be formed upon the fur-
face, add a httle more ammonia, which will take it up. A
black precipitate will be found at the bottom of the veffel,
which is the ammoniate of filver, and is the fulminating
fubftance to be obtained. This precipitate is to be carefully
coUefted, and laid in very fmall quantities upon feparate bits
of blotting-paper, to dry. When dry, the flighted touch
or rubbing motion caufes a violent explofion. Thofe unac-
cuftomed to it (hould begin with the fmalleft pofllble quan-
tities, as ferious accidents have happened by exploding it
in too large quantities. The liquid part from which the
fubftance was feparated will be found to be a folution of the
fame : if it be heated in a glafs retort, a portion of it is de-
compofed, and the gafeous produfts difengaged : in a little
time, fmall brilliant cryftals of the fame fubftance appear ;

thefe

SILVER.

thefe frequently detonate with fuch violence, as to break tlie
vcflel in which they are contained.

The theory of theie appearances is obvious ; the oxygen
of the filver combines with the hydrogen of the ammonia,
forming water, which, with the azotic gas of the fame, are
in an inilant rendered fo highly elaltic by the caloric fct
free, as to produce theexploiive efFeft fo confpicuous in this
fubftance. It is needlefs to fay that the filver is left in the
metallic form.

Nitrate of filver is decompofed by all thofe metals having
a fuperior attraftion for oxygen. The oxygen of the filver
is given to the decompofing metal, which alfo combines with
the acid. Copper, fo employed, precipitates the filver in a
white metallic powder, the refult being nitrate of copper in
the place of nitrate of filver. The precipitate is not pure
filver, fome copper will always be deteftcd when the preci-
pitate is re-diilolved.

Mercury has alfo the property of precipitating filver from
the nitrate, producing the appearance which has been termed
the arbor Diana. Lemery recommends one part of filver to
be dilfolvcd in nitric acid, and the folution to be then diluted
with twenty parts of dillilled water : to this add two parts
of mercury. The mercury gradually occupies the place
of the filver, and the latter is precipitated in the form of
vegetation, from which the name has been derived.

The vegetative appearance is caufed by the growth of the
cryitals being from the extreme points ef that already formed,
as is the cafe with the grownh of vegetables. Tiie mercury,
and the fmallefl portion of precipitated filver, form a Gal-
vanic combination. The filver now in folution is reduced
upon that already formed, in confeqiience of its ilate of
eledricity being negative, that of the mercury being rela-
tively pofitive, by which it attraAs the acid. This procefs
would doubtlefs be facilitated by dropping a fmall bit of me-
tallic filver upon the mercury, added to nitrate of filver. This
would form a Galvanic combination, and the bit of filver
would become an immediate rallying point for the filver in
folution. If a little of a dilute folution of nitrate of filver
be Ipread upon a pane of glafs laid in an horizontal pofition,
and a common pirr be laid in the middle of the covered part,
in a few hours, beautiful ramifications of filver extend from
every fide of the pin ; fometimes to the diltanceof an inch.
This is alfo to be explained by Galvanifm.

Muriate of Silver. — When muriatic acid, or any foluble
muriate, is added to nitrate of filver, a denfe and blueifli-
white precipitate is thrown down, which is muriate of filver.
Although white when it is juft precipitated, it foon affumes
a purple tint by expofure to the light, and the change is
quicker as the light is more intenfe : hence this fubltance has
been employed to meafure the degree of intenfity of light,
by the time in which the change of colour takes place.

It may be faid to be infoluble in water : this property, and
its confpicuous appearance in other refpedls, renders the ni-
trate or hilphate ,1 filver fo valuable as a teil for nuiriatic
acid. The latter, on combining with the filver, forms the
fait in queftion.

M''licn this fait isexpofed to heat, it eafily melts : on cool-
ing, it becomes folid. It is a femi-tranfparent mafs, of a
grey colour, and of a horny appearance, from which it has
been c: '''d luna cornea, or horn-filver. If fufed with a great
heat in a crucible, it becomes fo thin a fluid as to fink througli
the pores of the crucible. It is not decompofed by any of
the acids nor the alkalies, but when heated with the carbo-
nates of potadi or foda, the acid is difengaged. It diifolves
in caullic ammonia, forming a tranfparent lolution : this, by
expofure to the air, undergoes confiderable change. A pelli-
cle forms on the furface, wliich is firft of a blueidi colour,

and ultimately black. This pellicle, on examination, is
found to be muriate of ammonia and reduced filver. Thofe
who with fir Humphrey Davy hold oxymuriatic acid to be
a fimple body under the name of clilorine, confider this fub-
ltance as a compound of the latter fubltance with metallic
filver. Sir Humphrey gives it the name of argeniane, and
Dr. Thomfon, more confiltently, chloride of fiher.
Tlie compofition of this fait, according to Prouft, i:

Muriatic acid - i8

Oxyd of filver - 82

100

By the atonic theory it ihould be conflituted by loc
+ 7.5 = 107.5 °f oxyd of filver, and 24 muriatic acid,
which would give

Oxyd of filver - 81.7

Muriatic acid - 18.3

100

Sir Humphrey confiders it as a compound of one propor-*
tion of chlorine, 67, and one proportion of filver, 205,
which will give

Silver - - - 75.3

Chlorine - - 24.7

100

Confidcnng the 24.7 of chlorine as oxymuriatic acid, which
would be 18.8 muriatic acid, and 5.9 oxygen ; then giving
this oxygen to 75.3 of filver, would give 81.2 of oxyd of
filver, and 18.8 of muriatic acid in the 100, which nearly
agrees with the above. The property which this fait has of
becoming black by the adlion of light, has rendered it ufeful
for marking linen. Very improper ingredients have been
fold for this purpofe. The nitrate of filver is employed to
write with upon the linen, which is very proper ; but the
part is often prepared by a folution of loda or potafli, in-
itead of a folution of muriate of foda (common fait). The
following will be a recipe which caiuiot fail of luccefs : dif-
folve 30 grains of lunar caullic in one ounce of diftilled
water ; this will be for the writing liquid. For the pre-
paring liquor, diifolve half . an ounce of common fait in four
ounces of water ; and in the lame dillolve half an ounce of
gum arabic. Moiiten the part to be marked with the latter,
and dry it till the writing will not run. The letters will firll
appear of a blueifii-white, but become perfeftly black by cx-
polurc to light.

The fluate, borate, phofphate, carbonate, and arfeniate of
filver, are infoluble powders, having no ilriking properties, or
but little known. The arfeniate is formed by adding arfeniate
of potalh to any foluble fait of filver. It falls down in the
form of powder of a yellow colour. Its iiifolubility, and it^
confpicuous colour, have been taken advantage of by employ-
ing nitrate of filver a« a tell for arfenic.

The ciiromate of filver is an infoluble fait, of a red colour ;
it is formed by adding chroniate of potaHi to nitrate ot
filver. It, however, becomes purple by expofure to air and
light.

Acetate of filver is a foluble fait, formed by adding the
acetic acid to oxyd of filver. The folution affords prilinatis
cry Hals.

The rcll of the falts are but little known.
SiLvtn, in Medicine, is called liimi, the moOn ; and has
been much extolled for its virtues by chemical writers. But
5 A 2 crude

S I L

S I L

crude filver, however comminuted or attenuated, has not
been obferved to fproduce any medical efFeft. It is not
foluble in any of the fluids of the animal or vegetable
kingdom.

Several preparations have been made from filver ; parti-
cularly a

Silver Pill, or Pilula Lunaris, which is a chemical pre-
paration of filver, formerly highly commended as an an-
thelmintic, and as a purgative remedy for dropfies, and in
many other inveterate ulcerous difcafes.

The method of making it is this : difl'olve an ounce of
pure nitre in diftilled water ; then difiolve an ounce of cryf-
tals of filver, made in the common way, with pure filver and
aqua fortis, in three times the weight of water, fo that the
folution may be perfectly limpid : mix the two lolutions to-
gether, they will become a clear homogene liquor ; evapo-
rate this to a pellicle, and cryftals refemlDling nitre will
flioot ; pour off the remaining nitre as before, and the re-
maining nitre will (lioot with the filver, in form of cryilals,
again, upon a fecond evaporation : let thefe cryftals be dried
upon a paper, and then placed in a glafs veflel in a very
gentle heat, enough to make them fmoke, but not run ; ftir
it with a piece of glafs all the time, and keep it over the
fire, till no more fumes arife ; thus the acid fpirlts will be
driven off, and the filver remain of a very bitter talle and
purging quality. It muil be kept in a dry clofe vefTel.

This difcovery has been made to ferve to many other pur-
pofes, befides its ufes in medicine, and has furnifiied the dif-
honell preteaders to alchemy with one of their moll cunning
methods of deceit. They have been able, by this means, to
conceal filver in nitre, and that in a ver\' large proportion,
as in one-tenth part of the whole quantity ; and this nitre
being projefted in an equal quantity on melted lead, gives
an increafe of one-tenth part in filver, which remaining upon
the telt, will deceive the ignorant, as if a tenth part of the
lead were converted into pure filver. People who are upon
their guard, may, however, difcover the cheat, by difiblving
the pretended nitre in ten times its weight of water, and
putting a polifhed plate of copper into the folution ; for
every particle of the filver will then be precipitated out
of the liquor upon the copper, and to the bottom of the
▼effel.

The medicinal ufe is this : the dried mafs, confifting of
the falts of filver and nitre, is to be reduced to a fine pow-
der : this powder, applied to ulcers, afts in the manner of
the lapis infernalis, or filver-cauftic, only much milder : but
for intenial ufe, the quantity of two grains of it is to be
ground to a fine powder, with fix grains of loaf-fugar, in
a glafs mortar ; this is to be then mixed with ten grain? of
the crumb of bread, and formed into nine pills : thefe are
to be taken by a grown perfon upon an empty ftomach,
drinking after them four or fix ounces of hot water,
fweetened with honey. It purges gently, and brings away
a liquid matter like water, often unperceived by the patient.
It is faid to kill worms, and perform great things in many
obftinate ulcerous diforders. It purges without griping,
but it muft not be ufed too freely, nor in too large a dofe,
for it always proves weakening, and in fome degree corrofive
on the ftomach ; but this inconvenience is greatly alleviated
by rob of juniper. Boerh. Chem. part ii. p. 297.

However, with this affiftance, it is at beft a dangerous
medicine, and as fuch is defervedly excluded from practice.
Lewis.

Silver, T'mdure of, is made by difiblving thin filver
plates, or filver (hot, in fpirit of nitre ; and pouring the
folution into another veftel full of falt-water. By this
means, the filver is immediately precipitated in a very white

powder, which they wafh feveral times in fpring water.
This powder they put into a raatrafs ; and pour reftified
fpirit of wine, and volatile fait of urine, upon it. The
whole is left to digelt in a moderate heat for fifteen days ;
during which, the fpirit of wine affumes a beautiful (ky-blue
colour, and becomes an ingredient in feveral medicines. Thi»
is alfo cMed potailejihfr, argentum potabiU.

Silver is likewife converted into cryftals, by means of the
fame fpirit of nitre ; and this is called vitriol of filver.

The lapis infernalis argenteus is nothing but the cryftals
of filver melted with a gentle heat in a crucible ; and then
poured into iron moulds. See Caustic, Lunar.

Silver Ate. See Ale.

Silver Bufi, in Botany, a fpecies of Anthyllis; which fee.
See alfo Barba Jo-vis.

Silver Coin. See Coix, and Money.

Silver Fir, the name of a tree of the pine kind. See
Pine.

Silver, Grren and Herring. See the adjeftives.

Silver, Injlammahle, a chemical preparation of the lapis
infernalis made by a fmall heat. The procefs is this : take
an ignited piece of Dutch turf, after it ceafes to fmoke ;
place it with its upper flat furface parallel to the horizon ;
make a little cavity in the middle, and therein put a drachm
of dry lapis infernalis ; it will immediately melt and glow,
and finally it will take flame, and hifs and (hine like nitre :
after the flame ceafes, pure filver will be found in the hol-
low, as much in quantity as was ufed in making fo much
lapis infernalis.

This curious experiment ftiews the phyfical manner in
which acids do but fuperficially adhere to filver ; and the
manner in which acids operate, when united to metals, while
furrounding their metallic mafs, they arm the ponderous
principles of them with fpiculx : it Ihews alfo the immuta-
bility of filver diflolved in an acid, and the various ways in
which it may be concealed, yet ftill have its action : it alfo
ftiews the difference of potable filver, while exifting in a
faline form, by means of an adhering acid, from that potable
filver of the adepts, where the principles of filver are fup-
pofed converted into a fluid, that will mix with the juices of
the body, and cannot be reduced to filver again ; but the
great thing to be here obferved is, that the acid fpirit of
nitre, adhering in a folid mafs of filver, is, in this ftate, as
inflammable, on coming in contact with an ignited combuf-
tible body, as crude nitre itfelf : this feems to happen with
filver alone, which is unchangeable with fpirit of nitre.
Hence alfo we fee one way, by which filver may be obtained
pure from other adhering matters, by bare burning : the
acid here acls neither upon the mercurial part of the filver,
nor on its fixing fulphur. Boerh. Chem. part ii. p. 297.

Silver, King's. See Kixg'j Silver.

SiLXER-Le/j/k that which the gold-beaters have reduced
into fine thin leaves, to be ufed by gilders. Sec. See Gold-
Leqf.

Silver, Quid. See Mercury.

Silver, Rep. See Rep Silver.

Silver, Salt. See Salt Silver.

Silver, Shell, is made of the ftireds of filver leaves, or
of the leaves themfelves : and ufed in painting and filvering
certain works. It is prepared after the fame manner as fhell-
gold. See Gold.

Silver, Slough. See Slough Silver.

Silver, Smoie. See Smoke Silver.

SiLVER-Tree, in Botany. See Protea.

SiLVEn- IVeed, a (pedes of Potentilla ; which fee.

SlLVER-/^W, in Agriculture, a term applied to wild

tanfey ; a plant which grows naturally upon cold ftiff land

II ' in

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in moft parts, and is a fure mark of the fterility of the foil.
Its llalks fpread upon the ground, and fend out roots from
their joints; by which means, and by frequent (hcdding of
its feeds, as it flowers during the whole fummer, it foon
over-runs, and fills the land to a great diftance. Its leaves
are compofed of feveral lobes or wings, which are generally
placed along the mid-rib, and terminated by an odd one :
they are jagged at their edges, and are of a filvery colour,
efpecially on their under fide. It has been noticed by Mr.
Ray, that the root is fomewhat of the tap-rooted or parfnip
kind, and that hogs are very fond of feeding upon it.

Silver, IVhite-hart. See White-hakt i'/Virr.

Silver IVirs, is filver drawn through the holes of a wire-
drawing iron, and by this means reduced to the finenefs of
a thread or hair. The manner of drawing it, fee under the
article Gold /r«rc. See alfo Wire, andDuAwi.MG.

Silver Bltiff', in Geography, a headland on the coaft of
South Carohna, at the mouth of the river Savannah.

Silver Caya, a duller of rocks, lo miles S. of Grand
Cayes.

Silver Creek, a river of America, in Kentucky, which
runs into the river Kentucky, N. lat. 37° 41'. W. long.
84° 40'.

SILVER-GRAIN, in Vegetable Phyfwiogy, is defcribed
by Mr. Knight, Phil. Tranf. for 1801, 344, as confilling
of numerous thin plates, " diverging in every direftion from
the medulla to the bark, having little adhefion to each other
at any time, and lefs during fpring and iummer, than in au-
tumn and winter ; whence the greater brittlenefs of wood
in the former feafons." The fame writer remarks, that
thefe plates are vifible in every wood which he had examined,
except fome of the Palm tribe ; but are of a different width
in different kinds, lying between, and prefTing upon, the
fap-veffels of the alburnum. It may be obferved, that in
the oak " every tube is touched by them at ihort diltances,
and nightly diverted from its courfe. If thefe," continues
Mr. Knight, " are expanfible under changes of temperature,
or from any caufe ariling from the powers of vegetable life,
I conceive that tliey are as well placed as is poffible, to pro-
pel the fap to tiie extremities of the branches ; and their
reftlefs temper, after the tree has ceafcd to live, inclines me
to believe, that they arc not made to be idle whilll it con-
tinues alive." In fupport of this opinion, we would re-
mark, that the plates in qutllion are found where the fpiral
coats of the fap-vellcls either no longer exilt, or have loft
their clafticity. See Circulation of the Sap.

SILVERING, the covering of any work with a thin
coating of filver. This operation is recommended by two
circumltaiices ; -viz.. the fuperior beauty of filver to that of
the cheaper metals, and alfo its fuperior wholefomenefs to
copper, braf';, or lead, for culinary purpofes, as it is not
corroded by vinegar and other weak acids.

Silvering may be performed on the fame fiibllances, and
by fimilar methods with gilding ; which fee. But as works
or this kind are liable to taniilh and fpcckle, they are fel-
dom uled. But when this i'. the cafe, the coating of filver
fliould be much thicker than that of gold, becaufe other-
wife tiie fridtioii which is necedary for removing the tarnilh,
would foon wear off the filver fr.)m the mon. prominent
parts, and expofe to view the fiibjacent copper or brafs.
In order to avoid this inconvenience, fome have recom-
mended, when filverijig is admitted, a ilrmig varnilh, formed
of fome of the compofitions of mallic, landarac, the gums
animi or copal, and white rofin, to be put over it.

The varnifti recommended in filvering leather may be ap-
plied to other jjurpofes. See Lacquer.

The filver powder, called urgentum mufivum, may be either

S I L

tempered, in the manner of the fhell-gold, with gum-water,

or rubbed over a ground properly fized ; and it will take a
very good pohfli from the dog's tooth or bumilhers ; and
hold its colour much better with a flight coat of varnifh over
it, than any true filver powder or leaf.

The fizes for filvering, when they are ufed for this par-
pofe, ought not to be mixed, as in the cafe of gold, with
yellow, or bole armoniac, but with fome white fubitance,
whofc cffeft may prevent any fmall failures in covering the
ground with the filver from being feen. This may be done
with flake-white, or white-lead, when tiie fizes formed of
oil are ufed ; but whiting, or tobacco-pipe clay, with a little
lamp-black added to it, is the proper matter in the burnifli
fize for filvering, or wherever the glovers' or parchment fize
is ufed.

It is ufual to filver metals, wood, paper, &c.

The only metals to which filvering is applied are copper
and brafs, and very rarely iron ; and there are three modes
of performing this operation, -viz. hy amalgamation, by mu-
riated fil-vcr, and hy fdvcr in fubjiance. 'i'\\e Jirjl mode is
performed by adding plates of copper to a folution of ni-
trated filver, which will precipitate the filver in its metallic
Itate, and very finely divided ; fcrape this from the copper,
and let it be well wafiicd and dried. With half an ounce of
this powder, of common fait and fal ammoniac two ounces,
and one drachm of corrofive fublimate, well rubbed together,
make a parte by the addition of a little water, then clean the
vellel to be filvercd with a fmall quantity of diluted aqua
fortis, or by fcouring it with a mixture of common fait and
tartar. Rub it, when perfeftly clean, with the palte already
mentioned, until it is entirely covered with a white metalhc
coating ; which coating is an amalgam produced by the de-
compofition of the corrofive {ublimate bv means of the cop-
per, to the furface of which it applies very clofely and ex-
peditioufly. The copper thus filvered over is then to be
wafhed, dried, and heated nearly red, for the purpofe of
driving off the mercury : the filver remains behind and ad-
heres firmly to the copper, in a Hate capable of receiving a
high polilh. Thcyffonrf method of filvering is that by luna
cornea. For this purpofe, prepare the luna cornea in the
ufual manner, by pouring a folution of common fait into ni-
trate of filver, as Jong as any precipitation, occurs and boil-
ing the mixture ; then mix the white curdy matter thus ob-
tained with three parts of good pearl-a(h, one part of wafhed
whiting, and a little more than one part of common fait.
After the furface of the brafs, cleared from fcratches, has
been rubbed with a piece of old hat and rotttn ftone, in
order to remove any greafe, and then moillcned with fait
and water, a little of the compofilion, being now rubbed on
with the finger, will prefently cover the furface of the metal
witli filver. Then walh it well, rub it dry with loft rag,
and then, as the coat of filver is very thin, cover it with
tranlparent varnifli to prelerve it from tarnilh. .As this kind
of filvering is very impcrfetl, it is only ufed for the faces of
clocks, the fcales of barometers, or fimilar objects. (See
Luna Corma.) The third moiic of performing this opera-
tion is by means of filver in fubllance: and of doing this
there are three different methods. The firll is by mixing
together 20 grains of filver precipitated by copper, two
drachms of tartar, two drachms of common fait, and half a
drachm of alum ; and rubbing this conipofition on a per-
fectly clean lurface of copper or brafs will cover it witli a
thin coating of filver, which may be polilhed with a piece
of foft leather. Another and better method, called French
plating, conlills in buriiilliing down upon the furface of the
copper fucccllive layers of leuf-filvcr to any required thick-
nels. Altho'igh the Clver m this operation is more folid

than

S I L

S I L

than in any of the former modes, the procefsis tedious, nor
can the junftures of the leaves of filver be always entirely
concealed. But the bell method of all is the Englifh plat-
ing, tor an account of which fee Plated Manufacture.
Aikin'sDift.

Brafs may be filvered, by boiling it with filings of good
pewter and white tartar, in equal quantities. There are
feveral other methods of filvering, for which fee Smith's
Laboratory, p. 37, feq. ; alfo Handmaid to the Arts, vol. i.
p. 47 1, &c. Sec Gilding of Metals.

The following is the recipe in praftice with button-
makers for covering the inferior kinds of plated buttons :
3lbs. of fulphate of zinc ; 3lb8. of common fait ; i oz. of
corrofive fubhmate ; and 2 oz. of muriate of filver. This
is made into a pulpy ilate with water, and the buttons
fmeared over with it. They are then expofed to a certain
degree of heat, which firlt caufes the furface to be covered
with an amalgam of filver and mercury, and then expelhng
the latter, which requires nearly a red heat, the copper re-
tains a permanent coating of filver. This is afterwards to
be cleaned and burnifhed, by which it acquires a filvery
luftre, wliich, for a time, appears like durable plating. The
fait and the fulphate of zinc appear to be of no other ufe
than to dilute and give a pulpy confidence to the mafs.

Silvering in the cold is performed by the following com-
pofition : 3lbs. of cream of tartar ; 3lbs. of common fait ;
and I oz. of muriate of filver, which is the precipitate
formed by adding common fait to nitrate of filver, till no
more is precipitated. This compofition is made into a fimilar
pulp. The furface of the copper or brafs to be filvered
mull firlt be cleaned with diluted acid, and then made dry,
and kept free from greafe. The furface, being now rubbed
with the above pafte, will allume a white colour, by the
filver adhering to it. This procefs is generally employed
for filvering clock-faces, and the fcales of inftruments.
The furface fhould always be vamifiied to prevent its tar-
nilhing, as the filver is too thin to bear cleaning. See
Button.

Silvering of Leather. See Lacquer and Japanners'
Gilding.

The proceeding in filvering the leather is in all refpefts
the fame as when it is to have the appearance of gilding,
except that, inttead of the yellow varnifh, a clear colourlefs
one is to be ufed, where the appearance of filver is to be
preferved.

The mod common varnifh for this purpofe is only parch-
ment fize, made warm, and laid on with a fpunge. How-
ever, the more hard and tranfparent the varnilhes are, and
the more they are of a refinous nature, the more brilliant
and white, :ind the more durable, will be the filvery and
pofiflied appearance of the filvered leather. Some, inftead
of the parchment fize, ufe that made of ifinglafs.

SlLVERiMi of Mirrors, is the application of a coat-
ing of quickfilver to their pofterior furface, in the
manner briefly defcribed under the article Looking-G/it/}.
The management of the filvering is, in this cafe, extremely
fimple, and is thus detailed in Aikin's Diftionary. A per-
feftly flat flab of free -Hone (or fometimes of thick wood),
a little larger than the largeft plate, is inclofed in a fquare
wooden frame or box, open at the top, and with a ledge
rifing a few inches on three fides, and cut down even with
the done on the fourth. A fmall channel or gutter is cut
at the bottom of the wooden frame, ferving to convey the
wafte mercury down into a veflel below, fet to catch it.
The flab is alfo fixed on a centre pivot, fo that one end may
be raifed by wedges (and of courfe the other deprefled) at
pleafure, when working freely in the box.

The flab being firft laid quite horizontal, and covered with
grey paper ftretched tight over it, a fheet of tin-foil, a little
bigger than the plate to be filvered, is fpread over it, and
every creafe fmoothed down carefully ; a little mercury 15
then laid upon it, and fpread over with a tight roll of cloth,
immediately after which as much mercury is poured over it
as will lie on the flat furface without fpilling. That part
of the flab which is oppofite the cut-down fide of the
wooden frame is then covered with parchment, and the
glafs plate is lifted up with care and Aid in (holding it
quite horizontally) over the parchment, and lodged on the
furface of the flab. The particular care required here is,
that the under furface cf the glafs fhould from the firll juft
dip into the furface of the mercury (fkimming it off as it
were), but without touching the tin-leaf in its paflagc,
which it might tear. By this means no bubbles of air
can get between the glafs and the metal, and alfo any little
dull or oxyd floating on the mercury is fwept off before the
plate without interfering. The plate being then let go,
finks on the tin-foil, fqueezing out the fuperfiuous mercury,
which palTes into the channel of the wooden frame above-
mentioned. The plate is then covered with a thick flannel,
and is loaded over the whole furface with lead or iron
weights, and at the fame time is tilted up a little, by which
dill more of the mercury is fqueezed out. It remains in this
fituation for a day, the dope of the done flab being gra-
dually increafed to favour the dripping of the mercury.
The plate is then very cautioufly removed, touching it only
by the edges and upper fide, and the under fide is found
uniformly covered with a foft pally amalgam, confiding of
the tin-leaf thoroughly foaked with the quickfilver, and
about the thicknefs of parchment. It is then fet up in a
wooden frame, and allowed to remain there for feveral
days, the flope of its pofition being gradually increafed,
till the amalgam is fufficiently hardened to adhere fo firmly
as not to be removed by flight fcratches, after which the
plate is finifhed and fit for framing.

It is a confiderable time before the amalgam has acquired
its utmoll degree of hardnefs, fo that globules of mercury
will often drip from new mirrors fome time after they have
been fet up in rooms ; and violent concufTions of the air,
fuch as from the firing of cannon, will often detach portions
of the amalgam. Thefe can never be perfeftly replaced
by any patching, as the lines of junflion with the old amal-
gam will always be marked by white feams, feen when
looking into the glafs. See Foliating of Looiiiig-Glnjfes.
• Silvering of Paper. See Ch'mefe Paper.

SILVERIUS, pope, in Biography, the fon of pope
Hormifdas, was placed in the pontifical chair in the year
536, upon the death of Agapetus. Belifarius, the famous
general of Judinian, having foon after taken pofieffion of
Rome, the emprefs Theodora refolved to take this oppor-
tunity of redoring Anthemius, patriarch of Condantinople,
and his party, who had been condemned for herefy by the
council of Chalcedon. She wrote to Silverius, urging him
to recognize Anthemius as lawful bifhop, to which he gave
a pofitive refufal. Upon this the emprefs made an engage-
ment with the deacon Vigilius, that he fhould be raifed to
the popedom on condition that he would anathematize the
council of Chalcedon, and re-admit Anthemius and his
party ; and (he at the fame time ient orders to Belifarius to
depofe Silverius. To furnidi a pretext for this aft, an
accufation of treafon was brought agaiud the pope, as
having invited the Goths to repofTefs themfelves of Rome.
This change was mod probably invented for the purpofe,
and without the fmalled foundation ; and Belifarius, without
afting upon it, fent for Silverius, and endeavoured by

4 perfuafion

S I L

S 1 L

perfuafion to get him t.o comply with the emperor's requi-
fition, but he remained firm. Finding, however, that he
had not llrcngth to oppofe his enemies, he took fanftiiary
in a chvirch ; but bemg artfully drawn from it, he was
ttript of the enfigns of digr.itv, and exiled in the year after he
had been elefted pope. When arrived at Patara, a city ia
Lycia, the place of his exile, the billiop of the place met
him, and, indignant at the treatment he had experienced,
undertook to lay the cafe before the emperor, then at Con-
ftantinople, and from his rcprefentation, .lultinian ordered
the caufe to be re-heard. Silverius, immediately on re-
ceiving this order, went to Rome, where his manly conduct
and perfonal appearance greatly difconccrtcd Vigilius, who
had intruded into his chair. Through the intrigues, how-
ever, of Vigilius witii Antonina, the wife of Belifarius,
Silverius was put into his hands, and carried to the ifland
of Palmaria, on the coaft of Liguria, where he died, from
want or hardihip, in or about June, in the year 538 ;
though Earouius maintains that he held a fynod of four
bifhops in the ifland. at which he excommunicated Vigilius,
and that he did not die till June 540. In the church of
Romr he is honoured as a martyr to orthodoxy.

SILVER MINES, in Geography, a fmall town of the
county of Tipperary, Ireland, which obtained its name
from productive lead-mine; in the neighbourhood, from
whicli luch virgin filver was formerly obtained. Tliefe
mine'- ilie property of lord Dunally, are no longer wrought,
and are thouglit to be exhaulted. Silvermmes is north of
the Keeper mt untains, and gives name to a lower ridge of
hi!'-. It is 77 miki, S.W. from Dubhn, and about 5
miles S. from Nenagh.

SILVES, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Algarve, fituated on .1 river of the fame name, containing
1600 inhabitants ; formerly more confiderable than at pre-
fent, and from the year 1 188 to 1580 a bifhop's fee, which
was afterwards removed to Faro; 15 miles E.N.E. of
Lagop. N. lat. 37° 10'. W. long. 8° 21'. — Alfo, a river
of Portugal, which runs into the Atlantic, a little below
Villa Nova de Portimao.

SILVESTER I., pope, in Biography, was elefted to
the fee of Rome in January 314. In that year was held
the council of Aries, to which Silvefler was invited, but he
excufed himielt on account of his age, and fcnt two pref-
byters and two deacons as his deputies. To the general
council of Nice, in 325, he alfo fent deputies, which council
was convened by the emperor, and not by the pope, nor did
the latter prefide at it. It was during this pontificate that
the hierarchy of the Chrillian church, as it has ever fince
cxiftcd, formed upon the model of the civil government of
the empire, took its origin. Silvefter died in 335, after
having held the papal fee nearly twenty-one years.

SlLVKSTEii II., pope, previoully named Gerlert, was
born of an obfcure family in Auverirne, in the loth century.
At an early age he entered himfelf as a m.onk in the mo-
ualtcry of St. Gerard, Aurillac. After laying a found-
ation of all the fcienccs cultivated in that ignorant age, he
travelled for improvement, and vifitcd Spain, in order to
hear the Arabian dodtors in its univerfities. At length
he rendered himfelf fo diltinguiihed, that he was appointed
by Hugh Capet preceptor to his fon Robert. At Rome
he became known to the emperor Otho I., who placed him
at the head of the abbey of Bobbio, about the year 970.
Having refided there fome years, he returned to France,
but vifited occafionally Italy. In one of thofe vifits he met
with Otho II. at Pavia, who took him to Ravenna, where
he held a folemn deputation on a mathematical <iuelUon
with a Saxon, very eminent fOr liis learning. He was

afterwards made preceptor to Otho III., who fucceeded to
the imperial crown while he was Hill a minor. In the year
991, Hugh Capet promoted him to the archbilhopric of
Rheims ; but this elevation was a fource of difquiet to
him, and after much contention, he was obliged to refio-n
the fee to Arnulf, the natural fon of Lothaire, king 'of
France, who had been formerly depofed from it. This
was in the year 997, and at the fame time Otho III. con-
ferred upon him the archbifhopric of Ravenna ; and on the
death of pope Gregory V. in 999, he was elefted to the
papal dignity, when he adumed the name of Silveller. The
adts of his pontificate were but few, and not at all important.
In the year looohc is faid to have conferred on Stephen I.,
king of Hungary, the royal title, with the famous crown,
the palladium of that kingdom, and to have conllitutcd him
perpetual legate of the holy fee, with power to difpofe of
all ecclefiaftical benefices. An extraordinary inftance of
ecclefialtical vigour in this popedom is mentioned by
Ademar, which, if it may be relied on, proves both the
great power of the church at that period, and the dif-
pofition to abufe it. Guy, count of Limoges, having
imprifoned Grimoald, bifliop of that city, for taking pol-
felTion of a difputed monaltery, and afterwards releafed him,
the bifhop repaired to Rome, and complained to the pope,
who cited Guy to his prefencc. The cauie being heard,
the count was condemned by the pope and fenate to be bound
to the tail of a wild horfe, and dragged away till he was
torn to pieces, the execution of which fentence he efcaped
by compromifing the affair with the biOiop, his acculer,
and taking flight along with him. Silveitcr died in the
year 1003. He was a very meritorious charafter, a pro-
moter of learning, and a proficient in various branches of
the fciences. He fpent much time and large fums of money
in the coUeftion of books from various parte of Europe,
compofed himfelf a number of works, particularly in
arithmetic and geometry, and with his own hands made
globes, a clock, and an aftrolabe. Living, as he did, in
the very depths of the dark ages, he fell under the fufpicion
of magical praftices, and feveral ridiculous llories are re-
lated to this purpofe. There were, however, perfons who
knew how to appreciate his charafter : he is mentioned by
Otho " as a molt learned man, and eminent in the three
branches of philofophy." He wrote a great number of
letters on various topics, of which 160 of them were printed
at Paris in 161 1. One of thefe, written in the firlt year
of his pontificate, is a call to the church univerfal, for
delivering the Chrillians in Paleftine ; in other words, a
projeft rtir a crufade.

SILVESTREGRANUM, or Coccus Silvestius, a
term ufed by fome authors to exprefs the coccus Polonicus ;
and by other-,, for a eoarfe or bad kind of cochineal, pro-
duced in the province of Gustimala, in New .Spain ; it is
by fome luppoled to be the feed of a plant, but is, in reality,
an infedt, as the true cochineal is, only that the fcarlct
colour it yields is greatly inferior to the other. See Co-

l HINKAL.

SILVIUM, in Anc'teul Geography, a place of Italy, in
Pcucotia, E. of Venufi.i. The name is formed from Silva,
a grove lound in this place, and probably the " Saltus Ban-
tini" mentioned by Horace.

SILUM, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Adriatic.
N. lat. 44'^ 3,t)'. E. long. 14° 50'.

SILURES, or, according to the orthography of Plo-
lemy, Sy lures, in /Indent Geography, a people of the ideoi
Albion, who polledcd, befides the tvvo Englidi counties of
Hereford and Monmouth, Radnorfliire, Drccknockflurc,
and Glaniorganlhirc, m South Wales. Tlic northern part

of

S I L

S I L

of Herefordfhire has been fuppofed by fome to belong to
the Ordovices. The name of this ancient Britifli nation is
derived, by i'ome of our antiquaries, from coil, a wood, and
uris, men, becaufe they inhabited a woody country ; and
by others, from the Britifti words cs heull iiir, which fignify
brave or fierce men. Tacitus has conjetlured, with httle
probability, and no fufiicient evidence, that the Silures had
come originally from Spain, grounding the conjefture on a
fuppofed, or perhaps fancied refemblance between them and
the ancient Spaniards, in their perfons and complexions. It
is much more probable, that they, as well as the other an-
cient inhabitants of Britain, had come from fome part or
other of the neighbouring continent of Gaul. But from
whencefoever they derived their origin, they reflefted no dif-
honour upon it, as their pofterity have not degenerated from
them. The Silures were unqueftionably one of the braved of
the ancient Britidi nations, and defended their country and
their liberty againit the Romans with the mofk heroic fortitude.
For though they had received a dreadful defeat from Oftorius
Scapula, and had loll their renowned commander Caradacus,
they Hill continued undaunted and implacable ; and by their
bold and frequent attacks, they at length broke the heart of
the brave Ollorius. But all their efforts were at lall in vain.
They were repulfed by Aulas Didius, further weakened by
Petilius Cerealis, and at lall totally fubdued by Julius Fron-
tinus, in the reign of Vefpafian. As the Romans had found
great difficulty in fubduiiig tlie Silures, fo they took great
pains to keep them in fubjeftion, by building itrong forts,
and planting ilrong garrifons in their country. One of the
moft confiderable of thefe fortifications, and the capital of
the whole country, was Ifca Silurum, now Caerleon, on the
river Wifk, in Monmouthfliire. Here the fecond legion of
the Romans, which had contributed greatly to the reduftion
of the Silures, was placed in garrifon (as fome antiquaries
have imagined) by Julius Frontinus, to keep that people in
obedience. It is however certain, that this legion was very
early, and very long ftationed at this place. Ifca Silurum
was, in the Roman times, a city not only of great ftrength,
but alfo of great beauty and magnificence. This is evident
from the defcription which is given us of its rums by Gi-
raldus Cambrenfis, in his typography of Wales, feveral ages
after it had been deftroyed and abandoned. " This (Caer
Leion, or the city of the legion) was a very ancient city,
enjoying honourable privileges, and was elegantly built by
the Romans, with brick walls. Many veftiges of its an-
cient fplendour are yet remaining ; itately palaces, which
formerly, with their gilded tiles, difplayed the Roman gran-
deur. For it was firft built by the Roman nobihty, and
adorned with fumptuous edifices ; alfo an exceeding high
tower, remarkable hot-baths, ruins of ancient temples,
theatres encompafTcd with ftately walls, partly yet Handing.
Subterraneous edifices are frequently met with, not only
within the walls (which are about three miles in circum-
ference ) but alfo in the fuburbs ; as aquedufts, vaults, hy-
pocaufts, ftovcs, &c." This defcription of Caer-Leion
was compofed in the twelfth century, and therefore we have
no reafon to be furprifed that its very ruins are now fo en-
tirely deftroyed, that they are hardly difcernible. On the
banks of the river Wifk, befides Ifca Silurum, there ftood
two other Roman towns ; Burrium, now \JSli, and Goban-
nium, now Abergavenny. Venta Silurum, now Caer-
Gwent, near Chepftow, in Monmouthfliire, was alfo a con-
fiderable Roman town, of which there are fome faint veftiges
ftill remaining. Bleftum, in the thirteenth journey of An-
toninus, is fuppofed to have been fituated at Monmouth ; and
Magna, in the twelfth journey, at Kenchefter, or as others
think, at Ledbury, in Herefordfhire. When the Roman

territories in Britain were divided into five provinces, the
greateil part of the country of the Silures was in that pro-
vince which was called Britannia Secunda. Henry's Hift.
vol. i.

SILURUS, in Ichthyology, a genus of fifhes of the
order Abdominales,of which the generic charafter is as fol-
lows : The head is naked, large, broad, and compreffed ;
the mouth is fumifhed with cirri, refembling the feelers of
infefts ; the gepe is very large, extending almoft the whole
length of the head ; the lips are thick, jaws furnifhed with
teeth ; the tongue thick, fmooth, and very fhort ; the
eyes are fmall ; the gill-membrane is charafterized with from
four to feventeen rays ; body elongated, compreffed, with-
out fcales, mucous ; lateral line near the back ; the firft ray
of the dorfal or peftoral fins ferrate, with reverfed fpines.
There are twenty-eight fpecies, divided into feftions, ac-
cording to the number of their cirri, as follow : the fifhes
in feftion A have two cirri ; in feftion 'R,four ; in feftion C,
Jlx ; in feftion D, tight; and in feftion E, the fifhes are
without cirri.

The name is of Grecian origin, and is derived from the
words (r£i», to mo-vs or Jhake, jnd oufct, a tail. It is given
to this fifh, from its remarkable quality of being almoft
continually moving its tail in the water.

Seftion A. Tiuo Cirri.

Species.

MlLlTARls. The fpecific charafter of this is, that its
fecond dorfal fin is flefhy ; cirri bony, toothed. It inha-
bits many rivers in Afia ; feeds on fmaller fifhes, and grows
to a large fize. It is from twelve to eighteen inches long ;
the head and fore-parts are broad and deprefl'ed ; the mouth
is very wide ; the teeth are fmall and numerous ; the eyes are
large ; on each fide the head, near the iioftrils, a very ftrong
fubcreft, fpine, or bony procefs ; firft ray of the dorfal fin
excefTively large, ftrong, and fharply ferrated, both on the
middle part and towards the tip ; the tail flightly bilo-
bate, with rounded lobes. It is a native of the Indian
rivers.

Inebmis. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; fins unarmed. It
inhabits the rivers of Surinam. This is denominated by
fome naturaliils the fubolivaceous filurus. It is tranfverfely
banded with brown fpots, with unarmed fins, and flexuous
lateral lines. It is about twelve inches in length ; the head it
bony, but fmooth, and it is deftitute of fpiny procefTes.
It is a native of the Indian and South American rivers.

Seftion B. Four Cirri.
Species.

AsoTus. The back of this fifh has only one fin : it in-
habits Afia : there are two cirri above the mouth, and two
beneath ; the teeth are numerous ; the dorfal fin is vnthout
fpinous rays ; the firft ray of the peftoral is ferrate ; the
anal fin is long, and connefted with the caudal.

Chilensis. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; the tail is lanceo-
late : it inhabits the frefh waters of Chili : it is about tea
incheslong ; the body is brown ; beneath it is white. The
flefh is faid to be excellent.

Bagre. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; firft ray of the dor-
fal and peftoral fins fetaceous. It inhabits South America.

Callichthys. Second dorfal fin one-rayed ; a double

row of fcales on the fides. It inhabits the fmall running

ftreams of Europe, and when thefe are dried up, it crawls

acrofs meadows in fearch of water : it is faid to perforate

the fides of refervoirs, for the purpofe of making its

efcape.

Seftion

SILURUS.

SeAion C. Six Cirri,

Species.

Glanis, or European Silurus. This is alfo called the
^reat or common filurus, and may be confidcred as the
largeft of all European river-fi(h, growing, in feme cafes,
to the length of eight, ten, twelve, or even fifteen feet, and
to the weight of 300 pounds. Its more general length,
however, is from two to four feet. The head is broad and
dcprefled ; the body thick, and of a lengthened form, with
the abdomen very thick and fliort. It is of a (luggifh dif-
pofition, being rarely oblcrved in motion, and commonly
lying half imbedded in the foft bottom of the rivers which
it frequents, under the projcfting roots of trees, rocks, logs,
or other fubllances. In this fituation it remains, with its
wide mouth half open, gently moving about the long cirri
fituated on each fide the jaws, which the fmallcr liihes mif-
taking for worms, and attempting to feize, become a ready
prey to the filuru?. The colour of this fpecies is dark olive,
varied with irregular fpots of black ; the abdomen and
lips are of a pale flelh -colour, and the fins are tinged with
violet. It is an inhabitant of the larger rivers of Europe,
as well as fome parts of Afia and Africa, but it appears to
be molt plentiful in the north of Europe. It is not much
elleemed as food, the flefh being of a glutinous nature; but
from its cheapnefs, it is in much requed among the inferior
ranks of fociety, and is eaten either freih or ialted. The
(l<in, which is Imooth, and deftitute of apparent fcales, is
dried and Itretched, and after rubbing with oil, becomes of
a horny tranfparency and ftrength, and is uled in fome of
the northern regions initead of glals for windows. The
filurus is not a very prolific fifii, depofiting a fmall quan-
tity of fpawn, confitHng of large globules or ova ; thefe,
as well as the newly hatched young, are frequently the prey
of other filhes, frogs, &c., and thus the great increafe of
the fpecies is prevented. The ova are faid to be hatched in
about a week after their exclufion.

Ei.ECTRicus. The dorfal fin is fingle and flelhy. The
head is deprelled ; the eyes are moderate, covered with the
common flcin ; the teeth are crowded, fmall, and (harp in
each jaw ; the nollrils are very minute ; each fide approxi-
mate ; upper lip bearded with two cirri, the lower with four,
of which the exterior ones are longer. It inhabits the rivers
of Africa. It is about twenty inches long ; the body is
long and broad on the fore part, deprefied, pale afli-colour,
with a few blackifli fpots towards the tail ; when touched, it
communicates a trifling (hock, attended with a fort of
trembling and pain in the limbs, but Icfs violent than that
given by the

ToKPEDO, which fee. The flerti of the eleftrical filurus is
eatable.

Felis. The fecond dorfal fin of the fifh of this fpecies
ib flcfhy ; it has 23 anal rays ; the tail is bifid. It is found
in Carolina ; the body above is blueifh.

Galeatus. The fecond dorfal fin uf this fidi is fltthy ;
it has 24 anal rays, and the tail is entire. It inhabits
South America. The head is covered with a hard coria-
ceous fliield ; the fpinous rays ol the perioral and dorfal fins
are rigid.

Cakin'atus. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; the lateral line \»
fpinous ; the cirri under the lower hp are conncdled. It
inhabits Surinam ; the body is comprelTcd.

NlLOTlcus. The fecond dorfal fin of this is flefhy ; the
anal rays are ten in number. It is found in the Nile ; is
fourteen inches and a half hing ; the body is of a brownidi-
grey ; the fides of the head are blueiih ; the end of the
uofe, under part of the head, peftoral fins and cirri, are
Vol. XXXIl.

tinged with red : there is a femicirclc of reddifli at the com-
mencement of the tail.

OlAUiAs. Second dorfal fin flefhy; anal rays eleven.
It inhabits the rivers of South America and Africa ; is
from twelve to fifteen inches long ; the body is of a blackifh-
afh, beneath it is hoary ; it is faid to inflift venomous wounds
with the ferrated peftoral fin.

Fasc'IAtus. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; the anal rays are
thirteen. It inhabits Surinam and the Brazils : the body
is black, with white bands on each fide, beneath it is white ;
the flefh is in higii efteem ; the head is deprelled, rounded
on the fore part ; a third part as long as the whole body ;
the fins are all fpotted with black.

AsciTA. The fecond dorfal fin fl. fhy ; it ha' eighteen
anal rays. It inhabits India, and appears to be of a mixed
kind between oviparous and viviparou-;.

CosTATUS. Second dorfal fin is flefhy ; a fingle row of
fcales on the fides; the tail is bifid. It inhabits South
America and India.

Cataphkactl'S. Second dorfal fin of one ray ; a fingle
row of fcales on the fides ; the tail is entire. It inhabits
South America.

Seftion D. Eight Cirri.
Species.

AsPREDO. Dorfal fin fingle, five-rayed. It is found in
the rivers of America. The bafeof the lateral cirri broad;
the back carinate ; the anal hn reaching to the tail; the
tail is forked.

Mystus. The dorfal fin is fingle, and fingle-rayed. It
inhabits the Nile : the tail is forked.

AxGLiLLARis. Dorfal fin fingle, feventy-rayed. It is
found in the Nile : the upper part of the head is grcenifli ;
the body above the lateral line is marbled with blackifh
and grey ; the belly and lower jaw are of a reddifh-grey ;
the peftoral fins are tranfverfely divided by a broad red
band.

Batraciius. Dorfal fin is fingle, and fixty-rayed. It
inhabits Afia and Africa : the tail entire.

Undecimalis. The dorfal fin is fingle, and eleven-
rayed. It inhabits Surinam: the tail is forked.

Catus. Second dorfal fin flefhy, anal twenty-rayed. It
inhabits Afia and America.

Cous. Second dorfal fin flefliy, anal eight-rayed ; tail
forked. It inhabits Syria : the cirri are Ihorter than the
head.

DocMAC. Second dorfal fin flefhy, anal ten-rayed.
The length of the fifh of this fpecies is about three feet.
It is ot a grey colour, whitilh beneath: the head is de-
prcfied ; body convex above ; mouth furnilhed with eight
beards, the exterior ones of the upper lip extending half
the length of the body; the lateral line is tlraight, and
fituated nearer the back than the abdomen ; the firll ray of
the dorfal and anal fins long and ferrated, with foft tip. It
ii a native of the Lower Nile, towards the Delta.

Bajad. Second dorfal fin fli-lhy, anal twelve-rayed.
It is about a foot in length ; the colour is glaucous ; the
head obtufe, deprelled, and marked on each fide, before
the eycfl, by an unequal pit or deprciruin ; the upper jaw
is longer than the lower ; exterior beards of the upper hp
very long ; lateral line at firll defci ndiiig, then flr.iight j
above the peftoral fins on each fide is a very llrong fpinc,
ferrated in a reverfed direction ; the fins arc rufous ; the
fecond dorfal or adipoic fin is long ; the tail it long, di,
lated towards the tip, and forked. It is a native of the
Nile,

5 11 Sedlion

S f M

S I M

Seftion E. IVithout Cirri.
Species.

CoRNUTUs. Firft ray of the fird dorfal fin ferrate ;
peftoral unarmed. It is not more than eight or nine inches
long ; the (hape is oval ; body carinated beneath ; the
fnout is ftraight, comprefTed, a little recurred at the tip,
and about half the length of the body ; the firft ray of
the firlt dorfal fin extendincr as far as the middle of the
tail, and ferrated beneath for about half its length. It is
a native of the Mediterranean.

Imberbis. The giU-covers with two fpines on the hind
part. It inhabits Japan, and is about fix inches long ; the
body is funnel-fhaped, reddifii, and coated with fcales. It
is a native of the Indian and South American rivers.

SiLURUS is alfo a name given by fome authors to the
fturgeon, called by others accipenfer, but by the generality
of w'TitersJlurlo.

SiLURUS Moris, in Anc'teiit Geography, a mountain of
Hifpania, in the vicinity of Boetica.

SILUUM, a town of Afia Minor, in the interior of
Pamphylia. Ptolemy.

SILYBUM, in Botany, a name borrowed from Diofco-
rides, whofe cn/.viiry, is dcfcribed as a large kind of thiitle,
eatable when young, if dreffed with oil and fait. A liquor,
which exuded from its root, was given, in the dofe of a
drachm, mixed with water, to excite vomiting. Gajrtner,
after Vaillant, has applied the name in quellion to a genus
of his own, under which he brings together Carduus miirl-
anus and Cnkus ccrnuus of Linnaeus, two very diffimilar
plants.

SIM, in Geography, a river of Ruflia, which runs into
the Yenifei ; 6 miles N. of Balagovetfchen(l<oi. N. lat.
60° 10'. E. long. 90° 40'.

SIMA, or Cyma, in ArcUteaure, a term ufed by Wol-
fius, and fome other writers, for what we otherwife call
cymatium, or Jlmatium.

SIMABA, in Botany, the name of a fhrub in Guiana,
defcribed by Aublet, 400. t. 153 ; for which, being bar-
barous, Schreber has fubttituted the more legitimate, if
not more harmonious, one of Zwingera ; fee that article
hereafter.

SIMjETHUS, or SlMETUS, now Giaretta, or St. Paul,
in Ancient Geography, a river in the eaftern part of Sicily,
which paffcd through the territory of the city of Leontini,
and which was celebrated by the poets. The nymph Thalia,
after her amour with Jupiter, is fuppofed to have been con-
Terted into this ftream, which, to avoid the rage of Juno,
funk under ground near mount jEtna, and continued this
fubterraneous courfe to the fea. In the time of the Romans
it was navigable. It takes its rife on the N. fide of ^tna,
and furroundiag the weft fkirts of the mountain, falls into
the fea near the ruins of the ancient Morgantio. It does
not now fink under ground ; but throws up near its mouth
great quantities of amber, which the peafants gather, and
carry to Catanea, where it is manufaftured in the form of
croffes, beads, faints, &c. and is fold at very high prices
to the fuperftitious people on the continent. There is a large
fandy beach, that extends from the mouth of this river a
great way to the S. of Catanea, and was, without doubt,
continued the whole way to the foot of the mountain Tau-
rominum ; but it was broke in upon, at a renjote period,
by the lavas of ^Etna, which, from a low fandy fhore,
have now converted it into a high, bold, black iron coaft.
Alter piercing through the lava, beds of Ihells and fea-fand
have been difcovered.

SIMALISCHEVA, in Geegraphy, a town of Ruffia,

in the government of Kolivan ; 40 miles R.S.E. of K(j»
livan.

SIMANA, in Ancient Geography, 3 town of Afia, i»
Bithynia, fituated between two rivers.

SIMANCAS, in Geography, a fmall town of Spain, in
the province of Leon, near the confluence of the rivers
Pifuerga and Duero, celebrated for a white wine, that is
very much elteemed. In the time of Philip II. it was a
ftrong place, in which he ordered the archives of the king-
dom to be kept. It was taken by the Moors in the year
967 ; 8 miles S.W. of Valladolid.

SIMAR, a town of Hindooltan, in the circar of Gohud;
14 miles E. of Gohud.

SIMARA, one of the fmaller Philippine ifles ; 24miles
E. of Mindanao. N. lat. 12° 5'. E. long. 121° 40'.

SIMARIA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra;
4 miles E.N.E. of St. Severina.

SIMA RON A, a name given by the Spaniards in Ame-
rica to a fpecies of vanilla, called alfo bajlard-vanilla. The
pods of this kind are every way fmaller than thofe of the
true kind, and have very little liquor or pulp in them when
broken, and contain very few feeds. Thefe are greatly in-
ferior to the true kind, having fcarcely any fmell. It is not
yet certainly known whether this fpecies be the fruit of a
different kind of vanilla-plant from the common, or whe-
ther it be the fruit gathered at a different feafon, or from
a plant growing in a different foil. See Vanilla.

SIMARONES, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cuba ; 105 miles E. of Havanna.

SIMAROUBA, or Si.marlba, in Botany, is the bark
of the roots of a tree, firft imported into Europe in the
year 17 13, but not long ago botanically afcertained to be
a fpecies of the Quajfm ; which fee.

Simarouba, or SufARUBA, in the Materia Medica. This
bark, according to Dr. Wright's account of it, is rough,
fcaly, and warted. The infide, when frefti, is a full yellow,
but when dry, paler : it has but little fmell : the tafte is
bitter, but not difsgreeable. Macerated in water, or in
reftified fpirit, it quickly impregnates both menftrua with
its bitternefs, and with a yellow tinfture. It feems to
give out its virtue more perfedlly to cold, than to boiling
water ; the cold infufion being rather ftronger in tafte than
the decoftion ; which laft, of a tranfparent yellow colour
whilft hot, grows turbid and of a reddifti-brown as it cools.
The milky appearance, which Jufiieu fays it communicates
to boiling water, Dr. Wright has not obfervcd in the de-
coftion of any of the fpecimens which he has examined.

The bark was firft fent from Guiana t^ France, in 1713,
to the count de Porchartrain, then fecretary of ftate, as a
remedy of great efBcacy in dyfentery. In the years 1718
and 1723, an epidemic flux prevailed very generally in
France, which refitted all the medicines ufually employed in
fuch cafes ; fmall dofes of ipecacuanha, mild purgatives, and
all altringents, were found to aggravate, rather than to re-
lieve, the difeafe : under thefe circumftances, recourfe was
had to the cortex fimaruba, which proved remarkably fuc-
cefsful, and firlt eftabliflied its medical charafter in Europe.
Dr. Wright fays, " moit authors who have written on the
fimaruba, agree, that in fluxes it reftores the loft tone of
the inteftines, allays their fpafmodic motions, promotes the
fecretions by urine and perfpiration, rem.oves that lownefs
of fpirits attending dyfenteries, and difpofes the patient to
fieep ; the gripes and tenefmus are taken off, and the ftools
are changed to their natural colour and confiftence. In a
moderate dofe it occafions no difturbance or uneafinefs, but
in large dofes it produces ficknefs at the ftomach and
vomiting.

« Modern

S I M

S I M

*' Modern phyficians have found from fxperience, that this
medicine is only fuccefsful in the third ftage of dyfentery,
where there is no fever, where too the ftomach is no way
hurt, and where the jfripes and tenefmus are only continued
by a weaknefs of the bowels. In fuch cafes, Dr. Munro
gave two or three ounces of the decoftion every five or fix
hours, with four or five drops of laudanum ; and found it
a very ufeful remedy. The late fir J. Pringle, Dr. Huck
Saunders, and many others, prefcribed the cortex fimaruba
in old andobltinate dyfentcries and diarrhoeas, efpeciallytliofe
brought from warm chmates. Fluxes of this fort, whicli
were brought home from the fiege of Martinico and the
Havannah, were completely and fpeedily cured by thii bark.
The urine, which in thofe caies had been high-coloured and
fcanty, was now voided in great abundance, and perfpira-
tion reltored. Dr. James Lind, at Haflar Hofpital, fays,
that the fimaruba produced thefe effefts fooner, and
more certainly, when given in fuch quantity as to nau-
feate the ilomach. Dr. Huck Saunders remarks, that
if the fimaruba did not give relief in three days, he ex-
pelled little benefit from its farther ufe ; but others have
found it efficacious in fluxes, after a continued ufe for
feveral weeks. My own experience, and that of many
living friends, are convincing proofs to me of the efficacy of
this medicine, and I hope the fimaruba bark will foon be
in more general ufe."

Dr. Wriglit recommends two drachms of the bark to be
boiled in twenty-four ounces of water to twelve ; the de-
coftion is then to be fbained and divided into three equal
parts, the whole of which is to be taken in twenty-four
hours, and when the ftomach is reconciled to this medicine,
the quantity of the bark may be increafed to tliree drachms.
To this decoAion fome join aromatics, others a few drops
of laudanum to each dofe.

Dr. Cullen fays, that the virtues afcribed to fimaruba
have not been afcertained by his own experience, or that of
the pradlitioners in Scotland. Woodv. Med. Bot.

SIMAROW, in Geography, a town of Hindooitan, in
Bahar ; 1:5 miles S.S.W. of Arrah.

SIMARUM MusctJLUs, in Anatomy, a name given by
fome of the old writers to a mufcle, called by the moderns
the ferrat'.is magnus.

SIMAS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory in the
Euxine fea, on which Venus had a Itatue.

SIMATIUM, or SIMAISE, in ArchiteQure. See Cy-

MATIUM.

Simatlum and eymaiium are generally confounded together,
yet they ought to be diftinguifhed ; the latter being the
genus, and the former the fpccics.

Simalium, oi fima, camouB, according to Felibicn, is the
lait and uppermoft member of grand corniches, called par-
ticularly the great doucine, or gula reila ; and by the Greeks,
epitUheta.

In the antique buildings, the fimatium, at the top of the
Doric cornichc, is generally in form of a cavetto, or femi-
fcotia ; as we fee particularly in the theatre of Marcellus.
This fome modern architects have imitated j but, in the
Ionic order, the fimatium is always a doucine.

The fimatium, or doucine, then, is dillingmflied from
the other kinds of cymatia, by its being camous or flat-
nofed,

SIMBALATH, in the Materia Meiiica, a name given
by Avicenna and others to the Ipikenard, or nardus Indies.

The exaft interpretation of the word is fpici^era, and
Avicenna, under this general name, dillinguilnes it into le-
veral kinds ; the iirfl he calls alnardin, or nardin. It has
been fuppofcd by ferae that he means the Indian fpikenard

by this word ; but, on the contrary, it appears plainly that
he meens the Celtic nard : he calli it the nardus Romani orbit,
and fays that it is of European growth. After this he
mentions the Afiatic nards of feveral kinds, which are only
the Indian fpikenard, giowing in different places, and
fuch as ufed to be brought thence in different degrees of
perfeftion.

SIMBANI, in Geography, a trad of countr)- in Afia,
abounding with woods, and uncultivated, lying between the
kingdom of Woolli to the north-weit, Foota Torra to the
north, Bondou to the north-catt, and Tenda to the fouth-
weft.

SIMBING, a town of Africa, in Ludamar : c milei
S.W. of.Iarra.

SIMBIRSK, a town of RufTia, and capital of a govern-
ment, on the Volga ; 380 miles E.S.E. of Mofcow. N. lat.
54° 25'. E. long. 48- 30'.

SIMBIRSKOE, a government of Rullia, bounded o«
the north by Kazanflioc, on the weft by Nizegorod(l<oe and
Pcnzenllcoe, on the (oiith by the government of Saratov,
and on the eaft by Uphinflcoe ; about 180 miles from eatt to
weft, and 140 from north to fouth. N. lat. 52° 20' to 55*
30'. E. long. 45° to 51°.

SIMBOLAN, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Tucuman ; 85 miles S.E. of Rioja.

SIMBULETA, in Botany, ahered by For(l<all from
the Arabic Symbulet ennefem. — Forlk. ./Egypt-Arab. 115.
Juff. 4 1 8. — Clafs Didynamia ; Order probably Angiofpermia.
Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Eff. Ch. " Calyx five-cleft. Corolla bell-ffiaped, rin-
gent. Anthers combined."

Defer. " Stem annual, a foot high, fimple, flender, ereft,
round, with fome appearance of angles. Leaves fcattered,
near to each other, linear-thread-fhaped ; the upper ones
fimple, half an inch long ; lower an inch long, in two deep,
pointed, fmooth divifions. Clujler terminal, four inches in
length. Flowers folitary, drooping, on ftiort ftalks, with
a fliort, linear, leafy bratlea under each. Calyx a perianth
of one leaf, bell-fliaped, permanent, in five linear equal
fcgments. Coro//(j of one petal, ringent, white; tube bell-
Ihaped, longer than the calyx ; upper lip of the limb re-
flexed, cloven ; lower longeft, three-lobed, ftraight, iti
middle lobe inflexed. Filaments four, inferted into the co-
rolla, two of them longeft. Anthers four, black, united
into a quadrangular comprefied plate. Germen ovate.
Style thrcad-fliaped. Stigma capitate, ovate, nearly glo-
bofe, oblique. Fruit not obfcrved. The afpcA of the
plant is exaAly that of a Refeda or Polygala ; it moreover
approaches the charadler of Cohimnea, as to the combined
anthers, but differs in many other refpefts." Found on
mount Kurma, and no where clfe, by Forlkall, whofc de-
fcription has not enabled any learned botanift to guefs at
the plant, except that Juffieu thinks it may be akin to Ve-
ronica, or to Aiiblet's Piripea. W'c fliould rather fufpeft
an affinity to Antirrhinum.

SIMCOE Lake, in Geography, a lake of Upper
Canada, formerly lake Aux Claies, fituated between York and
Gloucefter, and comiiuiiiicatiiig with lake Huron. It lias
a few fmall iflands; and feveral good harbours.

SIMELIUM, a Latin term, ufed by fome to fignify a
table, witli ranges of little cavities in it, for the difpofirig
of medals in chronological order.

The word is but ill written ; it Hiould rather be dmelium,
as being formed of the Greek /.ufJsXio^, curiofilies, or ij eahinet
of precious things.

We more ulually lay, a cabinet of medals, than a fimc-
lium.

5 B 2 SIMENA,

S I M

S I M

SIMENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

SIMENAU, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Oberland ; 8 miles E. of Salfeld.

SIMEON, in Scripture Biography, a fon of Jacob and
Leah, born in the year 1757 B.C. (Gen. xxix. 37.)
Simeon and Levi revenged tlie affront, fuftained by the de-
filement of their half-fiiter Dinah on the part of Schechem,
the Ion of Hamor, by entering the town of Schechem, and
killing all the men they found ; after which they brought
away Dinah, in the year 1739 B.C. (Gen. xxxiv. 25.)
It lias been thought that Simeon was the mod cruel to his
brother Jofeph, and that he advifed his brethren to fell him.
(Gen. xxxvii. 20.) Th^' conjefture is founded on the cir-
cumttance of his being detained prifoner in Egypt (Gen.
xlii. 24.), and of his being treated with greater rigour by
Jofeph than the reft of his brethren. Jacob, on his death-
bed, manilelled peculiar indignation againft Simeon and

Levi. (See Gen. xlix. 5.) Accordingly the tribes of to have been enlarged, from time to time, by various addi
Simeon and Levi were difperfed in Ifrael. Levi had no tions. Gen. Biog

nifhed obfervers, at the age of 120 years, he was crucified
about A.D. 107 ; fo that he had fuperintended the church
of Jerufalem about 43 years. The Latins place his fcall
February 18, the Gieeics April 27.

Simeon, in Biography, the fon of Jochai, a very celebrated
man among the Jews, was a fcholar of the rabbi Akiba, and
flouriihed about the year 120. At the infurreftion excited
by Barchocheba, he fled, through fear of the Romans, and
retired to a cave, where he concealed himfelf twelve years,
in the courfe of which he is faid to have compofed his work,
entitled " Sohar," which is an explication of the five books
of Mofes. This, from its abftraft manner, and the matter
being clothed, according to the Egyptian method, in hiero-
glyphical images and very florid language, is not eafily un-
derilood. There are feveral editions of it, but its exaft age
is not known. It contains things that are very old ; but it
is admitted by Chriilians, as well as Jews, who held it in
efteem, to be the produftion of more authors than one, and

compaft lot or portion ; and Simeon received for his portion
only a diltnft difmembered from the tribe of Judah (Jofli.
xix. I, 2, &c.), and fome other lands which were over-run
by thole of this tribe on the mountains of Seir, and in the
defart of Gedor. ( i Chron. iv. 24. 39. 42. ) The Tar-
gum of Jerufalem, and the rabbins, who have been followed
by fome of the fathers, have affirmed, that the greater part
of the fcribes and men learned in the law were of this tribe ;

Simeon-, furnamed Metaphrajles, an ecclefiaftical writer,
lived in the tenth century, under Leo the philofopher and
his fon Conftantine Porphyrogenitus. He was a native of
Conftantinople, and rofe to high employments at court,
having been fecretary to the emperors, and the medium of
communication between them and foreigners. His writings
indicate a man converfant in ecclefiaitical affairs. He de-
rived his furname of Metaphraftes, or Tranflator, from his

and as thefe were difperfed throughout Ifrael, we perceive occupation of writing again, in a different flyle, not tranf
the accomplifhment of Jacob's prophecy, which foretold
that Simeon and Levi fhould be fcattered among their
brethren. It has been fnggefted, however, that the dif-

lating, the lives of the faints. In this bulinefs he evidently
meant to give a panegyric, rather than a true hiftory

perfion of Simeon and Levi, which Jacob meant to be a
degradation, was in the progrefs of events over-ruled fo as
to be an occafion of honour ; for Levi had the priefthood,
and Si.Tieon had the learning or writing-authority of Ifrael ;
in confequence of which both thefe tribes were honourably
difperfed throughout Ifrael. According to the teilament
of the twelve patriarchs, a book indeed of no authority,
Simeon died at the age of 120 years.

The fons of Simeon were fix, and are enumerated Exod.
vi. 15. Their defcendaiits amounted to 59,300 men, at the
Exodus (Numb. i. 22.); but the number of thofe that en-
tered the Land of Promife amounted only to 22,200, the
reft having died in the defart. (Numb. xxvi. 14.) The
portion of Simeon was weft and fonth of that of Judah ;
having the tribe of Dan and the Philiftines north, the Medi-
terranean weft, and Arabia Petrxa fouth. Jofti. xix. i — 9.
Calmet.

Simeon is alfo the name of that aged and pious perfon,
mentioned Luke, ii. 25, 26, to whom Jefus Chrift was pre-
fented by his parents in the temple, and who pronounced
upon them his bleliing. It is believed, with good reafon,
that he died foon after he had borne his teftimony to Chrift.
Some, indeed, have pretended, that this Simeon was the
fame as Simeon the juft, the fon of Hillel, and matter of
Gamaliel, whofe difciple St. Paul was.

Si.vfEON, or Simon, was alio the name of our Lord's
coufin-german, fon of Cleophas and of Mary, the fifter of
Chrilt's mother, probably the fame with him who is named
Simon by St. Mark (ch. vi. 3.) He was probably one of
eur Lord's firit difciples. According to Eufebius, he was

whence he has made additions and alterations at pleafure,
fo that the fubjects are reprefented not as they were, but as
he imagined they ought to be. His " Lives of the Saints"
have feveral times been tranflated into the Latin language.
Simeon likewife compofed fermons, hynms, and prayers,
with various pieces of the religious kind, of which fome
have been printed, and others remain in manufcript.

Simeon, named Stylites, a dillinguifhed perfon in the
annals of fanaticifm, was bom about the year 392 at Sifon,
a town on the borders between Syria and Cilicia. He was
the fon of a (hepherd, and followed the fame occupation to
the age of thirteen, when he entered into a monaftery.
After fome time he left it, in order to devote himfelf to a
life of greater fohtude and aufterity, and he took up his
abode on the tops of mountains, or in caverns of rocks,
falling fometimes, it is faid, for weeks together, till he had
worked himfelf up to a due degree of extravagance. He
then, to avoid the concourfe of devotees, but probably to
excite ftill greater admiration, adopted the ftrange fancy of
fixing his habitation on the tops of pillars, whence the
Greek appellation ; and with the notion of chmbing higher
and higher towards heaven, he fucceffively migrated from a
pillar of 6 cubits to one of 12, 20, 36, and 40. This feat
was confidered as a proof of extraordinary anxiety, and mul-
titudes flocked from all parts to pay their veneration to the
holy man, as he was denominated. Simeon pafled 47 years
upon his pillars, expofed to all the inclemency of the fea-
fons. At length a horrible ulcer put an end to his hfe, at
the age of 69. His body was taken down from his kft
pillar by the hands of bifhops, and conveyed to Antioch,
with an efcort of 6000 foldiers ; and he was interred with a

unanimoufly elefted biftiop of Jerufalem, after the death of pomp equal to any thing that had been difplayed for the

St. James, A.D. 62. When the emperor Trajan made
ftricl inquiry for all who were of the race of David, Simon
was accufed before Atticus, the governor of Paleftine ; and
havinjj endured many fufferings with a fortitude which afto-

moft potent monarchs. He has been enrolled among the
faints, either in the Greek or Latin churches. Thefe
honours produced imitators, whofe performances furpaffed
the original. One of them inhabited his pillar 68 years.
8 The

S I u

The madnefs remained in vogue till the twelfth century,
when it was fuppreiied.

Simeon Ben Jochai. See Cabbala.

SIMERCHEIT, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Bolcflaw ; 4 miles N. of Melnik.

SIMEREN, a river of Syria, which runs into the Eu-
phrates, at Romkala.

SIMERING, a town of Auftria; 4 miles S.S.E. of
Vienna.

SIMI, or Symi, an ifland in the Mediterranean, between
the ifland of Rhodes and the continent of Afia ; 6 miles N.
of Rhodes. N. lat. 36-" 36'. E. long, 37'^ 34'.

SIMIA, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of the clafs and
order of Mammalia Primates, of which the generic charac-
ter is, that the individual have four front teeth in each jaw,
which are approximate ; the tu(l<s are folitary, longer, and
more remote ; the grinders obtufe. The animals of this
genus greatly refemble man in tlie uvula, eye-la(hes, hands,
feet, fingers, toes, nails, and other parts of the body ; they,
however, differ widely in the total want of reafon : they have
retentive memories, are imitative, and full of geiliculations ;
chatter with their teeth, and grin : they macerate their food
in the cheeks before they fwallow it : they are filthy, lafci-
vious, thieving, gregarious, and the prey of leopards and
ferpents, the latter purfuing them to the fummits of trees
and fwallowing them entire.

This race of animals, which is very mimerous, is almoft
confined to the torrid zone ; they fill the woods of Africa,
from Senegal to the Cape, and from thence to Ethiopia : a
fiagle fpecies is found beyond that line, in the province of
Barbary : they are found in all parts of India, and its iflands ;
in Cochinchina, in the fouth of China, and in Japan ; and
one kind is met with in Arabia : they fwarm in the forells
of South America, from the iilhmus of Darien as far as
Paraguay.

Thefe animals, from the ftiudnre of their members, have
many aftiontin common witii the human kind ; moil of them
are fierce and untameable ; fume are of a milder nature, and
will (hew a degree of attachment : they feed on fruits, leaves,
and infefts ; inhabit woods, and live in trees : they go in
large companies. The different fpecies never mix with each
other, but always keep apart : they leap with g-reat aAivity
from tree to tree, even when loaded with their young,
which cling to them : they are not carnivorous, but, for
the fake of mifchief, will rob the neils of birds of the eggs
and young ; and it is obfcrved, that in thofe countries
where apes mod abound, the feathered tribe difcover fingu-
lar fagacity in fixing their nells beyond the reach of thefe
invaders.

Mr. Ray firft didributed the animals of this genus into
three dalles, viz. the fimit, or apes, fuch as wanted tails ;
the cercopilheci, or monkies, fuch ab had tails ; and papionet,
cr baboons, thofe with fhort tails.

From Ray, Linnaus formed his method, which was fol-
lowed by M. de Bnffon, who made a farther fub-divifion of
the long-tailed apes, or true munkics, into fuch as had
prehenfile tails, and fuch as had not.

The genus is divided into the following feflions :

Seftion A. Ai-ks without any tail.

B. Baboons with fhort tails.

. C. M(J.SKii:.s. Tails long, not prehenfile; checks

pouclied ; haunches naked.

D. Sapajols. Tails prehenfile ; no check-
pouches, and their hunnches are covered.
■ E. Saooins. Taih not prehenfile ; no chcck-
pouches ; haunches covered.

S I M

Of the whole genus, fays Dr. Shaw, it may be obferved
that the baboons are commonly of a ferocious and fuUen
difpofition. The larger apes are alfo of a malignant temper,
except the orang-outang and the gibbons. The monkies,
properly fo called, are extremely various in their difpofitions ;
fome of the fmaller fpecies are lively, harmlefs, and enter-
taining ; while others are as remarkable for the mifchievous
malignity of their temper, and the capricious uncertainty of
their manners. It is no caly talk to determine with exatl
precifion the feveral fpecies of this extenfive genus ; fince,
exclufive of the varieties in point of colour, they are often
fo nearly allied as to make it difficult to give real and dif-
tinftive charaAcrs. We (hall, as nfual, follow Gmehn's
Syftema Naturas of Linnius, in which there are fixty-four
fpecies delineated.

Seftion A. Apes -without Tailt.
Species.

Troglodytes, or Angola Ape. The generic charafter
is, that the head is conic, body brawny, back and fhoulders
hairy, the rell of the body fmooth.

Satvrus ; Orang-outang. Rufty-brown, hair of the fore-
arms reverfed, haunches covered. Befidcs this there are
two varieties; i. Without cheek-pouches, or callofities on
the haunches. This variety always walks ered. Its trivial
name is Pongo. It inhabits Java and Guinea, and is from
five to fix feet high. 2. The other variety refembles the
former, but is above half as high : it is docile, gentle, and
grave, and by fome thought to differ from the other only
in age.

Of thefe animals, the fpecies which has mod excited the
attention of mankind is the orang-outang, or, as it is often
denominated, the fatyr, great ape, or wild man of the woods.
It is a native of the warmer parts of Africa and India, and alfo
of feveral of the Indian iflands, where it refidcs principally
in the woods, and is fuppofed to feed, like moW other of this
genus, on fruits. The orang-outang appears to admit of con-
fiderable variety in point of colour, fize, and proportion ;
and there is reafon to believe, that in reahty there may be
two or three kinds, which, though nearly approximated as to
general fimilitude, are yet fpecifically diftinft. The fpeci-
mens imported into Europe have rarely exceeded the height
of two or three feet, though full-grown ones are faid to be
fix feet in height. The general colour fcems to be of a
dufl<y brown ; the face is bare ; tlie ears, hands, and feet
nearly fimilar to the human ; and the whole appearance is
fuch as to exhibit the mod driking approximation to the
human figure. The likcnefs, however, is only general, and
will not bear the ted of examination ; and the druftiire of
the hands of the feet, when obferved with anatomical cor-
reftnefs, feems to prove that the animal was principally de-
figncd by nature fiir walking on four legs, and not for an
upright polhirc, which is only occafionally aflumcd, and
wiiich is thought to be the cffefts of indrudion rather than
truly natural.

The manners of the orang-outang, when in captivity, arc
gentle, and perfedly void ot that difgulling ferocity which is
often confpicuous in fome of the larger baboons and monkies.
It is mild and docile, and may be taught to perform a va-
riety of actions in domedic life. But, however docile and
gentle when taken young, and indruded in its behaviour,
It is pwfleffed of great ferocity in its native date, and is
confidered a very dangerous animal, capable of readily over-
powering the dronged man. lis (wiftnefs is equal to its
drengih ; and lieiicc it can rarely bu ubtaiiied in its full-
grown ft ate.

M. Vof-

SIMIA.

M. Vofmaer's account of the manners of the orang-outang
brought into Holland in 1776, and prefeuted to the prince
of Orange, is nearly as fallows. It was a female, about 25
Rhenifh feet. It (hewed no fymptoms of fiercenefs and
malignity, and was of rather a melancholy appearance. It
was fond of company, and (hewed a marked preference
to thofe who took daily care of it, of which it feemed very
fenfible. When the company retired, it would frequently
throw itfelf on the ground, as if in defpair, uttering lament-
able cries, and tearing in pieces the linen within its reach.
Its keeper having foraetimes been accuftomed to fit near it
on the ground, it took the hay off its bed and laid it by its
fide, and feemed, by every demonftration, to invite him to be
feated near. It^ ulual manner of walking was on all fours,
but it could walk on its two hinder feet only. One morn-
ing it got unchained, and was feen to afcend the beams and
rafters of the building with wonderful agility, and it was
with the utmoil difficulty retaken and fecured. During
its ftate of liberty it had taken out the cork from a bottle
of Malaga wine, which it drank to the laft drop. It would
eat every thing that was offered, but was not obferved to
hunt for infedls like other monkies ; it was fond of eggs,
but fifh and roaited meat feemed its favourite food. It had
been taught to eat with a fpoon and fork. Its common
drink was water, but it would drink any kind of wine.
At the approach of night it lay down to flcep, and pre-
pared its bed by (baking well the hay on which it flept,
and putting it in proper order, and laftly covering it with a
coverlet. This animal lived feven months in Holland. On
its firft arrival, it had but little hair, except on its back
and arms, but on the approach of winter it became well co-
vered, and the hair on the back was full three inches long.
The whole animal then appeared of a chefnut-colour ; the
Ikin of the face, &c. was of a moufe-colour, but about the
eyes and round the mouth it was of a dull flefh-colour.
It was imported from the ifland of Borneo. See Orang-
outang.

In Dr. Gmelin's edition of the Syftema Naturx, fays
Dr. Shaw, the fmaller variety, or the jocko, in its lefs (haggy
or more naked ftate, is given as a diftinft fpecies under the
name of S. troglodytes. The print pubh(hed many years
pail, by the name of Chimpanzee, is of this kind. (See
Chimpanzee. ) The animal defcribed in the jgth volume of
the Phil. Tranf, is by Gmelin referred to the orang-outang ;
but Mr. Pennant defcribes it under the title of Golok. It
has a pointed face ; long and (lender limbs ; arms, when
the animal is upright, not reaching lovi^er than the knees ;
head round, and full of hair ; grows to the height of a man.
It inhabits the forefts of Mevat, in the interior parts of Ben.
gal. In its manners it is gentle and modeft, diftinguifhed
from the orang-outang by its (lender form. In colour it is en-
tirely black. In the Philofophical TranfaClions the defcrip.
tion is as follows. " The animal is laid to be the height of
a man, the teeth white as pearls ; the arms in due proportion,
and the body very genteel."

Lar, or long-armed Ape, has its haunches naked ; its
arms as long as its body : it is found in India, is gentle,
flothful, impatient of cold and rain, and is four feet high.
There are two other varieties, of which the firil: is about
eigliteen inches high, the face and body brown. The fecond
has it? body and arms covered with filvery hair ; the face,
ears, crown, and hands, are black. It inhabits the forefts of
Peval, in Bengal ; is playful, gentle, and elegant : about
three feet high. The lar, or, as it is fometimes denominated,
the gibbon, is diftinguilhed by the length of its arms, which,
when the animal (lands upright, are capable of touching the
jjround with its fingers ; henee its trivial name. Notwith-

ftanding the apparent ferocity of the lar, and t\ie deformity
of its figure, which is extremely well given by Dr. Shaw, it
is of a traftable and gentle nature, and has even been cele-
brated for the decorum and modefty of its behaviour. Con-
fidered with refpeft to the reft of the genus, it ranks among
the genuine apes, or thofe which have not the leaft veftige
of a tail ; and, fays the naturalift already quoted, alarms the
pride of mankind, by too near an approach to the real
primates of the creation.

Sylvanus ; Pigmy. Haunches naked ; head roundilh ;
arms fhorter. It inhabits Africa and the i(land of Ceylon ;
is mild and eafily tamed ; it ufes threatening geftures whea
it is angry, chatters when pleafed, falutes after the manner
of the Hottentots, and drinks from the palm of the hand.
The face is (hort and flat ; the forehead tranfverfely pro-
jefting at the regions of the eye-brows ; the (liin is rough ;
the hair on the neck and fore-arms reverfed : it is about
eighteen inches high.

Inuus ; denominated by Bu{fon the Magot, and by Pen-
nant the Barbary Ape. Its haunciies are naked, and the
head oblong. Inhabits Africa, is fond of the open air,
deformed, dirty, and melancholy. It a good deal refembles
the S. fylvanus, but its fnout is longer, colour paler, nails
rounded, and is about three feet and a half high. This is
what is commonly feen in the exhibition of fuch kind of
animals : it is not remarkable for docihty or good temper ;
but, by force of difcipline, it is made to exhibit a greater
degree of intelligence than many others. Its colour is an
olivaceous-brown, paler or whiter beneath ; the face is of
a fwarthy fle(h-colour. The hands and feet have nails r^-
fembling the human. It is deftitute of any real tail, but
there is commonly a (hort (Ivinny appendix in the place
of one.

This animal inhabits many parts of India, Arabia, and all
parts of Africa, except Egypt, and a fmall number is found
on the hill of Gibraltar, which breed there. Thefe apes are
very ill-natured, mifchievous, and fierce, agreeing with the
character of the ancient cynocephali : they are often exhi-
bited to play tricks ; aflemble in great troops in India ; and
will attack women going ,to market, and rob them of their
provifions. The females carry their young in their arms, and
will leap from tree to tree with them.

Soilla ; or Hog-faced Ape. Nofe blunt, truncate, re-
fembling that of a hog.

Seftion B. Baboons luithjhort Tails. See Baboon.

Neme.strina. Beard thin ; colour grey ; eyes hazel ;
haunches naked. It inhabits Sumatra and Japan ; is lively,
gentle, traftable, and impatient of cold. The face 16 naked
and tawny ; the nofe is flat ; lips thin, with hairs refembling
whilkers ; hair on the body olive-black ; belly reddifh-yellow ;
it is about two feet high. Tliis fpecies is figured by Mr. Ed-
wards, who was in pofleflion of the hving animal, and who,
in order to compare his fpecimen with a much larger animal
of the fame fpecies, carried it to Bartholomew fair, and he
faid they feemed highly dehghted with each other's cona-
pany, though it was the firil time of their meeting : the
bed figure of this fpecies is faid to be that given by BufFon.

Apedia ; Little Baboon. Thumb dole to the fingers ;
nails oblong, thumb-nails rounded ; haunches covered. This
is an inhabitant of India. The nails are oblong and com-
prefled, except the thumb and great toe-nails, which referable
thofe of a man ; the tail is fcarcely an inch long j the face is
brown, with a few fcattered hairs.

Sphinx ; Great Baboon. Moath with whiikers ; nails

acuminate ; haunches naked. This is found in the ifland of

Borneo ; it is lafcivious, robult, and fierce ; it feeds on

% fruits

SI MIA.

iniits and feeds ; it niake3 great havock in the produce of
cultivated lands. The head is oblong, refembling that of
a dog, but more oljtufe ; the neck is long ; the tail is fhort
and ereft ; the haunches red, edged with purple ; it is from
three to four feet high in its fitting pofture. It is extremely
ftrong and mufcular in its upper parts, and (lender towards
the middle. It is, fays Dr. Shaw, ferocious in its manners,
and its appearance is at ©nee grotefque and formidable. The
region furrounding the tail to a conilderable dillaiice on each
fide is bare and callous. It is a native of Borneo, and inhabits
the hotter parts of Africa.

Mormon ; Tufted Ape. Beard thin ; cheeks tumid,
naked, blue, obliquely furrowed ; haunches naked, red.
It inhabits India. This, in an upright pofture, is full five
feet high. It is the mod remarkable of the whole genus
for brilliancy and variety of colour. The general tinge is a
rich and very deep yellowilh-brown ; the hairs, if viewed
near, are fpecklcd with yellow and black. The form of the
face is long, with the fnout ending fomewhat abruptly ; the
whole length of the nofe, down the middle, is of a deep
blood-red ; but the parts on each fide are of a iine violet,
blue, marked by feveral oblique furrows. The remainder
of the face is of a pale whitilh-yellow. On the top of the
front the hair rifes, in a remarkable manner, into a pointed
form, and beneath the chin isapointed beardof alight orange-
yellow. Round the back of the neck the hair is much
longer than in other parts, and inclines downwards and for-
wards, fomewhat in the manner of a wreath or tippet. The
hands and feet are of a dufcy colour, and are furnilhed with
broad pointed claws. It is a native of the interior parts of
Africa, but has been found in India.

Maimov ; Ribbed-nofe Ape. Beard thin; cheeks blue,
ilriate ; haunches naked. It inhabits Guinea ; weeps and
groans like men, when in trouble ; it is libidinous, ugly,
and difgulting. The general liker.cfs which it bears to the
former fpecie? is fuch as to give the idea of the fame animal
in a lefs advanced ftatc of growth, and with lefs brilliant co-
"lours. The chin is furniihcd with a fmall fharp-pointed
beard of a pale orange, colour. The feet are armed with
claws, and have no flattened nails. This baboon is not un-
common in exhibitions of animals.

PoRCARiA : Hog Baboon. The head of this fpecies re-
fembles that of a hog ; the fnout is naked ; the body of an
olive-brown ; the haunches are covered, and the nails are
acuminate. It is faid to be three feet fix inches in length ;
its colour is of a deep olive-brown ; the face is large and
black ; the nofe is truncated at the end, fomewhat like that
of a hog.

Sylvatica ; Wood Baboon. Face, hands, and feet naked,
black, fmooth ; nails white. It inhabits Guinea, and is
about tlirce feet high. It is of a robuft frame. Its gene-
ral colour is ferruginous, owing to the alternate blackifli-
brown rings with wliich every hair is marked, and which
give a kind of fpecklcd appearance to the whole. The
nails on the hands are longiih, but rounded at their extremi-
ties ; thofe on the toes longer and acuminate. The fpnce
on each fide the tail is large, bare and red : the tail is about
three inches long.

Variegata ; Yellow Baboon. This fpecies is of a
bright yellow colour mixed with black ; the face is loiig,
black, naked ; the hands are covered on the back with hair.
It very much refembles the fylvatica, and is found in Africa.
Above the eyes are feveral long dufky hairs : it is about two
feet high.

CiNBREA ; Cinereous Baboon. The face of this is dufl<y ;
the beard is of a pale brown ; the crown is variegated with

yellow ; the body is cinereous. It is found in divers parts

of Africa, and is about two feet high.

LiVEA ; Blue-faced Baboon. The face of this fpecies
isblueilh ; it has two broad flat fore-teeth ; the beard is pale
brown. Over the eyes are long hairs ; the ears with a tuft
of hair behind each ; the hair is black mixed with cinereous
and rulty-brown : this is three feet high.

Platypygos ; Brown Baboon. The face is of a dirty
white, furrounded with (hurt (traight hairs. The upper part
of the body is brown, under cinereous ; tail tapering,
almoft bare ; it is naked beneath. This fpecies, according
to La Ccpcde, is the fame with the long-legged baboon de-
fcribed in the additions to Bufi'on. The ligure there given
is the fame with that in Mr. Pennant's Quadrupeds. The
diftinguiihing charafter of the animal feems to be the great
length of its limbs.

Cristata ; Creiled Baboon. In this fpecies the hair on
the crown of the head and cheeks is long and diflievelled.
The body is covered with long black hair ; the breaft is
whitifh ; the face, hands, and feet are bbck and naked ; the
tail is tapering, and about feven inches long ; the animal is
two feet high. It is an inhabitant of India.

Seftion C. MoNKIES luit/} long Taih, that are not prehenjile ;
the Cheeks are pouched, and the Haunches naked.

Cynosurus ; Dog-tailed Monkey. It has no beard ; the
face is long ; the forehead footy ; it has a whitifli band over
the eyes ; male genitals coloured ; the nails are convex. It
is about two feet high, and is faid to be faithlefs, reftlefs,
and lafcivious. The face of this animal appears uncom-
monly mild and placid. It was very fond of fnuff, which
it would occafionally rub over its body in a very ridiculous
ftyle.

Hamadryas ; Tartarian Monkey. Tliis is dcfcribed
as cinereous ; the ears are hairy ; tiie nails fliarpifli ; the
haunches red. It inhabits Africa, is fierce and very Angu-
lar in its appearance. The face is prominent ; the nofe
fmooth and red ; the cars are pointed, and almoll hidden in
fur ; the hair on the fides of the head, and as far as the waiit,
long and fliaggy ; the nails of the fingers are flat, thofe of
the toes acute and narrow : it is about five feet high. There
is a variety, of which above the fore-head is prominent, ter-
minating in a ridge. It inhabit-; the Cape of Good Hope,
is very gregarious, pillages gardens, and is watchful of fur-
prize ; the head is large ; the nofe is long and thick ; the
ears fliort ; the crown is covered with long upright liairs ;
the body is rough and hairy ; the tail is about half the length
of the body, arched at the end ; the nails are flat and
rounded ; the haunches are red, and the animal is from four
to five feet high.

Vkier ; Lowando. The beard is black ; the body is
white. There is a variety witli a white beard. It is found
in Ceylon, is wild, ferocious, and milchicvous. The tu(ks
of this fpecies are long and large ; the head is furrounded
with a broad mane ; the body is long and tapering : it is
between three and four fei-t high.

SlLIENs; Wanderu. The beard of this animal is long
and black ; and the body is black. There are three other
varieties of this fpecies. The firfl has a bufliy beard, is
found in Ceylon, and other parts of India. The lecond is of
a jet black colour ; the beard is white, and very long ;
it inhabits Guinea, and ii about two feet high. The third
has a while beard, which is triangular, (liort, and pointed,
extending on each fide beyond the ears. It inhabits Ceylon,
is Iiarnilefs, and Uves in the woods ; it feeds on leaves and
buds, and is eaOly tamed ; the body is black ; the face and

kaods

SIMIA.

hands are purple ; the tail is long, ending in a dirty white
tuft.

Faunus ; Malbrouck. This fpecies is bearded ; the
tail is bufliy at the end ; it is an inhabitant of Bengal ; the
face is grey ; the eyes are large ; the eye-lids are flefh-
coloured ; forehead with a grey band, inftead of eye-brows ;
the ears arc large, thin, flefh-coloured ; body is blackilh ;
the bread and belly are white ; the beard is hoary and
pointed : it is fcarcely a foot high.

Cynomolgus ; Long-tailed, beardlefs monkey, \vith
callofities behind, rifing bifid noftrils, and arched tail. This
by Pennant is called the Hare-lipped monkey, who includes
in the fpecies the cynomolgus and cynocephalus of Linnaeus.
It is of a thick clumfy form, refembling the Barbary ape,
except m having a long tail. It varies in fize very greatly ;
fome fpecimens fcarcely exceed the fize of a cat, while
others are full as large as a grey-hound. The colour alfo
is various, being fometimes olive-brown, at other times
grey-brown. The head is large ; the eyes are fmall ; the
iiofe thick, flat, and wrinkled ; on each fide the tail is a
bare fpace ; the under fides of the body, and the infides of
the limbs, of a light afli-colour. It is a native of Guinea
and Angola. The noftrils are divided like thofe of a hare.

Cynocephalus ; Dog Monkey. This has no beard ;
it is of a yellowifh colour, has a projefting mouth, a ftraight
tail, and bald haunches. It is found in divers parts of
Africa, and refembles the S. inuus, except that it has a tail.

Diana ; Spotted Monkey. This fpecies is bearded ;
the forehead is projefting ; the beard is pointed. This is
defcribed by Mr. Pennant as of a middhng fize, and of a
reddiih colour on the upper parts, as if finged, and marked
with white fpecks ; the belly and chin are whitilh ; the tail
is long. According to Linn;eus, it is of the fize of a large
cat, and is black, fpotted with white ; the hind part of the
back is ferruginous ; the face is black ; from the top of
the nofe is a white line, palling over each eye to the ears in
an arched direftion.

Sab.?;a ; Green Monkey. This animal has no beard ; it
is of a yellowiih-green colour ; the face is black ; the tail
is grey ; the haunches naked. It inhabits the Cape de Verd
iflands, the Cape of Good Hope, and other neighbouring
countries. The body in the upper parts is a mixture
of grey, green, and yellowifh ; throat, breaft, belly, and
thighs are white ; the hairs are long and reverfed ; the
eye-brows are black and briftly ; the tail is ilraight, as
long as the body, and hoary ; the feet are cinereous ; the
nails round, thofe of the hands ovate. It is about the fize
of a cat.

Cephus ; Mouftache. Tailed; cheeks bearded ; crown
yellowidi ; feet black ; tail rufty at the point. It inhabits
Guinea. The body above is brown ; beneath it is of a
bineiih-white ; the head with white ereft hairs ; eye-brows
with a white tranfverle arch ; upper eye-lids white ; hair on
the checks ftanding out ; the mouth is blueilh ; under the
ears are two large tufts of yellow hairs, like muftachios.

^THiops ; White eye-lidded Monkey. This is without
tail and beard ; the fore-top is white, ereft ; the arch of
the forehead is white. There is a variety, of which the
neck and cheeks are furrounded with a broad collar of
white hair. It is found in Madagafcar. Its face is thick
and broad ; the eyes are Uiriouniled by a prominent ring ;
the eye-lids are naked, very white ; the ears are black,
almoit naked ; the tail is arched, covered with long bufhy
hair : it is about eighteen inches high.

Aygula ; Egret. This is tailed, the beard is fcanty ;
the colour is grey ; crown with an ereft tuft of hair revcrled

longitudinally. It inhabits India and Java. The body is a
good deal like that of a wolf ; the throat, breaft, and belly
whitilh ; the tail is longer than the body, cinereous, and ta-
pering ; the face is flattilh, whitilh, naked ; the nofe is de-
prefled, (hort, and dillant from the mouth, with a double fur-
row on the upper hp ; the cheeks are a little bearded ; the
hairs are turned back ; the eye-brows are gibbous, briftly,
prominent ; the feet are black, femi-palmate ; the nails of
the thumbs and great toes are rounded, the reft oblong ;
the ears are pointed ; an arched future from the ears to-
wards the eyes and back to the bafe of the lower jaw, and
a longitudinal feam on the fore-arm. There is a variety
that has a rounder head ; the face is lefs black ; the body
ii of a paler brown.

NiCTiTANs. Tailed, beardlefs, black, fprinkled with
pale fpots ; the nofe is white ; the thumb very fhort ; the
haunches are covered. This is called the Nodding monkey.
There is a variety of it having a long white beard. It
inhabits Guinea, is playful, and continually nodding its
head. The face is hairy ; the mouth (hort ; the orbits
naked ; the irids of a pale yellow ; the hair is black,
with a few pale rings ; lips and chin whitifti ; the tail is
ftraight, cylindrical, longer than the body ; the thumb is
not longer than the firft joint of the fore-finger.

SiNiCA ; Chinefe Monkey. Tailed, beardlefs ; fore-
top horizontally placed, and fhading the whole head.
There is a fore-top ereft, having the appearance of a round
black bonnet ; the body is brown ; the legs and arms
bbck. The fpecies is found in Bengal, and the variety in
India. The tail is longer than the body ; the nails of the
thumbs and great toes are rounded, the reft oblong ; the
upper parts of the body are pale brown, mixed with yellow ;
the lower whitifh. It is about the fize of a cat.

Nem^eus ; Cochinchina Monkey. This is without tail
and beard ; the cheeks are bearded ; and the tail white.
It inhabits, as its trivial name imports, Cochinchina ;
alfo Madagafcar, and other places. The face and ears are
of a light red ; the forehead is marked with a double
brown band, covered with black hair ; the hair furrounding
the face is whitilh, mixed with yellow ; neck, on the upper
part, with a wreath of the fame colour as that of the fore-
head ; the (houlders and upper parts of the arms black ;
hands and groin whitifti ; thighs on the upper part and
toes black ; feet to the knees brown ; it is from two to
four feet high. From this fpecies is procured the bezoar
of the ape.

MoNA ; Varied Monkey. This fpecies is tailed and
bearded ; it has a prominent whitifti-grey femi-lunar arch
over the eye-brows. It inhabits Morocco, and the wanner
parts of Afia ; is gentle, docile, and patient of cold. The
head is fmall and round ; the face is bright, and of a
tawny brown ; the hair on the crown is yellow, mixed
with black ; it has a dark band from the eyes to the ears,
and to the Ihoulders and arms ; tail is greyilh-brown ; the
rump is marked with two white fpots on each fide. It is
eighteen inches high.

Rubra ; Red Monkey. This fpecies is tailed and
bearded ; the cheeks are bearded ; the crown, the back,
and the tail, are of a deep blood-red. There are two other
▼arieties ; the firft has a yellow beard ; the band over the
eyes is black : the fecond has a white beard ; the band
over the eyes is white. This is found in Senegal, Congo,
and other hot parts of Africa. The crown is flat ; the
body and legs are long ; the hair on the upper pavts is of a
briglit red, beneath it is of a yellow-grey ; over the eyes to
the ears is a band. One variety is black ; and another is

white :

SI MI A.

white ; tiic tail is longer than the body. It is from eighteen
inches to two feet in height.

Tai.apoin. This is tailed and bearded ; tlie cheeks are
bearded ; the ears, nofe, and foles of the feet black. It
inhabits India. The body is of a brownifti-green, and
elegant. A variety is of a black colour. The head is
roundifh ; the face is tawny, with a few black hairs ; the
ears are hke thofe on the human fubjedt ; the brealt, belly,
and thighs on the infide are of a duflcy flelh-colour ; it is
extremely gentle and playful, and is of the fize of a cat.

Petauiu.st.\ ; Agile Monkey. This animal is tailed
and bearded ; its back, upper part of the tail, anterior
parts of the legs, dark olive ; its face is black, and the nofe
is marked with a triangular white fpot. It inhabits Guinea,
and is, like the lalt, gentle and docile ; it is little more than
a foot high, though the tail is twenty inches long.

Maura ; Negro Monkey. This is tailed and bearded ;
the cheeks, whole face, except the region extending from
the eyes to the tip of the nofe, are bearded ; the body is of
a reddifh-brown. It inhabits Ceylon and Guinea, is active
and gentle. The tail is longer than the body ; the face is
tawny and flefh-coloured ; the feet and hands are black,
naked, and foft. In a fitting poiture it is only about feven
inches high.

RoLOWA. This fpecies is tailed and bearded; the head,
back, and outfide of the hands and feet, are black ; the in-
fide, belly, and circular beard, cnclofing a triangular face,
are white. This is an inhabitant of Guinea ; is gentle and
docile. The beard is long and forked : it is eighteen inches
long, with a tail of the fame length.

Nasua. This has no beard ; the face is long, flender,
naked, flefli-coloured ; the nofe is projeftmg. It inhabits
Africa, and is good-tempered. The head is covered with
thick longilh hair, falling backwards ; the ears are fmall,
pointed, and almoll naked ; the hair on the upper parts and
limbs is long, ruily-brown mixed with black ; on the brealt
and belly it is afli-coloured ; the tail is very long : in a fit-
ting pollure it is only two feet high.

LuTEOLA ; Yellow Monkey. In this fpecies the tulks
are very large; the cars alio are large, black, naked; the
cheeks have long pale-yellow locks reverlcd. It inhabit*
Guinea. The crown, upper parts of tiie body, arms, and
thighs, are of an afli-colour, mixed with yellow ; the lower
parts are cinereous ; the face is black, with long hairs over
the eyes ; the throat and brealt are of a yellowifh-white ;
the hair is coarfc ( the tail is as long as the body, and it is
about the fize of a fox.

Fli.va ; Tawny Monkey. This has tuiks in the lower
jaw, which are long ; the face is long and of a flefli-colour ;
the nofe is flattilh. The hair on the upper part of the body
is pale tawny, though cinereous at the roots ; the hind part
of the back is of an orange-colour ; the legs are cinereous
and the belly white. It is of the fize of a cat. It inhabits
India. Pennant, who fcems to be the only dcfcriber of this
animal, took the defcription from one in an exhibition in
London, which was an extremely ill-tempered animal. It
is laid to vary with a black face, and long black hairs on the
cheeks ; the body is ot a dull pale-green ; the limbs are
grey and the tail dulky.

ViKiDENS. The face of this is black ; the checks have
long black hairs ; the body is of a pale-green ; the limbs
are grey ; the tail is dulky. It is thought by fome iiatu-
ralills not to be a diltindl fpecies, but a variety of the
t>. fulva.

Hinci.NA. Face naked, blue, obliquely ribbed ; the
heard is long, and like that of a goat ; tlic tail is long, and
jhe body of a deep brown.

Vol. XXXII.

Reoalis. To this fpecies there is no thtimb ; the head,
cheeks, throat, and fhoulders, are covered with long coarfe
flowing hairs. It inhabits the forolts of Sierra Leona.
The head is fmall ; the face is fiiort, black, naked ; the toes
are long and flender ; the nails arc narow and pointed ; the
tail is long, covered with fnow-white hairs, and a tuft at the
end; the body and limbs are flender: it is three feet high.
The flcin of this animal is, by the natives, made into pouches
and gun-cafes.

Bodia ; Bay Monkey. Tliis has no thumbs ; the tail i«
long, (lender, and black ; the body and limb? are (lender.
It inhabits Sierra Leona. The crown is black ; the back
is of a deep bay ; limbs on the outfide black ; cheeks, under
parts of the body, and legs, of a bright bay.

Flsca ; Brown Monkey. The tail fhorter than the body,
alternately annulate with dark and light-brown. The face
is flat ; the cheeks and forehead are covered with long hairs ;
the body above is of a tawny-brown, belly cinereous ; hands
black and naked.

Seftion D. Tails prehenfilt ; no Cheek-pouches ; Haunches
covered. Thefe are denominated

SaI'AJOLS.

Beelzkbul, or Bearded Black Monkey. By Pennant it
is denominated the Preacher monkey. It is tailed, bearded,
and black. The tail at the tip and feet are brown. It
inhabits South America ; wanders in herds at night, and
howls hideonfly ; it is exceedingly fierce ; the beard is round
and black ; the hair long, black, and (mooth. For the
account given of this animal by Marcgrave, fee Beelzebi.'l.

Srniculus ; Old Man of the Woods. This is tailed and
bearded ; the colour is red. The body is uniformly of a
dirty red ; it has a mouth like that of the human fubjcft,
placed in the anterior part of the face ; the chin is promi-
nent, and it is as large as a middling-fized calf. This, which
by fome has been regarded as a variety of the S. beelzebul,
is denominated by Mr. Pennant the Royal monkey. There
were formerly two in the Leverian mufeum, which were
probably young, being of the fize of a fquirrel. They were
entirely of a very bright ferruginous or reddifit chefnut
colour, with the face naked and black, iurrounded on the
lower parts by a itraggling beard of black hairs, and the tail
was ilrongly prehenfile. This fpecies is common in Cayenne,
but very rare in Brazil : on the contrary, the former fpecies
is very common in Brazil, but is not found in Guiana. Both
fpecies have the fame voice and manners. The following is
an intereding defcription given by an obferver, who had
feen and kept thefe animals at Cayenne.

"The Allouates, or Howlers, inhabit the moilt forcfts,
in the neighbourhood of w.iters or marfhes. They arc com-
monly lound in the woody iflets of large flooded favannahs,
and never on the mountains of the interior of Guiana. They
go in fmall numbers, often in pairs, and fometimes fingly.
The cry, or rather horrible rattling fcream, which they
make, may well infpirc terror ; and iecms as if the forcfts
contained the united bowlings of all its favage inhabitaiits
together. It is comnionlv in the morning and evening that
they make this clamour : llay alfo repeat it in the courfc of
the day, jnd lometimes in the night. The found is (<«
ilrong and varied, that one often imagines it produced by
(everal of the animals at once, and is hirprifcd to find only
two or three, and fometimes only one. The allouate feldora
lire-, long in a Hate of captivity : it in a manner lofes its
voice, or at leall docs not exert it in the fame manner as
when wild. The male is larger than the femalct which latter
alwavi carrici her young on her back,

<; C « Nothing

SIMIA.

•' Nothing is more difficult than to kill one of thefe ani-
mals. It is neceilary to fire feveral times in order to fuc-
ceed, and as long as the leaft life remains, and fometimes
even after death, they remain clinging to the branches by
the hands and tail. The fportfman is often chagrined at
having loit his time and ammunition for fuch wretched
game ; for, in fpite of the teilimony of fome travellers, the
flefh is not at all good ; it is almoft always exceflively tough,
and is, therefore, excluded from all tables : it is merely the
^Yant of other food that can recommend it to needy inha-
bitants and travellers."

Paniscus. This is the four-fingered monkey of Pennant ;
it is tailed, black, beardlefs, and without a thumb, hence
its trivial name. This animal is diltinguifhed by the graci-
lity of its body and limbs ; its uniform black colour, except
on the face, which is of a dark flefh-colour ; and by want
of thumbs on the fore-feet, in Head of which are very fmall
projedlions or appendices. It is one of the moft aftive and
lively of animals, and is, befides, of a gentle and traftable
difpofition in a itate of confinement. It inhabits the woods
of South America ; aflbciating in great multitudes, aflaihng
fuch travellers as pafs through their haunts with an infinite
number of fportive and mifchievous gambols, chattering, and
throwing down dry fticks, fwinging by their tails from the
boughs, and endeavouring to intimidate the pallengers by a
variety of menacing geftures. This is the Coaita of Buffon.

ExQUiNA. Bearded; back variegated with black and
yellow ; throat and belly white. It inhabits South Ame-
rica. In fize and difpofition it refembles the S. panifcus.

Trepida. Tailed, but without a beard ; the fore-top is
ereft ; hands and feet are blue ; the tail is hairy. A variety
has the hair round the face grey ; it is brownifh-yellow on
the body. It inhabits Surinam, is nimble, dextrous, and
amufing, and about twelve inches high. The body is brown,
beneath it is rufty ; the hair of the head is formed into a
black ereft hemifpherical tuft ; the tail is hairy ; the nails
are rounded ; the face and ears downy and flefti-coloured ;
the eyes are approximate chefnut.

Fatuellus. The horned fapajou is taillefs and without
beard ; two tufts on the head refembling horns. It is found
in feveral parts of South America, is harmlefs and gentle.
The face, fides, belly, and front part of the thighs, are
brown ; the crown, the middle of the back, tail and feet,
and hind part of the thighs, are black ; the nails are long
and blunt ; the tail is fpiral.

Apella ; Brown Sapajou, or Sajou of BufTon. This
alfo is without tail and beard ; the body is brown ; the feet
are black.

Capucina ; Capuchin Monkey, or Sai of Buffon, and
Weeper of Pennant. This has no beard; the ikin is
brown ; the hair and limbs are black ; the tail is fliaggy
and the haunches are covered. There is a variety of this,
of which the hair on the breail, throat, round the ears,
and cheeks, is white. The face is fometimes black, fome-
times flefh-coloured on the forehead ; the tuflis are approxi-
mate ; the nofe is carinate towards the eyes ; a black varicofe
retraftile wrinkle juft under the hair of the forehead ; the
tail is long, always curved, and covered with long fiiaggy
hair ; it is of the fize of a cat. It inhabits divers parts of
South America ; it is mild, docile, timid ; walks on its
heels, and docs not (kip. It has a crying wailing voice, and
repels its enemies by horrid bowlings ; it (hrieks fometimes
like a cricket. When made angry it will yelp like a puppy ;
it carries the tail fpirally rolled up, which is often coiled
round the neck : it fmells of mulk.

SciUREA ; Orange Monkey, or Saimiri of Buffon.
Beardlefs ; the hind part of the head is prominent ; the

nails of the four fmaller toes ungulate j the haunches are
covered. The body is of a greenifli-grey, under parts
whitifh ; the legs and arms are rufty ; the tail is fhaggy,
black at the tip, and twice as long as the body ; the
nails of the thumbs and great toes are rounded ; the face
of a blueifh-brown ; the eye-brows are briftly ; the ears are
fcantily covered with whitilh hairs ; it is of the fize of a
fquirrel. It is found in South America ; is pleafant in its
difpofition, beautiful, and graceful ; it rells by lying on its
belly. It looks full in the face of fuch as fpeak to it.
It is impatient of European climates.

MoRT.\. Without beard, but it has a tail ; it is of a
chefnut colour; the face is brown ; the tail is naked and
fcaly. It is found in different parts of America. It differ^;
from the S. fciiirea only in being lefs, and on that account
it has been fuppofed to be of the fame fpecies.

Syrichta. This is without tail and beard ; the mouth
and eye-brows are covered with long hairs. This is an ob-
fcurc and doubtful fpecies.

Variegata. The hair on the fides and back is mixed
with orange and black. It inhabits Antigua, is lively,
docile, and full of amufing tricks.

Seftion E. Monliies with Tails that are not prchenfik ; that
have no Cheek-pouches ; the Haunches are covered. Thefe
are denominated

Sacoins.

PiTHECl.4 ; Fox-tailed Monkey. Tailed, but without
beard ; the hairs of the body are long, and black at the
tips ; the tail is black, and very fhaggy. It inhabits South
America ; is very amufing, and eaiily tamed. It is entirely
of a duflvy brown colour, with a flight ferruginous caft,
except on the head and face. This is the Saki of Buffon.

Jacchus ; Striated Monkey, or Ouiftiti of Buffon, and
Sanglin or Cagui minor of Edwards. This is tailed ; its
ears are hairy, broad ; tail curved, very hairy ; nails fubu-
late, thofe of the thumbs and great toes are rounded.
There is a variety, which is of a yellowifh colour, fmell-
ing like mufk. It inhabits Brazil ; is aftive, reillefs, climb-
ing like a fquirrel ; it feeds on infefts, fruits, milk, bread,
and fmall birds ; it gnaws the bark of trees, is untameable,
biting, tormenting cats by fixing under their bellies, and
emits a biffing cry.

CEdipus ; Red-tailed Monkey. This is tailed and
beardlefs ; locks hanging ; the tail is red ; nails fubulate.
The body is grey, underneath it is white ; the head has long
white hanging locks ; its face is black, and it has a few
white hairs behind the ears ; a wart on each cheek ; the
irids are ruily ; the ears are roundifh, black, and naked ;
nails fubulate, except the thumb ; the tail is twice as long
as the body, and is a little hairy, black, red at the bafe ;
the region of the anus is red. It inhabits South America,
is aftive, brill<, imitating the lion in its geftures. It is
fomething lefs than the S. jacchus ; it fmells of mufk, and
the voice refembles that of a moufe.

Rosalia ; Silky Monkey. Tailed ; beardlefs ; the head
is hairy ; circumference of the face and feet are red ; the
nails are fubulate. This fpecies derives its trivial name from
the appearance of its hair, which is very fine, foft, long,
and of a bright yellow colour, refembling yellow filk.
Round the face the hair is much longer than in other parts,
fo as to form a large mane, like that of a lion ; near the
face this mane is of a reddifti colour, and it grows paler as
it recedes from the cheeks ; the face itfelf is of a dufl<y
purple ; the ears are round and naked ; the hands and feet
are alfo naked, and of the fame dull purple colour as the
face ; the claws are fmall and fharp ; the tail is very long,

»nd

S I M

and rather buthy at the extremity. It is a native of Guiana,
and is a lively, aftive fpecies, and gentle in a Itatc of con-
finement. This is the Marikina of Buffon.

Midas ; Tamarin. This fpecies is taillefs ; beardlcfs ;
the upper lip is cleft ; the ears are fquare and naked ; the
nails are fubiilate. The tamarin, or great-eared monkey,
is about the iize of a fquirrcl ; it is coal-black, except on
the lower part of the back, which is of a reddifli colour,
and on the hands and feet, which are orange-coloured ; the
face is naked and flefh-coloured ; the ears are very large,
naked, of a fquarifh form, and of a duflcy flefli-colour ; the
tail is very long and black. It inhabits tlie hotter parts of
South America. The claws are fnuU and fliarp. It
fometimes varies in having the face black, inftead of flefh-
coloured.

SiMiA Marina, the Sea-Ape, in Ichthyology, a name ufed
by Bellonius, and fome other authors, for the fifh called
"uulpes marina, a kind of fhark, remarkable for its long tail,
from which probably it had both one and the other of thefe
names. See Sea-Yox.

SIMICON, in Antiquity, an ancient mufical inftrument
of the itringed kind, with thirty-five firings. Mem. de
I'Acad. Infcript. vol. v. p. i68.

SIMICUS, m Biography, an ancient Greek mufician,
faid to have been a great improver of mufic. He lived after
Homer, and has the reputation of having invented the in-
ftrument above-mentioned ; but Plutarch fays, that the
ancient Fables attribute this inllrument to Pytocliclus. He
alfo informs us, that the Argians fined the firft perfon that
ufed it ; but does not tell us how it was ufed, or whether
there was a complete fcale for every one of the genera : 35
notes in the diatonic fcale would mount it above the addi-
tional compafs of modern piano fortes.

According to Pliny, Simicus added an eighth itring to
the lyre of Mercury. Boethius fays that it was Lychaon
of Samos ; but Nichomachus gives it to Pythagoras. So
many claimants to the fame inventions dellroy all evidence
to whom they belong.

SIMILAR, in Arithmetic and Geometry, the fame with
lite.

Thofe things are faid to be fimilar, or like, which can-
not be diftinguidied but by their comprefence ; that is,
either by immediately applying the one to the other, or
fome other third to them both. So that there is nothing
found in one of the fimilar things, but is equally found in
the other.

Thus, if you note all the things in A, which may be
difcerned and conceived, without afluming any other ; and,
in like manner, note all the things in B, which may be thus
conceived, and A be fimilar to B ; all things in A will be
the fame with thofe in B.

Since a quantity cannot be underftood otherwife, than
by afluming (ome other quantity to which it may be re-
ferred ; fimilar things, notwithltanding their fimilitude, may
differ in quantity : and fince, in fimilar things, there is no-
thing in which they differ, befide the quantity ; quantity
itfelf is the internal difference of fimilar things.

In mathematics, fimilar parts, as A, a, have the fame
ratio to their wholes B, b ; and if the wholes have the fame
ratio to the parts, the parts are fimilar. Similar parts A, a,
are to each other as their wholes B, b. See Pakt.

Similar Angles are alfo equal angles. See Solid Angle.
Similar ReSangles are thofe which have their lides about
the angles proportional.

Hence, i", all fquarcs mufl be fimilar reftangles. 2°. All
fimilar reftangles are to each other as the fquare* of their
homologous fides.

SIM

Similar Triangles are fuch as have all their three angles
refpeftively equal to each other, and the fides about the
equal angles proportional. See T riangle.

Hence, 1°, fince in all triangles mutually equiangular,
the corrcfponding fides containing the equal angles are pro-
portional, equiangular triangles are fimilar to each other.
And if two triangles have their fides refpeftively propor-
tional, thofe triangles are equiangular.

2°. AH fimilar triangles are to each other, as the fquares
of their homologous fides.

In fimilar triangles, and parallelograms, the altitudes are
proportional to the homologous fides, and the bafes are cut
proportionably by thofe fides.

Similar Polygons are thofe whofe angles are feverally
equal, and the fides about thofe angles proportional.
And the like of other fimilar reftilinear figures.
Hence, all fimilar polygons are, to each other, as the
fquares of the homologous fides.

In all fimilar figures, the homologous angles are equal,
and the homologous fides proportional. All regular figures,
and fimilar irregular ones, are in a duplicate ratio of their
homologous fides. Circles, and fimilar figures, infcribed in
them, are, to each other, as the fquares of the diameters.
Similar Arches. See Arch.

Similar Curves, in Geometry. The fimilarity of curvi-
linear figures may be derived from that of reftihnear figures,
that are always fimilarly defcribed in them ; or, we may
comprehend all forts of fimilar figures, planes, or fohds, in
this general definition. Figures are fimilar, when they may
be fuppofed to be placed in fuch a manner, that any right
line being drawn from any determined point to the terms
that bound them, the parts of the right line, intercepted
betwixt that point and thofe terms, are always in one con-
itant ratio to each other.

Thus the figures ASD, aS</ (Pto XIII. Geometry,
Jig. 14.) are fimilar, when any line S P being drawn always
from the fame point S, meeting AD in P, and ad \n p,
the ratio of S P to S^ is invariable. It is manifeft, that
the reftilinear infcribed figures, apdS, A P D 3, are
fimilar in this cafe, according to the definition of fuch
figures given in Euclid's Elements, book vi. See Mac-
laurin's Fluxions, art. 122.

When the fimilar figures are in the fituation here de-
fcribed, tlicy are alfo fimilarly fituated, and all their ho-
mologous lines are either placed upon one another, or
parallel.

Similar Segments of Circles are fuch as contain equal
angles. See Segment.

Similar Conic Sedions are thofe where the ordinates to
a diameter in one are proportional to the correfpondent
ordinates to the fimilar diameter in the other ; and where the
parts of fimilar diameters between the vertices and ordinates
in each feftion are fimilar.

The fame definition alfo agrees to fimilar fegments of
conic feftions.

Similar Diameters of two Conic Sedions. When the dia-
meters in two conic feftions make the fame angles with their
ordinates, they are fometimes faid to be fimilar.
Similar Solids. Sec Like Solid Figures.
Similar Bodies, in Natural Philofophy, Inch as have their
particles of the fame kind or nature one with another.

Similar Plain Numbers are thofe which may be ranged
into fimilar rcftangles, ;. c. into reftangles whofe fides are
proportional; as 6 multiplied by 2, and 12 by 4, the
produft of one of which is 12, and the other 48, are fimilar
numbers.

Similar Solid Numbers are thofC) whofe little cube* may
5C 2 be

S I M

S I M

be fo ranged, as to make iimilar and reftangular parallel-
epipeds.

Similar Animab. We have a treatife by Dr. Martin,
wherein he treats of the laws and proportions of the mo-
tions and forces of the fohds and fluids of animals, of how-
ever different magnitudes, which are fuppofed of fimilar
make and conftitution. See Traftat. de Similibus Ani-
malibus.

Similar Difeafe, in Mtdicine, denotes a difeafe of fome
firaple, folid part of the body : as of a fibre, with regard
to its tenfion, or flaccidity ; of a membrane ; a nervous
canal, or the like. See Disease.

Similar Parts, m Anatomy, are thofe parts of the body,
which, at firll fight, appear to confift of like parts, or parts
of tlie fame nature, texture, and formation.

0/f thefe we ufually reckon ten, viz. tlie bones, car-
tilages, ligaments, membranes, fibres, nerves, arteries, veins,
flefh, and flvin ; each of which fee under its proper ar-
ticle.

Dr. Grew, in his Anatomy of Plant?, obfevves, that thefe
have likewife their fimilar and organical parts.

SIMILE, or Similitude, in Rhetoric, a comparifon of
two things, which, though different in other refpefts, yet
agree in fome one. Ae, HeJIiall be like a tree planted by the
ivater-fide, &c. ; fo that in every fimilitude three things
are requifite ; two things that are compared together ;
and a third, in which the hkenefs or fimilitude between
them confiits.

The difference between ?ijtmile and a comparifon confifts in
this, that iimile properly belongs to what we call the quality
of the thing, and the comparifon to the quantity.

And the difference between a metaphor and fimihtude con-
fifts in this, that a metaphor has not thofe figns of com-
parifon which are exprelled in a fimilitude. See Metaphor
and Parable.

SIMILITUDE, in Arithmetic, Geemetry, &C. denotes
the relation of two things fimilar to each other, or which are
only diftinguiffiable by comprefence.

The notion of fimihtude, which now makes fome figure
in geometry, &c. is owing to M. Leibnitz : it will be ren-
dered eafy by the following inilance. Suppofe two watches
perfeftly alike, the one belonging to Caius, the other to
Gracchus. If now Caius pull out his watch in prefence of
Gracchus, the latter will be furprifed, and fancy it his own ;
but he will perceive it different from his own, upon pulling
out his own ; that is, Gracchus diltinguifties Caius's watch
from his own by their comprefence ; or, by applying the
one immediately to the other.

Euchd, and after him moft other authors, demonftrate
every thing in geometry from the fole principle of con-
gruity. Wolfius, in lieu of it, fubftitutes that of fimilitude ;
which, he tells us, was communicated to him by M. Leib-
nitz, and which he finds of very confiderable ufe in geo-
metry, as ferving to demonftrate many things direttly, which
are only demonftiable from the principle of congruity by an
ambages.

SIMILOR is a name given to an alloy of red copper and
zinc, made in the beft proportions to imitate the colour of
gold. See GoLD-coloured Metal.

SIMIRA, in 5o/an^, Aubl. Guian. 170. t. 65. Juff. 205,
the Guiana name of a fhrub, belonging to the natural order
of Rubiacea:, and the Pentandria Monogynia of the Linnsean
fyftem, but of whofe generic charaAers nothing has yet been
precifely fettled. It feems very near akin to PsYchotria,
or to Stepiianium ; fee thofe articles.

SIMITAR, or Scimitar, in War, a crooked or falcated
fword, with a convex edge ; not now ufed
12

SIMLEE, in Geogrdphy,^ town of Hindooftan, in Gu-
zerat ; 17 miles N. of Champaneer.

SIMLER, Josias, in Biography, was born at Cappel, in
Switzerland, in the year 1530. He was minifter at Zurich,
and a profeilor in the fchool of that town. He wrote fe-
veral controverfial works againft fome of the heretical fefts,
as they were efteemed, and denominated by him. He taught
mathematics with great reputation, illuftrating his leffons ■
by various machines of his own invention. Of his writings m
the principal were " De Helvetiorum Repwblica," which
contained an account of the original conftitution of the
Swils confederacy ; " Vallefis Defcriptio," being an ac-
count of the Valais, and the adjacent alps ; and an abridge-
ment of the Bibliotheca of Conrad Gefner, with the hfe of
that diftinguifliedperfon. In this laft work he has not only
given a good fummary of the original, but has rendered it
more complete, by tlie addition of a number of books. He
died at Zurich in 1576, at the time when he was preparing
a hillory of his native country.

SIMLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Oriffa ;
1 5 miles N.W. of Boad.

SIMMEN, or SiBEN, a river of Switzerland, which
rifes in the mountains between the Valais and the canton
of Berne, and runs into the lake of Thun ; 4 miles N.N.W.
of Spietz. The valley through which this lake runs, and
which has on each fide ftupendous rocks, is called " Sim-
menthal," and is divided by it into the Upper and Lower.
The inhabitants of fome few parts of this valley fow rye,
oats, or wheat ; but they derive great profit from their grafs,
which is very rich, and they alfo breed a great number
of cattle, from which they make butter and cheefe. The
latter fort of cheefe, called " Saan" cheefe, is much ef-
teemed abroad, being made wholly of cream ; and of the
common cheefe, France and other countries purchafe con-
fiderable quantities. Moll of the inhabitants, inftead of
bread, eat the fecond fort of cheefe, with thin barley
cakes ; and the principal food of the commonalty is pota-
toes, and their drink is milk or whey.

SIMMERN, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift, in the department of the Rhine and Mofelle, late
capital of a duchy of the fame name, veiled in the eledlorate
of the Rhine. The place contains 1469, and the canton
8361 inhabitants, in 31 communes. The territory of the
diftrift contains 1687^ kiliometres ; 26 miles S.S.W. of
Coblentz. — Alfo, a river of France, which paffes by Sim-
mern, Gemunden, &c. and runs into the Nahe ; 3 miles E.
of Kirn.

SIMMIA CHUMBA, a town of Bengal ; 16 miles S.
of Palamow.

SIMMONS's Island, a fmall idandon the coaft of South
Carohna. N. lat. 32° 38'. W. long. 80° 10'.

SIMO, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia, on a river of
the fame name, which runs into tlte gulf of Bothnia ; 80
miles E. of Ulea.

SIMOGU, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore, on the
Tumbadra ; 93 miles W. of Seringapatam. N. lat. 13*^ 21'.
E. long. 75° 50'.

SIMOJOSIKI, one of the fmaller Japanefe iflands, near
the S.W. coaft of Ximo. N. lat. 31° 50'. E. long.
132° 8'.

SIMOIS, in Ancient and Modern Geography, a river of
Afia Minor, in tlie Leffer Phrygia, the fource of which was
in mount Ida, and which difcharged itfelf into the Xanthus,
or the Scamander, according to Pliny. The fource of the
Simois lies S.W. of Cotylus ; it flows nearly to the W.,
traverfes a fpace of from twelve to fifteen leagues ; receives
the Andrius above Inchavi, and feveral other rivulets, and

difcharges

SIM

S I M

difclurges iti'elf into the Hellefpont, half a league to the
N.N.E. of cape Sigeiim, This llream is not now fuffi-
ciently conliderable to defervc the name of river ; it is rather
torrent fwelled by the rains, at the end of the autumn, in
winter, and in the fpring, or by the fuddcn melting of the
fnow, which falls on mount Ida and Cotylus. Its bed is
tolerably wide, but its waters are feldom abundant, and in
fummer it is almoft dry, fince a pacha h:is turned afide the
ftream of the Scamander, and dircftcd its waters into the
^gean fea. See Scamander.

SIMON, in Biography, a name that frequently occurs in
ancient hiftory : forae of the principal perfons who fuf-
tained tliis appellation are as follow ; viz,

Simon the Juft, high-prielt of the Jews, was the fon and
fucceffor of Onias I. and promoted to this dignity A.M.
3702, or 3703. He died A.M. 3711, before A.D. 293.
— Alfo, SiMOK, fon of Onias II., advanced to the high-
prieilhood A.M. 3^05, B.C. 199. In his time, A.M. 3787,
Ptolemy Philopater came to Jerufalcm, and attempted to
enter the interior parts of the temple, where no one but
the high-priell ought to have entered. Simon oppofcd him,
and prevented his defign. He is fuppofed to have been the
perfon to whom the book of Ecclefiailicus gives a high
encomium. His fuccellor was Onias III.

Simon Maccabteus, furnamed Thaffi, the fon of Matta-
thias, and brother of Judas and Jonathan, was chief, prince,
and pontiff' of the Jews from A.M. 3860 to 3869, B.C. 135.
He gave proofs of his valour in the battle between Judas
Maccabseus and Nicanor (2 Mace. viii. 22, 23.), and on an-
other occafion (2 Mace. xiv. 17.) In conlequence of his
judgment and valour, which were fignalized in a variety of
ways, he was made governor of the whole coait of the
Mediterranean fea, from Tyre to the frontiers of Egypt, by
the young king Antiochus Theos. He alfo took Bethfuri
and Joppa, and built Adida, in the plain called Sephela.
When Tryphon had llain Jonathan and his two fons,
and having marched into Syria, put to death the young
king Antiochus, and ufurped his kingdom, Simon fup-
ported his competitor, Demetrius Nicator, who, at his re-
queit, confirmed the ancient franchifes of Judea, and granted
freedom from tribute. After this he took Gaza, and the
Syrians that were in the citadel of Jerufalem capitulated to
him. His adminiilration was Angularly prudent, and it was
his great objeft to render his nation prolpcrous and fecure.
With this view he made a harbour at Joppa, for the improve-
ment of the trade of the Jews, and he extended the limits of
his country. He alfo renewed the alliance of the Jews
with the Romans and the Lacedjemonians ; and the whole
Jcwifh nation acknowledged their obligations to him by
various tokens of refpedt, and particularly by recompenfing
liim and his children as perpetual prince and pontiff of
their nation. When Demetrius Nicator was taken by the
Parthians, Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria, the brother of
Demetrius, applied to him for fuccnnr againll Tryphon,
and not only confirmed the grants of his brother, but allowed
him the privilege of coining money, remitted to him all
4ebt8 owing to the kings of Syria, and declared Jerufalem
to be a free and an holy city. Simon fent him men and
money to affill him in the redudlion of Dora, in which Try-
phon had (hut himlelf up. But Antiochus would not re-
ceive them, nor would he confirm the articles of his treaty
with Simon. He alfo demanded the furrender of feveral
places, and a thoufand talents of filver, threatening, in cafe
of refufal, to enter Jiidca with troops, and to treat him as
an enemy. Simon dilregarded his threats ; neverthelefs he
offered a hundred talent* for tlic cities of Joppa and Gazara,
of which he had made himfelf mailer, becaule they otca-
iioned great calamities to his country. The army of An-

tiochus, which he had fent to the coafls of the Mediterrancani
was defeated by John Hyrcanus, the fon of Simon ; and
three years afterwards Simon vifitcd the cities of Judea, and
came to the caftle of Docus or Dagon, where his fon-in-law
Ptolemy, fon of Ambubus, refided. But Ptolemy, though
he entertained him magnificently, caufed him, in the midll
of the entertainment, to be maflacred, together with his two
fons Mattathias and Judas, hoping thus to become mailer of
Jerufalem, and of the whole country. But John Hyrcanus
arrived firll at Jerufalem. Calmct.

Simon the Canaanite, or Simon Zelotes, was an apollle of
Jefus Chrill. Zelotes, the appellation given to him by
St. Luke (vi. 15. Afts, i. 13.) feems to be a traiiflation
of the furname CanaaHite, given to him by the other evan-
gelills. (Matt. X. 4. Mark, iii. 18.) Some learned per-
fons have fuppofed, that the term Zelotes denoted his
zeal in embracing the gofpel of Jefus Chrill ; but others
think, that he was of a feCl called Zealots, mentioned by
Jofephus, (De Bell. 1. iv. c. 2. 1. vi. c. 1.) It does not
appear wiiere he preached, or where he died. Some have
aflerted that he travelled through Egypt, Cyrenaica, and
Africa ; that he preached in Mauritania and Libya, and
that he propagated the gofpel in Britain, clofing his life by
martyrdom, on the crofs, which he endured with incredible
courage. Others affirm, that he fuffered martyrdom in
the city of Sunir, in Perfia, on the 28th of Odtober, on
which day the Latin church celebrates his feflival. The
Greeks honour him June i, and fay, that he was Natha-
nacl, the bridegroom at the marriage of Cana.

Simon Magus, or the Sorcerer, was a native, as it is faid,
of the village of Gitton, in the country of Samaria. His
hillory is recited Afts, viii. j — 13. See alfo Afts, viii.
9, 10, II. After having been difcovered and refilled by
the apollles, and particularly by Peter, lie is faid to have
fallen into greater errors and abominations,. applying him-
felf more than ever to magic, and taking pride in oppofing
the apollles, and propagating his errors. It is laid by
feveral of the ancient fathers, that at Rome, whither he
arrived in the time of the emperor Claudius, about A.D. 41,
he was honoured as a deity by the Romans, and by the
fenate itfelf, and that a llatue was decreed to him in the ille
of Tybcr, with this infcription : " Simoni Deo Sanfto."
This faft, however, is difputed by feveral able critics. It
appears, that under the reign of Nero he acquired great
reputation by his inchantments ; and that he pretended to
prove that he was the Chrill, and that, as the fon of God,
he could afcend to heaven ; and it has been faid, that he
really caufed himfelf to be raifed in the air, in a fiery
chariot, by the alTillance of two demons, but that by the
prayers of St. Peter he was deferted by his demons, fell
down and broke his legs, and afterwards, overcome by grief
and tliame, threw himfelf headlong from the top of the
houfe where he lodged. But we Ihall not multiply thefc
apocryphal (lories, wliicli are not worthy of recital. He
died, probably, A.D. 65. Simon formed a feft of heretics,
who were called Simoti'wiu ; which fee.

Simon, a dilciple of Socrates, whofe occupation was that
of a leather-drellei- at Athens, and whofe (liop was reforted
to by Socrates and his friends. He is faid to have been the
firll who publilhed the .Socr.itic Dialogues ; but none arc
extant. Simon (o much valued freedom of inquiry, that
when Pericles invited him to make his houte his refidence,
with the promile of an ample recompence, he rcfufed,
alleging, that he would not fell the hberty of fpcaking hia
mind at any price.

Simon, John Fkancis, an ingenious man of letters,
was born at Parij in 1654. He was originally intended for
the ecclefiaftical profcffion, and took the degree of doftor

of

S I M

of laws. M. Pelletier de Souzy engaged him as preceptor
to his fon, and afterwards employed him as his own fecre-
tary, and as a remuneration for his fervices made him coun-
fellor of the fortifications. He became very famous as a
writer of infcriptions and legends of medals ftruck. on public
occafions, and on this account he was nominated a member
of the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles-Lettres. He
contributed feveral learned difiertations to the Memoirs of
that body : and he read before it feveral parts of a medallic
hillory of Lewis XIV. He was an excellent writer both
in the Latin and French languages, and in verfe as well as
profe. In 1712 he was appointed keeper of the royal
cabinet of medals. He died in 1719.

Simon, Richard, a bibhcal critic, was born at Dieppe
in 16^8. He received his early education in the college of
the Fathers of the Oratory in that place, and aftervrards
entered into that congregation. Quitting it in a very (hort
time, he purfued the itudy of theology, and of the Orien-
tal languages, in which he made a great proficiency. He
entered himfelf again a member of the Oratory in 1662,
when his Angular turn of thinking, and unaccommodating
temper, involved him in differences, which had nearly caufed
him to abandon the fociety for that of the Jefuits. Thefe
were, after a time, compromifed, and he was fent as pro-
feflbr of philofophy to one of their colleges. The houfe
of the Oratory in Paris poffefiing a library rich in Oriental
writings, Simon was engaged to draw up a catalogue of
them, on which occafion he became known to M. de La-
moignon, firlt prefident of the parliament of Paris. Having
performed the talk, he returned to his profellbrrtiip, and
there employed himfelf in literary labours. In the year
1670 he was ordained prieft, and in the fame year he gave
a proof of the liberality of his mind, by undertaking the
defence of the Jews at Metz, who had been accufed of
facrificing the child of Chriftian parents. In 1674 he pub-
lifhed, under the name Ricared Simeon, " A Treatife on
the Ceremonies and Cultoms at prefent preferved among
the Jews, tranflated from the Itahan of Leo of Modena,
with a Supplement refpefting the Sefts of the Caraites and
Samaritans." It was reprinted in 1681, with a fupplement,
containing " A Comparifon between the Ceremonies of the
Jews and Difcipline of the Church." In 1678 he pub-
liihed " A Critical Hiftory of the Old Teftament," which,
by the boldnefs of fome of its opinions, gave a confiderable
degree of offence ; and though it was protefted by the ap-
probation of a doftor of the Sorbonne, and a royal privi-
lege, an order was procured for prohibiting its fale, and the
privilege was revoked. In the fame year he quitted the
Oratory, in order that he might enjoy that freedom which
is natural to the mind, and of which he was enthufiattically
fond. He was accuftomed to exprefs his fenfe of the ad-
vantages of liberty by repeatmg the words " Alterius ne
fit qui fuus efle poteft." For the purpofe of enjoying ttill
more liberty, he rcfigned his cure four years after this, and
fpent the remainder of his life in the compofition of feveral
works, of which a great part was controverfial. He died
at Dieppe in 17 12, at the age of 74.

Simon was a man of extenfive and very deep learning, and
an acute critic, but fond of Angularity. Few men of letters
have engaged in more difputes, and among his adverfaries
are fome of the moft eminent men of his time, Catholic as
■well as Proteftant. He has, however, been ever regarded
as one of thofe, who have much contributed to the free
and learned difcufiions which have improved fcriptural
theology, and though not avowedly a reformer, he was an
effeftive promoter of the Reformation. He pubhfhed a
number of works, and in addition to thofe already noticed,
we may mention " Hiftoire critique du Teste du Nouveau

SIM

Teflament ;" " Hiftoire critique des Verfions du Nouveao
Teftament ;" " Hiftoire critique des principaux Commen-
tateurs du Nouveau Teftament ;" " Nouvelles Obferva-
tioiis fur le Texte et les Verfions du Nouveau Teftament ;"
" Une Traduftion Frasgoife du Nouveau Teftament, avec
Remarques Litterales et Critiques," 2 vols. 8vo. This
was condemned in the paftoral letters of Noailles, arch-
biftjop of Paris, and Bofl'uet, bifhop of Meaux. " Biblio-
theque Critique," 4 vols, published under the name of
Sainjore, a work fuppreffed by order of council. " Nou-
velle Bibliotheque Choifie," being a fequel to the former.
" Lettres Critiques," 4 vols. " Critique de la Biblio-
theque des Auteurs Ecclefiattiques de M. Dupin, et des
Prolegomenes fur la Bible du meme," 4 vols. 8vo. " Hif-
toire Critique de la Croyance et des Coutumes des Nations
du Levant." M. Simon left his MSS. and a number of
printed books, with marginal notes written with his own
hand, to the cathedral library of Rouen.

There was another Simon of fome celebrity, a doftor of
laws, the author of " A Dictionary of the Bible," explain-
ing the geography of the Old and New Teftament, and the
ceremonies of the Jews, iirft printed at Lyons in 1693,
and again in 1703, with confiderable additions, forming
two vols, folio.

Simon, a great mufician among the ancients, who, re-
jefting former rules of his art, invented a new mode, which
was called " Simodia," from his name, in the fame manner
as the genus invented by Lyfes, was called Lyfodia.

Simon, M., inventor of pedals for the harp, or harp
a pedak. See Ha IIP.

Simon, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome authors
have called the dolphin. It is affirmed, that this fifti lovet
the name, and will come to a perfon who calls him by it ;
but this, though recorded by authors of credit, meets with
no faith among the judicious readers.

Simon'j- Bay, in Geography, a bay on the coaft of Africa,
1 1 miles on the W. fide of the Cape of Good Hope :
this is the only convenient ftation for fhips to lie in ; for
although the road without it affords good anchorage, it is
too open, and but ill-circumftanced for producing neceffaries,
the town being fmall, and fupplied with provifions from
Cape Town, which is about 24 miles diftant. The anchoring
place is fituated in S. lat. 34° 20', or 34° 23'. E. long. iS"*
29'. In April 1780, the difi of the S. end of the magnetic
needle was 46° 47', and variation of the compafs 22° 16' W.
On the full and change days it was high water at 5'' 55"
apparent time ; the tide rofe and fell 5 feet 5 inches ; at the
neap tides it rofe 4 feet I inch. Cook's Third Voyage,
vol. iii.

SIMONETTA, Giovanni, in Biography, an hiftorian,
was a native of Caffaro, in Sicily. In 1414 he entered
into the fervice of Francefco Sforza, duke of Milan, of
which prince his brother Cicco was the confidential minifter.
After the death of Francefco, he attached himfelf to his
fon Galeazzo Maria, to whom he, with his brother, conti-
nued fo faithful, that when Ludovico Sforza ufurped the
dukedom, they were arrefted and fent prifoners to Pavia.
Cicco, in the following year, was beheaded, and Giovanni
was banifhed to Vercelli. He, however, returned to Milan,
where he was buried about the year 1491. Simonetta com-
pofed in Latin a hiftory of the aftions of Francefco Sforza
from 1423 to 1466, which is accounted one of the bed
works of that time. It was feveral times printed. It is
alfo found in Muratori's coUeftion of Italian hiftorians.

SIMONIAC AL is applied to a perfon guilty of fimony ;
that is of purchafing a benefice, or other facred matter, with
money. See Simony.

SIMONIANS, or Simonites, in Eukfiafiical Hillory^

a fed

I

SIM

a k&. of ancient heretics, the firft that ever difturbed Chrif-
tianity ; if they might be faid to do fo, who were little
more than mere philofophers, and chiefly made profcflion
of magic.

Simon Magus, fo often mentioned in the Afts, was their
leader, and died under the emperor Nero ; St. Peter (lill
furviving ; fo that Clemens Alexandrinus is miflaken, when
he makes Simon poilerior to Marcion.

This impious man, fays Mofheim, is not to be ranked
among the number ol thofe who corrupted with their errors
the purity or fimphcity of the Chriftian doftrine, nor is he
to be confidered as tlie parent and chief of the heretical
tribe ; but he is rather to be placed in the number of thofe
who were enemies to tlie progrefs and advancement of Chrif-
tianity. For it is manifeft from all the records we have con-
cerning him, that after his defeftion from the Chrillians, in
confequence of the fevere rebuke whicli he received from
the aportle Peter, he retained not the leatt attachment to
Chrift, but oppofed himfelf openly to the divine Saviour,
and alfumed to himfelf blafphemoufly the title of the /u-
preme power of God. Orig. adv. Celfum. lib. v. p. 272. ed.
Spenceri.

Simon was by birth a Samaritan, or a Jew ; when he had
ftudied philofophy at Alexandria, he made a public profef-
fion of magic, and perfuaded the Samaritans, by tiftitious
miracles, that he had received from God the power of com-
manding and reilraining thofe evil beings by which mankind
were tormented. As for his doftrines, Mofheim adds, that
he was, without doubt, in the clafs of thofe philofopherf,
who not only maintained the eternity of matter, but alfo
the exiftence of an evil being, who prefided, and thus fliarcd
the empire of the univerfe with the fupreme and beneficent
mind : and he, probably, embraced the opinion of thofe
who held, that matter, moved from eternity by an intrinlic
and neceffary atlivity, had by its innate force produced, at
a certain period of time, from its own fubftance, the evil
principle which now exercifes dominion over it, with his nu-
merous train of attendants. From this pernicious doftrine,
the other errors attributed to him concerning fate, the in-
difference of human aftions, the impurity of the human
body, the power of magic, and fimilar extravagancies, flow
naturally, as from their true and genuine fource.

He rcjefted the law of Mofes, and faid he was come to
abolifli it. He afcribed the Old Tellament to the angels,
and though he declared himfelf an enemy to them, he is faid
to have paid them an idolatrous worlhip.

This magician farther pretended, that in his perfon rcfided
the greatcil and molt powerful of the divine xons ; that
another seon of the female fex, the mother of all human
fouls, dwelt in the perfon of his millrefs Helena ; and that
he came, by the command of God, upon earth, to aholifh
the empire of thofe that had formed this material world, and
to deliver Helena from their power and dominion. Mod).
Eccl. Hid. vol. i.

This feft is faid to have continued to the fourth century.
Juftin, in his Apolog. 2, lays that in his time, /. e. about
A.D. 150, almoll all the Samaritans, and fome few others
elfewhere, acknowledged Simon .is the greateft of the gods.
Clemens Akxandrinus (Shan. 1. ii.) fays that his followers
worlhipped him. About the year 249 this fed was reduced
to about thirty perfons, according to Origen (Cant. Celfum,
1. i. ) ; and elfewhere (1. v.), he fays that they were quite cx-
tindl. But it appears from other teftimonies, that fome of
them remained even at the beginning of the fifth century.
Eufebius (Hid. Eccl. 1. ii. c. i.) fpeaks of Simonian?,
that mingled themfelves among the Catholics, and received
Catholic baptifm ; but who afterward ipread in fecret the
venom of their doilrinc. Several were diicovered and cx-

S I M

pelled the church about the beginning of the fourth century.
See Gnostics.

SIMONIDES, in Biography, z celebrated Grecian poet,
born in the ifle of Chios, was the fon of Leoprepes, and
flourifhed in the fifth century before the Chriilian era.
He excelled in various kinds of poetr)-, but efpecially in
the elegiac, for which, as we learn from Horace and Quin.
tilian, he was almoit proverbially famous in antiquity. One
of his moil famous compofitions was entitled '« The Lamen-
tations," of which the following fragment is all that remains,
but this juRifies his title to great excellence as a writer.

" Sweet child ! what anguifh does thy mother know,
Ere cruel grief has taught thy tears to flow !
Amidlt the roaring wind'a tremendous found.
Which threats deitruftion, as it howls around,
In balmy lleep thou lielt, as at the bread.
Without one bitter thought to break thy relt.
While in pale, glimmering, interrupted light
The moon but ihews the horrors of the night.
Didft thou but know, fweet innocent ! our woes,
Not opiate's pow'r thy eye-hds now could clofe.
Sleep on, fweet babe ! ye waves in filence roll.
And lull, O lull to relt ! my tortur'd foul."

Simonides was endowed with a mod extraordinary

memory, and fome have attributed to him the invention
of the art of recollecting by localizing ideas, which has
lately been brought into fafhion in this country. The in-
troduction of fome of the compound letters of the Greek
alphabet is alfo afcribed to him. He lived to an ad-
vanced age, and at the age of eighty gained a prize for
poetry. According to Pliny, Simonides added the eighth
llring to the lyre. In his old age, perh.ips from feeing
the refpedt which money procured to fuch as had lolt the
charms of youth, and power of attacliing mankind by other
means, he became fomewhat mercenary and avaricious. He
was frequently employed by the victors at the games to
write panegyrics and odes in their praifc, before his pupil
Pindar had exercifcd his talents in their behalf; but Si-
monides would never gratify their vanity in this particular,
till he had firft tied them down to a llipulated lum for his
trouble ; and, upon being upbraided for iiis meannefs, he
faid, that he had two colTers, in one of which he had, for
many years, put lii.s pecuniary rewards ; tlie other was for ho-
nours, verbal thanks, and promifes ; that the firll was pretty
well filled, but the lalt remained always empty. And he made
no Icruple to confefs, in his old age, that of all the enjoyments
of life, the love of money was the only one of which time had
not deprived him. It is mentioned as a fubjeft of difpraife, that
Simonides was one of the firll who wrote verfes for money, and
that he travelled through the cities of Afia, felling eulogies on
the victors in the public games. He paid a vifit, in advanced
life, to Hiero, king of Syracufe, to whom he gave the cele-
brated anfwer refpeifling the nature of God that has been
handed down from generation to generation to th« prefcnt
time in the writings of Cicero. Hiero having alked his
opinion on the fubjeft, he requefted a day to eonfider of it ;
when this was expired, he doubled the time, and thus he did
repeatedly, till the monarch defired to know his reafon for
this proceeding : " It is," laid he, " bccaufe the longer I
refleft on the queftion, the more difficult it appear* to be."
He was reported to be extremely nv.iricious ; he was, how-
ever, jullly ranked among the pliilolophers and poets, and
though fenfible of the value of money, he knew what was
more valuable. Undergoing Ihipwreck on a voyage, while
the other iiadengers encumbered themfelves with their moll
valuable cifefts, lie left his behind him, faying, " I carry
with me all that is mine ;" ;uid when he arrived fafc at Cla-
6 zomene.

SIM

SIM

xomene, his fellow fufferers being either drowned or pil-
laged, he met with a citizen acquainted with his poetry, who
liberally fupplied all his wants. It was a witty reply which
this author made to Hiero's queen, who demanded of him
whether knowledge or wealth was molt to be preferred :
" Wealth," faid he ; " for I fee every day learned men at
the doors of the rich." When hs was accufed of being
fo fordid, as to fell part of the provifions with which his
table was furnifhed by Hiero, he faid he had done it, in order
" to difplay to the world the magnificence of that prince,
and his own frugality." In judification of his paflion for
wealth, he faid, " I choofe rather to be ufeful to my enemies
after I am dead, than burdenfome to my friends while I am
living." He is laid to have been fufficiently eloquent to re-
concile two princes extremely irritated againll each other,
and aftually at war. He was unqueltionably one of the
moft confpicuous charafters of his time. Of his numerous
works only a few fragments remain, which are publilhed in
the Corpus Poetarum Graecarum.

SIMONOR, in Geography, a fmall iiland in the Sooloo
Archipelago. N. lat. 4° 59'. E. long. 119° 50'.

SIMONOSAKI. See XiMONOSEQf I.

SIMONTORNYA, or Simon Thurn, atown of Hun-
gary, fituated on the Sarand, with a ftroKg caUle, taken by
the Imperialifts in the year 1686; 32 miles S.S.W. of
Buda. N. lat. 46^ 50'. E. long. 18° 25'.

SIMONY, SiMOXiA, the crime of trafficking with facred
things ; particularly the corrupt prefentation of any one to
an ccclcfiaftical benefice for money, gift, or reward.

The word is borrowed from Simon Magus, who is men-
tioned in the Afts of the Apoftles, as offering to buy the
power of working miracles with money : though the pur-
chaiing of holy orders feems to approach nearer to his
offence.

By the Englifh canons, anno 1229, fimony is not only
committed by an agreement for money in hand, or to be
paid yearly ; but by any other profit or emolument ; any
reward, gift, or benefit, direftly or indireftly ; or by reafon
of any promifc, grant, bond, &c. and this either in the
acceptance of a living, or in an exchange or rcfignation.

Simony was by the canon law a very grievous crime ;
and it is fo much the more odious, becaufe, as fir Edward
Coke obferves, it is ever accompanied with perjury ; for
the prefentee is fworn to have committed no fimony. How-
ever, it was not an offence punifhable in a criminal way
at the common law ; it being thought fufBcient to leave
the clerk to eccleliatUcal cenfures : but many afts of par-
liament have been made to reftrain it by means of civil for-
feitures. Thus the Itatute of 31 Eliz. c. 6. enafts, that
if any patron, for money, or any other corrupt confideration
or promife, directly or iadireftly given, (hall prefent, admit,
inflitute, iiiduft, inltal, or collate any perfon to an eccle-
fialHcal benefice or dignity, fuch prefentation ihall be void,
and the prefentee be rendered incapable of ever enjoying
the fame benefice, and the crown fhall prefent to it for
that turn only : moreover, both the giver and taker fhall
forfeit two years' value of the benefice or dignity ; one
moiety to the king, and the other to any one who will fue
for the fame. If perfons alfo corruptly refign or exchange
their benefices, both the giver and taker fhall, in like
manner, forfeit double the value of the money, or other
corrupt confideration.

Farther, by the itatute :2 Ann. itat. 2. c. 12, if any
perfon, for money or profit, fhall procure, in his own
name, or the name of any other, the next prefentation to
any living ecclelialtical, and fhall be prefented thereupon,
this is declared to be a fimoniacal contratt, and the party
is fubjefted to all the ecclefialtical penalties of fimony, is

difabled from holding the benefice, and the prefentation
devolves to the crown.

In the conltruftion of thefe ftatutas, thefe points, fays
judge Blackltone, feem to be clearly fettled.

1 . That to purchafe a prefentation, the living being ac-
tually vacant, is open and notorious fimony.

2. That for a clerk to bargain for the next prefentation,
the incumbent being fick and about to die, was fimony,
even before the itatute of queen Anne ; and now, by that
ftatute, to purchafe, either in his own name or another's, the
next prefentation, and be thereupon prefented at any future
time to the living, is direft and palpable fimony.

But, 3. It is held, that for a father to purchafe fuch a
prefentation, in order to provide for his fon, is not fimony ;
the fon not being concerned in the bargain, and the father
being by nature bound to make a provifion for him.

4. That if a fimoniacal contraft be made with the patron,
the clerk not being privy thereto, the prefentation for that
turn fhall indeed devolve to the crown, as a punifhment of
the guilty patron ; but the clerk who is innocent, does not
incur any difability or forfeiture.

5. That bonds given to pay money to charitable ufes, on
receiving a prefentation to a living, are not fimoniacal, pro-
vided the patron or his relations be not benefited thereby ;
for this is no corrupt confideration, moving to the patron.

6. That bonds of refignation in cafe of non-refidence, or
taking any other living, are not fimoniacal, there being no cor-
rupt confideration therein, but fuch as is only for the good of
the public. So alfo bonds to refign, when the patron's fon
comes to canonical age, are legal ; upon the reafon before
given, that the father is bound to provide for his fon.

7. Laftly, general bonds to refign at the patron's requeft,
are held to be legal ; for they may poffibly be given for
one of the legal confiderations before-mentioned, and where
there is a poflibility that the tranfaftion may be fair, th»
law will not fuppofe it iniquitous without proof; but if
the party can prove the contraft to have been a corrupt one ;
fuch proof will be admitted, in order to fhew the bond
fimoniacal, and therefore void. Neither will the patron be
fuffered to make an ill ufe of fuch a general bond of refig-
nation ; as by extorting a compofition for tithes, procuring
an annuity for his relations, or by demanding a refignation
wantonly, and without good caufe, fuch as is approved by
the law, as for the benefit of his own fon, or on account
of non-refidence, plurality of Hvings, or grofs immorality in
the incumbent. Blackft. Comm. b. ii.

SiMON'Y is alfo committed by buying or felling the facra-
ment, baptifm, ordination, or abfolution ; as well as bj
the nomination and collation to a benefice, a place in
monaftery, or the like.

By 31 Eliz. cap. 6, perfons who fhall corruptly ordain
or liccnfe any minilter, or procure him to be ordained or
licenfed, fhall incur a forfeiture of 40/., and the minifler
himielf of 10/., befides an incapacity to hold any eccle-
fialtical preferment for feven years afterwards. See Pre-
sentation.

Some have pretended it to be fufficient to avoid the
charge of fimony, if only the ordination were gratuitous,
though the revenues were bought and fold as a temporal
thing. But the canons of feveral councils have condemned
this fubtile diltinftion ; fince the revenues are atached to an
eccleliattical office purely fpiritual.

Cafuiits diilinguifh three kinds of fimony ; -vlx.

Si.MONV, Mental, is that which is reitrittcd to the mere
w ill and inclination, without ever breaking forth into aft.
As when a prefent is made to a collator, without taking
any notice, that we expeft a benefice from him. This
kind of fimony is only punifhable \nforo confclentit.

Simony,

SIM

S I M

Simony, Conveniiona!, is where there is an exprefs adt,
and a formal bargain, though it never come to an execution.

Simony, Real, is where the convention is executed on
both fides ; which lall is the moll criminal of all. The
canonical penalty of fimony is depofition in a clerk, and
excommunication in a layman.

It is a maxim among the Romifh canonifts, that there is
no fimony in the court of Rome ; becaufe the pope afts
there as an abfulute fovereign ; they alfo fay, that refig-
nations infavoirm are not to be admitted but by the pope, as
favouring a little of fimony. On thefc occafions, however,
the parties always fwcar, that there had been no dsceit,
coUnfion, fimony, or other illegal covenant.

Peter Damian diftinguifhes three kinds of fimony : that
^ money, that of tie tongue, and that offervices.

Simony of Money, or Per munus a manu, is where money
is really paid down for a benefice : he adds, that the fame
is likewife committed, by expending money to live at
court to obtain a benefice.

Simon Y nf the Tongue, or Per munus a lingua, confifts in
flattering the collator, or making one's felf agreeable by
complaifance and commendation.

S1.M0NY of Seriiices, or Per munus ah obfequio, confifts in
doing for them good offices to obtain a benefice.

It was agreed by all the juftices, Trin. oft. Jac. primi,
that if the patron prefcnted any perfon to a benefice with
cure, for money ; fuch prefentation, &c. is void, though
the prefentee were not privy to it ; and the flatute gives
the prefentation to the king ; but this is now repealed.

SIMORI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra ; 13 miles N.E. of Squillace.

SIMORRE, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers ; 13 miles S.E. of Auch.

SIMPLA NoBLA, in Botany. See Phyllis.

SIMPLARY, SiMPLARis, in Antiquity, a Roman fol-
dier, who had only fingie pay. Thus called, in oppofition
to the Juplares, or fuch as had double pay.

SIMPLE, Simplex, fomething not mixed, or com-
pounded ; in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to compountl.

Simple Bodies or Elements, in Chemiflry, are thofe fub-
flances which have not yet been decompofed.

In every era of chemical fcience, fomething like a fyftem
or theory has prevailed, which has had for its bafis a cer-
tain number of bodies, called elements or fimple bodies, of
■which all other bodies were formed. This has ever had
the good cffeft of flimulating the minds of enquirers, and
has tended much to the progrefs of this uleful branch of
philofophy. Theory has fucceeded theory, varying widely
from, and in feme inilances contradifting each other, till
philofophers have become very cautious in the admifiion of
the elementary nature of bodies ; and hence have agreed
in the above general definition of a fimple body.

The limited proportions in which bodies combine, is
fufficient to convince us, that fimple bodies confift of hard
unchangeable particles or atoms, which arc not praftically
divifiblc. And the general forms of the cryllals of com-
pound matter go far to fhew, that thefe atoms are fpheres,
a form the belt calculated for motion, and under which tliey
would be the Icall likely to change. How many varieties
of thcle unchangeable fpherical particles there exiil, it is dif-
ficult to fay ; and wliat ratio they bear to each other, in denfity
or magnitude, we are equally at a lofs to determine. One
great (lep, however, has been made, which may lead us to
more important conclufions. Althougii we are ignorant of
the abfohite dimenfions and denfities of thofe atoms, we
are now in a way to acquire a knowledge of their relative
weights, by which we fiiall be enabled to calculate the pro-
portions of compound bodies, by fimply knowing of what

Vol. XXXIL

elements they are compofed. The ufe of experiment will
be to find out the elements of a compound, and rudely
guefs at its proportions ; but theexaft proportion will re-
quire to be determined by calculations, which will render
chemiftry as complete as altronomy.

There is the greatell reafon to believe, that the atoms of
fimple matter attraft each other by the fame laws with gravi-
tation. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes, that in gold, which in
his time was confidered the denfeft body, the pores or
interftices between its particles greatly exceed its material
part. Of what denfity, therefore, mull we confider the
atoms of bodies. Our prefcnt idea of denfity is very vague,
and varies with the temperature, and depends, therefore,
upon the quantity of caloric they contain. If thefe atoms
were to be finally deferted by the caloric, they would
come in contaft ; and if they were fpheres, the refulting
fpecific gravity would be 4^ of the fpecific gravity of the
atoms themfelves. The caloric, on the contrary, if de-
ferted by the atoms, would, from its repellent property,
be difperfed to an unlimited extent. Wlien, however,
thefe two fpecies of matter combine, they Itill retain their
original properties ; but the attraftion of the atoms dc-
creafcs, as they recede, by new additions of caloric in a
lefs ratio than the repulfion of the caloric, and the two
powers are kept in equilibrium by change of dillance be-
tween them. If the attraftion be as the fquare of the
diftance, and the repulfion as the cube ; then, if the dif-
tances be fuccefiive intervals of i, 2, 3, &c. the attractions
at thefe points will be i, \, ',, &c. and the repulfion
i» T, -iV> &c. Therefore, the caloric at each point, to
make the atoms Itand in equilibrium at thefe refpeftive dif-
tances, will be i, 2, 3, &c. for i x I = l, i X 2 = 4,
.^ X 3 := -^, and fo on. It is under this form that the
fpecific gravity of a body is taken ; but we know not what
may be the denfity of the real atoms, although we know
that it mull be very confiderable. In proportion as this
is the cafe, we are to expeft a greater attraftive force
agreeably to the laws of gravitation. If the earth were
to be condenfed to half its diameter, the weight of bodies
on its furface would be quadrupled. This circumltance,
aided by the proximity of the atoms in chemical combina-
tion, and the Hate of aggregation, in which folids cxill,
will make us ceafe to wonder at the powers of chemical
attraftion, and at the fame time gives a lively hope, that
the fame attraftion is common both to gravity and chemi-
cal combination. However indeterminate this problem
may appear, we underlland that fome experiments are foon
to be inllitutcd for fettling this point.

The experiments will in the firll place determine, whether
thefe attractions are the fame, or not : if they are the fame,
the experiments will determine, and point out the numbers
which will exprefs tiie llrength of affinity between different
bodies ; the only fafts which are now wanting to make
chemiltry a complete fcience.

In the prefent Hate of chemical fcience, thofe bodies
confidered as elements are divided into two clallcs ; tlie
one called combullible or inflammable, and the other fup-
porters of combullion ; becaufe in combining with the firll
clafs, much light and heat are developed.

The firll cbls, wliich is by far the moll numerous, cor.filtii
chiefly of metals, with only a few exceptions. Tliefc arf
exhibited in tlie following tabic, wliich alfo contains the
weights of their atoms and fpecilic gravities ; hydrogen, tiic
lightcil atom, being i.

If the views of Gay Lufiac, the French chemift, be cor-

refl, in a memoir on .Iodine, or Iodine, which has been publifh-

cd in Dr. 'i'liomfon's Aiuials, we (liall be hardly warranted in

drawing this line between the combullible bodies, and thofe

5 D which

SIMPLE BODIES.

vvliichfupport combuRioii. Some of the latter appear to aft
the part of both. This is evidently the cafe with fulphur,
which gives light and heat to a certain extent in ita com-
bination with fome of the metals, and alfo when it com-
bines with oxygen, with which, as an inflammable body,
it forms an acid. In the oppofite characters, hke chlorine
and jodine, it forms an acid with hydroRea, which is now
termed the hydrofulphuric acid. Gay Luflac goes farther,
and fuppofcs that phofphorus, carbon, and azote, have a
fimilar double property. Carbon he fuppofes to be the
acidifying principle of fome of the vegetable acids, and that
azote afts a fimilar part in the pruffic acid.
Simple Combultible Bodies.

WeicrhtofSp^^-'fi'-'*^'"*^'^)'

N rimes.

1

1

ts Atom.

of Hyilrogen
being

Gold

140

191673

Silver

100

104849

Platinum . . . -

100

227700

Palladium . - . -

H7523

Mercury ....

i8o

134323

Rhodium - . . -

108900

Ofmium . - - - -

—

Iridium . . - - -

—

Copper . . . - -

56

88070

Iron .....

5°

77IOI

Lead . . - . -

97

II2382

Tm

50

72260

Antimony ....

40

66449

Bifmuth

6S

97238

Zinc . . . . -

28

67923

Nickel

50

89753

Tellurium . . . -

60538

Cobalt

55

762JO

TuBgften ....

56

174240

Manganefe . . . -

50

67815

Titanium . . . -

40

Uranium ....

89100

Cerium .....

45

Columbium . . . -

PotalTium . . . -

35

8415

Sodium

21

9405

Barium - . - . -

61

Strontium ....

39

Colurium . . . -

17

Magnefium - . . -

10

Aluminum - . . -

8

Glucinum . . . -

23

Ittrium . . . . -

48

Zirconium . . . -

38

Silicum . . . - -

38

Hydrogen ....

I

I

Sulphur . . . . -

H

I97OI

Azote

6s

Carbon . - . . -

5-4

Boron . . . - -

5-5

Phofphorus ....

10

•7513

Arfenic . - - - -

40

84249

Molybdenum . - . -

85249

Chroraura ....

1 58410

Supporters of Coml

juftion.

Oxygen .....

7-5

14

Chlorine . . - . -

30

30-75

Iodine . . . . -

117

Fluorine ....

—

The bodies of the firft ciafs, with the exception of fulphuf,
phofphorus, azote, hydrogen, and carbon, are known to
be metals ; and there is (Irong reafon to believe that hydro-
gen is a metal in the elallic form. It is very remarkable,
that thofe bodies, the metallic nature of which is doubtful,
appear to pollefs the property of combining more llrongly
With inflammable bodies, than the metals with each other in
forming alloys. Indeed, the combinations of moft of the
metals w'ith thofe that are not metallic, are generally con-
fpicuous, and always definite.

The firft of the feeond clafs of bodies, viz. oxygen, has
long been confidered a fimple body. The feeond has been
lately, by the French chemilts and by fir Humphrey Davy,
confidered in the fame light. It was till lately confidered
as a compound of muriatic acid and oxygen, from which
it was called oxymuriatic acid. Its name is now changed
to chlorine, from its green colour. Jodine is another fub-
ilance of the fame clafs, exhibiting ttriking properties with
inflammable bodies. Its name has been derived from the
violet colour of its vapour. It was dilcovered in kelp, a
fubftance which confilts of foda combined with certain
impurities. The jodine is extrafted from it by the follow-
ing procefs. Infufe the kelp in hot water till all the fo-
luble part is taken up ; then evaporate the folution till
the carbonate of foda cryftalUzes on cooling. In this way,
by repeating the evaporation and coohng, feparate as
much as poffible of this fait ; then continue the evapora-
tion to drynefs. This refiduum is now to be introduced
into a glafs retort, or a long-necked matrafs, and a quantity
of fulphuric acid poured upon it. This is then applied to,
at firlt, a gentle heat. When the temperature reaches
about 300°, a purple or violet-coloured vapour appears
in the neck of the retort, which condenfes into (hining
opaque cryftals of the appearance of plumbago. Thefe
cryftals are pure jodine. Jodine, in the folid form, is of
a greyifli-black colour, its vapour being of a beautiful violet.
Its cryftals have a ihining fcaly appearance, like mica. Their
form is that of rhomboidal plates, and fometimes of elongated
oftohedrons. It is foft and friable, fo as to rub to powder
between the fingers. It ftains the fl<in of a deep brown
colour, but not permanently. It has the fmell of chlorine
or oxymuriatic gas. Its tafte is acrid, although it requires
feven thoufand parts of water for its folution. It deftroys
vegetable colours, like chlorine, but with lefs energy.

Itsfpecific charafteris 4948 at the common temperature,
water being i. It fufes at 225° of Fahrenheit, and affumes
theelattic form at 374° or 356° ; but it will come over in
diftillation with the vapour of water. It is a non-conduftor
of eledlricity.

Jodine, like oxygen and chlorine, has the property of
fupporting combuftion with combuftible bodies. With
fome of thefe it forms compounds analogous to oxyds, and
with hydrogen it forms an acid refembling the muriatic acid,
the compound formed by hydrogen with chlorine. In thefe
inftances, jodine and chlorine have not only the property of
fupporters of combuftion, but of forming acids witli an in-
flammable bafe. They, however, in their turns, aft the part
of combuftible bodies, by forming acids with oxygen. It
appears alfo, from the views of Gay Luflac, that fulphur has
alfo this double property, for by combining with hydrogen
it forms the well-known compound called fulphuretted hy-
drogen, which pofl'efles the properties of an acid, and is ren-
dered fo by afting the part of oxygen with the inflammable
bafe. On the contrary, it forms fulphuric acid with oxygen
by itfelf, afting the part of an inflammable bafe.

It alfo appears to this philofopher, that azote, carbon'
and phofphorus, may have the power of producing acidity

by

SIMPLE BODIES.

by their combining with certain iuflammable bafes. He is
of opinion, that moll of the vegetable acids do not owe
their acidity to oxygen combined with hydrogen and carbon,
but to the carbon atting the part of oxygen with hydrogen,
as fulphur, chlorine, and jodine do with the fame.

Agreeably to this view, we fhall give fome of the fafts
attendant on chlorine, jodine, and fulphur, in their com-
binations with hydrogen and oxygen.

To the binary combinations of thefe bodies with others, in
which they have no acidity. Gay Luffac has given the names
of chlorurets, jodurets, and fulphurets ; as chloruret of
potaffium, joduret of zinc, fulphuret of iron, and fo on.
When they form acids with hydrogen, they are termed hy-
drochloric, hydraodic, and hydrofulphuric acids. The acids
formed by their combinations with oxygen he terms chloric,
iodic, and fulphuric acids. The chloric acid is the fame
with what has been called the hyperoxymurialic acid, and
forms with potafh what has been termed hyperoxymuriate of
potafh. The jodic acid forms a compound with potath,
having fimilar properties, and affording a large quantity of
difpolable oxygen.

The hydrochlorates are the falts which have been called
muriates, and have fome refemblance to the hydriodates, a (et
of falts for.ned by the acid arifing from the union of jodine
with hydrogen, and the different faline bafes.

The hydraodic acid is formed by firft combining phof-
phorus with jodine, in the proportion of one of the former
to nine of the latter. This compound being brought in
contaft with water, affords the hydraodic acid. The water
is dccnmpofed, the oxygen of which combines with the
pholphorus to form phofphoric acid, and the hydrogen
with the jodine, forming the hydraodic acid. If the jodine
and phoiphorus were i8 of jodine to I of phofphorus, then
phofphoric acid would be formed in the water. On the other
hand, if the jodine were 4.5 to i of phofphorus, then hy-
draodic acid would be formed, and a compound of phof-
phorus and oxygen, confiding of two atoms of the former
to one of the latter. Tfiis is the red infoluble fubflance
which has been called oxyd of phofphorus.

In all thefe proceil'es the hydraodic acid is evolved in
fumes fmelling like muriatic acid, and may be coUefted, like
it, in the gafeous form. This gas is about 60 times heavier
than hydrogen. Water abforbs a large quantity of it, fo
as to form a very llroHg acid, of the fpecific gravity of 1.7.
This acid is decompofcd in two ways, principally by fuch
bodies as eafily feparate its hydrogen and fct free the jodine,
fuch as the fulphuric and nitric acids, and many of the
oxyda, by which water and jodurets are formed. It is alfo
decompofed by the fuperior attraftion of jodine for other
bodies, fetting the hydrogen free. Such is the cafe with
mod of the metals.

The compounds of the hydraodic acid with different faline
bafes form falts, refembling the hydrochlorates (muriates)
and the hydrofulphates. The other binary compounds of
jodine, and the different combullible bodies which are called
jodurets, are very confpicuous. Molt of thele are infoluble
in water. Thofe metals which decompofe water, form
fohible jodurets ; as in thefe iiiltances the joduret becomes
an hydriodate.

Another fet of compounds rcfults from jodine, which we
have already called jodatos. Jodine combines with oxygen,
in the proportion of 5 atoms of the latter to i of the former,
which is 1 17 jodine to 5 x 7.^ = 37.5 of oxygen. This
conditutes the jodic acid.

This acid cannot be direftly formed by combining jodine
with oxygen ; but it is formed during the adliou of jodine

upon potafh, foda, barytc?, Itrontian, lime, and magncfia,
when water is prcfent. The changes are precifely what
take place, when chlorine is fubllitutcd _for jodine. Two
falts are formed with the bafe employed ; the one with
chloric or jodic acid, and the other with hydrochloric or
hydraodic acid.

When jodine in vapour is patfed through a folution of
potafli, four atoms of jodine decompofe four atoms of water,
by which four atoms of hydraodic acid are produced. Thefe
unite with four atoms of potafh, forming as many com-
pound atoms of hydriodate of potafh. The four atoms of
oxygen, feparated from the water, now unite with a fifth
atom of jodine, and a fifth atom of potafh ; the whole of
which will amount to an atom of joduret of potalTium,
united to five atoms of oxygen, conltituting an atom of
jodate of potafh. It will appear, therefore, that during the
formation of any of the jodates or the chlorates, that for
every atom of fuch jodate or chlorate there will be formed,
at the fame time, four atoms of an hydriodate or hydro-
chlorate.

In the example above flated, an atom of jodate of potafh
will be I atom of jodine (117) + i atom of potafTiura
(37.5) + y atoms of oxygen (5 x 7.5) = 192. The
4 atoms of hydriodate of potafh will confift of 4 atoms of
hydraodic acid (4 x (117 + 1)) + 4 atoms of potafh
(4 X (37.5 + 7.5)-) = 472 + l8o = 652. The ratio,
therefore, of the jodate of potafh to the hydriodate, will be
192 to 652, or 100 to 340 nearly. In the cryltalline form,
however, the hydriodate of potafh does not cruft, but is
converted into joduret of potafTium, which will confift of an
atom of jodine (117) added to an atom of potaffium (37.5)
= 154.5, and 154.5 X 4 = 618, the quantity of the cryf-
tallized joduret to the jodate, which will be 100 of the latter
to 322 of the former nearly.

It is rather out of place to enter into the particulars of
bodies; but this laft fubflance, from its recent difcovery,
has not been before mentioned in this work. There are alfo
many interefting particulars refpccting chlorine ; but thefe
are rather new explanations, under the idea of this being a
fimple body, than new fadts.

We know little more of the body called fluorine, than
that it is in all probability a body combining with hydrogen
to form fluoric acid, in the manner th:it chlorine and jodine
form hydrochloric and hydraodic acids with that body.
To the combinations of chlorine with the different bodies, in
which no acidity prevails. Dr. Tliomfon has propofed the
name of chlorids, as being more agreeable to the termina-
tion in the word oxyds ; and we fuppofe would adopt, for
fimilar combinations of jodine, jodids ; and we fliould ex-
peft, from tlie fiilphurates being analogous, that they would
be called fulphids, to keep up the fame uniformity. The
French chemills (fee Gay Luflac's Memoir on JoJin'%
Thomfon's Annals, vol. v.) have adopted for the f.ime
compounds the termination already ufed for the fulphurets,
I'iz. chlorurets, jodurets ; and for the combinations of
carbon and azote with the fame bodies, they would ufe
carburets, a-tolurets, or, what is better, nilrot;urcl'. We fee
no objeftion to this termination for ail the binary coiu-
pounds not polfelTing acidity, as in fact there would be n;»
other chsnge than that of altering oxyd into cxurrl. The
acids would (till retain their terminations, out and ic, dilUn-
guidiing thofe which do not contain oxygen by the acidifying
fublhiiice. The falts, as at prefeut, would derive their
names from the acids. See Nomknclatiuk.

Si.Mi'i.K, in Botany, is a general name given to all herbt
and plants ; as having each its particular virtue, by which
it becomes a fimple remedy.

' 5 P 2 The

SIM

S I M

The fimples from the Levant, and the Eaft Indies, were
not known among us till about the year i2eo.

Simple Leaves. See Leaf.

The termfmpk is alfo technically applied to fome other
parts of a plant. A/imple calyx is ufed in the columniferous
order, in oppolition to the double one of Mnlva, Hib'ifcus,
and many other genera of that order. A fimple Jligma
means, that the oart in queftion is of no elaborate or pecu-
liar fhape, or ftrnfturc, but merely adequate to perform
its requiiite funftions. This end is fufficiently anfwered by
a rather obtufe, though not dilated, figure, jult enough to
receive the pollen upon a moift; furface, or point. If a
iligma be acute, or taper-pointed, that charafter (hould be
fpecified ; as alfo if it be capitate, concave, lobed, fringed,
&c. ; in all which latter cafes it is no laager fimple. See
Btigm.'V, and Fecundation of Plants.

A fimpk ftem, or Jlalk, is dellitute of branches, or fub-
divifion-. Such alfo n fimple putefcence, ihe hd^n oi \v\\ic\\
are unbranched and ftraight ; not ilellated, entangled, or
hooked.

Simple, in French Mufic, in an air with variations, im-
plies the air itfelf, in oppofition to the doubles or variations.
See Air, and Double.

Simple Cadence, is that where the notes are all equal
through all the parts.

Simple Concords, are thofe in which we hear at leaft two
notes in confonance ; as a third and a fifth ; and, of confe-
quence, at lea'i three parts. This is either done immediately,
and is called the harmonical triad, or in a more remote
manner, that is, when the founds, that are not bafs, are one
or two oftaves higher. This diftance has no ill effeft in
the third, but in the fifth it has ; and, generally fpcaking,
the nearer, or more immediate, the concords are, the better.
See Concord.

They alfo fay C fimple, or plain, in oppofition to C
accented.

Simple Counterpoint, Fugue, Interval, Sounds, and Triple.
See the fubftantives.

Simple Equation, FraSlon, and Surd, in Algebra. See
the fubftantives.

Simple Quantities, are thofe which confift of one term
only ; as -Y a, ~ ab, or -^ abc; accordingly they are op-
pofed to compound quantities.

Simple Glands, in Anatomy. See Glands.

Simple Anomaly and Excenlrlclty, in AJlronomy. See the
fubftantives.

Simple Form, Modes, Necefftty, Oppofition, and Propofi-
tlon, in Logic and Metaphyfics. See the fubftantives.

Simple Average, Benefice, Church, Depofit, EJlate,
Fee, Force, Larceny, Rfignatlon, and Vaffalage. See the
fubftantives.

Simple Contract, Debts by, are fuch, where the contra A
upon which the obligation arifes is neither afcertained by
matter of record, nor yet by deed or fpecial inftrument, but
by mere oral evidence, or by notes unfealed, which are
capable of a more eafy proof, and (therefore only) better
than a verbal promife.

Sl.MPLE Diachylon, Dlacodlum, Dlamorum, Dlaprunum,
Dropax, Fomentations, Hydromel, Mixture, Oxymel, and
I7aters. See the fubftantives.

Simple Fencing. See Fencing.

Simple Flank and Tenallle, in Fortification. See the fub-
ftantives.

In Geometry, we fay, the mofl; fimple demonftrations are
the beft.

In Grammar, we have fimple words, or primitives ; and
compounds, which have fome particle added to them.

In Jurifprud'.nce, they fay a fimple donation, in oppc
fition to a mutual or reciprocal one : a fimple fale, in
oppofition to that made with a refervation of the faculty
of redemption ; and fimple homage, in oppofition to liege
homage.

Simple Foffxls, in Natural Hljlory. See Fossils.

Simple Machine, Motion, Pendulum, and Wheel, in Me-
chanics. See the fubftantives.

The fimpleft machines are always the moft efteemed.

Simple Vlfion, in Optics. See Vision.

In Pharmacy, there are fimple remedies, and compounds;
the former of which are ufually preferable to the latter.

Simple Tafie, in Phyfwlogy. See Taste.

Simple Hljlory and Style, in Rhetoric. See tlie fub-
ftantives.

Simple FraSure and Ulcer, in Surgery. See the fub-
ftantives.

SIMPLER's Joy, \\\ Botany. See Verbena.

SIMPLEX OcuLUs, in Surgery, the name of a bandage
for the eye.

SIMPLICITY, in Ethics. See Sincerity.

Si.MPLiciTY, in Mufic. There is much cant about fim-
plicity in mufic, among the exclufive admirers of old things,
and lamentation fortlielofs of our old melodies to the fongs
of Chaucer, Gower, Lydgate, and others, of which the
words are ftill extant. But if we may judge by what has
efcaped the ravages of time, of a later date, the lofs of our
mufical compofitions of this period may be fupported with-
out much affliftion. We may perhaps heighten that afflic-
tion confiderably by cenfuring modern refinements, and
extolling the charms of ancient fimplicity ; but fimplicity
in melody, beyond a certain limit, is unworthy of the name
that is bellowed upon it, and encroaches fo much upon the
rude and favage boundaries of uncouthneis and rulticity, as
to be wholly feparated from proportion and grace, which
ftiould alone charatterife what is truly fimple in all the arts :
for though they may be ennobled by the concealment of
labour and pedantry, they are always degraded by an al-
liance with coarfe and barbarous nature.

Old melodies, when we find them, and can afcertain their
dates, are curious hiftorical fafts in the annals of the mufical
art ; and afford us more fatisfaftory information concerning
our ancient national tafte, than all the verbal defcriptions
in profe and verfe can do. And it muft be owned, that
though the natives of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, can
boaft of national tunes, both plaintive and fpirited, that are
charaAeriftic, pleafing, and diftinft from each other, the
Englifti have not a melody which they can call their own,
except the hornpipe and Chefliire-round. The hornpipe,
indeed, was in all probability Britifti, or Welfli ; as the
pip-corn, or pipe of Cornwall, was an armorlc inftrument
and tune, brought thither by the Britons, driven to that
part of the ifland, and into Brittany and Wales, by the
Saxons. The Cheftiire-round is a melody of the fame kind.
See Hornpipe, and plate of National Tunes.

SIMPLICIUS, Pope, in Biography, a native of Tivoli,
was elefted to the pontificate in September 467, on the
death of Hilary. During the time of his poffeffing the fee
of Rome, great commotions exifted in the eaftern and
weftcrn empire. The latter terminated in the perfon of
Auguftulus, who was dethroned by Odoacer, king of the
Heruli, an Arian. In the Eaft the emperor Zeno was
dethroned by Bafilifcus, who declared againft the council of
Chalcedon. Simplicius does not appear to have been per-
fonally molefted in thefe changes, but he was frequently
called upon to exert himfelf in defence of the claims of his
fee, and of the orthodox faith. He moreover extended and

ftrengthened

S I M

S I M

ftrengthened the papal jnrifdiftion over the weftern churcii,
by appointing the bifhop of Seville apollolic vicar in the
province of Bostica, and by an attack upon the metro-
politan rights of the bifhop of Ravenna, together with other
vigorous meafures. Simplicius died in the year 483, after
having filled the papal chair nearly fifteen years and a half.
There are extant eighteen of his letters, chiefly relating
to matters of difcipline, and the affairs of the eaftern
churciies.

SiiMPLicius, a Greek philofopher of the lixth century,
was a native of Cilicia. He was a difciple of Ammonius
the Peripatetic, and Damafcius the Stoic ; but in his own
mode of philofophiling, lie endeavoured to unite the Platonic
and Stoical dottriiics with thofe eilablilhed by Ariilotle.
Of this combination of heterogeneous tenets, his " Com-
mentary upon the Enchiridion of Epiftetus" is faid to be
2 good example. Of this work, Fabricius affirms there is
nothing in pagan antiquity better calculated to form the
morals, or afford jufter views of divine providence. Sim-
plicius wrote commentaries upon Ariilotle. He was one
of the philofophers who took refuge with Chofroes, king
of Perfia, from an apprehended perfecution by Juflinian ;
but they returned to Athens, upon a truce between the
Romans and Periians in 549, having flipulated for a tolera-
tion. His commentaries upon Ariilotle have been feveral
times publifhed in Greek. Thofe on Epiftctus were pub-
lifhcd in Greek and Latin, with the notes of Wolfius and
Salmaluis. They have been tranflated into the Englilh and
French languages.

SIMPLIFYING, in Ecckjafical Mailers, is the taking
away of a cure of fouls from a benefice, and difpenfing the
beneficiary from refidence.

Several benefices, which have been Gmplified, now require
refidence ; and many others, which required refidence, have
been fimplified.

Some ufe the word in a more exteiifive fignification, -viz.
for the Ihorteniiig a relation, &c. or retrenching every
thing not precifely iieceflary. When the matter of fadl
(hall be fimplified, and flripped of its vain circumllances, the
court will fee, &c.

SIMPLOCE, in Rhetoric, a figure which comprehends
both the anaphora and epillrophe. In this figure the
feveral members begin and end with the fame word. Thus
St. Paul : Arc they Hebrews'^ So am I. Arc they IfracUtes'f
So am I. Are they the feed of Abraham ? So am I. z Cor.
xi. 22.

SIMPLON, in Geography, a mountain of Switzerland,
over which is a pafiagc from the Valais to the duchy of
Milan ; 6597 feet above the level of the iea ; 31 miles E.
of Sion.

SIMPLUDIARIA, in Antiquity, a kind of funeral
honours paid to the deceafed at tlieir obfequies.

The word is formed from the L-nlni flmplex, and ludut ;
whence ftmpludiaria, or fimpliludaria, q. d. fimple garnet.
Some will have fimpludiaria to be the funerals .it which
games were exhibited : fuch is the lentiment of Pauius Dia-
conus. Fcllus fays, they were thofe, in the games of which
nothing was fcen but dancers and leapers, called corviloret ;
who, according to M. Dacier, were perfons who run along
the malls and yards of vcfTels or boats, called corbes.

In other refpeCts, thofe two authors agree as to the kind
of funerals called fimpludiaria ; viz. that they were oppofite
to thofe called indiitiva ; in which, befides the dancers and
leapers obferved in the fimpludiaria, there were dcfultores,
or people who vaulted on iiorfes ; or perhaps horfc-raccs,
in which the cavaliers leaped from horfe to horfe at full
fpeed.

SIMPSON, Thomas, in Biography, a celebrated felf-
taught mathematician, was born at Market Bofworth) in
Leicellerfhire, in 17 10. His father, who was a weaver in
that town, intended to bring him up to his own trade, and
took little heed of his education. Nature, however, had
endowed him with fine talents, and an ardour of difpofition,
which excited him to nobler purluits. At an early period
he gave indications of his turn for fludy, by eagerly perufing
every book that fell in hie way, and omitting no opportunity
to acquire inflrudtions from others. His father, finding
that he was thus led to negledl his work, endeavoured to
rellrain him from what he regarded as idle purfuits ; but
after fome fruitlefs attempts, a difference was produced be-
tween them, which at length terminated in an open rupture,
and Thomas left his father's houfe, and married the widow
of a taylor, with whom he refided at Nuneaton, where he
continued fome time working at his trade, and improving
his knowledge. Here he became acquainted with a travel-
ling pedlar, who lodged in the fame houfe, and who, to
the profefCon of an itinerant merchant, had united the more
profitable one of a fortune-teller. An intimacy was formed
between them, and as the pedlar was going to Briflol, he
lent, during his abfence. Cocker's Arithmetic to Simpfon,
to which was fubjoined a fhort appendix on Algebra ; and a
book en Genitures, by Partridge, the almanac-maker.
Thefe books he fludied fo clofely, that on the pedlar's re-
turn, he was aflonifhed to find that Simpfon was little
inferior to himfelf in tlie art of calculating nativities ; and he
predicted that he would fhortly be his fuperior. En-
couraged by this prophecy, he at fird determined to err.bark
in the trade of a fortune-teller ; and by this occupatiii;i, and
teaching a fchool, he found means to fupport himfelf with-
out weaving, which he now entirely abandoned, and was
foon regarded as the oracle of the neighbourhood. From
this time he feems to have lived very comfortably, till an
unfortunate event involved him in a deal of trouble. Hav-
ing undertaken to iMile the devil, in order to anfwer certain
quellions to a young woman, wlio confulted him refpecling
her fwcetheart, then abfent at fca, the credulous girl was fo
friglitened on the appearance of a man from beneath fome
flraw, who reprefeiitedthe devil, that fhe fell into violent
fits, from which flie was with difficulty recovered, and
which for a conlidcrable time threatened iiifanity or fatuity.
In confequence of this exertion of his art, he was obliged to
leave the phicc, and he removed to Derby, where he re-
mained a few years, working at his trade by day, and in-
ftruAing pupils in the evening. He became a writer in the
Lady's Diary in tlic year 1736: his firll queflions were
flatcd in verle, and are of that kind as fhcw that at this
period lie had made fome progrefs in mathematical know-
ledge. He from tills period applied himfelf with great
ardour to every branch of the analytic fciencc, and acquired
a deep infight into the dodlrine of fluxions, upon which he
afterwards jiublifhed a work, wliicli is even now regarded
as among the belt, if not the very bell, exilling in our lan-
guage. After he had given up allrology, and its emolu-
ments, he found iiimfclf reduced to great flraits, nolwith-
llanding iiis indutlry to provide a fublilleiiee for liis family
at Derby ; and on that account lie determined to remove to
London, which he did in the year 1736. When lie arrived
at the capit.nl, unknown and without recommendation, he
for fome time followed his bulinefs in Spitalfields, and
taught niatiiematics in the evening, and at other fpare hours.
His exertioiu were attended witli fuch fuccefs, that lie re-
turned to the country, and brought to town his wife, with
her three children. Tlie number of his fcholars increafcd,
and he was encouraged to make propofala for publilhing by

fubfeription

SIM

S 1 M

fubfcription « A New Treatife of Fluxions." The book
was printed in 1737. In the year 1740 he publifhed " A
Treatife on the Nature and Laws of Chance." This is a
very thin and fmall quarto ; and to this treatife are annexed
full and clear inveliigatiors of two important problems,
added to the fecond edition of De Moivre's Biok of
Chances, as alfo two new methods for the fummation of
feries. Mr. Simpfon's next publication was a volume, in
quarto, of " Effays on fcveral curious and interefting Sub-
jefts in fpeculative and mixed Mathematics," printed in
J 740. Soon after the publication of this book, he wai
chofen member of the Royal Academy at Stockholm. This
was followed by a fmaller volume, on " The Doftrine of
Annuities and Reverfions, deduced from general and evident
Principles, with ufeful Tables, (hewing the Values of fingle
and joint Lives." Next year came out an " Appendix,
containing Remarks on De Moivre's Book on the fame
Subjeft, with Anfwers to fome perfonal and malignant Re-
prefeiitations in the Preface to it." In 1743 he publifhed
his " Mathematical Differtations on a variety of phyfic 1
and analytical Subjefts." Shortly after this he publiflied
" A Treatife on Algebra," which in the year 1755 he en-
larged and confiderably improved. After this he gave the
pubhc his " Elements of Geometry," with their applica-
tion to menfuration, to the determination of maxima and
minima, and to the conftruftion of a great variety of
geometrical problems. This work has pafled through
many editions, and is ilill read in fome places devoted to the
education of the young ; though we think it has been fuper-
feded by other treatifes of more modern date. The firft
edition of this book occafioned fome cnntroverfy between
Mr. Thomas Simpfon and Dr. Robert Simfon, the author
of a well-known edition of Euclid's Elements. See

SiMSON.

In the year 1748, Mr. Simpfon publifhed " Trigo-
nometry, plane and fpherical, with the Conllruftion and
Application of Logarithms." In 1 750 he publifhed a new
edition of his " Treatife on Fluxions," which, however, he
wifhed to be confidered rather as a new work than a new
edition of an old one. In 1752 appeared in 8vo. a work,
entitled " Seledl Exercifes for young Proficients in Mathe-
matics;" and in 1757 he publifhed his laft work, entitled
" Mifcellaneous Trads," — " which," fays Dr. Hutton,
" was a valuable bequeft, whether we confider the dignity
and importance of the fnbjefts, or the fublime and accurate
manner in which they are treated." Such are the fcientific
works of Mr. Simpfon. Through the interefl of Mr. Jones,
the father of the celebrated tir William Jones, Mr. Simpfon
was, in 1743, appointed to the profefforfhip of mathematics,
then vacant, in the Royal Academy of Woolwich ; and in
1745 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. On
this occafion, in confequence of his very moderate circum-
flances, he was excufed his admiffion fees, and from giving
bond for the fettled future annual payments. A^ a pro-
fefl'or, he exerted all his talents in inllrufting the pupils
committed to his care. He had, it has been faid, a peculiar
and happy method of teaching, which, united to a great
degree of mildnefs, engaged the attention, and conciliated
the efteera and friendfhip of his fcholars. Mr. Simpfon
died in the year 1761, in the 51ft year of his age. Befides
the works already mentioned, he wrote feveral papers, which
were read before the Royal Society, and printed in their
Tranfaftions. He w^s not only a contributor to, but for
fome years editor of, the Lady's Diary, during which, I'lz.
from the year 1754 to 1760, he raifcd th^t work to a high
degree of refpedability. In 1760, when a plan was in
agitation for erecting Blackfriars bridge, he was confultc(}

by the committee in regard to the bell form for the arches.
On this occafion he preferred the femicircular form ; and
befides his report to the committee, he wrote fome letters
on the fubjeft, which were afterwards publifhed in the
Gentleman's Magazine.

Simpson, John, was born at Leicefter, in the month of
March 1746. He was educated for the minillry among the
Proteftant dilfenters, under the rare of Mr. (afterwards Dr.)
John Aikin, who kept a flourifhing fchool at Kibworth, in
Leiceflerfhire, and afterwards an academy at Warrington,
for the education of young men devoted to the miniftry.
From Warrington Mr. Simpfon went, in 1765, to Glafgow,
where he fpent two years in this ancient feat of learning,
and where he attended the leftures of the excellent Dr.
Leechman. At Glafgow he remained two years, when he
purfued his (tudies in a private manner among his relations,
till the month of April 1772, when he fettled at Notting-
ham, and from thence removed, in 1777, to Walthamftow,
where he became paftor of the congregation of diffenters,
which had previoufiy enjoyed the joint fervices of Mr.
Farmer and Mr. Radcliffe. Here he remained but two
years, and after this it docs not appear that he was fettled
any where as minilfor, but continued preaching occafionally
to the end of his life. As a preacher he acquired corfider-
able reputation, but he is chiefly known as a critic on the
Holy Scriptures. His principal work is entitled " Eflays
on the Language of Scripture," in two volumes oftavo.
Befides this he pubhfhed many other works, among which
are " An EfTay to (hew that Chriltianity is belt conveyed in
the Hiitoric Form ;" " A View of the internal and pre-
fumptive Evidences of Chriftianity," which is a moft ufeful
performance, and it has been faid may be ranked, in merit
and value, with the moral demonftrations of the truth of
the Chriltian religion of Taylor, Locke, Lardner, Clarke,
and Paley. Mr. Simpfon died in the year 1813. He
was an Unitarian in the largeft fenfe of the word ; and
agreeably to the enhghtencd, confcientious, and general
coiifiltency of his charaSer, his fpeculative belief infpired
him with the moll genuine fentiments of rational piety, and
an elevated devotion. He was firm in his principles, fteady
in his conduft, and courteous in his manners ; modeft,
humble, affettionate, difintereftcd, and generous. See Ser-
mons on the Death of Mr. Simpfon, by the Rev. T. Jervis
and the Rev. Hunter.

Simpson, Christopher, an Englifli mufician of the
feventeenth century, extremely admired for his performance
on- the viol da gamba, or fix-llringed-bafe, and general
knowledge of mufic. The bafe-viul with fix firings, and a
fretted finger-board, was in fuch general favour in his time,
that almoft all the firft muficians of our country, whofe
names are come down to us, were performers upon it, and
compofed pieces purpofely to (hew its powers ; but parti-
cularly Coperario, William Lawes, Jenkins, Dr. Colman,
Lupo, Mico, and Loofemore.

Simpfon, during the lalt years of the Ufurpation, pub-
lidied a treatife on this indrument, entitled " The Divifion
Violin, or an Introduftion to the playing upon a Ground."
But this inllrument, hke the lute, without which no con-
cert could fubfill, wa<! foon after fo totally bani(hcd, that
its form and conftruftion were fcarcely known, till the ar-
rival of Abel in England, whofe talle, knowledge, and ex-
prelTion upon it were fo exquilite, that, inftead of renovat-
ing its ufe, they feem to have kept lovers of mufic at an
awful dillance from the inftrument, and in utter defpair of
ever approaching fuch excellence. The indrument itfelf,
however, was fo nafal, that this great mufician, with all his
fcience and power of hand, could not prevent his moll cn-

thufiaftic

S 1 M

S I M

thufiaftic admii-ers from lamenting that he had not, early in
life, applied himfelf to the violoncello.

But if its general ufe had continued, or were rellorcd,
this book of Simpfon, from the univerfal change of talle
and ftyle of every fpecies of mufic, would be of but little
ufe to a lludent on that inftrument now ; when rapid di-
vifions, of no other merit than the difficulty of executing
them, have been totally fupplanted by vocal cxprefTion,
learned modulation, and that rich harmony to which the num-
ber of its Itrings is favourable. Rough, but warm enco-
miallic verfcs, are prefixed to Simpfon's works by Dr.
Colman, John Jenkins, Mathcw Lock, and others, which
only fliew with what periihable materials mufical fame is
built !

A trandation of this book into Latin, for the ufe of fo-
reigners, with the original text on the oppofite page, was
publifhed by the author in 1665, under the title of " Chelys
Minuritionum ; Editio fecunda," thin folio.

Bcfides thefe, Simpfon publiftied, in 1667, " A Com-
pendium of praftical Mufic, in five Parts, containing i. The
Rudiments of Song. 2. The Pnnciples of Compofition.
3. The Ufe of Difcord. 4. The Form of Figurate Def-
cant. 5. The Contrivance of Canon."

Whoever expefts to learn the whole principles of an art
by a fingle book, or, indeed, any number of books, with-
out oral inllruftion, or great ftudy, praftice, and experience,
mull be difappointed. This compendium, like mod others
of the kind, more frequently generates new doubts and per-
plexities, than removes the old. However, fomething is to
be learned from mod books ; and what a ftudent is unable to
find in one, if out of the reach of a mailer, mull be fouglit
in another.

Simpfon, in his younger days, ferved in the royal army,
railed for Cliarles I. by Cavendifh, duke of Ncwcaftle ; he
was a Roman Catholic, and patronized by fir Robert BoUes,
of Leiceller-Pbce, with whom he rcfidcd during the Inter-
regnum. He feems to have been in clofe friendlhip with
Jenkins and Lock, as, on all occafions, they reciprocally
praife each other.

Simpson, Redmond, an eminent performer on tlie haut-
bois. He was a natural fon of Dubourg, the famous per-
former on the violin, and ferved an apprcnticcfliip to Low,
the hautbois player and copyift. Simpfon, when out of his
time, improved in the performance on his indrument fo
much, as to be thought, till the arrival of Fifcher, fupcrior
to all the hautbois players of his time, except T. Vincent,
the difciple of Martini. On the death of Richard Vincent,
in 1777, firll hautbois, during more than thirty years, of
Covent Garden playhoufe, and of Vauxhall gardens, father
of the firft hufband of Mifs BurchcU, Simpfon was en-
gaged as firll hautbois at Covent Garden, and in a few years
rendered himfelf fo ufeful in bringing out mufical per-
formances at that theatre, that he was appointed joint ma-
nager ; and was an aftive and important perfonage at the
meetings of the mufical fund ; was one of the afiillant di-
reftors at the commemoration of Handel, in 1784; had a
turn for bufinefs ; and after ceafing to play in public, lie was
often ufeful in Hating, calculating, and fettling the accounts
of the fociety, to the time of his death, in January 17S7.
He was buried in the cloiller of Wellminlier Abbey, his
funeral being attended by the principal profcdbrs in London.
SlMi'sON, in yl^ricullur'; a provincial term apphed to
groundfcl, a troublefome weed in fome fcjils.

Simpson'/ IJland, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
South Pacific ocean, difcovcred by captain Carlirct in
1767 ; 4 miles W. from Carteret ifland. S. lat. 8° 26'. E.
long. 159° 20'.

8

SIMPULUM, among the Romans, a vcfl'el with a long
handle, and made like a cruet. It was ufed in facrifices and
libations, for taking a very little wine at a time.

SIMRAR, in Geography, a town of Hindoodan, in
Oude ; 24 miles E.S.E. of Fyzabad.

SIMREE, a town of Bengal ; 32 miles N.N.W. of
Boglipour.

SI MS AT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern-
ment of Diarbekir ; 54 miles W. of Diarbekir.

SIMSBURY, a pod-town of America, in Hartford
county, Connefticut ; 14 miles N.W. of Hartford. Cop-
per-ore lias been found in this place. It contains 1966 in-
habitants; 386 miles from Wadiiiigton.

SIMSIA, in Botany, fo called by Mr. Brown, is a jnft
tribute to the botanical learning and (l<ill of Dr. John Sims,
F.R.S. and F.L.S. the continuator, fince the fourteenth
volume, of the popular and very uleful Botanical Magazine,
of the late Mr. William Clrtis ; fee that article. — Brown
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 152. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 3C7.
— Clafs and order, Tetrandrla Manogynia. Nat. Ord. Pnt-
teacete, Jud. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, unlefs the corolla be taken for
fuch. Cor. Petals four, inferior, linear-oblong, equal, de-
ciduous ; reflexed at the extremity. Ncilary none. Stam.
Filaments four, awl-fliaped, prominent, iuferted into the
dilk of each petal ; anthers roundifli, cohering, fo that the
adjoining lobes of each make one common cell, at length
feparating. Pijl. Gcrmen fuperior, obovate ; dyle cylin-
drical ; digma dilated, concave. Peru. Nut inverfely co-
nical, of one cell, naked.

EIT. Ch. Petals fonr, equal, reflexed, without neftari-
ferous glands. Stamens prominent. Anthers cohering,
tlieir adjoining lobes making a common cell. Stigma di-
lated, concave. Nut inverfely conical.

A New Holland genus of finooth (hrubs, of humble
growth. Leaves alternate, thread-fhaped, forked ; their
footflalis dilated at the bafe. Floiuers fmall, yellow, fmooth,
compofing fmall, globofe, terminal heads, difpofed either
in cinders or panicles, with or without a Ihort common in-
voluerum, and with a minute IraClea under each flower. Tw o
fpecies only are mentioned.

1. S. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Simfia. — Heads naked,
molUy folitary on eacli branch of the panicle, accompanied
by fmall partial braftea^^. — Found by Mr. Brown, on dony
fides of hills, in Lewin's land, on the fouth coad of New
Holland.

2. S. anelhifolia. Fennel-leaved Simfia. — Heads nume-
rous in each panicle, and about as long as its partial
branches, accompanied by imbricated involucral leaves. —
Gathered by Mr. Brown, on the fandy fea-(hores of the
fame country.

SIMSKALA, Ofter and IVePr, in Geography, two fmall
iflands in the Baltic, E. of Aland, about four miles apart.
N. lat. 60° 21'. E. long. 20- 8'.

SIMSON, RoBEiiT, in Biography, was born in the year
1687, of a very refpedable family, in the county of Lanark.
He was educated in the univerfity of Glafgow, where he
made great progrefs in his dudies, and acquired in every
branch of fcience a large dock of information, which, il it
had never been greatly augmented afterwards, would have
done great credit to any profeflional man. He became, at
an early period, an adept in what was denominated the phi-
lofophy and theology of the fcliools, and was able to fupply
with great credit the place of a fick relation in the clafs of
Oriental languages. While lie was purfuing a courfe ol
theology, as preparatory to liis entering into orders, mathe-
raalics took hold of his fancy, and he would, in after-life,

fay

SIMSON.

fay that he amufed himfelf in his favourite purfuit, vsrhile
he was aftually preparing his exercilcs for the divinity hall.
When fatigued with fpeculations, in which he could not
meet with certainty to reward his labours, he relieved his
mind, ardent in the purfuit of truth, by turning to mathe-
matics, with which he never failed to meet with what would
fatisfy and refrefli him. For a long time he rellritted him-
felf to a very moderate ufe of the cordial, fearing that he
Ihould foon exhauft the ftock which fo limited and abftraft
a fcience was capable of yielding ; at length, however, his
fears were difTipated on this head, for he found that the
more he learned, and the farther he advanced, the more
there was to learn, and a dill wider field opened to his view.
He accordingly determined to make the mathematics the
profeffion of his life, and gave himfelf up to the ftudy with-
out referve. It is faid, that his original incitement to this
fcience as a treat, as fomething to pleafe and refrefli the
mind in the midft of feverer tallis, gave a particular turn to
his mathematical purfuits, from which he could never deviate.
He devoted himfelf chiefly to the ancient method of pure
geometry, and felt a decided diflike to the Cartefian method
of fubilituting fymbols for the operations of the mind, and
ftill lefs was he wilHng to admit fymbols for the objefts of
difcuflion, for lines, furfaces, folids, and their afteftions.
He was rather difpofed in the folution of an algebraical
problem, where quantity alone is to be confidered, to fub-
ilitute figure and its afFeftions for the algebraical fymbols,
and to convert the algebraic formula into an analogous geo-
metrical theorem. In fo little refpcft did he come at laft
to confider algebraic analyfis, as to denominate it a mere
mechanical knack, in which he would fay we proceed with-
out ideas of any kind, and retain a refult without meaning,
and therefore without any convidlion of its truth.

About the age of twenty-five Dr. Simfon was chofen
profeflor of mathematics in the univerfity of Glafgow. He
immediately went to London, and there formed an ac-
quaintance with the moil eminent men who at that time
flourifhed in the metropolis. Among thefe was the cele-
brated Halley, of whom he always fpoke with the moil
marked refpeft, faying that he had more acute penetration,
and the moll juft talte in that fcience, of any man he had
ever known. Dr. Simfon alfo admired the malterly fteps
which fir liaac Newton was accuftnmed to take in his in-
veftigations, and his manner of fubftitnting geometrical
figures for the quantities which are obferved in the pheno-
mena of nature. He was accullomed to fay, that the 39th
propofition of the firit book of the Principia, was the moil
important propofilion that had ever been exhibited to the
phyfico-mathematical philofopher, and he ufed to illuilrate
to the higher clafles of his pupils, the fuperiority of the
geometrical over the algebraic analyfis, by comparing the
folution given by Newton, of the inverfe problem of cen-
tripetal forces, in the 42d propofition of that book, with
the one given by John Bernouilli, in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, for the year 1713.

Returning to his mathematical chair, Dr. Simfon dif-
charged the duties of a profeiibr, for more than half a cen-
tury, with great honour to the nmiverfity and to himfelf.
It is fcarcely neceffary to add, that in his ledlures he always
made ufe of the geometry of Euclid, in preference to thofe
works which he thought leaned too much to analyfis. His
method of teaching was fimple and perfpicuous, his elocu^
tion clear, and his manner eafy and impreffive. He uni-
formly engaged the refpecl and affeftion of his pupils.

It was owing to the advice of Dr. Halley that our author
fo early direfted his efforts to the reiloration of the ancient
geoijieters. He had recommended this to him as the moil

certain means of acquiring a high reputation, as well as to
improve his talte, and he prefented him with a copy of
Pappus's Mathematical Colleftions, enriched with his own
notes. The perfpicuity of the ancient geometrical analyfis,
and the elegance of the folutions which it affords, induced
him to engage in an arduous attempt, which was nothing lefs
than the entire recovery of this method. His firft tadt was
the reftoration of Euclid's Porifms, from the fcanty and
mutilated account of that work in a fingle pafiage of Pappus.
He, however, fucceeded, and fo early as 1 7 1 8, feems to
have been in poffeffion of this method of inveitigation, which
was confidered by the eminent geometers of antiquity as their
fureft guide through the intricate labyrinths of the higher
geometry. In 1723 Dr. Simfon gave a fpecimen of this
difcovery in the Philofophical Tranfaftions ; and after that
period he continued with unremitting afliduity to reitore
thofe choice porifms which Euclid had colledled, as of the
moil general ufe in the folution of difficult problems.
Having obtained the objeft of which he was in purfuit, he
turned his thoughts to other works of the ancient geo-
meters, and tlie Porifms of Euchd had now only an occa-
fional fhare of his attention. The Loci Plani of ApoUonius
were the next taflc in which he engaged, and which he com-
pleted in the year 1738 ; but after it was printed he was far
from being fatisfied that he had given the identical propo-
fitions of that ancient geometer ; he withheld the impreffion
feveral years, and it was with extreme reluftance that he
yielded to the entreaties of his mathematical friends in pub -
lifhing the work in 1 746, with fome emendations, in thofe
cafes in which he thought he had deviated the moil from
the author. Anxious for his own reputation, and fearing that
he had not done juilice to ApoUonius, he foon recalled all
the copies that were in the hands of the bookfellers, and
the impreffion lay by him feveral years. He afterwards
revifed and correifted the work, and even then did not, with-
out fome degree of hefitation, allow it to come into the
world as the reiloration of ApoUonius. The work was,
however, received by the public with great approbation ; the
author's name became better known ; and he was now con-
fidered as among the very firft and mod elegant geometers
of the age. He had, previoufly to this, publifhed his Conic
Sedlions, a treatife of uncommon merit, whether confidered
as a complete reftitution of the celebrated work of Apol-
lonius Perga:us, or as an excellent fyilem of this ufeful branch
of mathematics. This work was intended as an introduction,
or preparatory piece, to the ftudy of ApoUonius, and he has
accordingly accommodated it to this purpofe. The inti-
mate acquaintance which Dr. Simfon had now acquired
with aU the original works of the ancient geometers, as well
as with their com.mentators and critics, encouraged him to
hope that he ihould be able to rellore to its original itate
that molt ufeful of them all, the Elements of Euclid, and
under the impreffion of this idea, he began ferioufly to make
preparation for a new and more perfetl edition. The errors
which had crept into this celebrated work appeared to re-
qi;ire the mofl careful efforts for their extirpation ; and the
data alfo, which were in like manner the introduftion to tiie
whole art of geometrical inveitigation, feemed to call for the
nobleft exertions of a real mailer in the fcience. The data
of Euclid have fortunately been preferved, but the work
was neglected, and the few ancient copies, which amount only
to three or four, are faid to be wretchedly mutilated and er-
roneous. It had, however, been rellored, with fome degree
of fuccefs, by previous authors ; but Dr. Simfon's view of
the whole analytical fyilem pointed out to him many parts
which ftill required amendment. He therefore made its
reftitution a joint talk with that of the Elements, and all

lovers

S 1 M

lovers of geometry are ready gratefully t<) acknowledge
their obligations to him for his edition, which contains the
Elements and the Data, and which has gone through many
impreffions in quarto and oftavo, in the Latin and Englifh
languages.

Another work on which Dr. Simfon beftowed great labour

SIN

Syria, fituated on a plain two leagues N. of mount Libanus,
and eight leagues S.S.E. of Antaradus, and li league S.
of the tiver Kcr. Strabo fays that it was inhabited by the
Zemaritcs. Ptolemy places it between the moutii of the
rivers Eleuthorus and Orthofia.

SIN, the kingdoms of Laos and Camboja, an extenfive

and pains, was the Scftio Determinata of ApoUonius, which, country of India, on the other fide of the Ganges, according
though begun early, was not given to the world till after his to Ptolemy

death, when it was printed with the work on Porifms of
Euclid, at the expence of the late carl Stanhope, who
was himfelf deeply read in riathematics, and who for many
years had kept up a conllant correfpondence with Dr. Sim-
fon ; and at the death of tlie profellor, in 176S, the nobk
lord engaged Mr. Clow, profellor of logic in the univerfity
of Glafgow, to whofe care he had left all his papers, to
make a leleftion of fuch as might ferve to fapport and ex-
tend his well-earned reputation as the reftorer of ancient
geometry.

" The life of a literary man," fays his biographer, "
Seldom marked with much vari''ty ; and a mathematician im-
merfed in itudy, is more ab(lrafli.d, perhaps, than any other
perfon from the ordinary occurrences of life, and even the
ordinary topics of converfation. Such was the cafe with
Dr. Simfon. As he never entered into the marriage ftate,
and had no occafion for the commodious houfe in the uni-
verfity, to which as profedbr he was entitled, he contented
himfelf with chambers, fpacious enough for his own accom-
modation, and for containing his large, but well-feledled,
coUeAion of books, but without any decoration, or even
convenient furniture. His official fervant acted as valet,
footman, and bed-maker ; and as this retirement was en-
tirely devoted to lludy, he entertained no company at his
chambers, but on occafions, when he wifhed to fee his
friends, he repaired to a neighbouring houfe, where an apart-
ment was kept facred to him and his guefts. He enjoyed a
long courfe of uninterrupted health, but towards the clofe
of life he fuffered from acute difeafe, which obliged him to
employ an alTillant in his profelTional labours. He died iu
1768, at the age of 81, leaving to the univerfity his valuable
library, which is now kept apart from the red of the books-
It is itill regarded as the moll complete coUedlion of mathe-
matical works and maiiufcripts in the kingdom, many of
them being rendered doubly valuable by the addition of
Dr. Simfon's notes. It is open for the public benefit, but
the ufe of it is limited by particular rules and reftrictions.
Dr. Simfon was of a good itature, and he had a fine counte-
nance, and even in his old age he retained much graceful-
nefs and dignity of manner. He was naturally difpofed to
cheerfulnefs ; and though he feldom made tlie lirll advances
towards acquaintance, he always behaved with great affa-
bility to ftrangcrs." See Dr. William Trail's Account of
the Life and Writings of Dr. Simfon.

SIMULACRUM, among the Romans. See Idol and
Idolatry.

SIMULATION, in Ethics, is making a thing appear
which does not exiil ; and thus it is dillinguinied from tl'iffl-
mulatioii, which is keeping that which exifts from appear-
ing. Set DlSSLMHLATION.

SIMULCANDY, m Geography, a town of Bengal;
60 miles N.E of Pucculoe.

SIMULYA, a town of Bengal; 25 miles N.N.E. of
Dacca.

SIMUS, in Ichthyology, the name ufed by fome authors
for the nafus, or nafc, a fifh common in the large rivers in
Germany, and fomewhat rcfembling our chub, and in fome
refpetts our ommon rudd.

SIMYRA, SirMUAll, '\a ^incimt Geography, a town of
Vol. XXXII.

Si.v, or Zin, a city and defart S. of the Holy Land, in
Arabia Petraja : this gave name to the wildernefs of Sin.
The fcripturc diilinguiflies two cities and two defarts of
Sin ; one is written |>D, Sin, with a famech, and the other
^'if, tzin, with a tzade. The firft was near Egypt and the
Red fea. The Ifraclites, in their march, entered tlie wilder-
nefs of Sin immediately after they had palled the fea, be-
tween Elim and Sinai. (Exod. xvi. I. andxvii. I.) Here the
manna defcended upon them. The other Sin was fouth of Pa-
leftine, but towards the Dead fea. Kalefh was in the defart
of Zin (Deut. xxii. 51.) ; from this wildernefs they fent
out the fpies. Here Mofes and Aaron offended the Lord,
at tlie waters of ftrife. ( Numb. xiii. 21.) The land of Ca-
naan, and the tribe of Judah, had the defart of Zin, or Zina,
for their fouthern limit. Numb, xxvii. 14. xxxiv. 3,
Jo(h. }tv. 3.

Sin, in Theology, denotes want of conformity to the lavr
of God, given as a rule to the reafonable creature, and fo
far as any creature is capable of conforming to it, in the
things which that law requires, or the tranfgreflion of that
law in thofe things which it forbids ; and under this de-
finition are comprehended both the fins of omijfion and fins
of commijfton.

Plato defines fin to be fomething void, both of number
and meafure : by way of contradiclion to virtue, which he
makes to confill in mufical numbers, &c. See Virtue,
and Rhythmus.

Accordingly, Suarez obferves, that an aftion becomes
finful, by its wanting a due commenfuration ; for as every
thing meafured refers to fome rule, from which, if it de-
viate, it becomes incommenlurate ; and as the rule of man'i
will is the law of God, fo, &c. Suarez adds, that all evil
aftions are prohibited by fome divine law ; and that tiiis is
required to the pcrfedtion of tlie divine providence.

Simplicius, and after him the fchoolmen, allcrt, that evil
is not any pofitive tiling, contrary to good ; but a mere
defeft and accident.

Sins are dillinguifhed into original and adual.
Sin, Original, has been divided by fome divines into inhe-
rent and imputed : the former term is ufed to denote that
corruption or degeneracy of nature, which is faid to be pro-
pagated by the laws of generation from the firll man to
all his offspring, by reafoii of which man is utterly indif-
pofed, difabled, and madeoppofite unto all that is fpiritiially
good, and wholly inclined to all evil, and that continually.
Hence, it is laid, proceed all attual tranlgreffions. The
general caufe and ground of this propagation of a finful
nature, are referred originally to man's common intcieil iu
the guilt or coiidenination of Adam's firft fin ; but the man-
ner in which thin hereditary corruption is conveyed, \% not
particularly explained, though iume have fuppofed that it
may refult from the conftitutiun of the body, and the de-
pendence of the mind upon it.

Father Malebranclie accounts for it from natural caufes
thus : men at this day retain, in the brain, all the traces
and imprcfiions of their firll parents. For all anim.ils pro-
duce their like, and with like traces in the brain ; whence
it is that animals of the lame kind have the fame fympa-
thies and antipathies, and do the lame tilings on the fame
5 £ occafioni ;

SIN.

occalions ; and our lirft parents, after their tranfgrefliGn,
receired fuch deep traces in the brain, by the impreffion of
fenfible objefts, that it was very poffible they might com-
municate them to their children.

Now, as it is necellary, according to the order eftabhfhed
by nature, that the thoughts of the foul be conformable to
the traces in the brain ; it may be faid, that as foon as we
are formed in the womb, we are infefted with the corruption
of our parents : fur having traces in the brain like thofe of
the perfons who gave us being, it is neceffary v/e have the
fame thoughts, and the fame inclinations, with regard to
fenfible objefts. Thus, of courfe, we mult be born with
concupifcence and original fin. With concupifcence, if
that be nothing but the natural effort the traces of the
brain make on the mind to attach it to fenfible things ; and
with original fin, if that be nothing but the prevalency
of concupifcence ; nothing, in reality, but thefe effects con-
Cdered as viftorious, and as mafters of the mind and heart
of the child.

Imputed original fill denotes that guilt or obligation to
puniftiment, to which all the pollerity of Adam are fubjeft,
by the imputation of his tranfgreflion. This is called the
guilt of Adam's firll fia, in which the finfulnefs of that
Itate into which man fell is faid partly to confift ; and it is
denominated or/f/«a/ fin, in order to dillinguifh it from aflual
fin, or perional guilt. This doftvine of imputed guilt has
been explained and vindicated by fuppofing a covenant made
with Adam, (called by divines the " covenant of works,"
fee Covenant,) as a public perfon, not for hiinlclf only,
but for his polterity, in confequcnce of which he became
the federal head, furety, or reprefentative of all mankind ;
and they defcending from him by ordinary generation, finned
in him, and fell with him, in his firft tranfgreflion. It has
been debated, how far the imputation of Adam's fin reaches :
fome have maintained, that it extends to final condemnation,
and eternal milery : others have fuggelted, that the fin of
Adam has fubjefted his pofterity to an utter extinftion of
being ; fo that all, who die in their infancy, fall into a ilate
of annihilation, excepting thofe who are the feed of God's
people, who, by virtue of the blellings of the covenant made
with Abraham, and the promife to the feed of the righte-
ous, (hall, through the grace and power of Chrift, obtain
a part in a happy refurreftion, in which other infants fhall
have no fhare.

It feems bed to acknowledge, fays Dr. Doddridge, that
we know nothing certain concerning tlie ilate of infants,
and therefore can adert nothing pofitively ; but that they
are in the hands of a merciful God, who, as he cannot con-
fiftently with juftice and truth give them a fenfe of guilt
for an aftion they never committed, fo probably will not
hold their fouls in being merely tc make them fenfible of
pain for the guilt of a remote anceltor, their exiftence in a
Itate of everlafting infenfibility (which was Dr. Ridgley'i
fcheme) feems hardly intelligible ; we muft. therefore, either
fall in with the above-mentioned hypothefis, or fuppofe
them all to have a part in the relurrettion to glory, which
feems to put them all on a level, without a due dilfinftion
in favour of the feed of behevers ; or elfe muft fuppofe they
go through fome new Hate of trial, concerning which the
Scripture is wholly filent.

Such is the doftrine of original fin, both inherent and im-
puted, as fome divines, eminent as Tcholars and theologians,
have Itated it. In proof of the degeneracy or depravity of
human nature, they have appealed to obfervation and ex-
perience, and they have referred to a variety of texts of
fcripture, in which, according to their ideas of them, it is
either implied er expreffed. To thofe who objefi, that the

phenomenon of univerfal corruption in adult perfons may
be accounted for by imitation, and to want of early inftruc-
tion, reltraint, and difciphne, they reply, that the fcrip-
tures feem to trace it to a higher fource, and that children
often manifeft propenfities towards thofe vices of which
they have feen no examples ; to which it is added, that
there are many examples of eminent virtue in the world, and
yet they are not fo frequently, or fo eafily imitated, as thofe
of a vicious nature, which plainly (hews a bias on the mind
towards vice. Hence they fay, Pagans themfelves, who
have been molt diftinguifhed by \heir iludy of human nature,
have acknowledged, in itrong terms, an inward depravation
and corruption adding a difproportionate force to evil ex-
amples, and rendering the mind averfe to good. Thofe
who maintain, that the fin of Adam is imputed to all who
defcended from him in the way of ordinary generation,
allege, in proof of this opinion, that we are all born with fuch
conllitutions as will produce fome evil inclinations, which
we probably (hould not have had in our original ftate ;
which evil inclinations are reprefented in fcripture as derived
from our parents, and therefore may be ultimately traced
up to the firlt finful parents from whom we deicended ;
— that infants are plainly liable to difeafes and death, though
they have not committed any perfonal tranfgreflion, which,
while they cannot know the law, it feems imp')flible they
(hould be capable of, (Rom. v. 12 — 14.) ; — that the feeds
of difeafes and death were undoubtedly derived to children
from their immediate parents, and from them may be traced
up to the firll difeafed and mortal parent, i. e. Adam ; —
that the fcripture teaches us to confider Adam as having
brought a fentcnce of death upon his whole race, and ex-
prefsly fays, that many were conjlitutedfumers, i. e. on ac-
count of it are treated as fuch, (i Cor. xv. 22. Rom. v.
12 — 19) ; — that the fin of Adam brought upon himfelf de-
praved inchnations, an impaired conltitutioii, and at length
death : — and there is no reafon to behcve, that if man had
continued in a ftate of innocence, his offspring would have
been thus corrupt, and thus calamitous from their birth.
Hence, it has been inferred, that the covenant was made
with Adam, not only for himfelf, but in fome meafure for
his pofterity ; fo that he was to be confidered as the great
head and reprefentative of all that were to defceud from
him.

On the other hand, many divines, no lefs eminent as
fcholars and theologians, than thofe whofe fentiments we
have already itated, have difputed the vahdity of the argu-
ments alleged in proof of the doftrine of original (in ;
and whilft fome of them have difowned the doctrine in toto,
as irrational and unfcriptural, others have allowed that part
of it which comprehends the depravity of the human
fpecies, but have rejected the imputation of Adam's fin to
his pofterity. Accordingly Limborch, rejecting and refut-
ing the imputation of Adam's fin, acknowledges, that men
are now born lefs pure than Adam was created, and with a
certain inclination to fin ; but this inclination cannot pro-
perly be called fin, or a habit of fin propagated to them from
Adam ; but merely an inclination to efteem and purfue
what is agreeable to the fle(h, arifing from the bodily con-
ilitution tranfmitted to them by their parents. Inclinations
and appetites of this kind, being moit agreeable to the
fle(h, are contrary to the divine will, as God by prohibit-
ing them tries the readinefs of our obedience, and of courfe
thefe inchnations are inchnations to fin. But, if it be a/ked,
fays this author, whether there be in human nature a cer-
tain original corruption or habit of fin propagated from
Adam to his pofterity, which may truly and properly be
called fin, by which the underftanding, and will, and all the

affedtions

SIN.

afTeftions are fo depraved, that they are iBclined only to
evil, and that all mankind are by nature fubjeft to the
wrath of God, fuch kind of corruption is confiltent nei-
ther with fcripture nor with right reafon. The fcripture,
he fays, teaches no fuch doftrine, as tliat which charges in-
fants with a moral corruption, that is truly and properly fin.
(See Deut. i. 39. Jonah, iv. 11. Romans, ix. II.) Our
Saviour recommends it to his difciples to be as little children.
(See alfo i Cor. xiv. 20.) This notion, fays Limborch, is
contrary to the jaltice of God, who would not punilh men
with this moral corruption, from which all aftual fins pro-
ceed, and which leads to future perdition and miiery. God
cannot be the author of fin. Befides, it cannot be con-
ceived, how this fin can be propagated ; it cannot belong
to the mind, which proceeds immediately from God, nor
can it exift in the body, which is incapable of fin. But as
difeafes may be propngatcd, fo may a peculiar tempera-
ment or conltitution, and together with this an inclina-
tion to certain objefts, which, immoderately indulged, may
become finful, but is not finful in itfelf. Moreover, no
fin is liable to punifiiment, which is involuntary ; but ori-
ginal corruption is involuntary. Limborch explains many
texts, and refutes many arguments urged by the advocates
of original fin. Another writer, (Dr. Taylor,) who has
taken a lead in this controverfy, on the fame fide of the
quedion, proceeds, in the examination of the doftrine of
original fin, upon the fame plan with Dr. Clarke, in his
" Scripture Doftriiie of the Trinity," by citing and explain-
ing all thofe paflages of fcripture which exprefsly fpeak of
the confequences of the firit tranfgreffion. He obferves,
that the confequences of the firft tranfgreffion are fpoken of
certainly and plainly but five times in the whole bible, twice
in the Old, and thrice in the New Tellament. The firit
pailage is Gen. ii. 17. In this paflage, he fays, death is op-
pofed to hfe, and muft be fo underilood. But not one w«rd
occurs in this text relating to Adam's pofterity. 2. The con-
fequences of the tranfgreffion of Adam and Eve are related
in Gen. iii. from the 7th verfe to the end of the chapter.
The natural confequences were fhame and fear, the common
effefts of guilt, which was perfonal, and could belong only
to themfelves. The judicial confequences pertained either
to the ferpent, the woman, or the man. As far as they
relate to the man, Adam became obnoxious 10 death,
which, as our author conceives, was death in law, or eternal
death ; and if the law had been immediately executed, his
pofterity then included in his loins mull have been extinft.
But it is alleged, that there is not a word of a curfe upon
the fouls of our firft parents, ;. e. upon the powers of their
minds ; nor do^s the leaft intimation occur with refpeA
to any other death, befides that difiolution which all man-
kind undergo, when they ceafe to live in this world. It is
alfo obferved, that we, their pofterity, arc in faft fubjeft to
the fame affliftions and mortality here inflifted by fentence
upon our firft parents ; but they are not inflifted as punifh-
mcnts for their fin, becaufe punifliment includes guilt ; but
we neither are, nor in the nature of things could be, guilty
of their fin. We may fufler by their fin, and aftually do
fuffer by it ; but we are iiot pnnilhed for their fin, bccaufe
we are not guilty of it ; and this fuffering is eventually a
good. Accordingly it appears evident in our world, that
the increafe of natural evil (at leaft in fome degree) is the
lellening of moral evil.

3. The third text occurs in the New Teftament, vi%.
I Cor. XV. 21, 22. Here it is faid, the death from which
all mankind Ihall be relealed at the refurreftion, is the
only death that came upon all men in confequence of Adam's
/in > that as all men die, all men are mortal ; all lofc their

life in Adam, and from him our mortality commences ; and
it is equally undeniable, that by Chrift came the refurreftion
of the dead. From this place we cannot conclude, fays
our author, that any other evil or death came upon man-
kind in confequence of Adam's firft tranfgreffion, befides
that death from which all mankind ftiall be dehvered at the
refurreftion, whatever that death be.

4. The moft difficult padage is that which occurs in
Rom. v. 12— 19. A popular advocate of the doftrine of
original fin (Dr. Watts) thinks, that Adam's being a federal
head, and our deriving a finful nature from him, may be col-
lefted from this text. In this pailage our author apprehends
that the apoftle is fpeaking of that death wliich takes place
with regard to all mankind, when the prefent life is extin-
guilhed ; and that by judgment to condemnation, or a judi-
cial aft of condemnation, the apoftle means the being ad-
judged to the fore-mentioned death. The words " as by
one man's dilobedience many were made finuers," are (fays
Dr. Taylor) of the fame fignification witli thofe in the fore-
going verfe, " as by the offence of one judgment came upon
all men to condemnation ;" and therefore they mean nothing
more nor lefsthan that by one man's difobedience, the many,
that is, mankind, were made fubjeft to death by the judi-
cial aft of God. The apoftle, being a Jew, was well ac-
quainted with the idiom of the Hebrew language ; and ac-
cording to that language, "being made finners"may very well
fignify being adjudged or condemned to death. (See Exod.
xxii. 9. Deut. XXV. i. i Kings, viii. 32. Job,ix.20. x. 2.
xxxii. 3. xxxiv. 17. xl. 8. Pf. xxxvii. 33. xciv. 21. Prov.
xvii. 15. H. 1. 9. liv. 17.) In the Greek text it is not
tysvovTO, became finners, but ^al!-a6r;<rxv, were confliluted
finners ; viz. by the will and appointment of the judge.
Befidef, it is here exprefsly faid, that the many, i. r. man-
kind, are made finners, not by their own difobedience, but
by the difobedience of another man ; and therefore they
can be finners in no other way than as they are fufferers.
Upon the whole our author thinks it plain, that " by one
man's difobedience many were made finners," means that by
Adam's offence, the many, /. c. mankind, were made fub-
jeft to death by the judgment of God. In this pafljge there
is an etident contraft or comparifon between lomething
which Adam did and its confequences, and fomething
which Chrift did and the confequences of that : by the
former the many, /". e. all men, are brought into condemna-
tion ; and by the latter, all men arejuftified unto life. The
whole of the apoftle's argument and aftcrtion are fnppofed
by our author to reft upon two principles ; vi-i. that it is
by the one offence of Adam that death pafled upon all men,
and not by their own perfonal fins ; and again, that it i« by
the obedience of one, or the one aft of Chrift'a obedience,
(in his fuflerings and death upon thecrofs,) that all men are
juftified unto life, and not by their own perfonal rightoouf-
ncfs. He adds, that throughout the whole paragraph, the
apoftle fays nothing of any federal relations or traniaftion*
either on the part of Adam or Chrift, nor of our deriving a
finful nature from Adam.

5. The text I Tim. ii. 14. declares a faft, with regard t»
Eve, which needs no explanation.

Dr. T;ivl<ir, in the leconii part of his book, proceed* to
examine other pafl.iges of fcripture, which fome divim s have
applied to original fin. We ftiall here feleft two or three of
the principal, that our readers may be able to torm a ludg-
meiit for themlelves ; one is Ephef. ii. y. " and were by na-
ture the children of wrath even as others." Tlie apollle, our
author apprehends cannot mean that they were liable to di-
vine wrath or punifhment by that nature which they
brought into the world at their birth. I'or tliiii nature,
J E 2 whatever

SIN.

whatever infirmities belong to it, is no other than God's own
work or gift ; and he thinks, that to afTert that the nature
which God gives us is the hateful objeft of his wrath, is little
lefs than blafphemy againft our good and bountiful Creator.
In his addrefs to the Ephefians, the apoftle is not fpeaking
of their nature, or the natural conftitution of their fouls
and bodies as they came into the world, but evidently of the
vicious courfe of life they had led among the Gentiles.
Nature frequently fignifies an acquired nature, which men
bring upon themfelves by contrafling either good or bad
habits. Befides, by nature may here fignify really, properly,
truly ; for nxm, children, ftriftly fignify the genuine children
of parents by natural generation ; and figuratively the word
denotes relation to a perfon or thing by way of friendfhip,
regard, imitation, obligation, &c.; fo that " children of
wrath" are thofe who are related to wrath, or liable to re-
jeftion or punithment. The Ephefians, as the apoftle tells
them, were Ttuva ?v3-!i, natural genuine children of wrath,
not by natural birth, or the natural conftitution of their
bodies or fouls, but they were related to wrath in the higheft
and flrifteft fenfe, with regard to fin and difobedience : —
Nature, in a metaphorical expreffion, fignifying that they
were really and truly children of wrath, i. e. flood in the
ftrifteft and clofeft relation to fuffering.

Another pallage, fometimes referred to in conneftion vrith
this fubjeft, viz. Rom. viii. 7, 8, contains not fo much
as a fingle word that can carry our minds to Adam, or any
confequences of his fin upon us.

Gen. vi. 5. exprefles the univcrfal wickednefs of the old
world, but does not fo much as intimate that our nature is
corrupted in Adam ; for the hiftorian doth not charge their
fin in any way upon Adam, but upon themfelves : and be-
fides, Noah is exempted out of the number of the corrupt
and profligate ; but this could not have been the cafe if the
alleged text is a good proof that by Adam's tranfgrefiion
the nature of all mankind is corrupted.

Another text, which has been confidered as of great im-
portance in tliis controverfy, is Pf. li. 5, 6. " I was
fhapen in miquity, and in fin did my mother conceive
me." The word iri'^'^^ri' which we tranflate Jhapen,
fignifies, fays our author, to bring forth or bear. (If.
li. 2. Prov. viii. 24, 25.) Again, the word 'jriOH'
conceived me, properly fignifies tvarmid me ; and the expref-
fion conveys the idea, not of his being conceived, but
warmed, cherifhed, or nurfed by his mother, after he was
born. Accordingly, the verfe is thus tranfiated, " Behold,
I was born in iniquity, and in fin did my mother nurfe me ;"
which has no reference to the original formation of his con-
ftitution, but is a periphrafis for his being a finner from the
womb, and is as much as to fay, in plain language, I am a
great finner ; or I have contracted habits of fin. This, it is
faid, is a fcriptural way of aggravating wickednefs. (See
Pf. Iviii. 3. Ifaiah, xlviii. 8. ) In the whole pfalm there
is not one word about Adam, or the efFefts of his tranfgref-
fion upon us. The pfalmift is charging himfelf with his
own fin. But if the words be taken in the literal fenfe of
our verfion, then it is manifeft that he chargeth not himfelf
with his fin and wickednefs, but fome other perfon. But
our limits will not allow of our enlarging farther in this
way.

Dr. Taylor proceeds, in part iii. of his book, to examine
and anfwer objections. It is aflced, i. Are we not in worfe
moral circumftances than Adam was ? If by moral circum-
Itances be meant the ftate of reafon and virtue in the world,
it is certain, that fince Adam's firft tranfgreffion, this has
become very different from a ftate of innocence. But this
is not the fault of human nature, no more than Adam'3 fin

was the fault of his nature, but occafioned, a9 his tranf-
grefiion was, by the abufe of it. If by moral circumftances
be meant the provifion and means which God has furnilhed
for our fpiritual improvement, the apoftle to the Romans
exprefsly affirms, that in or by Jefus Chrift, God hath given
us an abundance of grace. But if by moral circumftances
be meant moral abilities, or mental powers, our author fug-
gefts, that there is no ground in revelation for exalting the
nature of Adam to fuch a degree of purity and ftrength
as fome divines have raifed it, when they affirm, that all his
faculties were perfeft, and entirely devoted to the love and
obedience of his creator. The fequel of his hiftory feem$
to be inconfiftent with this notion.

It is laid that man was made in the image of God ;
but can this be affirmed of his pofterity ? The image of
God muft be underftood either of the rational faculties of
his mind, or the dominion he had over the inferior crea-
tures, by which he bore the neareft refemblance to God of
any beings in this world ; and not, as Dr. Taylor conceives,
of hohnefs and righteoufnefs, which is a right ufe of our
fpiritual faculties; becaufe fuch an ufe of them could not be
till after they were created ; and this writer is of opinion,
that original righteoufnefs is as far from truth as original fin ;
and that to talk of our wanting that righteoufnefs in which
Adam was created, is to talk of nothing we want. Two
texts, w'z. Rom. ii. 14, 15, and Ecclcf. vii. 29, are cited by
the Aftembly of Divines in their larger Catechifm, to prove,
that our firft parents had the law of God written in their
hearts, and power to fulfil it, in oppofition to their pof-
terity, who want that rig^hteoufnefs in which they are fup-
pofed to have been created, and whofe nature is corrupted to
a lamentable degree : but if thele texts ipeak not of our
firft parents, but of their pofterity, and of the moft cor-
rupt part of their pofterity too, it muft be true, and the
truth is very important, " that by nature we have the law
of God written in our hearts, and power to fulfil it," as
well as they ; and are equally bound to be thankful to God
for our being, and to glorify him by it.

We have already ipoken of that moral taint and in-
feftion, which we are laid to have derived from Adam; and
in confequence of which we have a natural propenfity to fin.
This taint or infeftion muft exift either in the body or the
foul. In the foul, which immediately proceeds from God,
it cannot exift ; nor in the body, which, in a ftate feparate
from the foul, is inaftive mstter, which in itfelf,neither is nor
can be the fubjeft of moral good and evil. But fuch an
infeftion, wherefoever it exifts, or howfoever it is propa-
gated, cannot be derived from Adam to every human
being, independently of the will and operation of God ;
and to aflert, that it is by his will and operation, is evi-
dently to make him the author of the pollution. It is main-
tained, that by propagation it is not polfible for parents to
communicate vice ; which is always the faulty choice of a
perfon's own will, otherwife it is not vice. Children, it has
been faid, be^in very foon to fin, and how can this faft be
accounted for but upon the fcheme of original fin ; namely,
that it is infufed into their nature ? To this objeftion it has
been replied, that th^ir early fin is owing to the early want of
inftruftion and difciphne. Another objeftion, which is
ftrongly urged by the advocates of original fin, is this :
Adam was a common or federal head and reprefentative of
all his pofterity, and confequently all his offspring finned in
him, as their root ; juft as Levi is faid to pay tithes in
Abraham (Heb. vii. 9.) and as the branches mufl be mo-
rally corrupt, if the root be in that ftate. (Rom. xi. 16.)
To the arguments deduced from the firft of thefe paftages it
has been rephed, that neither the cafe of Abraham and

Levi,

I

SIN.

Levi, nor the apoftle's argviment grounded upon it, have
any manner of relation to partaking in guilt, or contrafting
moral corruption : and it is alleged, that the inference dedu-
cible from the fecond pafl'age would bevery juft, if the apoftle
were here fpeaking of moral holinefs, of holinefs, as it is a
quality or principle in the mind : whereas the liohnefs here
mentioned is faid to be that external, relative holinefs which
is frequently attributed to the whole nation of the Jews, as
they were God's peculiar church and people. The notion
of a federal head or reprefentative of moral conduft, a re-
prefentativc, the guilt of whofe aftions (hall be imputed
to us, and whofe fin (hall corrupt and debauch our minds,
and this reprefentative appointed by God himfeif, is, as its
opponents maintain, not only without foundation in fcrip-
ture, but in itfelf a great abfurdity. Indeed, the external
circumftances of polterity may be affefted by the bad con-
duit of their anceilors. This is frequently affirmed in fcrip-
ture, and certainly holds good in the cafe of Adam and
his pofterity ; and may be a conilitution, juft, wife, and
anfwering very good purpofes. But that any man fhould fo
reprefent me, that when he is guilty, I am to be reputed
guilty, when he tranfgreffeth, I (hall be accountable and
punifliable for his tranfgreflion ; and this before I am born,
and coniequently before I am in any capacity of knowing,
helping, or hindering what he doth ; this, I fay, every one
who ufes his underllanding muft clearly fee is falfe, unrea-
fonable, and altogether inconfiilent with the truth and good-
nefs of God. And, if you pleafe, you may fee him fully
vindicated by the fpirit of truth from all injullice of this
kind in Ezekiel, xviii. 20. where he affirms, " that the foul
that finneth, it fhall die. The fon," however lie may come
under difciphnary vifitations, " (hall not bear the iniquity of
the father ; neither (hall the father bear the iniquity of the
fon ; the righteoufnefs of the righteous (hall be upon him,
and the wickednefs of the wicked (hall be upon him." And
V. 30. " that God will judge every one according to his
ways." It is further alleged, that the imputation of fin,
fo far as to make the pofterity guilty of and chargeable
with the fin of the parent, is no fcriptwral notion. An ailtion,
indeed, is often faid to be imputed, reckoned, or accounted
to a perfon ; but then it is no other than his own aft and deed
which is fo accounted or imputed to him, cither for
righteoufnefs or fin. See Gen. xv. 6. Lev. xvii. 3, 4.

xi. 2. I Sam. xxii. 15.
Pf. xxxii. 2. Pf. cvi. 31.
Rom. v. 13. I Cor. xiii. 5.
Tim.iv. 16. .Tames, ii. 23.

We might here introduce fome arguments for, and fome
objeftions to, the doftrinc of original fin, of a general
nature, if our limits would allow. We can only fugged,
on the part of its advocates, that original fin is neceflary to
account for the being of fin in the world. How comes ic
to pafs, that there is fo much wickednefs in the world, if
our nature be not finful ? — How is it confillent with the
jullice of God, that we fuffer at all on account of Adam's
fin ? Befides, it has been a generally received opinion, that
the fall, corruption, and apoltacy in Adam, have been the
reafon why Clirill came into the world, and gave liimfelf a
ranfom for us. To the queltion concerning regeneration,
which is infilled upon in the New Tellamcnt, why mull
we be born again ? it is replied, bccaufe wc are born in fin.
Our nature in Adam is corrupted, and utterly iiidifpofcd,
difabled, and made oppofite to all that is fpirit n.iUy good,
and wholly inclined to all evil, and that continuallv ; there-
fore we mull be born again, before we can do any thing that
is good and pleafing to God.

Ou the other hand, the oppofera of this doftrinc allege,

Numb, xviii. 26, 27
2Sam. xix. 19. Prov. xxvii
Rom. ii. 26. Rom. iv. 3, &c.
2 Cor. V. 19. Gal. iii. 6. 2

Sam
14,

that it is higlJy injurious to the God of our nature to be-
lieve that our nature is originally corrupted in the manner
which this doftrine fuppofes. To difparage our nature, is,
they fay, to difparage the work and gifts of God. They alfo
fuggeft, that the doftrine of original fin teaches men to trans-
fer their fin to a wrong caufe, to Adam rather tiian to thera-
felves ; and alfo that the doftrine, as it is commonly held,
has a manifell tendency to propagate a notion that they
mull be neceilarily vicious, and lliat it is thus deilruftive of
virtue. They fay, that to reprefent fin as natural, as 3I-
logelher unavoidable, is to embolden men in fin, and to give
not only an excule, but a reafon for finning. They alfo
intimate, that to charge Chriftianity with teaching this
doftrine, is to fink its credibility ; and that it is injurious
in another way, by perplexing the mind, and rendering all
religious principles uncertain. " We are made," as one of
them exprefles it, " finners we know not how, and there-
fore mult be forry for, and repent of, we know not what.
We are made finners in an arbitrary way, and we are
made faints in an arbitrary way : but what is arbitrary can
be brought under no rules." They think that it is not
expt client or defirable to teach children, that tliey are born
chilc; n of wrath, that they came into the world under
God'b curfe, and that their being, as foon as given, is in the
worll and moft deplorable ftate of corruption. Young
people are exhorted to remember their creator ; but how,
it is faid, can they remember him, without the utmolt
horror, who, it is fuppofed, hath given them hfe under fuch
deplorable circumftances ?

We fhall clofe this article with a brief account of the
" Fall of Man," and its confequences, as they have been
flated by difterent divines. Adam was created, as the AfTem-
bly of Divines affirm, after God's own image, in knowledge,
righteoufnefs, and hohnefs, liaving the law of God written
in his heart, and power to fulfil it ; and for proof of this
afiertion, they refer to Gen. ii. 27. Col. iii. 10. Ephef.
iv. 24. Rom. ii. 14, 15. Eccl. vii. 29. This ilate of
moral reftitude, or original righteoufnefs, in which he was
created, is thus dcfcribed by Dr. Watts, " His reafon
was clear, and fenfe, appetite, and paflion were fubjeft to
it, his judgment uncorrupted, his will had an inward, con-
flant, fuperior bias, bent, and propenfity to holinefs and
virtue ; he had an inward inclination to pleafe and honour
God, fupren.e love to his creator, a zeal and defire to (erve
him, a holy fear of ofTendinfr him, with a readincfs to d i nis
will." When Adam finned he loll this moral reftimde;
and not only fo, but his pofterity became morally corrupt.
We have already flated the opn:ion of the opponent; to
the doftrine of original fin, concerning the moral condition
of Adam before his fall. By the advocates of this doftrine,
it is fuither maintained, that a covenant waa made with
Adam, as a public perfon, not for himfeif only, but for his
pofterity ; and therefore all mankind, deicending from liim
by ordinary generation, Cnned in him, and fell with him in
that firll tranlgrelTion. (See Afts, xvii. 26. Gen ii. 16. 17.
compared with Rom. v. 12 — 20. 1 Cor. xv. 21, 22. ) T!.e
Fall, it is faid, brought mankind into a ftate of fin and
inifery. (Rom. v. 12. iii. 13.) And tlic fi 'ulnels of
that (late into which man fell, confilteth in itie guiii of
Adam's firll fin, the want of that righteoufnef^s '11 w'nch
ho was created, and the corrHptioii nf his nature, &c. ( See
Rom. V. 12, 19. Rom. iii. 10. 20. Eph. 11. 1, 2, 3.
Rom. V. 6. viii. 7. 9. Gen. vi. j. James, i. 14, ij.
M.itt. XV. ig.) It is added, that the Fall b.ouirhi upon
mankind the lofs of communion with God, his dilple.^lure,
and curfe ; fo that we are by nature clnldren ol w ..th,
bond-flavcs to Satan, audjultly liable to all punifhrneuts in

thit

S I N

this world, and in that which is to come. See Gen. iii. 8.
10. 34. Eph. ii. 2,3. 2 Tim. ii. 26. Gen. ii. 17. Lam.
iii. 39. Rom. vi. 23. Matt. xxv. 41. 46. Jude, v. 7.

On the other hand, it is alleged, that the language of
man's finfulnefs confiiling in the guilt of Adam's tirll fin
is unfcriptural ; nor, in the nature of things, can our
finfulnefs conlift in the guilt of Adam's firft fin ; becaufe,
as we could not poiFibly commit that aftion in any fenfe,
fo we could not, upon account of it, become obnoxious
to punifhment. If the texts above cited prove that man's
nature by Adam's fin is fo corrupted, that man, 2. e.
men, are utterly indifpofed, difabled, and made oppofite
to all that is fpiritually good, that is, to all moral adions,
pleafing and acceptable to God, and wlioUy and continually
inclined to all manner of wickcdnefs, they would further
prove, that men are no moral agents, and that fin mull be
natural to us, and if natural, necefTary ; and if ncceflary,
with regard to us, it is no fin, with regard to us, or fo far
as we are concerned in it. For a further account of the
ftate of this controverfy, and of the arguments adduced for
and againit the doftrine of original fin, we refer to the
Aflembly's Catechifm ; Watts's Ruin and Recovery ;
Jennings's Vindication, &c. Chandler's Sermons, vol. iv.
Serm. I — 7. Bury-Street Left. vol. i. Limborch Theolog.
lib. iii. c. 4. ^ 1,2. Taylor's Scripture Doctrir:e of Ori-
ginal Sin, in Three Parts, with a Supplement, &c. ed. 4.
Ben Mordecai's Letters, Letter V.

The Romilh cafuifts dillinguilh a8ual fins into mortal ;
which are fuch as make us lofe the grace of God ; and
venial, which alone are pardoned, as being only fins of in-
firmity, not of malice. See Poperv.

Divines are not yet agreed what the fin againfl the Holy
Ghoft is. See Blasphemy aga'mjl the Holy Ghojl.

Sin, Ph'tlofophkal, according to the doftrine of the Jefuits,
is an aftion, or courfe of aftion, that is repugnant to the
diftates of reafon, and yet not ofFenfive to the Deity.

SINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Mar-
giana. Ptolemy. — Alfo, a town of Cappndocia, in the pre-
fefture of Cilicia. Id. — Alfo, a place in the ifle of Lefbos.
Strabo.

SiNA, or Jujliniapolis, a town of Afia, in the Greater
Armenia.

SINAAB, in Geography, a town of Algiers, in the pro-
vince of Tremecen, on the E. fide of the SliellifT; 72 miles
S.W. of Algiers.

SINACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hyrcania.
Ptolemy.

SINADIZAVA, in Geography, a town of Eur pean
Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the Ozma ; 12 miles E. of
Nicopoli.

SINjE, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, accord-
ing to Ptolemy. It appears that their country extended
from Siam into a part of China.

SINAI, Mount, in Geography, a famous mount of Ara-
bia Petrsea, on which God gave the law to Mofes. (Exod.
xix. I. xxiv. 16. xxxi. 18. xxxiv. 2. 4. &c. Levit.
xxv. I. xxvi. 46.) It is fitnated in a kind of peninfnla,
formed by the two arms of the Red fea, one extending
N. called the gulf of Kolfun ; the other extending E. called
the gulf of Elan. The Arabs call mount Sinai by
the name of " Tor," ;. e. the mountain, by way of ex-
cellence ; or " Jebbel Mufa," the mountain of Mofes ;
comprehending a range of mountains which rifes at the
interior extremity of the valley of Fazan, reftrifting the
name of Tor Sinai to that part of the range on which the
convent of St. Catharine ftands ; and diftant about 260
miles from Cairo. The wildernefs of Sinai, wliere the
I

S I N

Ifraelites continued encamped almoft a year, and where
Mofes erefted the tabernacle of the covenant, is confiderablr
elevated above the rell of the country ; the afcent to it is
very craggy, the greater part being cut out of the rock ;
and then you arrive at a large fpace of ground, which is
a plain furrounded on all fides by rocks and emmences,
whofe length is nearly twelve miles. Towards the extre-
mity of this plain, on the north, two high mountains appear,
the highelt of which is called Sinai, the other Horeb.
They are both of a very fteep afcent, and the ground on
which they Hand is mconfiderable, when compared with
their height. Sinai is one-third part higher than the other,
and its afcent more upright and difficult. The Greeks have
cut a flight of fteps up the rock. Pococke reckons 3000 of
thefe fteps to the top of the mountain, or rather bare,
pointed rock. T.vo German miles and a half up the mountain
ftands the convent of St. Catharine. The body of this
monallery is a building 120 feet in length, and almoft as
many in breadth. Before it ftands another fmall building,
in which is the only gate of the convent, and which remains
always (hut, except when the bifhop is there. At other
times, whatever is introduced within the convent, whether
men or provifions, is drawn up by the roof in a bafket, and
with a cord and pulley. The whole building is of hewn
ftone, which, in fuch a defart, muft have been conftruftcd
with great labour and expence. Within the walls is a
fmall mofque for the convenience of the Arabs. This
monailery belongs to Greek monks, who had in former
times only a tower erefted near the burning bufti of Mofes.
But being molcfted by the infults and depredations of the
Arabs, they petitioned the emperor Juftinian to build for
them a ftroiig monaftery for their future fecurity ; and the
emperor is faid to have complied with their requeft. Before
the convent is a large garden, planted with excellent fruit-
trees. According to the account of the Arabs, the monks
enter it by a fubterraneous paflage. Thefe Greek eccle-
fiaftics are not allowed to receive an European vifitor, with-
out an order from the bilhop of mount Sinai, who refides
ordinarily at Cairo. When the biftiop happens to be pre-
fent, the gate is opened, and the convent mull entertain all
the Arabs who come in there ; and this is a grievous
charge on the poor monks, who live merely on alms, and
whofe provifions, which they are obliged to bring from
Cairo, are often ftolen by the way. The Arabs are, in
general, very dangerous neighbours, as they often fire en
the convent from the adjacent rocks ; and ieize the mosks
whenever they find them without the walls of the monailery,
and refufe to releafe them without a confiderable ranfom.

Five hundred fteps above the convent is found an excel-
lent fpring, which fuperftitious perfons have counted mira-
culous, as the mountain is lo high and fo barren. A thoufand
fteps higher ilands a chapel dedicated to the Bleffed Virgin ;
and joo above this, are two other chapels, fiti^ated in a plain,
which the traveller enters by two fmall gates of mafon-work.
Upon this plain are two trees, under which, at high fellivals,
the Arabs are regaled at the expence of the Greeks. Sinai
is held in great veneration, on account of the law which
God gave on this mountain. The whole mountain is a very
remarkable rock of red granite, interfperfed with fpots, to
which foil lias been brought by human labour, or waftied
down by rain, and in which grow almonotrees, figs, and
vines. Mount Horeb ftands W. of Sinai, fo that at fun-
rife the fliadow of Sinai covers Horeb. iSefide the little
fountain at the top of Sinai, there is another at the foot of
Horeb, which fupplies the monaftery of St. Catharine. At
a fmall diftance is Ihewn a ftone, four or five feet high, and
three broad, from which, it is pretended, Mofes caufed the

water

S I N

SIN

water to gulTi out : in this ftone ire twelve holes or
channels, about a foot wide, from which, it is faid, the
water ifi'ued which the Ifraelites drank.
Sinai, Knightt of See Catharine.
SINALOA, in Geography. See Cinaloa.
SI-NAN, a river of Algiers, which joins the Wed-el-
Mailah, about fire miles before it runs into the fea. It glides
in a variety of beautiful windings, and is known by feveral
nannes, according to the remarkable places which they
water. Near the banks of this river, Barbaroffa the Elder
fcattered his treafures when purfucd by the viftorious
Spaniards, and here he made his lalt ineffeftual effort to
retard their progrefs.

SINANELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 22
miles S.W. of Bangalore.

SINAPATINGA, in jincunt Geography, a town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges, in the vicinity of the
river Indus, and one of thofe which belonged to the Cathii,
according to Ptolemy.

SINAPIS, in Botany, a generic name, whofe origin is
loft in the obfcurity of antiquity, which occurs, with flight
variations in its orthography, in the works of Plautus,
Pliny, and Columella. Theophraitus and Diofcorides call
it Iiv>iri. It is alfo met with under the terms a-imTt and
va^u ; TTjt^a Tj 5-iv!cr9a;i ■:ov: wra:, from its pungency affeifting
the eyes. De Theis, much inclined on all occafions to
recur to the Celtic, conjeftures that this word comes from
iVaJ, a general name in that language for all plants allied to
the Radifh. — Linn. Gen. 342. Schreb. 445. Willd. Sp.
PL V. 3. 5^4. Mart. Mill. Di<ft. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 721.
Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 2. 31. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.
125. Tournef. t. 112. Jull'. 238. Lamarck lUuftr.
t. )66. Gsertn. t. 143. — Clafs and order, Tetradynamla
Siliqiinfa. Nat. Ord. S'll'iquofd, or Cruc'iformes, Linn.
Cruc'tferx, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fpreading, divided
into four, linear, concave, channelled leaves, forming a
crofs, deciduous. Cor. cruciform ; of four, rounded, flat,
fpreading, undivided petals, with ereft, linear claws fcarccly
the length of the calyx. Neftarv compofed of four ovate
glands, one on each fide between the fhorter ftamen and the
piftil ; and one on each fide between the longer llamen and
the calyx. Slam. Filaments fix, awl-(haped, creft ; the
two fhorter ones oppofitc ; anthers ered, fpreading, pointed.
Pi//. Gormen fuperior, cylindrical ; ityle the length of the
germen, and height of the ilamens ; fligma capitate, undi-
vided. Perk. Pod oblonp-, inflated unequally at the lower
part, rough, of two cells and two valves ; partition gene-
rally twice a^ long as the valves, large, compielled. Seeds
numerou", globular.

Obf. Sinapii diS'ers principally from Brajica in having a
fpreading calyx, and the claws ol the petals erecl. Crantz
unites this genus with R/iphanus.

Eff. Ch. Calyx widely Ipreading. Claws of the petals
ftraight. Neftariferous glands four. Pod more or lefs cy-
lindrical, the partition longer than the valves.

1. S. arveiifis. Wild Muitard or Charlock. Linn. Sp.
PI. 933. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 1748. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 5. t. 47. Fl. Dan. t. 753. — Pods with many
angles, rugged, longer than their own two-edged beak.
Leaves ovate, fomewhat lyrate. — One of the molt common
and moft troubicfoine European weeds in lieavy moilt corn
lands, as well as about walle ground and hedges. It flowers
moll commonly in May and June, but occafionally in all
open weather. Root annual, fpindle-fliaped, fniall, rigid.
SJrm round, Itriated, hifpid with ilightly deflexed briltles,
tinged with red. Leavu alternate, ftalked, ovate, rough,

unequally tootlicd ; lower ones fomewhat lyrate ; upper
felTile. Floiuers in a terminal, clullered corymb, of a bright
yellow colour. Seeds extremely pungent, well known under
the name of Durham-Muftard.

2. S. orieiHalis. Oriental Muitard. Linn. Sp. PI. 933.
Ainien. Acad. v. 4. 280. Ait. n. 2. " Schkuhr. handb.
v. I. 264. t. 186." (Sinapi orientale maximum, rapi folio;
Tourn. Cor. 17.)— Pods rough with reflexed briftles, and
four blunt angles, comprelled at the tip. — Native of the
Levant, and introduced at Kew by M. Thouin in 1778,
where it flowers in June and July. This annual 13 extremely
like the lalt, from which indeed it differs merely in having
the pods rough with reflexed bnllles, the beak only being
fmooth.

3. S. brajficata. Cabbage Muitard. Willd. n. 3.
Loureir. Cochuich. 399. — Leaves obovate, fmooth, toothed
in a diminutive manner — Native of China, where it is much
cultivated. This plant, we are informed by Loureiro, has
the habit of Cabbage or Lettuce, but in the ft.ruAure of its
calyx it rcfembles Muitard. Stem a foot and half high, very
fmooth. Radical-lfoves oleraceous, obtufe, white-veined,
on channelled (talks ; Jlem-leaves oblong, moltly with two
auricled appendages at the bafe of the italk, upper ones
Icffile, lanceolate, embracing the Item. Floivtrs like thofe
of the Common Cabbage, bright yellow. Pod alfo re-
fembling that of Brajftca okracea.

4. S. alba. While Muitard. Linn. Sp. PI. 933. Fl.
Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1677. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5.
t. 46. Mart. Ruft. t. 70. — Pods brittly, rugged, fhorter
than their own two-edged beak. Leaves piniiatifid. — Com-
mon in fields and by road-fides, flowering from June to
Augult. 'li\\c root liuA Jiem of this annual are like thofe
of the firit fpecies. Lo-uier leaves deeply pinnatifid ; upper
fomewhat lyrate ; all of them irregularly toothed and rough.
Flowers yellow. PoiL on nearly horizontal ftalks, ribbed,
v/ith a very long, fword-fliaped beak. Seeds large, globofe,
pale yellowifh, occallonally black.

5. S. nigra. Common Muftard. Linn. Sp. PI. 933.
Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 969. Woodv. Med. Bot.
t. 151. Mart. Rult. t. 51. — Pods fmooth, fquare, clofe
prefled to the Item. Upper leaves linear-lanceolate, entire,
fmooth. — A moft common weed on hedge banks, waftc
ground, and the borders of fields, flowering in ttie midll of
fummer. Root annual, fmall. Stem much branched, fpread-
ing, round, fmooth. Leaves ftalked, irregularly lobed and
toothed ; radical ones rough ; thole of the ftem and branches
fmooth and pendulous ; the upper ones deflexed, entire, nar-
row. Flowers numerous, fmall, bright yellow. Seeds fe-
veral, round, fmooth, brown, funiifliing " our common
table muftard, one of the moft ufeful and whokfomc of
ftimulants, both in cookery and medicine."

6. S. pyrenalca. Pyrenean Muitard. Linn. Sp. PI. 934.
Allion. Pedem. t. 55. f. i. — Pods Itriated, Icabrous.
Leaveb runcinate, fmooth. — Native of the Pynnces, Mount
Ccnis, and fimilar fituations in the foutli of Europe. It
flowers about June. Root biennial. Stem angular, even,
itriated, wavy, fmooth. Leaves runcinate ; fer^ments of
the lower or radical ones toothed ; thole of the ilem lancco-
late. Flowers cluftered, Imall, yellow. Willdenow con-
iiders S. maritima of Allioni as a variety ol this fpecies.

7. S. pubefcens. Downy Muitard. Linn. Maut. 95.
Prodr. Fl. Griec. 11. 1580. Ardnin Spec. v. 1.21. t. 9 —
Pods downy, ereft, willi a comprelled beak. Leaves ly.
rate, villous. — Native of Sicily, flowering in lune and July.
5/rm perennial, (hrubby. /.fare/ obtufe. /•Voii'i-r/ yell' w,
with undivided petals. Pods erett, hairy, or very downy,
as indeed arc all the parts of the plant.

P. S.

SINAPIS.

8. S. hi/pida. Hifpid Muftard. Willd. n. 8. — Pods
hifpid, ereft. Leaves lyrate, extremely roui^h. Stem
hifpid. — Native of Morocco. Root annual. Stem muri-
cated vpith hairs. Leaves on (talks, pinnatifid, obtufe,
toothed, the terminal lobe oblona;, very large, exceedingly
rough with (hort, rigid hairs. Flowers yellow. Pods ter-
minating in a long, obtufe, flat beak.

9. S. chtnenfis. Chinefe Muftard. Linn. Mant. 95.
WiUd. n. 9. Arduin. Spec. v. i. 23. t. 10. — Pods
fmooth, (lightly jointed, fpreading. Leaves lyrate, or
runcinate, fomewhat hairy. — Native of China and Cochin-
china, where it is extenfively cultivated. It flowers in June
and July. Root annual. Stem three feet in height, (Iriated,
branched. Radical- leaves (talked, large, wrinkled. Flowers
whitiih or yellow, in long, aggregate clutters.

10. S>. juncea. Fine-lsaved Muftard. Linn. Sp. PI. 934.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 80. t. 171. — Branches fafciculated.
Upper leaves lanceolate, entire. — Native of Afia and China,
flowering in the fummer. Rgot annual, fibrous, whitiih.
Stem eredt, branched, two feet high, fmooth. Radical-
leaves (talked, pinnatifid at the bafe, unequally ferrated ;
iiffer lanceolate or oblong, feflile. Floiuers yellow, in
clutters, with the fame pungency of fmell as Common
Multard.

11. S. ^llionii. Allioni's Muftard. Willd. n. II.
Jacq. Hort. Vmd. v. 2. 79. t. 168. — Pods ovate-oblong,
fpreading. Leaves pinnatifid ; fegments jagged. — Native
of Auitria ? It flowers in July. Root annual, white,
fibrous. Stem folitary, round, generally fmooth, but oc-
cafionally befprinkled with a few whiti(h hairs. Leaves
jagged in a pinnatifid manner ; the upper ones feflile ; loiver
ftalked. Flowers yellow, thinly fcattered over upright
cluiters, nearly without fcent.

12. S. erucoides. Dwarf Muftard. Linn. Sp. PL 934.
Willd. n. 12. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 80. t. 170. —
Pods fmooth, equal. Leaves lyrate, oblong, fmooth.
Stem fmooth. — Native of the fouth of Europe, in vineyards
and by way-fides, flowering in June and July. Root annual.
Stem eight or nine inches high, purpli(h, a little angular.
Leaves much jagged, yellowi(h-green. Flowers white, in
loofe fpikes.

13. S. cernua. Pendulous Muftard. Willd. n. 13.
Thunb. Japon. 261. — Pods fmooth, fpreading. Radical-
leaf lyrate, the terminal lobe very large, ovate, cut and
toothed. — Native of Japan and China. Root annual. Whole
plant fmooth. Stem furrowed, branched at the upper part.
Flowering branches pendulous. Flowers white, in terminal
clufters.

14. S. japonica. Japanefe Muftard. Willd. n. 15.
Thunb. Japon. 262. — Pods fmooth, ereft. Leaves jagged
in a pinnatifid manner, fmooth. — Native of Japan, about
Jedo, flowering in May. Whole plant fmooth. Stem

.herbaceous, ereft, furrowed, branched. Leaves ftalked,
the upper ones lefs deeply pinnatifid, often toothed at the
tip. Flowers yellowiih, in very long clufters.

15. S. incana. Hoary-jointed Muftard. Linn. Sp. PI.
934. Amcen. Acad. v. 4. 280. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2.
79. t. 169. — Pods with two joints, ereft. Leaves bipin-
natirid ; fegments linear. — Native of France, Spain, Por-
tugal, and Switzerland. It flowers in July. i?oo; biennial,
branched, acrid, having the talte and fmell of Brajftca
Napus. Stem branched, hifpid. Leaves on long ftalks,
lyrate, very hairy and hoary. Flowers fmall, yellow, in
terminal, axillary clufters.

16. S. frule/cens. Shrubby Muftard. WiUd. n. 17.
Ait. Hort. Kew. n. 11. — Pods linear, fmooth. Lower-
leaves oblong, toothed ; upper lanceolate, undivided. Stem

fmooth, nirubby.— Native of Madeira, whence it was in^
troduced at Kew by Mr. F. Ma(ron in 1777. It flowers
from December to June. Figure and defcription wanting.

17. S. radicata. Long-rooted Muftard. Willd. n. 18.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 98. t. 167. Prodr. Fl. Graec.
n. 1581. Fl. Graec. t. 648, unpubliflied. — Pods awl-
(haped, torulofe, fpreading. Radical-leaves deeply lyrate,
hifpid. Stem-leaves pinnate. Branches twiggy, fmooth. —
Native of uncultivated hills at Algiers, and in Greece.
Roots very long, tortuous, branched, thread-fliaped. Stem
hifpid below, fmooth above, ereft, branched. Lower-
leaves ftalked, their fegments alternate, remote, obtufe, unj.
equally toothed : upper with lanceolate, acute, entire or
toothed, fegments. Flowers pale yellow, very like thofe
of S.juncea,

1 8. S. Ixvigala. Smooth Muftard. Linn. Sp. PI. 934.
Amoen. Acad. v. 4. 281. (Eryfimi varietas ; Herman.
Parad. 155.) — Pods fmooth, fpreading. Leaves lyrate,
fmooth ; upper ones lanceolate. Stem fmootli. — Native of
Spain and Portugal, flowering in June and July. Root an-
nual or biennial. Stem and leaves remarkably fmooth.
Flowers large, yellow.

The Linnsean S. hifpanica, a rare and little-known plant.
Ait. n. 15, is removed to Desfontaines' new genus Cordylo-
carpus, in Prodr. Fl. Gnec. v. 2. 33.

Mr. Brown, in Hort. Kew. has, after Tournefort's ex-
ample, confidered Sifymbrium tenuifolium and murale of
Linnsus as fpccies of Sinapis. See Si.svmbrium.

SiNAPis, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, annual kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are,
the white muftard (S. alba); and the common or black
muitard (S. nigra).

The firft fort is generally cultivated in gardens as a fallad
herb, with crefles, radilhes, rape, &c. for winter and fpring
ufe ; in which intention it is a highly valuable plant.

In the fecond fort, it is the flour of the feed that a(Fords
the common multard for the table.

Method of Culture. — The fir(t fort is fown along with
ether fmall fallad herbs, at all times of the year, fometimes
every week or fortnight, in a bed or border of light earth,
fown generally in (hallow drills very thick, covering it very
thinly with earth ; and in winter, and early in fpring, during
cold weather, in hot-beds. The herbs are always cut for
u(e whiHl in the feed-leaf, and but a few days old ; other-
wife they become too ftrong and rank-tafted for ufe. See
Sallad Herbs, and Small Sallad Herbs.

But in order to have (eed of this fort for garden ufe, it
(hould be fown on an open fpot of ground, in March or
April, either thinly in drills a foot alunder, or broad-call
all over the furface, and the plants be left to run up to (talk,
when they will fumi(h ripe feeds in Auguft. And in order
to raife the plants for the feed for multard, the feeds (hould
be fown in the fpring, any time in March, in (ome open
fituation, either in the kitchen-garden, or in open fields.
In either cafe, having dug or ploughed the ground, the
feed (hould be fown broad-caft all over the furface, and
raked or harrowed in lightly ; or it may be fown in (hallow
drills a foot afunder, and be flightly covered in. The
plants foon come up ; and when they liave four or more
leaves an inch or two broad, if they (tand very thick, thofe
fown in the broad-call way particularly (hould be hoed and
thinned, leaving them fix or eight inches afunder, cutting
up all weeds ; repeating the operation once or more, if ne.
ceflary. After this the plants will loon fpread and cover
the ground, and (hoot fait up to ftalks for flowers and feed,
which ripens in July or Auguft, when the (talks (hould be
cut or pulled up, and the feed, being properly hardened,

and

S I N

S I N

Slid dried in the pod, (hould cither be thrafhed out direftly,
or (lacked up dry, and thrafhed at occafional opportunities
afterwards ; but the flrft is the beft method.

SiNAPis Nigra, Common Black Mujlard, in the Materia
Medica, &c. is common in corn-fields and banks of ditches,
but is cultivated for ufe, and flowers in June. (See Sinapis
and Mustard. ) The feeds of this fpecies of muilard, which
are direfted by the London College, and thofe of the
S. alba, which are preferred by that of Edinb\irgh, are not
different in tafte or their general effefts, and anfwer equally
well for the table and for medical purpofcs. Their tafte is
acrid and pungent, and when bruifed this pungency becomes
volatile and affefts the fmell : they readily impart thefe qua-
lities to aqueous liquors, and by diftillation with water
yield an eiiential oil of great acrimony ; but to reftified
fpirits they give out very little either of their fmell or tafte.
When fubjefted to the prefs, they yield a confiderable quan-
tity of mild infipid oil, which is as free from acrimony as that
of almonds. By writers on the materia medica, muftard is con-
fidered as promoting appetite, affifting digeftion, attenuating
vifcid juices, and by ftimulating the fibres, proving a general
remedy in paralytic and rheumatic affeftions. In confi-
derable quantity, it opens the body and increafes the uri-
nary difcharge, and hence has been found ufeful in dropfical
complaints. In thefe affeftions, perhaps, the beft mode of
exhibiting muftard, is in the form of whey, which is made
by boiling jiv of the bruifed feeds in qj of milk, and
draining to feparate the curd. A fourth part of this quan-
tity may be taken for a dofe three times a day. It has alfo
been recommended as an antifcorbutic ; though Haller fays
that the ufe of muftard difpofes the humours to putrefcency,
to which opinion he was probably inclined by the fuppofition
that it contained volatile alkali ; but it has been found that
vegetables reckoned among the alkalefcent plants may be fo
direfted by fermentation as to be of the acefcent kind, and
the alkali obtained from them feems not to have exifted in
the vegetable in a feparate ftate. The great pungency of
thefe plants is therefore not to be afcribed to the volatile al-
kali, but to the cffential oil which they contain. Bergius
informs us, that he found muftard of great efficacy in curing
vernal intermittcnts ; for which purpofe he direfted a fpoon-
ful of the whole feeds to be taken three or four times a day,
during the apyrexia ; and when the difeafe was obftinate, he
added flour of muftard to the bark. Externally thefe feeds
are frequently ufed as a ftimulant or finapilm. The flour
rubbed on the fkin, or applied in the form of a cataplafm,
made into a pafte with crumbs of bread and vinegar, foon
excites a fenfe of pain, confiderable inflammation, and fome-
timeS vefication. In thefe forms it has been found fervice-
able in paralyfis, and applied to the foles of the feet in the
delirium of typhus, and in comatofe affeftions. It is ob-
ferved by Cullcn that the frefli powder of muftard fiiews
little pungency and much bittcrnefs ; but when it has been
inoiitened with vinegar, and kept for a day, the cftential oil
is evolved, and it becomes confiderably more acrid, as is
well known to thofe who prepare muftard for the table ; a
circumftance which (lio'ild be attended to when defigiicd for
external ufe. Muftard-feed may be moft conveniently given
entire or unbruifcd, and to the quantity of a fpoonful or half
an ounce for a dofe. The conlUtuentfi of muftard-feed ap-
pear to be ftarch, mucus, a bland fixed oil, an acrid volatile
oil, and an ammoniacal fait. The officinal preparations of
muftard are " cataplafma finapis," L. D. and " cmplaftrum
melocs compofitum," E. See Plaster.

The cataplafm of muftard of the Lond. Ph. is prcparsd
by mixing muftard-feed and lint-feed, of each in powder
half a poimd, with a fufficient quantity of hot vinegar, to

Vol. XXXII.

the thicknefs of a cataplafm. The muftard cataplafm of
the Dub. Ph. is formed of muftard-feed in powder and
crumb of bread, of each half a pound, and a fufficient
quantity of vinegar. This preparation may be rendered
more acrid by adding two ounces of horfe-radifti finely
fcraped. Thefe' cataplafms are powerful local ftimulant*-
and rubefacients. They are to be fpread on cloth to the
thicknefs of about half an inch, and apphed to the foles of
the feet, in the low ftage of typhus fever, particularly when
ftupor or delirium is prefent, and in apoplexy, coma, and
other cafes in which there is a great determination to the
head. Their rubefacient eftefts are very quickly produced,
and often fo powerfully as to raife blifters on the part.
Cullen's Mat. Med. Woodv. Med. Bot. Thomfon'»
Lond. Difp.

Sinapi Perficum, Pcrftan Mujlard, a name by which fome
botanical authors have called the thlafpi, or treacle muftard.

SINAPISIS, a word ufed by fome writers as a name for
Armenian bole.

SINAPISM, crivaTio-|uo;-, formed from Jlnafi, or a-nx-Trt,
mujlard-feed, in Pharmacy, an external medicine, in form of
a cataplafm. See SiNAi'is.

SINAPISTRUM, in Botany, Tourn. Inft. 231. t. 116,
a name of Hermann's, alluding to the refemblance of the
plant, or at leaft of its pods, to Sinapls, or Muilard. See
Clkome.

SINARA, the name of the male dancers, who, ac-
cording to the mythology of the Hindoos, amufe their god
Indra, regent of the firmament. (See Indra.) Thefe are
perhaps the fame beings whofe name is fometimes written
Cinnara, and defcribed to be human figures with the head
of a horfe, but we never faw them fo reprefented. See
Sitanta and SuiiA.

SINARUM Regio, in JncUnt Geography, a country of
Afia, and the lall on the eaftern coaft, according to
Ptolemy.

SINARUS, a river of India, which difcharges itfelf
into the Hydafpes, according to Arrian.

SINASBARIUM, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the fifymbrium, or water-mint, common in all
our ditches and watery places.

SINASSE, in Geography, a town of Abyffinia ; 40 milci
N.E. of Mine.

SINAY, a fmall ifland near the W. coaft of the ifland
of Lu^on. N. lat. 18° 11'. E. long, izo""" 36'.

SINBACH, or SiMPACH, a town of Bavaria; 5 miles
S. of I^andau.

SINCAPOURA, or SiNCAPURA, an ifland, with a town
of the fame name, near the S. coaft of Malacca, whicl>
gives name to the narrow fea, calkd the " Straits of Sinca-
poura." N. lat. i^ 12'. E. long. 103° 30'.

SIN-CARPOU, a town of Chineie Tartary ; 555 miles
E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 41^ 23'. E. long. 126-46'.

SINCERITY, in luhics, is tliat excellent habitude and
temper of mind, which gives to virtue its reality, and makcg
it to be what it appears. Simplicily, called by the Grcekt
aT^oTDi, is included in this virtue, but does not exprefs the
whole of it ; fo that it is neceffary to add aXmua, truth : of
which two the firft ftands in oppnfition to what is mixed
and adulterated ; tlic other to what is counterfeit. Sincerity
has refpeft to two forts of objeft;; ; perfons and things.
Of the firft kind are God ; other men. and every man's (elf.
Sincerity, with regard to God, fignifies, that the form of
religion is accompanied with tlie power of it, and that j)iety
and obedience are fubllantial and iinaffefted ; proceeding
from principles, right in themfelves, and uniform in their
influence. Sincerity, as it regards men, implies an honcfty
5 F and

444073

S I N

and opennefs in our dealings with them, extending to the
fprings and motions of our aftions, as well as the aftions
themfelves ; to our words and our thoughts. Sincerity,
with relation to a man's felf, is oppofed to felf-deception.
As to things, truth and goodnefs are the principal objcfts
of fiiicerity. The extreme; of this virtue are over-franknefs
and hypocrify. Grove's Syltem of Moral Philofophy,
vol. ii. ch. 3.

SINCHO, orCHiNco, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Ningo, on the Gold Coaft, the inha-
bitants of which are chiefly employed in fifhwg.

SINCIPUT, in Jnatumy, the fore-part of the head, in
oppofition to occiput.

SINCKEL, in Geography, a river of Bavaria, which
joins the Wertha ; 2 miles S.S.W. of Augftjurg.

SINCLAIR. See St. Cj.air.

SIND, in Agriculture, provincially to rinfe or wafh out,
as a milking pail, difli, &c.

SINDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, oft the
other fide of the Ganges, placed by Steph. Byz. on the
coaft pf the great gulf between Corgatha and Pagrafa. —
Alfo, a town of Afia, in Pifidia, on the confines of Caria.
Strabo. — Alfo, a town of Afiatic Sarmatia, upon the Cim-
merian Bofphorus, between the ports Sindicus and Bara,
according to Ptolemy.

SiNDA, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in Baglana;
20 miles N.W. of Nafliick.

SINDjE, in Ancient Geography, the name of three iflands
in the Indian fea, S. of the BaruffK, according to Ptolemy.

SINDAGUA, in Geography, a ridge of mountains in
South America, between Popaysn and the Pacific ocean.

SINDANGAN Bay, a bay on the N.W. coaft of Min-
danao, extending from N. to S. about 100 miles. N. lat.
8° 15'. E. long. 123° 5'.

SINDE. See Indu.s. — Alfo, a river of Hindooftan,
which rifes about 20 miles W. of Bilfah, and runs into the
Jumnah, at Putterahee.

SINDEJUA, a town of Napaul; 40 miles W. of Mo-
caumpour.

SINDELFINGEN, a town of W urtemberg ; 6 miles
S.W. of Stuttgard. N. lat. 48^ 41'. E. long. 8° 52'.

SINDER, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; 15 miles
S.E. of Naft'uck.

SINDERINGEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Hohenlohe, on the Kocher ; 12 miles N.E. of Heilbron.
N. lat. 49° 16'. E. long. 9° 33'.

SINDESSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Caria. Steph. Byz.

SINDI, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, in the number of
thofe who inhabited the Cimmerian Bofphorus. Strabo.

SINDIA, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

SINDI ANI, a Scythian people who inhabited the vicinity
of the Palus Masotis, according to Lucian.

SINDICUS PoRTL's, a port of Afiatic Sarmatia, on
the coaft of tiie Cimmerian Bofphorus, according to the
Periplus of Scylax.

SINDINICES, a people of Germany, who formed a part
of the nation of the Vandals.

S I N

SINDION, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the W.
branch of the Nile ; 14 miles S.S.E. of Rofetta.

SINDITE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Leffer At.
menia, in the prefefture of Mauriana. Ptolemy.

SINDKEERA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Naderbar ; 15 miles W. of Tolnani.

SINDOCANDA, in Ancient Geography, a town placed
by Ptolemy on the W. coaft of the ifle of Taprobana, be-
tween the mouth of the river Soana and the port Priapius.

SINDOLE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oriffa ; 15 miles N. of Sonepour. .

SINDOMANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
and the capital of the territories of Muficanus. Arrian.

SINDON, in Scripture Hijlory, a word properly fignify-
ing a ftiroud, and ufed by the evangelifts to denote the linen
cloth in wliich Jofeph of Arimathea wrapped the body of
Jefus, after its embalment, &c. (Matth. xxvii. 59. Mark,
XV. 46. Luke, xxiii. 53. John, xx. 7.) Sindon is alfo men-
tioned in the hiftory of Samfon. (Judges, xiv. 12, 13.) The
virtuous woman mentioned by Solomon (Prov. xxxi. 24.)
made findons and girdles, which ftie fold to the Phoenicians.
The young women of Jerufalem wore findons. (See
If. iii. 23.) This was a faftiion peculiar to the Sidonians
and the Phoenicians, and perhaps the name was derived from
the city of Sidon. Martial lays, that the findon of Tyre,
or Phoenicia, covers a man all over, and puts him in a con-
dition to defpife rain and wind.

" Ridebis ventos, hoc munere teftus, et imbres

Nee fie in Syria Sindone teftus eris." Mart. 1. iv. ep. 19.

The young man who followed Jefus Chrift on the night of
his paflion, " amiftus findone fuper nudo," was probably
thus defended againft the cold, as by a night-gown. Mark,
xiv. 51.

SiNDON, in Surgery, a little round piece of linen, or filk,
or lint, ufed in dreffing the wound after trepanning. The
firft thing ufually done after the operation of trepanning is,
to pour a few drops of white baUam on the dura mater ;
then a fpoonful of mel rofatum being warmed with a little
balfam, a findon is dipped into it, of fine linen cloth : this
is immediately applied upon the dura mater ; and being
greater than the hole in the fliull, its circumference is thruft
all round between the cranium and the membrane ; then
pledgets of lint are applied, and the hole is quite flopped
with it. The next morning, when the drefling is taken
off, the brain is never left bare a moment ; but as foon as
the former findon and lint are removed, new ones are clapped
on in their room.

SIND OS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mygdonia,
a country of Macedonia, W. of Therma, between this town
and the mouth of the Axius. It is called by Steph. Byz.
Sinthos.

SINDOURCOTTY, in Geography, a town of Thibet,
on the left bank of the Ganges ; 48 miles S. of Gangotri.

SINDRY, a town of Bengal ; 45 miles S.E. of Nattore.

SINDSCAR, or SiNJA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Moful ; 30 miles S. of Moful.

SINDY. See Scind.

END OF VOL. XXXn.

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